A Dictionary of the History of Medicine [1 ed.] 9781850700210, 9781315136301, 9781351469999, 9781351469982, 9781351470001, 9780367399672

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Praface. Alphbetical Listings.

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A DICTIONARY OF THE

HISTORY OF

MEDICINE

A DICTIONARY OF THE

HISTORY OF

MEDICINE Anton Sebastian

informa healthcare

N ew York

London

First published in 1999 by the Parthenon Publishing Group. This edition published by Informa Healthcare, Telephone House, 69-77 Paul Street, London EC2A 4LQ, UK. Simultaneously published in the USA by Informa Healthcare, 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, 7th Floor, N ew York, N Y 10017, USA. Informa Healthcare is a trading division of Informa UK Ltd. Registered Office: 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK. Registered in England and Wales number 1072954. © 2011 Informa Healthcare, except as otherwise indicated No claim to original U.S. Government works Reprinted material is quoted with permission. Although every effort has been made to ensure that all owners of copyright material have been acknowledged in this publication, we would be glad to acknowledge in subsequent reprints or editions any omissions brought to our attention. A ll rights reserved. No part of this publication m ay be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, unless with the prior written permission of the publisher or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 0LP, UK, or the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, M A 01923, U SA (http://www.copyright.com / or telephone 978-750-8400). Product or corporate names m ay be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. This book contains information from reputable sources and although reasonable efforts have been made to publish accurate information, the publisher makes no warranties (either express or implied) as to the accuracy or fitness for a particular purpose of the information or advice contained herein. The publisher wishes to make it clear that any view s or opinions expressed in this book by individual authors or contributors are their personal views and opinions and do not necessarily reflect the views/opinions of the publisher. A ny information or guidance contained in this book is intended for use solely by medical professionals strictly as a supplement to the medical professional's own judgement, knowledge of the patient's medical history, relevant manufacturer's instructions and the appropriate best practice guidelines. Because of the rapid advances in medical science, any information or advice on dosages, procedures, or diagnoses should be independently verified. This book does not indicate whether a particular treatment is appropriate or suitable for a particular individual. Ultimately it is the sole responsibility of the medical professional to make his or her own professional judgements, so as appropriately to advise and treat patients. Save for death or personal injury caused by the publisher's negligence and to the fullest extent otherwise permitted by law, neither the publisher nor any person engaged or employed by the publisher shall be responsible or liable for any loss, injury or damage caused to any person or property arising in any w ay from the use of this book. A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available on application ISBN-13: 9781850700210 Orders m ay be sent to: Informa Healthcare, Sheepen Place, Colchester, Essex CO3 3LP, U K Telephone: +44 (0)20 7017 5540 Email: [email protected] Website: http://informahealthcarebooks.com/ For corporate sales please contact: [email protected] For foreign rights please contact: [email protected] For reprint permissions please contact: [email protected]

Preface T h e idea o f this bo ok came to me nearly ten years ago

treatment o f disease. H ippocrates around 4 0 0

w h en I started cataloging m y antiquarian and rare

dispelled the myths o f m edicine and started treating it

BC

m edical and science books for m y personal library o f

as a science. Around this same period, contem porary

3 000 volumes. T h e vast amount o f material available for

A yurvedic medicine in India and Chinese m edicine in the

reference on the history o f m edicine only confused the

East were developed independently. T h e R om ans accept­

issue. O ften I had to spend a lot o f time looking through

ed m edicine as a respectable profession around 100 B C .

several books before I obtained any specific inform ation

T h e Arabs, around 750 AD , translated and m odified G reek

on a subject. As I went on I becam e m ore and m ore

m edicine and adapted it to suit their religion and climate

convinced about the need for a single bo ok that could

and their influence lasted until the end o f the M iddle

give specific inform ation on any topic in history o f

Ages.

m edicine, as the O xford D ictionary is to the English

developed the art o f alchemy into chemotherapeutics.

language.

The

I

w anted

this

book

to

serve

m edical

D u ring the 15th century in Europe Paracelsus French surgeon A m broise Paré

revolutionized

researchers, presenters and clinicians w h o could not

surgery in the next century. W illiam H arvey announced

afford to spend their valuable hours in the library loo k ­

his discovery o f blood circulation in the early 17th cen­

ing for specific historic inform ation on their topics. I also

tury. Several other im portant discoveries and rapid

intended the b o o k

o f interest to laym en,

progress were made in the next few centuries. M ost

paramedics, m edical students and anyone else concerned

m odern scientific principles and concepts were estab­

in anyway w ith health care.

lished in the 19th and 2 0 th centuries.

to be

T h e task o f producing such a bo ok I knew was

T h e atomist

theory o f the universe proposed by D em ocritus over

form idable as I realized that the story o f m edicine is in

2 0 0 0 years ago was revived on a scientific basis by Ernest

essence a recapitulation o f m ans attempts at survival

R utherford.

since his first appearance on Earth. This brought a

W illiam Bateson, establishing genetics as a separate

prehistoric elem ent into m y book. In order to survive,

science. T h e birth o f m odern physics gave explanation to

G regor M en del’s w ork was revived by

early man had to hunt and gather, and for this he had to

electricity, heat, light, sound and magnetism w h ich were

be fit and healthy, w h ich led to the concept o f health and

previously observed as natural magic. G eolo gy unfolded

disease.

the origin and developm ent o f Earth and its life forms.

T h e study o f paleopathology has shown that

disease affected the hunter and hunted alike, leaving tell­

The

tale marks in the skeletons o f dinosaurs and prehistoric

contributed to evolution theory and paleopathology

relatively new «sciences such as anthropology

man. T h e beginnings o f m edicine probably started w ith hunting and gathering. D u rin g the pursuit o f his prey,

unearthed

early man had the opportunity to study its locom otion,

knowledge. These are only a few examples o f the

and he learned o f the fatality o f wounds and signs o f death w h en he killed for food. H e unintentionally began

progress that occurred.

his dissections w h en he cut up his game for food. A cave painting o f a m am m oth drawn by C ro -M agn o n man and

as w ell as diseases. T h e miracle cure for malaria, cinchona bark, was brought from Peru to Spain from w here it

estimated to be over 3 9 ,0 0 0 years old reveals that he

reached the rest o f Europe in the early 17th century. Sea

knew the position o f the heart in the animal.

travel spread the bubonic plague and the discovery o f the

established

the the

antiquity evidence

of

diseases. A rch eo lo g y

o f ancient

cultures

and

M od ern inventions and improved travel brought cures

T h e study o f norm al and m orbid hum an anatomy

N e w W orld m ay have brought syphilis to Europe.

probably began w ith the practice o f em balm ing by the

Epidem ics becam e pandemics causing a dom ino effect

Egyptians, w h o excelled in m edicine for nearly 30 0 0

on lives.

years until overtaken by the Greeks around 600 B C .

pollution and overcrowding. Airplanes rem oved the

Industries brought occupational disease,

T h e G reek temples o f Aesculapius built around this

rem aining barriers to disease, and cars introduced health

time were probably the first inpatient institutions for

problems resulting from road accidents, pollution, road

rage and lack o f exercise. W ith man s achievem ent o f

large share o f the pooled funds. I believe that an histori­

ample production

cal understanding o f the genesis o f these factors w ill help us understand the com plexity o f our profession.

o f food and com fortable living,

diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension and diabetes becam e com m on in affluent society. O n the other hand,

Throughout the preparation o f this book over the past

w ith division o f wealth came the diseases o f deficiency and famine.

ten years I had to keep rem inding m yself that it is a dictionary o f the history o f m edicine, and not a dictionary o f medicine. In doing so I have m inim ised the

Apart from the fact that medical history makes interesting reading w h y should w e study it, especially in

use and explanation o f technical language and definitions

this era o f high technology and specialization? In not

w hich otherwise could be found in hundreds o f available

doing so w e are in danger o f losing the w isdom that has

medical dictionaries.

been handed down to us since the time o f Aristotle. We

emphasize those leaders o f m edicine as human beings

T h e portraits used in this book

may also lose the sense o f m edical ethics proposed by

and not ju st names. T h e other illustrations, m ostly taken

Hippocrates. We m ay fail to realize h ow contem porary

from m y library, are for the readers to relate to the

gurus failed great m en like M endel, Semmelweiss and

subject m ore effectively.

H enry H ickm an in the past. M ost o f all, we may lose the

I have used over 50 0 0 volumes and hundreds o f jo u r­

sense o f gratitude to our predecessors, lose ourselves in our ow n achievements and fail to learn from the past.

nals as sources o f prim ary and secondary references. Although I have endeavored to cover every aspect

T h e pride and glory o f m edicine enjoyed by doctors

through over 10,00 0 key entries covering m ore than a dozen specialties, m y bo ok can never do full justice to

today belongs in essence to those m en o f the past such as H ippocrates, Galen, Celsus, Harvey, Vesalius, M alpighi,

the subject o f the history o f m edicine because it is vast

Bernard, Pasteur, Lister, and others whose discoveries have stood the test o f time. T h e y laid the fram ework

and almost endless. A n element o f ju dgm ent has been used in the selection. HopefuUy, future editions w ill

upon w h ich others have w orked to make m edicine a

benefit from and incorporate readers comments.

marvel o f today. In the present w orld o f specialization

In summary, I must thank m y colleagues at the

w here w e know m ore and m ore about less, w e are in

Berkshire and Battle Hospitals w h o took part in the

danger o f inteUectuaUy isolating ourselves from the know ledge o f other walks o f life. Today, politics controls

audit o f m y w ork during the early stages seven years ago. I am indebted to D avid G.T. B loom er, the M anaging

medical policies and threatens medical ethics. M arket

D irector o f Parthenon Publishing w h o painstakingly

forces underm ine our efforts to curb tobacco sm oking

guided his skilled team over the past year to bring my

and pollution. D isintegration o f social and fam ily units

bo ok to publication. A big thank you to the Parthenon

com pound the problems o f drug and alcohol addiction.

editor for her meticulous scrutiny o f m y w ork and

Pollution by industries and cars increases the incidence

skillful editing. I am also grateful to the graphics team

o f chest diseases. Mass media such as television and radio

for assembly and reproduction o f the illustrations

m old people s concepts o f health and disease. R e a d y

Last but not least I dedicate this book to m y w ife

access to com puters and faxes may underm ine patient

Vasanthi and m y two children, C h u ch i and K evin, whose

confidentiality. G enetic engineering has also produced several ethical dilemmas. Specialized surgery, such as cardiac transplant, saves relatively few lives but take a

time w ith me over the past decade I stole to com plete this m onum ental task. A nton Sebastian A p ril 1999

A nton Sebastian M B B S M R C P is a consultant physician in general medicine with a life-long interest in the history o f medicine and related sciences. H e has developed one o f the fin est private collections o f antiquarian books in these fields, currently totalling over 3 0 0 0 volumes, including many original editions dating from the early sixteenth century onwards. Following the completion o f his postgraduate training at the Charing Cross Hospital, London and Kingston Hospital, Surrey, he has held a number o f appointments both in Great Britain and overseas. H e is currently a consultant physician at the Victoria Infirmary, Glasgow.

VI

ABBOTT

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

377 B C ), Galen (AD 129-200), Paul ofA egina (625-690), Ptolemy and Euclid through turbulent times in history.

A

According to the Fihrist (Index o f Sciences), compiled in A D 987, ten o f Hippocrates’ works were translated by Hunayan ibn Ishaq or Johannitus (809—873) and his pupil Isa ibnYahya and the 16 books o f Galen were translated by Hunayan and his pupil, Hubaysh ibn el-Hassan, who was also his nephew.

A bbe, Ernest (1840—1905) A Germ an physicist from Aaron o f A lexandria Jewish physician and presbyter in the

Eisenach who became professor at the university o f Jena in

yth century, who is supposed to have written 30 books on

1870 before he was made director o f the Astronomical and

medicine in Syrian, many now lost. Most o f his remaining

meteorological Institute in 1878. He was partner at the

works compiled, from Greek, were called the Pandects o f

optical com pany o f Carl Zeiss (18 16 —1888) w ho first

Aaron and were translated into Arabic by the Syrian Jew,

brought the improved microscope to the market. Abbe

Maseijawaihi, in A D 683. Some o f Aaron’s work was cited

modernised the microscope by adding the apochromatic

by the Arabian physician, Rhazes (850—932) who men­

objective, and the oil immersion method (first suggested by

tioned Aaron as one o f the first to describe smallpox and

John Ware Stephenson) in 1878. He also introduced the

measles, which were brought into Egypt following the con­

sub-stage condenser in 1886. At the death o f his partner Carl

quest by the Arabians in A D 640.The first three chapters o f

Zeiss in 1888, Abbe became the owner o f the optical works.

the first tract in Haly Abbas (930-994) famous book

He improved the technique o f phase contrast microscopy in

Al-Kitabul-Maliki also contains some discussions on the

1892.

writings o f Aaron along with those o f Hippocrates (460—377 B C ), Galen (AD 129—200), Oribasius (325—403) and Paul ofAegina (625-690).

A bactus [Latin: abigere, to drive out] Term used by R om an physicians for miscarriage.

A badie sign Spasm o f levator palpebrae muscle o f the eye as

A bbe techn iqu e See Abbe, Robert. A bbe, R obert (1851-1928) Surgeon from N ew York, U S A who introduced the use o f catgut for suturing the intestines in 1889. He also devised the method o f dilating the esophageal stricture in a retrograde fashion by opening the stomach to receive a ‘string saw’ from the buccal end and

a sign in exophthalmic goiter, described at Paris, France in

cutting the remaining tissue that contributed to the

1877 by Charles A. Abadie (1842-1932), ophthalmologist.

stricture. The Abbe technique was named after him.

A baptiston or Ababtista [Greek: a, negative + babtiston, to sink under] Ancient surgical instrument in the form o f a circular saw described by Galen (129—200), Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1537-1619) and Johann Schultes (15951645). It was used to trephine the cranium. A n earlier form o f the instrument was cone-shaped so as to prevent the instrument sinking into the dura mater, hence its name.

A bbasides Second line o f rulers and descendants o f Abul Abbas, the first Saracen Caliph o f the Eastern Caliphate o f Baghdad, from A D 750—1250. Abul Abbas on his accession transferred the Caliphate to Baghdad which became a great city o f science and literature. At one time it had 860 licensed physicians with numerous hospitals.The dynasty o f Abbasides included H arun-Al-Rashid,Al-M ansur and A l-

Abbe technique for division of esophageal stricture. Hochberg, LA, 1960, Thoracic Surgery before the 20th Century. Courtesy of Vantage Press, New York

Mamun (AD 813-833) who encouraged the collection and translation o f Greek and R om an medical classics into Arabic. Their efforts, especially those o f Almamon or A lMamun, the son o f Caliph H arun-Al-Rashid, resulted in the preservation o f the earlier works o f Hippocrates (460—

A bb ott Laboratories See Abbott, Wallace Calvin . A bbott, Alexander Crever (1860-1935) Bacteriologist from Philadelphia, U S A who designed a process for detecting

ABBOTT

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

spores in bacteria with the help o f methylene blue and

vascular

fuchsin.

J. Schnitzler in 1901.

insufficiency

was

first

described

by

A bbott, Edville Gerhardt (1871-1938) Orthopedic surgeon

A bd om inal hernia [Latin: abdomen, heUy + hernia, rupture]

from Portland, Maine, U S A who designed a treatment for

Protrusion o f a structure through an opening in the abdom­

scoliosis using bandages and a frame, followed by a series o f

inal wall. One o f the first monographs on abdominal hernia

plasterjackets.

was written by Thomas PridginTeale (1801—1868) o f Leeds,

A bbott, Maude Elizabeth Seymour (1869-1940) Canadian pioneer in the field o f pediatric cardiology She published the results o f a study into congenital heart disease that showed that it was associated with an 18% risk o f other mal­ formations. Soon after the death o f Sir William Osier (1849—1919) in 1919, Abbott published a memorial volume to his work. She is also famous for her promotion o f medical education for women in Canada.

U K in 1846. The Ball operation for the radical cure o f abdominal hernia was described in 1887 by Charles Bent Ball (18 51-1916 ), surgeon and proctologist from Dublin, Ireland.

A bd om inal hysterectom y See hysterectomy. A bd om inal injuries [Latin: abdomen, heUy; French: in, neg­ ative + ju s (jur-), right] Henri de Mondeville (1260—1320),a surgeon to King Philip-le-Bel o f France, was one o f the first

A bbott, Wallace Calvin (1857—1921) Founder o f the Abbott

to write on abdominal injuries r.1306. In his treatise he

Laboratories. Born into poverty in Vermont, U SA , Abbott

advised that if the large intestines were wounded they

was able to fulfill his ambition o f going to medical school

should be sutured ‘as ferriers sew a skin’ .The explorer and

only at the age o f 22. After obtaining his medical degree

doctor, David Livingstone (18 13-18 7 3), in his experience

from Michigan University in 1885 he borrowed a small sum

during his African travels, described the successful surgical

o f money from a friend and startedThe People s D rug Store

treatment o f extruded abdominal viscera due to injury by

in Ravenswood. He sold his own preparations, such as

placing a gourd shell or calabash and sewing it to the

toothache powders, laxatives and cold remedies and in

abdominal wall. M any o f the patients treated in this manner

the early 1900s introduced a sugar-coating technique for

were observed to do well and return to their normal life.

tablets. His company later expanded to become the Abbott

The repair o f abdominal injuries has also been described by

Alkaloidal Company and by 1930 it had grown into the

the ancient Hindus, who excelled in surgery.The works o f

pharmaceutical giant, Abbott Laboratories.

the Hindu Brahmin Susruta, written r. A D 500, amongst its

A bderhalden, Emil (1877—1950) Pupil o f Emil Fischer

hundreds o f surgical procedures, describes the surgical

(1852—1919) and professor o f physiology at the University

treatment o f protrusion o f intestines. Abdominal injuries

o f Halle, Germany. He completed a bibliography o f

became a focus o f interest owing to their common occur­

alcoholism in 1897 and was the first to describe familial

rence during the wars in the preceding three centuries. Sir

cystinosis in 1903. He edited the series Handbuch der

Cuthbert Wallace’s Abdominal Wounds (1918) is considered

biologischenArbeitsmethoden, 1920—1939.

to be a classic on the subject and his Surgery o f the Abdominal Wounds (1922) is a treasure store o f historical information.

A bderhalden-F anconi Syndrom e or Familial cystinosis was first described by Emil Abderhalden (1877—1950) in

Another important book. Abdominal Injuries o f Warfare, was published by G. Gorden-Taylor in 1939.

1903 .The occurrence o f glycosuria and phosphaturia in the condition was described by Guido Fanconi (1892—1979) in

A bd om inal pregnancy See ectopic pregnancy.

1936. See cystinosis, Fanconi syndrome.

A bd om inal surgery [Latin: chirurgia; Greek: cheir, hand +

A bd om inal [Latin: aWomew, belly].

ergon, work] The era o f modern abdominal surgery started in the 19th century.The first splenectomy was performed by

A bdom inal aneurysm [Latin: abdomen,heUy; Greek: aneurysma, a dilatation; French: eurys, wide] A sac formed by the dilatation o f the wall o f the abdominal aorta. The first suc­ cessful resection o f an abdominal aneurysm and repair with a homologous graft was performed by Charles Dubost (b 1914) o f Par is, France in 1948. See aortic aneurysm.

Carl Friedrich Quittenbaum (1793—1852) o f Germany in 1 826, but his patient died o f shock within six hours.The first splenectomy in England was performed by Sir Thomas Spencer Wells (1818-1897) in 1865 and his patient lived for 6 days. The first successful long-term result o f the procedure was achieved by Jules Emile Pean (1830—1898) o f Paris,

A bd om inal angina [Latin: abdomen, belly + angere, to stran­

France in 1867. One o f the first successful abdominal opera­

gle] A form o f spasmodic abdominal pain due to mesenteric

tions for intussusception was performed by Sir Jonathan

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ABERCROMBIE

Hutchinson (1828—1913) while he was at London Hospital

A bel M ethod The first chemical extraction o f the active

in 1874. The first resection o f the stomach for carcinoma

principle o f the suprarenal gland, performed by John Jacob

was performed by Pean in 1879, but his operation was not

Abel (1857-1938) o f Johns Hopkins Medical School in

successful. The first successful gastric resection was per­

1898. He gave the name epinephrine to this extract which is

formed by Theodor Billroth (1829—1894) in 1881. Phineas

known as adrenaline in Britain.

Sanborn Conner o f Cincinnati, U S A did a complete resec­

A bel, Frederick Gottfried (1714—1794) Physician and poet

tion o f the stomach in 1884 but his operation was also

from Halberstadt, Germany who took his medical degree at

unsuccessful. Carl Bernhard Schlatter (1864-1934), a Swiss

Königsberg. He published a German translation o f Juvenal

surgeon, performed the first successful total gastrectomy for

in 1788.

carcinoma o f the stomach in 1897. A procedure o f partial gastrectomy for carcinoma o f the pyloric end o f the stom­ ach was devised by William James Mayo (1861—1939) iii 1900. Polya operation, which is a modification o f Billroth operation II, was performed in 19 11 by a Hungarian sur­ geon, Jeno Eugene Alexander Polya (1876-1944).

His

operation involved gastrectomy combined with side-toside anastomosis o f the gastric remnant and the duodenum. Pólya is supposed to have been killed by Nazis, although his body was never recovered.

A bdom inocentesis

[Latin: ahdomino- ; Greek: kentesis,

puncture] See paracentesis abdominis.

A b e l, Jo h n Ja c o b (18 5 7 -19 3 8 ) B io ch e m ist bo rn in Cleveland, Ohio, U S A who graduated from the University o f Michigan. After obtaining his PhD from the same uni­ versity in 1883 he went to Europe where he spent 7 years studying under the foremost scientists in Austria and Germany. He returned to America in 1891 and became pro­ fessor o f therapeutics at Michigan. Aged 36 years he was appointed as the first professor o f pharmacology at Johns Hopkins University. His notable contributions to medicine include: construction o f the first membrane for artificial kidneys; first extraction o f epinephrine (adrenaline), poste­ rior pituitary hormones, hirudin and specific amino acids from the blood; and the first determination o f the molecu­

A bd om inop erineal resection [Latin from Greek: perineon, perinaion] Combined abdominoperineal resection for carci­

lar weight o f cholesterol. He was also the first to obtain a crystalline form o f insulin, in 1926.

noma o f the rectum was introduced by WiUiam Ernest Miles (1869-1947) in 1908. (syn. Miles resection). See Miles operation.

A bella A woman surgeon o f the Middle Ages from the School o f Salerno, Italy during the reign o f Charles o f

[Latin: ab, away from + ducere, to lead]

Anjou around A D 1059. She wrote several medical treatises

(Syn. nervus abducens) The sixth cranial nerve, deriving its

including Treatise deAtra Bili and De Natura Seminis Hominis.

A bducent nerve

name from its relationship to the abductoris oculi or lateral rectus muscle. It was first described by Bartolom m eo Eustachio (1524-1574), Italian anatomist.

A bd ul-L atif or Abu Mohammed Abdul Latiff ibn ju su f (AD 1 16 1—1231) Arabian scientist and traveler in Egypt during the time o f Saladin (113 7 -119 3 ), the Sultan o f Egypt and Syria. He taught medicine at Damascus, Aleppo and Egypt and has been credited with 166 treatises, some o f which are on medical topics. He also studied human osteology and

A bengnefil or Aben-Guefit (997-1075) Arabian physician. He wrote a medical treatise which was translated under the title De Virtuitibus Medicinarum et Ciborum and printed at Venice, Italy in 1581.

Aberavon Skull In 1910 Arnalt Jones presented the frontal part o f a skull belonging to the Neolithic Period, or later Stone Age, found at Aberavon, south Wales, to the Museum o f the Royal College o f Surgeons in London, U K .T his and a similar skull found in the same region earlier in 1840, pro­

found that many o f Galen’s (129—200) writings on the sub­

vided additional evidence for the presence o f Neolithic

ject were inaccurate. During his stay in Egypt he wrote a

man in England. See skull.

comprehensive account o f the country’s flora and fauna.

A bercrom bie, John (1780—1844) B orn in Aberdeen, Scot­ A begg, Richard (1869-1910) Chemist from Danzig, Ger­

land, he graduated in medicine from Edinburgh University.

many. One o f the first to realize the chemical significance o f

He had a successful practice in Edinburgh and became sur­

electrons. In 1897 he proposed that the outer electron shell

geon to the Royal Public Dispensary in 1805. He published

governed the chemical properties o f the atom. He also did

Observations on the Diseases o f the Spinal Marrow (1818),

important work on osmotic pressures and freezing point o f

Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases o f the Brain and

dilute solutions. Abegg died in a ballooning accident at

Spinal Cord (1828), the first book on neuropathology and

Koszalin, Poland.

several other important medical works.

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ABERCROMBY

Abercrom by, David (16 21—1695) London physician who in

drainage o f lumbar abscess by incision and ligated the com­

1684 first suggested a parasitic cause for syphilis. Works

mon carotid artery to arrest brain hemorrhage in 1798. His

include Opuscula Medica hacteneus edita (1689).

Surgical Observations on the Constitutional origin and Treatment

Abercrom by, Patrick Thomas (1656-1726) Physician from Angus, Scotland who qualified from St Andrew’s University

of Local Diseases and on aneurysms was published in 1809.

Aberrant C ond uction [Latin: ab, from + errans, wander]

in 1685. He became physician to James II and wrote Treatise

See WolJ—Parkinson—White syndrome, Lown-Ganong-Levine

on Wit (1686).

syndrome, ablation catheter.

A berdeen M edical S ociety Founded as a debating society

A betalipoproteinem ia (Syn.Bassen—Kornzweig syndrome)

by two physicians, Sir James M cG rigor (1771-1858) o f

Abetalipoprotein deficiency causing acanthocytosis, retini­

Inverness, Scotland, his companion James Robertson and

tis pigmentosa and multiple neurological deficits. First

ten medical students from Marischal College in 1789.

described by a Canadian-born American physician at M t

M cG rigor became Director General o f Arm y Medical

Sinai Hospital N ew York, Frank A. Bassen (b 1903) and an

Service in 1815.

American ophthalmologist at the same hospital, A.L.

A berdeen M edico—Chirurgical S ociety See Aberdeen Medical Society.

Kornzweig (b 1900) in 1950.

A biogenesis [Greek: a, without + bios, life + genesis, origin]

A berdeen R oyal Infirm ary Founded in 1739 with James

The doctrine o f the origin o f living things from inorganic

Gordon, Professor o f Medicine at Marischal College, as its

matter. First proposed by Anaximander around 570 B C . See

first physician in 1741. It contained six beds at the start in

germ theory of disease.

1742 and had expanded to 19 beds by 1749.

A biotrophy [Greek: í?, without + bios,life + trophe, nourish­

A berdeen U niversity Third o f the Scottish universities to

ment) During the late 19th and early 20th century almost

be founded (1494). Although St Andrews and Glasgow

any disease tended to be explained by an infective process.

were founded earlier (in 14 11 and 1451, respectively),

Sir William R Gowers (1845—1915) introduced the term

Aberdeen was the first to organize regular medical teaching

abiotrophy in 1902 to denote and focus attention on dis­

in Britain. It awarded its first medical degree in 1630.

eases not due to infection. This group included hereditary

Marischal College was founded in 1593 by Earl Marischal

and idiopathic disorders. Hereditary abiotrophy or Leber

and the two merged in i860.

optic atrophy is one example.

A bernethian S ociety

Inaugurated at St Bartholomew’s

A blation [Latin: ab, from + latum, carried] Rem oval. The

Hospital, London, U K in 1795. It’s principal figure was John

ablation o f various parts o f the brain served as an experi­

Abernethy (1764—1831) and the Society functioned as a

mental tool that greatly contributed to the identification o f

Medical and Philosophical Society with regular presenta­

specific functions o f the brain in the field o f neurology at

tion o f papers followed by discussions. It was revived in 1832

the turn o f the 19th century. Homonymous hemianopia

and renamed the Abernethian Society.

was first demonstrated by experimental unilateral ablation

A bernethy Fascia The fascia covering the external iliac artery is named after the surgeon, John Abernethy (1764— 1831) o f St Bartholom ew’s Hospital, who first described it in 1828.

A bernethy T um or A fatty growth o f the body, described in 1817 by John Abernethy (176 4-18 31), who was a surgeon at St Bartholom ew’s Hospital.

o f the occipital cortex in monkeys by Edward Alfred Sharpey-Schafer (1850—1935) in 1888. See pituitary ablation.

A blation Catheter G. Giraud, R Puech and H. Latour used an electrode catheter in humans in i960. Benjamin Scherlag o f Columbia University developed a catheter for recording electrical activity o f the bundle o f His in 1969 and an exper­ imental method for injecting formaldehyde to block the bundle o f His and produce complete heart block.This work

Abernethy, John (1764-1831) From Little M oor Fields, near

formed the basis for electrophysiological studies o f the

Finsbury Square, London, U K he was a pupil o f John

heart and development o f electrode catheter ablation by

Hunter (1728—1793), who later became a surgeon at St

R . Gonzalez and co-workers in 1981. A transvenous

Bartholom ew’s Hospital. He founded the Medical School

catheter to deliver high energy direct electrical current

at his Hospital with David Pitcairn (1749-1809). He ligated

for ablation o f the aberrant pathway in WolfT-Parkinson—

the external iliac artery for aneurysm, in 1796, advocated

White syndrome was devised by F. M orady and M .M .

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ABORTUS FEVER

Scheinmann in 1984. A laser balloon catheter was devel­

A bortin A substance analogous to tuberculin, it was intro­

oped b yj. Richard Spears in 1987. See Wolf—Parkinson—White

duced by veterinary surgeon, J. McFadyean o f Edinburgh

syndrome.

and S. Stockman during their attempt in 1909 to devise a

A blepharon [Greek: a, without + blepheros,hd] or cryptophthalmus. A congenital abnormality in which there are no

test for the diagnosis o f brucellosis.

A bortion

[Latin: aboriri, to miscarry) Abortion has been

eyebrows or palpebral fissure and the skin is continuous

practiced since ancient times, whenever a child was not

from the forehead to the cheek. Described in a child who

wanted. During the time o f Hippocrates (460—377 B C )

died at 9 months by W. Zehender in 1872. Further cases

mostly midwives performed abortions. Greek physicians

were recorded with dissections and numerous drawings by

considered it necessary only to preserve the health o f the mother or save her life. The ethics o f that time are reflected

H. Otto in 1893 and by Van Duyse Bruxelles in 1899.

in the Hippocratic oath, which states,‘to no woman I will

A B O B lo o d Groups Blood transfusions were hazardous

give a substance to produce abortion’ . Soranus o f Ephesus

and risky prior to the discovery o f blood groups in 1900.

who lived around A D 200 has stated that ‘the fruit o f con­

The important observation that the serum from animals

ception is not to be destroyed at will because o f adultery or

caused lysis o f red blood cells when cross reacted with red

care o f beauty, but is to be destroyed to avert danger append­

blood cells o f another species was made by Leonhard

ing to birth’ . The church upheld this view and abortion was

Landois (1837—1902) in 18 75.The unpredictable outcome

condemned with eternal damnation. Juvenal (AD 100) the

o f blood transfusions, ranging from success to violent reac­

R om an poet referred to the common practice o f abortion

tions and sometimes death, led to the virtual abandonment

amongst higher class women in R om e. Am ong the ancient

o f the procedure around 1890. In 1900, Samuel G. Shattuck

Incas abortion was a crime punishable by death.The various

(1852—1924) noted that the serum from some patients

methods o f performing abortion for therapeutic reason

caused clumping o f red cells from other patients .The signif­ icance o f this finding was not realized until Karl Landsteiner (1868—1943) ofV ienna made the discovery o f the three groups o f blood through agglutination reactions in the same year. He migrated to America in 1922 and became the first American to win the N obel Prize in 1930 for his dis­ covery. A fourth group was discovered by Alfred von Decastello (b 1872) and Adriono Struli (1873—1964) in 1902. In 1909 Jan Jansky (1873—1921) o f Prague classified

such as a small pelvic outlet have been described by Avicenna (980—1037) and Rhazes (850—932). Methods described include bleeding especially from the ankle, leap­ ing from heights, application o f pessaries medicated with hellebore or similar substances and forcible dilatation o f the cervical os with a roll o f paper, polished wood or a quill. Avicenna also described fumigation o f the uterus and this was practiced abundantly in the i6th century. A fumigation apparatus for this purpose has been drawn and described in Ambroise Paré’s (1510—1590) works. Law on abortion in

blood into A ,B ,A B and O groups. Although a similar classi­

England was set out in sections 58 and 59 o f the Offences

fication was proposed by American pathologist William

Against the Person Act o f 18 6 1.The position o f therapeutic

Lorezo

time,

abortion was more clearly defined in the Infant Life

Decastello s work was the first to be published. They were

Preservation Act o f 1929 which recognized the right o f the

shown to be inherited according to Mendelian laws by

child to live as soon as it has reached the 28th week o f gesta­

Emil von Dungern (1876—1961) and Ludwik Herszfeld

tion, but it had an important provision which stated that

(1884—1954) in 1910. The exact method o f inheritance

abortion‘in good faith and for the purpose only o f preserv­

was worked out by Felix Bernstein (b 1878) o f Germany

ing the life o f the mother’ was lawful.The later Abortion Act

in 1924. Landsteiner in 1927, while working at the

o f 1967 liberalized the criteria for therapeutic abortion.

Moss

(1876-1957)

around

the

same

Rockefeller Institute with Philip Levine (1900—1987), also

A bortus Fever [Latin: aboriri, to miscarry] Sir David Bruce

discovered minor blood groups M and N , which played a

(1855-1931), a physician o f Scottish origin in Australia, iso­

part in establishment o f paternity and the study o f racial

lated minute forms o f Gram-negative organisms from

characteristics. Landsteiner, while working with a Brooklyn

patients with Malta fever in 1887 and he named the species

physician Alexander Solomon W iener (1907—1976), dis­

Micrococcus melitensis. Bernhard Laurits Frederik Bang

covered the rhesus or R h factor in i940.The S group, based

(1848-1932) obtained a similar organism from the uterine

on isoaglutinins subdividing the M and N groups, was

discharge o f aborting cows in 1897. He named it Bacillus

discovered by R o bert John Walsh M ontgomery in 1947.

and Carmel M .

abortus and the illness came to be popularly known as abor­ tus fever. Similar organisms were obtained later from pigs.

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ABRAHAM

cows and goats. Karl Friedrich M eyer and E.B. Shaw o f

by Aleksei Ivanovitch Abrikosov or Abrikossoff (1875-

America introduced the generic term Brucella to this species

1955) o f M oscow in 1926.

in 1920 in honor o f its discoverer, David Bruce.

A bruptio Placenta

[Latin: ab, from + ruptus, broken]

Abraham , Karl (1877—1925) B orn in Bremen. Assistant to

Premature separation o f normally implanted placenta with

Eugene Bleuler (1857—1939) at the Burgholzli Asylum in

a fatal outcome. First described by American Joseph Bolivar

Zurich. He founded the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society in

Dee Lee (1869-1942) in 19 0 1.The same condition accom­

1908.

panied by albuminuria, azotemia and shock was described

Abraham , Sir Edward Penley (b 1913) English chemist born at Southampton. He graduated from Q ueens College,

by Alexandre Couvelaire (1873-1948) o f Paris in 19 11.

A bscess [Latin: abs, from or away + cedere, to depart] Aulus

Oxford and was professor o f chemical pathology there in

Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D 50) recommended incision

1964. While working with Sir Ernest Boris Chain (1906—

o f the abscess before it hardened. Superficial scarification

1979)»a biochemist from Germany,Abraham demonstrated

and cataplasms were advocated as treatment by Galen

the production o f penicillinase by Gram-negative bacilli, in

(129—200). Aetius ofA m ida (AD 502—575) recommended

1940. He also reported the therapeutic action o f penicillin

application o f barley meal or boiled bread in a decoction o f

on humans in 1941 and isolated the first cephalosporin

figs before suppuration took place and incising the abscess

antibiotic from Cephalosporium in 1954.

where the skin was thinnest when suppuration was

A bram s,

Albert

(1863—1924)

Medical graduate

from

Heidelberg in 1882 who practiced in San Francisco. He invented, in 1910, spondylotherapy in which he applied pressure or percussion to various points in the spine as treat­ ment for a variety o f illnesses. He experimented on other forms o f fringe medicine and introduced a bizarre machine called a ‘dynamiser’ to diagnose diseases. This was later proved to have no scientific basis. He founded the American Association o f Medico-Physical Research which pursued an unscientific approach to fringe medicine.

complete. Arnold o f Villanova (12 3 4 -13 11) realized the importance o f surgical treatment and stated ‘to postpone opening an abscess is dangerous’ .

A bsence

Term introduced by Louis Florentine Calmeil

(1798-1895) to describe a minor form o f epilepsy in 1824.

A bsinthe [Greek: absinthion, wormwood] An active extract from the plant Artemisia absinthium or worm wood. It has been used since ancient times for a variety o f conditions, as a tonic, as an antihelmintic or narcotic and for gastric complaints. It was a social drink amongst the elite in Paris in

A breaction [Latin: ii/), from + reaction] Jo se f Brcuer (1842—

i860 and absinthe parlors became a vogue. It is said to have

1925), who helped Sigmund Freud (1856—1939) in his early

inspired famous poets and artists in France and became so

career, provided the incentive and basis for Freud s psycho­

popular that 25 distilleries in France produced it on a mass

analytic theories. Breuer, using hypnosis, brought out the

scale in the late 19th century. It was banned in 1915 by the

experiences o f one o f his patients which explained her

French government owing to its injurious effects on health

symptoms. His method was initially called the ‘talking cure’

and disruption o f social life.

and the expression o f emotions related to the patient’s past experience was term ed‘abreaction’ . In 1882 Freud recog­ nized the significance o f this phenomenon o f discharged

A bsorbent D ressings

[Latin: absorbere, to suck up] See

Gamgee tissue.

repressed emotions under hypnosis, but at the same time

A bsorption o f H eat [Latin; ab, from + sorbeo, suck in]

also realized its limitation as a permanent cure, as it was only

R obert Hooke (1635—1703) discovered that glass absorbed

a transient state under hypnosis. In 1895 Freud devised the

radiant heat. M de La R o ch e demonstrated the loss o f heat

method o f bringing out these repressed emotions by a

by radiation and conduction through a glass medium, in

process o f free association where the patients, through their

1812 which was fundamental to study o f laws related to

unmeditated words, unconsciously provided a link to their

heat.

past experiences. Freud interpreted these in relation to repressed emotions and named his method psychoanalysis in 1896.

A bsorption Spectra Isaac N ewton (1642—1727) described the spectrum in his book Opticks. Melville, a Scotsman, in 1752 observed that metals gave a discontinuous spectra.

A brikosov Tum or Also called granular cell myoblastoma,

Dark bands in the spectrum o f sunlight were observed by

is a painless tumor occurring in the tongue, axilla and

William Hyde Wollaston (1766-1822) in 1802. Joseph von

mandible in the above order o f frequency. It was described

Fraunhofer (1787-1826) in 1814 studied this phenomenon

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ACADEMY

Herschel

A cadem ia Secretorum N aturae Founded by Italian phy­

(1792—1871) in 1823 suggested that these lines could be used

sicist, Giambattista della Porta (1535—1615) in 1560. It was

to identify various metals. R o bert Bunsen (18 11-18 9 9 ) and

suppressed by the inquisition and replaced by the Academia

Gustav R o bert KirchhofF (1824-1887) concluded in 1829

de Lincei in 1603.

and mapped about 400

dark lines. John

that the dark lines were due to the absorption o f certain wavelengths by the atmosphere. Analysis o f the three prima­ ry colors o f light was done by David Brewster (178 1—1868) in 1831 and later applied to develop spectrometry for analysis o f elements. See dispersion, spectroscopy.

A bsorption See digestion. A bstem ius [Latin: abs, from + tementum, drink] An ancient Latin term for a person who abstains from meats and drinks according to his physician s instructions.

A ca d ém ie des S ciences Gatherings o f a group o f eminent mathematicians and philosophers including R en e Descartes (1596—1650), Blaise Pascal (1623—1662), Pierre de Fermat (1608-1665), Edme Mariotte (1620-1684) and Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) at Paris in the m id-iyth century formed the basis o f the Academy. It was initiated as a regular institution by French statesman, John Baptist Colbert (1619-1683) under the sponsorship o f Louis X IV in 1666. The French writer, Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle (1657—1757) developed it and was its secretary for 40 years.

A bu, Bakr Muhamed ibn Zachariya See Rhazes (850—932).

The Paris Observatory \Vas established as a part o f the

A bu, Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan See Geber.

Académie des Sciences in 1667 and its building was com­

A bu, Zaid Hunayn ibn Ishak al-Ibadi or Johannitus (AD 809—873)

Arab physician born at Alhira in Iraq. He

studied medicine under Mesue Senior. He translated 10 Hippocratic treatises with his pupil Isa IbnYahya. The 16 books o f Galen (129-200) were also translated by him with

pleted in 1672. Jean Piccard Huygens (1620—1682) and Giovanni Cassini

(16 25-1712) were members o f the

observatory. It underwent reorganization in 1699 and was abolished in 1793. It was replaced by Institut National des Sciences et des Arts in 1795.

his nephew Hubaysh, another o f his pupils. Most o f the

A cad ém ie R oyal de C hirurgie Paris Founded by Royal

Galenic system o f medicine was introduced into Arabia by

Charter o f King Louis X V in 1731. It was suppressed during

Hunayan with his Isagoge which was translated into Latin by

the Revolution but revived as the Société National de

Marcus ofToledo in the 12th century.AbuYaqub Ishaq (AD

Chirurgie in the early 19th century.

910), a son o f Johannitus, was also a physician who translated several Greek works into Arabic. See eye, vision.

Abul, Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmed ibn Ruschid See Averrhoes.

A bulcasim See Albucasis. Abulfaragius, Gregory (1226—1286) Armenian physician, born in Malatia near the source o f the Euphrates. He wrote a universal history in Arabic which was published in Latin in 1663.

A cad ém ie R oyal de M édicin Paris Founded by Royal Charter in 1820 by incorporating the old Académie Royal de Chirurgie. The new Académie was divided into medicine, surgery and pharmacy.

A cadem y o f P sychoanalysis Formed in 1955 by a group o f psychoanalysts in America who wanted to break away from the conformist views o f the American Psychoanalytic Association. Its meetings expressed ideas from the smaller psychoanalytic institutes.

Acacia Genus o f leguminous trees producing many medical­

A cadem y Derived from ‘academia’ a grove in Athens where

ly important substances. Intravenous administration o f

Plato taught his pupils.The academies o f Plato and Aristotle

acacia solution was used as routine treatment for nephritic

continued for several centuries until they were closed by

syndrome in the early 1900s.

emperor Justinian in A D 529. The modern term, academy denotes a place o f learning. The Academy o f the secrets o f

A cad em ia dei L incei o f R o m e Named after the lynx, an animal with keen vision. It was formed by Duke Federigo Cesi in 1603 to serve as a forum to stimulate scientific discussions.The great astronomer and physicist, Galileo was one o f its founder members. See Academia Secretorum Naturae.

A cad em e des Sciences See Académie des Sciences.

nature in Italy was the first o f the scientific societies to be established, around 1450. Though it initially consisted o f physical scientists, it was later suspected to advocate magic and illicit arts and was banned by Pope Paul III. The Accademia del Cimento, one o f the first important scientif­ ic academies, was founded in Florence,Tuscany, in 1657. It had many distinguished members such as Torricelli, Borelli,

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ACANTHABOLUS

Nicolaus Steno and R ed i.T h e academy at the time o f clo­

François Renucci, o f Paris. He showed it without a

sure left a volume on Natural Experiments. The Berlin

magnifying glass and specified its site in the skin.

Academy was formed in 1700 through three decades o f effort by the mathematician Gottfried W ilhelm Leibniz (1646—1716). The Academy o f Sciences at St Petersburg in Russia was founded by Peter the Great in 1724. The Schemnitz M ining Academy, the first technical college in the world, was founded at Schemnitz, in Hungary in 1733.

Accadians or Akkadians Inhabitants o f Babylon who belonged to the earliest civilization in Eastern Asia. They believed that all diseases were caused by evil spirits and depended on priests and sorcerers for their cure.

A ccessory C h rom osom es Also know as X chromosomes.

The Royal Danish Academy o f Sciences was founded by

Noted by Hermann Henking (1858-1942) in 1891. They

Christian IV at Copenhagen in 1742. The National

were suggested to be the determinants o f gender by Ervin

Academy o f Sciences in America was founded as a private

Clarence M cClung (1870—1946), an American cytologist,in

organization dedicated to science and chartered by

1902. This was proved by Edmund Beecher Wilson

Congress in 1 ^6^. See Academia dei Lincei, Cimento.

(1856—1939) o f Illinois in 1935.The presence o f an extra X

A canthabolus [Greek: akantha, thorn + bolus, lump or cast out] Ancient instrument to remove thorns from the body.

chromosome that determined the female sex was pointed out independently by American biologist, Nettia Maria Stevens (1861—1912) at Bryn M awr College, Pennsylvania.

A canthocytosis [Greek: akantha, thorn + cytos, cell] Cren-

These chromosomes were subsequently renamed sex chro­

ation or thorn-like projections o f erythrocytes. Described

mosomes. One o f the two X chromosomes in females was

as a feature o f abetalipoproteinemia by Canadian-born

suggested to become inactive, as sex chromatin, in the

American physician, F.A. Bassen (b 1903) and N ew York

normal female by English biologist, M ary Frances Lyon

ophthalmologist,Kornzweig (b 1900) in 1950.

(b 1925) in 1961.

A canthom a A denoides C ystecu m See Brooke disease. A canthosis N igrican s Diffuse hyperplasia o f the skin with black pigmentation. Described by Sigmund PoUitzer (1859—1937) o f Hamburg andViktorJanowsky (1847—1925) in 1890. A modern description was given by R . Degas o f Paris in 1964. Acarus scabiei Mite sometimes called Sarcoptes Hominis causes scabies and antedates the appearance o f humans by millions o f years. Aristotle (384-322 B C ), Zan-yun-fang (AD 70o),Avenzoar (AD 1070), Hildegard o f Bingen (AD 1050) and At-Tabari (AD 970) are all credited with having seen and described the mite. English physician, Thomas Moffet (1553—1604) recorded the relief o f symptoms by extracting the mite from the skin with a needle in his work which was published in 1634. Pierre Borel (1620—1689) saw this mite under the microscope in 1653 and a microscopic description was given by Italian physician, Giovanni Cosimo Bonom o (1663—1696) in 1687.A drawing was done by August Hauptmann in 1657. Giovanni Bonom o and Giacento Cestoni (1637—I7i8)^a pharmacist, established it as the cause o f scabies in 1687. This discovery was a land­ mark as it was the first time a microscopic organism had been established as the cause o f a specific disease. Johan Ernst Wichmann (1740—1802) wrote a monograph on

A ccessory

F ood

Factors Additional dietary factors

required to maintain health. Found by Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861—1947)

1906, who named them

accessory food factors. The first o f these, which prevented beriberi, was discovered by Casimir Funk (1884—1967) in 19 11 who named it‘vitamine’ . See vitamins.

A ccid en t and E m ergen cy Services The development o f an accident center in every major city was urged by English orthopedic surgeon. Sir R obert Jones (1858-1933) soon after World War LThe first accident service in England was started at Birmingham by an Australian, William Gissane (1898—1981) in 1941. Known as Birmingham Accident Hospital the service was expanded later to include other emergencies. Widespread dissatisfaction with the poor quality o f accident services and their poor level o f staffing later led to two reviews: Casualty Services and their Setting, hy NufBeld Provincial Hospitals Trust in i960 and Accident Services o f Great Britain and Ireland, by the British Medical Association in 1961. Anton Freiherr von Eiselberg (i860— 1939) o f Austria was a pioneer in establishing accident departments in Europe. He founded several accident and emergency departments within the university surgical clinics in Vienna in 1909. Ironically he died in a railway accident.

scabies which established the parasitic nature in 1786. The

A ccid en t Services Started in England with the establish­

Acarus mite was rediscovered in 1834 by a student, Simon

ment o f Birmingham Accident Hospital in 1941 and the

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ACETYLCHOLINE

service was expanded later to include other emergencies.

treatment o f acephalocysts was given by Richard Bright

See Accident and Emergency Services.

(1789-1858) in his treatise on abdominal tumors in 1824.

A ccident-P ron e Personality The tendency o f some indi­

A cetabulum [Latin: vinegar cruet, from acetum, vinegar]

viduals to have repeated accidents on a statistical basis.

Described as ‘a cavity in the huckle bone which is appoint­

Observed by M ajor Greenwood (1880—1949) and C.VYule

ed to receive the head o f the thigh bone within it’ in the first

in 1920. E. Farmer and E.G . Chambers used the term ‘acci­

dictionary on medicine published in the Britain by Stephen

dent proneness’ in 1926. It was described in more detail by

Blancard (1625-1703) in 1684. Also a plant with a round

American psychoanalyst and pioneer in psychosomatic

leaf. Umbilicus rupestris or navelwort. It was used in treatment

medicine, H. Flanders Dunbar (1902-1959) ofYale School

o f inflammation and St Anthony’s fire since the time o f the

o f Medicine in 1954. A modern account was given by A .M .

ancient Greeks up to the 17th century.

Freedman and co-workers in 1975.

A cetanilide or Antifebrin Prepared by French chemist,

A cc o m m o d a tio n o f Eye [Latin: ad, to + comma dus, fitting]

Frederic Gerhardt (1816-1856) in 1852 and introduced as an

The pupillary changes in the eye in response to light.

antipyretic by Arnold Cahn and Paul Hepp in 1886.

Observed by Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1537-1619) in

A cetazolam ide The fact that sulfanilamide could produce

1600 and the original hypothesis for its mechanism was put

alkaline diuresis was observed by R . Pitts and R . Alexander

forward by R en é Descartes (1596-1650) in 1655. Alteration

in 1945. This led to the discovery o f a new diuretic, a

o f the curvature o f the crystalline lens during accommoda­

compound ofbicarbonate and sulfonamide in 1952.

tion was demonstrated by Jesuit astronomer, Christoph Scheiner (1575-1650) in 1619. Hermann Helmholtz ( 18 2 11894), using his ophthalmometer, explained the mechanism brought about by contraction o f ciliary muscles, affecting an increase in curvature o f the anterior surface o f the lens. English physician, Thomas Young (1773— 1829) in 1801 demonstrated that changes o f accommodation were always

A ceto n e Noted in urine by Wilhelm Petters in 1857 and A d olf Kussmaul (1822-1902) observed the same substances in the blood in 1874. A test for acetone in urine was designed by Viktor Frommer o f Berlin in 1905 and another, using nitroprusside, known as Rothera test, was devised by Arthur Cecil Hamil Rothera (1880—1915) in 1908. See acidosis.

A cetu m P yrolignosu m C rudum See wood vinegar.

associated with the lens.

A ccoucheur Male midwife during the Renaissance period

A cetyl Salicylic A cid or Aspirin The term A -S-P irin was

when they were rare. King Louis XIV, after watching a male

coined in 1839 by Bayer chemists in 1899 to denote A —for

midwife attending his mistress, gave them official recogni­

acetyl group, S - for salicylic group and S P IR - for Spiraea

tion. In 1670, Julian Clement, a French male midwife

plant which was the source o f salicylic acid. Herman Kolbe

attended Madame de Montespan at the birth o f the Due de

(1818-1884) o f Gottingen obtained salicylic acid from car­

Main and in 1682 he delivered the Dauphin. Clement also

bolic acid in 1853. Another chemist around the same time

attended three times on the wife o f Prince Philip V o f Spain

synthesized acetyl salicylic acid, but the therapeutic signifi­

and was honored with the title ‘Accoucheur’ which later

cance o f this finding was not realized and it was discounted

became the official name for a male midwife. A physician,

as a worthless relative. Later, Felix Hoffmann, a chemist at

John Duppy o f N ew York, was the first recorded male mid­

the Bayer Company, looked for a less irritant compound to

wife in America in 1745.

treat pain in 1899 synthesized acetyl salicylic acid and pre­ sented it to Heinrich Dresser, head o f the drug research

A ccu m , Frederick (1769—1838)

German chemist from

department. Soon after this discovery, aspirin was hailed as a

Buckeburg who emigrated to London in 1793, where he

new antipyretic and a wonder drug for relieving pain. Bayer

became the chemical operator o f the Royal Institution o f

reaped the rewards o f its discovery by holding the patent to

Great Britain. He pioneered gas lighting and published

manufacture and sell aspirin for the next 17 years.

Treatise on Adulteration o f Food and Culinary Poisons (1820) and a System ofTheoretical and Practical Chemistry.

A cephalocystis en d ogina [Greek: a, without + kephale,

A cetylch olin e The hypotensive effect o f this choline deriva­ tive was described by R e id Hunt (1879-1948) in 1906. Otto Loewi (18 7 3 -19 6 1),a German pharmacologist at Strasburg,

head] Headless bag-like hydatid cysts o f the cestoid worm,

demonstrated in 1921 that a substance liberated from the

named by R en é Théophile Hyacinthe Laënnec ( 17 8 1-

stimulated vagus nerve ending, when perfused into a

1826) in 1804. A detailed account o f histology and

second heart, was capable o f slowing down the rate o f heart

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ACHALASIA

beat. This substance was the first neurotransmitter to be

professor o f anatomy at Louvain. He later had to have his leg

isolated and was identified as acetylcholine by British phys­

amputated.

iologist Sir H enry Hallet Dale (1875-1968) in 1929. Its role

A chillini, Alexander (1463-1512) Celebrated anatomist from

in transmission o f neuron to neuron impulses o f the sympa­

Bologna in Italy who described the part played by the small

thetic ganglia was demonstrated by Wilhelm Siegmund

bones o f the ear in hearing. He wrote seven important

Feldberg (b 1900) and Sir John Henry Gaddum (1900—

anatomical and medical treatises. His most famous,

1965) in 1965.The mechanism o f release by nerve impulses

Annotationes Anatomica,w2iS published in 1520. He gave the

was discovered by Sir Bernard Katz (b 19 11), a biophysicist

names ‘hammer’ and ‘anvil’ to two o f the auditory bones.

who escaped from Nazi Germany and worked at University College, London, in 1969.

Achalasia [Greek: ¿j, without +

A chlorhydria See achylia. relaxation] Failure o f

A ch m et Arabian philosopher in the 4th century. He wrote

smooth muscle sphincters to relax at the gastroesophageal

on the interpretation o f dreams. Although his original work

junction. The term was used by Sir Arthur Hurst (1879-

was lost, a translation in the 9th century is extant and was

1944) in 1915. A classic description o f the symptoms and its

published in Greek and Latin in Paris by Nicolas Rigault in

treatment was given by Thomas Willis (16 21—1675) in 1674

1603.

in his Pharmaceutica Rationalis. He designed and constructed a dilator from a whale bone and used it intermittently to

A choluric Jaundice Hereditary spherocytosis accompanied

dilate the cardiac sphincter on a young male. Other early

by hemolytic anemia due to increased osmotic fragility o f

descriptions were given by: Friedrich Hoffmann (1660—

the red cells. Described by Oskar Minkowski (1858—1931)

1742) in 1733,T. Purton in 1821 and A.J. Hannay in 1833.A

in 1900. See congenital spherocytosis.

large series o f 17 patients was presented by FA . Zenker

A chondroplasia [Greek: a, without + chondros, cartilage +

(1825-1898) and colleagues in 1878. A surgical method o f

plasis, molding] Hereditary disturbance o f epiphyseal carti­

treatment was described by German surgeon, Ludwig Ernst

lage and bone formation. Ancient paintings o f Greek clinics

Heller (b 1877) o f Leipzig in 19 13.The histological changes

show the existence o f achondroplastics around 400 B C and

o f the plexus were described by Geoffrey William Rake

a statue o f an achondroplastic, Seneb o f the fifth Egyptian

(b 1904) in 1926.

dynasty, is exhibited in the Cairo Museum. It was described with illustrations by Samuel Thomas von Sommering

Achard, Charles Emile (1860-1944) Physician at Paris who coined the term arachnodactyly for the spider-like appear­

(1755—1830), a Polish-born professor o f medicine at the

ance o f the fingers seen in Marfan syndrome in 1902. He

University o f Mainz, Germany in 179 1. Another descrip­

also coined the term paratyphoid fever. See Achard—Thiers

tion was given by the neurologist, M oritz H ienrich

syndrome.

R om berg (1795—1873) in his graduation thesis. A study o f the changes in the cartilage in achondroplasia was done in

A chard-T hiers Syndrom e A collection o f several cases o f

Berlin by German physician, Eduard Kaufmann (i860—

virilism in females with diabetes, mostly taken from pre­

1931) in 1892.

existing literature by two French physicians, Charles Emile Achard (1860—1944) and Joseph Thiers (b 1885) o f Paris formed the basis for recognition o f this polyglandular syndrome.

A cheulean Culture Weapons and other utilities from the Paleolithic Age or drift age were found at St Acheul near Amiens in 1853.The Paleolithic culture which existed at St Acheul is commonly referred to as Acheulian culture.

A chilles Tendon The tendon that connects the calf muscle to the heel. Named after the ancient Greek warrior Achilles who, according to Greek mythology, was dipped in the river Styx by his mother, the nereidThetis, to make him invinci­ ble. Apollo revealed this to Paris who mortally wounded

Model of achondroplastic court official Seneb, normal wife, one

Achilles in his heel during the Trojan war. The term was

achondroplastic and one normal child (Fifth Dynasty). Courtesy of the Cairo

used in anatomy in 1693 by PhillipeVerheyen (16 4 8 -1710 ),a

Museum

10

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ACONITE

concentration in the prostate gland than in any other tissue

Achorion schonlenii [Greek: achorn, watery discharge] The fungus causing favus was named schonlenii by R obert

o f the body. Benjamin Stockwell Barringer (b 1878) and

R em ak (1815—1865) in honor o f Johann Lucas Schonlein

Helen Quinsy Woodard (b 1900) in 1938 showed that

(1783—1864) who described it in 1839. Herman Lebert

metastatic lesions o f cancer o f the prostate led to the eleva­

(1813—1878) o f France described the same species under a

tion o f serum levels o f acid phosphatase. In 1941, Charles

different name earlier in the same year. David Gruby (1810—

Brenton Huggins (b 1901) noted that serum levels o f acid

1898) established it as a cause o f disease in 1841. Seefavus.

phosphatase in metastatic carcinoma o f the prostate could be further elevated by administering androgens and could

A chrom a [Greek: a, negative + chroma, color] See albino.

be diminished by giving estrogenic substances. It was desig­

A ch rom atic Lens [Greek: a, without + chroma, color] Lens

nated as a diagnostic marker and indicator o f therapeutic

for overcoming chromatic aberration. Produced by Chester

response in carcinoma o f the prostate.

M ore Hall o f M ore Hall, Essex, who used it to construct a telescope around 1730. However, he failed to publish or

A cid Serum Test See Ham test.

patent his invention and a patent was obtained by John

A cidosis Formation o f acid in diabetic coma. Bernard

Holland (1706—1761), an instrument maker in London in

Naunyn (1839—1925) o f Berlin noted it in 1906 and named

1755. The achromatic objective was also mentioned by

it. A minimal pH o f 6.95 below which coma occurs was

Harmanus van Deijl (1738—1809), o f Danish origin,in 1807.

proposed by American biochemist and pioneer in blood

It was adapted for the microscope by Italian physicist,

gas analysis, Donald Dexter van Slyke (1883—1971). See

Giovanni Battista Amici (1786—1863) o f Modena, in 1812.

Kussmaul, acetone.

Achylia Absence o f acid secretion in the stomach.

A cinesia [Greek: a, negative + femcsL, movement] Term used

Considered by F. Martins in his treatise Achylia Gastrica,

by Galen (129—200) to denote an interval o f rest which takes

published in 1897, to be due to an inborn error o f metabo­

place between contraction and expansion o f the pulse.

lism. He postulated that gastritis was secondary to achylia rather than achylia being the cause o f gastritis. Frederick

A ckee P oison in g Jamaican vomiting sickness. The cause

Arthur Hurst [1879—1944], a physician at G u ys Hospital,

was discovered by H enry Harold Scott in 1916 to be inges­

supported this theory in 1923 and subsequent finding o f

tion o f unripe fruits from the tree, Blighia sapida.

achylia in some families with Addison anemia (pernicious

A ckerm ann A ngle The degree o f inclination o f the base

anemia) also favored the familial theory. Hurst and J .R . Bell

o f the skull. Use o f this angle in the diagnosis o f kyphosis

also found that it was a constant in patients with Addison

and hydrocephalus was proposed by German physician,

anemia, presenting as subacute combined degeneration o f

Conrad Theo dor Ackermann (1825-1926).

the cord.Helge Knud Faber (1862-1956) in 1920 postulated that it was secondary to pathological changes o f gastritis,

Ackerm ann, John Christian GottHeb (1756—1801) Professor

which was later proved to be incorrect.

o f medicine at Altdorf, born in Upper Saxony and wrote Institutiones Historiae Medicinae in eight volumes in 1792. He

A cid-Fast B acteria Certain bacteria are resistant to decol­

was also an authority on Hippocratic treatises.

oration when stained with fuchsin.This was noted by Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) in 1882. German bacteriologist Franz Ziehl (1857-1926) confirmed this and developed the

A cm e [Greek: acme, from a point] The highest pitch o f a disease.

method o f acid-fast staining in 1883.The bacillus o f leprosy

A cn e [Greek: kneo, I scrape or gnaw] Ancient Greek physi­

(Hansen bacillus), later noted to have acid-fast properties, was discovered by Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen

cians, including Aristotle, recognized and described acne.

(18 4 1-19 12 ) in 1874. A second group o f acid-fast bacilli,

R om an physicians used the word varus for the same condi­

the tubercle bacilli, was discovered by R obert Koch

tion, which was also mentioned by Pliny. The word is also

(1843-1910) in 1882.The peculiar property o f acid-fastness

thought to be a corrupted version o f a Greek term for

was studied by Edwin Klebs (1896), R obert Koch (1897)

bloom or puberty. The term akut was used by ancient

andTamura (i9i3).Tam ura isolated an alcohol from these

Egyptians for pustules and carbuncles which also raises the

bacteria which gave them the property o f acid-fastness and

possibility o f an Egyptian origin for the term.

named the substance ‘m ykoF. See tubercle bacillus.

A con ite Aconitium napellus,commonlY called wolfsbane, blue

A cid Phosphatase W. Kutscher and H. Wolberg demon­

rocket or monkshood. Named after the Black Sea port o f

strated in 1935 that acid phosphatase was present at a higher

Aconis.The plant has been in use for medicinal purposes

II

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ACONITINE

from ancient times in China and India and the Gauls used

A crodynia [Greek: aero, extremity + dynia, pain] M ercury

the alkaloid extract (aconitine) as an arrow poison and the

poisoning. Pink disease. Manifests as painful dermatitis

Romans learnt its use from them. Nicander, around

lO O

affecting the extremities. Described by Erasmus Wilson

B C , proposed quicklime and honey as an antidote for

(1809-1884), founder o f the chair o f dermatology at the

aconitine. Apothecaries in England used it as a medicine in

Royal College o f Surgeons in 1847. An account (Peer dis­

the I2th century and it was included in the pharmacopoeia

ease) was given by Swiss pediatrician,E. Peer (1864—1955) in

for its poisonous nature as well as for its medicinal values in

1923. A major cause o f Pink disease in England was use o f

16 15 .R oots and leaves were used up to the 19th century for

mercury-containing tooth powders and their withdrawal

various medical purposes, including the common cold,

in 1954 led to an abrupt fall in the incidence o f the disease. It

apoplexy and as an antipyretic. The first murder trial in

was later noted to also occur in pyridoxine (B^) deficiency

England because o f aconitine poisoning took place in 1881.

or pellagra.

See Lamson, George Henry.

A crom egalic G igantism Polk tales about giants may be o f pituitary origin. An extreme case due to an overactive ante­

A con itin e See aconite.

rior pituitary was noted in a schoolboy giant, R obert

A costa D isease See altitude sickness.

Wadlow o f Illinois. He was 5 years old when he reached a

A cou stic N eu rom a [Greek: akouein, to hear] The feasibility

height o f 5 feet 4 inches. He died at 22 years in 1940, having

o f radiologically demonstrating the local intracranial effect

reached 8 feet 10 inches. Gigantism in acromegaly was observed and studied by Harvey Cushing (1869—1939) o f

(widening o f internal auditory meatus) o f acoustic neuro­

Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1910. His patient was 35 years at

ma was pointed out by E Henschen o f Germany in 1912.

the time o f presentation. Despite surgery to relieve the pres­

E. B. Towne o f America defined a projection that could

sure on the chiasma,his symptoms deteriorated and he died

clearly show the tumor and internal auditory meatus on X -

at the age o f 40 years.This and three other autopsied cases

ray in 1926.

are described by Cushing and Leo M ax D avidoff (1898—

A cquired Im m u n e D eficien cy Syndrom e See A ID S .

1975) in a monograph published at the Rockefeller Institute o f Medical Research in April i927.Transphenoidal micro­

A crel G anglion Pseudoganglion on the posterior inter­

surgery for pituitary tumor was introduced by Jules Hardy

osseous nerve at the back o f the wrist. Described by

in 1968. See pituitary, acromegaly.

Swedish surgeon, Olaus Acrel (1720—1801) in 1779.

A crom egaly [Greek: aero, extremity or tip + megalon, large

A crel, Olaus (1720—1801) Surgeon at Stockholm who pio­

or great] A clinical description was given by Nicholas

neered ophthalmic surgery in his country. He became the

Saucerotte (1741—1814), a Prench army surgeon, at the

Director General o f all the hospitals in Sweden and wrote

Academy o f Surgery in Paris in 1772. Another was given by

several important treatises including A Treatise on Fresh

Sir Samuel Wilkes (1824—19 11) in 1869. Pituitary disorder

Wounds (1745), On the Operations o f Cataract (1756) and On

associated with gigantism was pointed out by Charcots

the Reform of Surgical Operations (1767).

pupil,Pierre M arie (1853—1940), who described the clinical

Acriflavin [Latin: iiccr, pungent] A dye. Synthesized by Benda

features o f two female patients and named it in 1886. He

in 1912 and introduced as an antiseptic by Carl Hamilton

published a series o f 17 cases in 1888 but did not ascribe any

Brow n ing (18 8 1—1972), a pupil o f Paul Ehrlich (18 54 -

specific cause to the disorder. Hyperactivity and enlarge­

1915) in 1913. It was given intravenously as treatment

ment o f the pituitary as a cause were identified by Oskar

for encephalitis lethargica by American surgeon Hugh

Minkowski (1858-1931) in i887.The first attempt to treat it

HamptonYoung (i870-i9 45),J.H .H ill andWilliamWallace

by operative decompression was made by Richard Caton (1842—1926) and Prank Thomas Paul

Scott in 1925. British pathologist, Ewart William Gye

(18 51-19 4 1) in

Liverpool in 18 9 3,but was unsuccessful. An increase in the

(1884—1952) studied the neutralizing action o f acriflavin

number o f eosinophils in the anterior pituitary was demon­

on the agent o f R o u s sarcoma to determine its carcino­

strated by Carl Benda (1857—1933) in 1900. Herman

genic nature in 1931. His findings were more in favor o f

Schloffer (1868—1937) performed the first successful opera­

a living organism rather than an inanimate substance

tion for pituitary tumor on a man with acromegaly in 1906.

producing the sarcoma.

Harvey Cushing (1869—1939) described the anterior pitu­ itary as ‘the keystone o f the endocrine arch’ and did

Acrobystia (Syn. circumcision) See circumcision.

12

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ACTINOMYCIN

extensive studies on acrom egaly and gigantism .Viennese

Actinobacillus Non-m otile, non-branching. Gram-negative

endocrinologist and gynecologist, Bernhard Aschner

bacillus, isolated from lesions in cattle by Joseph Leon

(1883—1960) demonstrated that the anterior pituitary pro­

Marcel Lignieres (1868—1933) and G. Spitz in 1902. The

duced a substance that influenced growth, in 1910.

name was proposed by Alexandre Joseph Emile Brumpt

American endocrinologist, Herbert M cLean Evans (1882-

(18 77-19 51) in 1910.

1971) and Joseph Abraham Long (b 1879) discovered the

A ctin om eter [Greek: actina, ray + meter, to measure]

growth hormone in 1921 and demonstrated gigantic over­

Instrument for measuring heat from the Sun. Invented by

growth o f rats treated with the hormone. Cushing finally

Sir John Herschel (179 2-18 71) in 1825 and improved by

established that eosinophils are the source o f the growth

R obert Bunsen (18 11—1899) and Henry Ruscoe in 1856.

hormone in 1927. See growth hormone, pituitary. Actinomyces asteroides Isolated from a brain abscess in a glass

A crom ian [Greek: akros, highest point + omos, shoulder]

grinder by Hans Eppinger (1856-1916) o f Prague in 1890.

Term used by ancient Greek anatomists to denote the area Actinomyces hovis A detailed mycological account o f actino­

between the neck and the highest point in the arm. Galen (129—200) introduced it in its current sense for a bony

mycosis, a common disease in cows, was given by Otto

projection o f the scapula into surgery in A D 180.

Bollinger

(1843—1909) in

1877. He found that the

disease presented as granulomatous lesions containing

A cron (444 B C ) Physician from Sicily who introduced fumi­

yellowish granules in the tongue o f affected animals. The

gation as a method to control pestilence during the plague

fungus was isolated in 1891 by M ax W olff (1844-1923) and

in Athens. His work was published at Basel in 1527.

James Israel (1848—1926).The latter also described the human form o f actinomycosis.

A cropathos [Greek: akros, highest point + pathos, suffering] Extreme involvement o f the surface o f the body by cancer

Actinomyces caprae Isolated from the lung o f a goat suffering

or disease.

from tuberculosis by Silberschmidt in 1897.

A ct for Parish P oor Infants High infant mortality rates

Actinomyces

prevailed in England in the years 1741 and 1742 and the

graminis

Isolated

by

Eugen

Bostroem

(1850—1928) from a case o f human actinomycosis in 1891.

number o f deaths greatly exceeded the number o f births. The appalling number o f deaths o f infants due to neglect and

Actinomyces madurae Madura disease or mycetoma o f the

infection continued until a strong lobby prevailed to legis­

foot caused by this fungus was observed by Engelbert Kaempfer (1651—1716) in 1712 and described by Henry

late an Act o f Parliament in 1767. See infant mortality rates.

Vandyke Carter (1831—1897) in 1874. A parasitic cause

A cta M edicorum B erolinensium T h e first medical jo u r­

for Madura disease was suggested by George Balingall

nal (in Latin) to be published in Germany in 1717.

(1780-1855) in 1855. Jean Hyacinthe Vincent (1862-1950)

A C T H or A drenocorticotropin [Latin: ad, to + renes, kid­

identified the causative agent as Streptothrix madurae in 1894.

ney + cortex, bark] Hypophysectomy or the removal o f

It was present in India in ancient times and was described as

the anterior pituitary was shown to prevent further

padavalmika meaning foot-ant-hiU in the Athara Veda o f the

development o f adrenal glands by Philip Edward Smith

Brahmins written around 1000 B C .

(1884—1970), professor o f anatomy at the College o f

Actinomyces muris-ratti Isolated in 1914 by Hugo SchottmuUer

Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University in 1930.

(1867—1936) from human patients bitten by rats.

His finding started the search for an adrenocorticotropic hormone. Pioneering work was done by Choh Hao Li

A ctin om ycin [Greek:

ray + m yte, fungus] The study o f

(b 1913) and co-workers at the University o f California

actinomycète fungi from the soil was pioneered by Selman

who obtained a homogeneous protein from extract o f

Abraham Waksman (1888—1973) who emigrated from

sheep pituitary in 1942 and also identified the 39 amino

Russia to the U S A in 1910. His team observed that tubercle

acids in sequential order in it in 1956. George Sayers (b 1914)

baciUi died when exposed to a slow stream o f sewage water.

ofYale University obtained the same protein with similar

The bacilli were also unable to survive in unsterilized or

hormonal action from pig pituitary in the following year.

manured soil. The significance o f these findings were not

The sequence o f amino acids in A C T H was worked out by

grasped until 1940 when extracts o f actinomycète fungi

Paul H. Bell and others in 1955. Synthesis o f A C T H was

were isolated at Rutgers University in America.The toxici­

performed by Klaus H. Hoffmann from the University o f

ty o f actinomycin limited its use as an antibiotic and this

Pittsburgh and R . Schwyzer o f C IB A in i960.

led to the search for similar but less toxic substances.

13

ACTINOMYCIN

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

C

Streptomycin, w hich was less toxic, was isolated from

immunosuppressives were introduced by Mackay while

Actinomycesgriseus in 1943 and was renamed Streptomyces.

working with Weiden and B. Unger in 1964.

A ctin om ycin C Used in the treatment o f acute rejection

A ctive Im m u n iza tio n See Anthrax, inoculation.

reactions

following

organ

transplants. Isolated

from

Actom yosin Albert Szent-Gyorgyi (1893-1986), Hungarian

Streptomyces chrysomallus by R . Brockman in i960.

scientist and N obel laureate, demonstrated the joint action

A ctin om ycin D Has marked anticancer properties in post­

o f the proteins actin and myosin in bringing about muscle

operative treatment ofWilmsTumor. Discovered by Selman

contraction in 1942. He said‘to see actomyosin contract for the first time was one o f the most exciting experiences o f

AbrahamWaksman (1888-1973) in 1940.

my scientific career’ .

A ctin om ycosis One o f the first human cases o f actinomy­

A ctuarius, John Zacharias (AD 1300) Jewish physician to

cosis was described by William Osier (1849—1919) in 1886.

the Court o f Constantinople who recommended mild

See Actinomyces bovis.

purgatives such as manna and senna and distilled water as a

A ctinotherapy [Greek: aktis, ray + therapeia, medical care]

part o f general treatment. A Latin version o f his therapeutics

The short wavelength rays, showing least penetration o f tis­

was published in 1544 in Venice. His other works include

sues, were identified as ultraviolet in the 19th century.Johan

On Anim al Spirits (1557) published in Greek at Paris, On

Wolfgang Dobereiner (1780—1849) used light therapy on a

Urines and A Treatise on Composition o f Medicines.

scientific basis in 1816. Sir Arthur Henry Downes (1851— 1938) and Thomas Porter Blunt showed that these rays

A cu ity See vision.

killed bacteria in 1877. Danish physician, Niels R yberg

Acupressure [Latin: acus, needle + pressura, pressure] A pro­

Finson (1861—1904) also demonstrated the bactericidal

cedure in which a pin or needle is passed across the blood

effects o f sunlight and developed a method o f treating lupus

vessel in order to anchor it and apply pressure so as to pro­

vulgaris with ultraviolet light in 1890.

mote hemostasis. Devised by Sir James Young Simpson

A ction Potential The basis for the electrical wave that passes

(18 11-18 70 ) in 1864. This method was controversial and

through a muscle or a nerve when it is stimulated.

James Syme (1799-1870) became an opponent, while

Demonstrated at the Paris Academy by Carlo Matteucci

Thomas Spencer Wells

(18 11-18 6 8 ) in 1842. He observed that the leg o f a frog

supported Simpson’s views. W hen Lord Lister introduced

twitched when it was placed on another frog leg which was

sterile catgut suture, acupressure was mostly abandoned.

electrically stimulated. In the same year Emil du Bois

A cupuncture

Reym ond (1818-1896) detected electrical changes in

(1818-1897) practiced it and

[Latin: acus, needle + punctura, prick] The

earliest record o f acupuncture is found in the N ei Ching,

injured muscle during contraction and this transient mea­

written by the Emperor Huang T i o f China around 2700

surable electrical change was named action potential.

B C . The theory is based on the balance o f energy between

The resting potential and the action potential in healthy

yin and yang within an overall energy system called ‘C h i’ .

nerves were recorded by a physiologist. Sir Alan Lloyd

The vital energy from yang and yin circulates along meridi­

Hodgkin (b 1914) o f Banbury, England and Andrew

ans in the body to nerves, blood and lymphatics. In the

Fielding Huxley (b 1917) o f London in 1939. Their

disease process this flow is said to be unbalanced. The

dependency on sodium concentration was demonstrated

method utilizes over 365 points in the body along 12 merid­

by Sir Bernard Katz (b 19 11) in 1949.

ians to restore the harmony o f these fundamental forces. Needles made o f gold and silver were used in the past for

A ctive C hronic H epatitis Also called lupoid hepatitis and

this purpose. It was introduced into England about 300

accompanied by markers o f autoimmune disease. Des­

years ago and a treatise in England was written by James

cribed by I.R.M ackay,S.W eiden andj.H asker in 1965.The

Morss Churchill (d 1863) in 18 21. An American book

presence o f antibodies against smooth muscle in two-thirds

(1825) was a translation o f a French work by J. M orand.The

o f patients with active chronic hepatitis was demonstrated

translator was Bache Franklin, grandson o f Benjamin

by Glynn in the same year. Occurrence o f anti-mitochon-

Franklin (1706-1790).

drial antibodies in 28% o f patients with active chronic hepatitis was shown by D. Doniach in 1966. Steroids

A cu te A nterior P oliom yelitis (Syn. acute atrophic paraly­

as treatment were suggested by. Mackay and I.J. Wood

sis, infantile paralysis, H ein-M edin disease) The first disease

in

o f the nervous system to be attributed to a viral etiology.

1961

and azathioprine and 6—mercaptopurine as

14

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ADAMS

A picture o f a young boy suffering from infantile paralysis

five major episodes from the period 1765 to 1810 proved it

found in an ancient Egyptian stele, about 3500 years old,

to have been acute porphyria. The different forms were

helped to establish its antiquity. Poliomyelitis presenting as

classified by Jan Gosta Waldenstrom (b 1906) in 1933.

paralysis following a brief illness in children was described

A cute Interstitial N ephritis See glomerular nephritis, nephritis.

by Michael Underwood (1737—1820), an English physician

A cu te Yellow A trophy o f the Liver

in 1793 and his was probably the first scientific study on

Term coined by

poliomyelitis. A localized outbreak o f flaccid paralysis was

Viennese pathologist Karl Rokitansky (1804-1878)

reported by another English physician, John Badham

1843. He described it in postmortem findings o f acute atro­

in

(1807-1840) in 1835 and it was described as‘ essential paraly­

phy o f the liver which resulted in acute failure. It is also

sis o f the children’ by two French pediatricians, Frederick

eponymously known as Rokitansky disease. However, an

Rilliet (18 14-186 1) and Antoine C.E.Barthez (18 11-18 9 1)

earlier description was given by Richard Bright (1789-

around 1839. Jacob von Fleine (1799-1879) o f Stuttgart

1858)in 1836.

wrote a monograph on paralytic conditions o f the lower

A cyclovir

extremities which followed an acute febrile illness in 1840

[Greek: a, without + kyclos, circle] An acylic

nucleoside. Synthesized by a team o f American biochem­

and the term infantile paralysis was coined by Heine G.

ists, George Herbert Hitchings, Gertrude Belle Eliot and

Colmer, who reported a similar outbreak amongst children

colleagues around 1976. The discovery o f its action against

in 1843. It was described in more detail in 1870 by Jean

alpha herpes virus by H.J. Schaffer, U. Beauchamp and S.

Martin Charcot (1825-1893), who believed that the prima­

Miranda in 1978 is a landmark in the battle against the virus.

ry lesion in poliomyelitis was in the anterior horn cells o f

When its patent in Germany expired in 1994, the drug

the spinal cord. A clear clinical description including its

became an over the counter topical treatment for cold sores.

infectious nature was given by Oskar M edin (1847—1927),

Within 10 weeks o f its availability, over 1.3 million tubes

who studied a large number o f cases during an outbreak in

were sold in England alone.

Sweden in 1887. Scientific evidence for the communicabil­ ity was provided by Swedish neurologist, Otto Ivar

Adair, R obert ( 17 11—1790) Surgeon to Chelsea Hospital,

Wickman (1872—1914), during his investigation o f a large

mostly known through the song Robin Adair written about

epidemic involving 1200 cases in Sweden in 1905 .The virus

him by Lady Caroline Keppel.

was obtained in a pure culture by Peter Kosciusko Olitsky

A dam ’s Apple The prominence caused by the projection o f

during his work with Albert Bruce Sabin (1906-1993) in

the larynx. It derives its name from the belief that it was

1936. See polio virus.

caused by the forbidden fruit stuck in Adam ’s throat.

A cu te A scend in g Paralysis or Landry disease See acute

A dam antius o f A lexandria (AD 500) Greek physician and

infective polyneuritis.

A cu te G lom erular N ep hritis

a convert from the Jewish religion who dedicated his work See glomerular nephritis,

on physiognomy to Emperor Constantine.

nephritis.

A dam kiew icz, Albert (1850—1921) Professor o f pathology at

A cute Infective Polyneuritis (Syn. Guillain—Barré syn­

the University o f Cracaw who described the arterial supply

drome) Two cases o f ascending neuropathy were described

o f the spinal cord (Adamkiewicz arteries) in 1882.

by A d olf Kussmaul (1822-1902) in 1859.A French physician

A dam s, Francis (1796-1861) Surgeon from Banchory, Scot­

from Limoges, Baptiste Octave Landry (1826-1825), also

land who made valuable English translations o f Greek

described it as ‘ascending paralysis’ later in the same year.

and R om an classics, including the works o f Hippocrates

Two French neurologists, Georges Guillain (1876—1971)

(460-377 B C ) and Paul ofAegina (625—690).

andJ.A .Barré (1880—1971) described it in 1916.

A dam s, James (1818-1899) Glasgow physician who wrote

A cu te In term ittent Porphyria One o f the earliest obser­

Burns Chloris, a Reminiscence on R obert B u rn’s works.

vations o f the symptomatology has been constructed from

A dam s, R obert (1791—1875) Dublin physician who gave a

voluminous manuscripts related to the treatment o f King George III. Although the king’s illness was thought to be

classical description o f heart block associated with syncopy,

primarily a psychiatric illness by his physicians and others

in 1827. The condition was later named Stokes—Adams

for a long time, a careful retrospective analysis during the

syndrome. See Stokes—Adams syndrome.

15

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ADAMS

written byjohn Coakley Lettsom (1744—1815) in 1779 and a book on alcoholism was published by Thomas Trotter (176 1-1832) in 1804. G.B. Grinrod, the author o f Bacchus, recognized and described alcoholism as a disease in 1838. The effects o f alcohol such as dementia, neuropathy, deliri­ um tremens and acute intoxication were also recognized during this time. One o f the earliest descriptive post­ mortem findings in acute alcohol intoxication was given by James Kirk o f Scotland in 1830. He stated that the brain and ventricles o f the deceased contained a fluid that smelt and burnt like alcohol. Later, in 1839, Percy from Nottingham observed the affinity o f alcohol for the nervous tissue in animals which explained the predominant nervous effect o f alcohol. Lord Ashley Cooper (1801—1885) in his evidence Robert Adams (1791-1875). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

before the Select Committee on Lunatics, said that 50% o f

A dam s, Sir John (1920—1984) British nuclear physicist from

cases admitted to British asylums were due to chronic alco­

Eltham and a founder member o f the Centre Europeane

holism. At his request,Thomas John Barnardo (1845—1905)

pour la Recherche Nucleare (C E R N ) at Geneva. He

prepared statistics on the causes o f destitution in England

developed the first major post-war accelerator (180 M eV

and was moved by the fact that more than 85% o f destitute

cyclotron) in 1949.

children reached their plight owing to the drinking habits o f their parents and grandparents. Several other reports o f

A dam s, Sir William (1783—1827) London ophthalmologist who

designed

the

original

iridotasis

operation

asylum wardens in England and America during this time

for

gave similar findings.The earliest breathalyzer to detect the

glaucoma. He also described an operation for ectropion.

amount o f alcohol in the breath was devised by Lallamand,

A dam son Fringe Seen as a fringe in the hyphal involve­

Perrin and Duroy o f Paris in i860. Alcohol still remains a

ment o f dermatophytosis o f hair without involving the bulb

major cause o f social, physical and mental ill health and

o f the hair. Described by London dermatologist Horatio

Alcoholics Anonymous, which is a fellowship promoting

George Adamson (1865—1955). David Gruby (1810-1898)

abstinence amongst alcoholics, was founded in Ohio in

described the condition in 1895.

1935. Addiction to other substances and drugs became a problem mostly in the 19th century. The addictive proper­

A dam s—Stokes S yndrom e See Stokes—Adams syndrome,

ties o f cocaine were first realized by Jo sef Breuer (1842—

Adams, Robert.

1925), a colleague o f Sigmund Freud (1856—1939) inVienna

A daptation [Greek: ad, to + aptare, to fit] See alloplastic

in 1884. See alcohol, drunkenness.

adaptation.

A ddis C oun t

A ddenbrooke H osp ital Physician Jo h n Addenbrooke who

A time-consuming method o f counting

various elements formed in urine, such as epithelial cells,

died in 1719, left part o f his estate to establish a hospital at

erthyrocytes and white cells. Introduced by T. Addis

Cambridge and Addenbrooke s Hospital was formed with

(1881-1945) o f Edinburgh in 1925, but, owing to impracti-

these proceeds 4 years before the establishment o f the

cality,it was abandoned after a few years. He was professor o f

Radcliffe Infirmary at Oxford, in 1766.

medicine at Stanford University in 19 21.

A dd iction Addicti is an ancient Rom an term for those who

A d d iscom b e C ollege

were handed over to their creditors as slaves in order to pay

Near Croydon, England, it was

established for scientific training o f the members o f the East

their debts. Aristotle forbade wine for nursing women with

India Company in 1809. It closed in 1861.

his statement ‘it is the same whether the nurse or the child drink it’ . Alcohol addiction and dependence has been rec­

A dd ison D isease Described by Thomas Addison (179 3-

ognized since that time. Addiction to alcohol became a

1860), physician to G u y’s Hospital in 1849, in an address to

state-recognized problem in England in the 17th century

the South London Medical Society in his paper. On

and it continued to be a major problem well into the 19th

Anemia: Disease o f the suprarenal capsules. Six years later, with

century. A treatise on alcohol addiction in English was

the help o f his junior colleague, Samuel Wilks (18 24 -19 11),

16

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ADENOSINE

MONOPHOSPHATE

he produced another clinical monograph on the subject On

A dd uctor M uscles [Latin: ad, to + ducere, to lead] The three

the Constitutional and Local Effects o f the Supra-renal Capsules.

adductors o f the thigh were considered to be one muscle by

WiUiam Hunter (1861—1937) used the term ‘Addison dis­

ancient anatomists. Because o f its action in pressing the

ease’ to denote the condition.Addisonian crisis in situations

thighs together, the adductor muscle was named cystos

o f stress owing to surgery or infection were recognized

virginitatis.

from the early 1930s. L .G . R o w n tree (18 8 3-19 59) o f

A dech The inner spiritual man who is the lord and thought

Rochester, Minnesota and Albert Markley Snell (1896—

o f imagination and influences the outer material man.

i960) in their monograph on the disease in 1932 pointed

Theory postulated by Paracelsus (1493-1541) in the i6th

out the prohibitive risk involved in performing surgery in

century.

patients with adrenal insufEciency and no major surgery

A delm ann O peration Disarticulation o f the finger with

was performed successfully in patients with Addison disease

the attached head o f the metacarpal bone. Described

until the synthesis o f deoxycortisone in 1938. See adrenal

by German surgeon, George Blasius Franz Adelmann

insufficiency.

(1811-1888).

A ddison Transpyloric Plane

Surface marking o f the

A den Fever See Dengue Fever.

abdomen which accurately points to the disc between the first and second lumbar vertebrae. Described by

A denia [Greek: aden, gland] The term used for generalized

Christopher Addison (1869—1951), professor o f anatomy

hypertrophy o f superficial and deep lymphatic glands by

at Sheffield in 1899.

Armand Trousseau (1801—1867).The disease was, however, described in 1832 in England by Thomas Hodgkin

A ddison, Christopher (1869—1951) Viscount Addison o f

(1798—1866) and the name Hodgkin disease was given to it

Stallingborough was professor o f anatomy at Sheffield. He

by Samuel Wilks (18 24 -19 11) o f G u y’s Hospital in 1856.

was appointed as Dean o f the Medical School at Charing

See Hodgkin disease.

Cross Hospital in 1901 and was anatomy lecturer at St

A denine [Greek: aden, gland] A base found in D N A . Isolated

Bartholom ew’s Hospital in 1907. He was elected Member

from an extract o f pancreas by Albrecht Kossel (1853—1927)

o f Parliament for Shoreditch in 1910 and was the first

professor o f physiology at Hamburg in 1885.

Minister o f Health, an office which he held from 1918 to

A denoid [Greek: aden, gland + oidos, shape] Observed in

19 21.

humans by Albert von Kolliker (1817—1905) in 1852.

A ddison, Thomas (1793-1860) Physician from Newcastle

Wilhelm Meyer performed the first adenoidectomy in

who graduated from Edinburgh University with his inau­

1868 in the belief that removal o f adenoids would improve

gural thesis De Siphilide in 1815. He started his career at

impaired hearing. Gottenstein devised a curette for ade­

G uy’s Hospital in 1820 and was a physician to the hospital in

noidectomy in 1885. The obstructive effect o f enlarged

1837. He described a disease o f the suprarenal capsules

adenoids, particularly during sleep, was observed by

(Addison disease) in 1849. See adrenal insufficiency.

Ambroise

Arnold

Guillaume

Guye

(1839-1904)

of

Amsterdam in 1884.

A ddison, William (1802-1881) Medical practitioner from Malvern, England who later became physician to the

A d en om a Sebaceum (Syn. Pringle disease, Bourneville

Duchess o f Kent. He wrote on blood and inflammation in

disease) Skin condition associated with epiloia or tuberous

seven sections in the Transactions o f the Provincial Medical and

sclerosis. Described by French neurologist. Désiré Magloire

Surgical Association in 1843. He gave a description o f leuko­

Bourneville (1840—1909) in 1880. Another account was

cytosis and diapedesis o f blood cells. His theory on the role

given later by English dermatologist, John James Pringle

o f white blood cells in inflammation was confirmed by

(1855—1922). A detailed description o f the skin tumors and

Julius Friedrich Cohnheim (1839—1884) in 1867.

their association with mental retardation and epilepsy in epiloia was given by John Thompson in 1913.

A ddisonian

A nem ia

Thomas Addison

(1793-1860)

described a form o f anemia in 1849, which he mistakenly

A denom yom ata [Greek: aden, gland + myos, muscle] Term

attributed to a disease o f the suprarenal capsule. He later dif­

used by Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen (1833—1910) to denote tumors consisting o f gland-like cavities in a mass

ferentiated this condition from suprarenal disease when he

o f smooth muscle. He found these in the uterine cavity.

defined the clinical syndrome o f adrenal insufficiency in 1855.

A denosine M onophosphate See A M P .

17

ADENOSINE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TRIPHOSPHATE

A denosine Triphosphate (ATP) Important derivative o f

(1872-1950)

and Viktor

Schmieden

(1874-1945)

of

adenosine-5—phosphate that plays a key role in cell energy

Germany performed complete excision o f the pericardium

Isolated from muscle independently by Lohman o f Heidel­

for treatment in 1923.

berg, Germany and American biochemist Fritz Albert

A die Syndrom e H olm es-Adie syndrome. M yotonic pupils

Lipmann (1899-1986) in 1929. Cyrus H artwell Fiske

and absent tendon reflexes. Described by London ophthal­

(1890-1978) andYella Pragada Subbarow (1896-1948) also

mologist, James Ware (1756-1815) in 1813. Myotonic pupils

isolated it around the same time. It was shown to be the key

were also described in 1902 by Strassburger and the com­

factor in supplying energy for muscle contraction during in

plete syndrome was recognized by Charles Markus in 1905.

vitro studies by Hungarian scientist Albert Szent-Gyorgyi

R obert Foster M oore (b 1878) later reported 15 cases o f

(1893-1986) who described it as a cogwheel in the mecha­

tonic pupils which he referred to as ‘non-lutic Argyll

nism o f muscle contraction in 1938. It was synthesized by

R obertson pupils’ . D ublin-born London neurologist,

Baron Alexander Robertus Todd (b 1907) in 1947. The

G ordon Holm es (1876—1965), described 19 cases, all

structure was confirmed byJ.Baddiley in i949.The mecha­

females, under the title ‘partial irridoplegia associated

nism o f the chemiosmotic gradient involving a proton

with other diseases o f the nervous system’ in 1931. He also

gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane in the

introduced the term, tonic pupils. William John Adie

synthesis o f A TP from A D P was proposed by English

(1886—1935), an Australian-born English physician, after

biochemist and N obel Prize winner, Peter Dennis Mitchell

whom the syndrome is named, described it independently

(1920-1992) o f Mitcham, England in the 1960s.

first under the title ‘pseudo-Argyll Robertson pupils with absent tendon reflexes’ in 1931 and later as ‘tonic pupils with

A denovirus Discovered by Wallace Prescott R o w e and col­ leagues in 1953. They subjected fragments o f adenoids and

absent tendon reflexes’ . Adie graduated in medicine from

tonsils removed during surgery to tissue cultivation. The

Edinburgh in 19 11 and worked at several hospitals in

cytopathogenic properties o f the cells were then observed

London.

and the fluid medium was found to contain an antigen

A dipocere [Latin: adeps, fat + cera, wax] French chemist and

capable o f fixing complement in the presence o f human

physician, Antoine François Fourcroy (1755—1809) gave an

serum. A strain o f adenovirus was recovered from patients

account o f the lumpy tissues which he found in a body on

with respiratory illnesses by M .R . Hillemann andWerner in

opening a grave at the Cem etery o f Innocents in Paris in

1954. M any further antigenic types were found by Wallace

1787. He named this tissue ‘adipocere’ and presented his

Prescott R o w e and others in 1958.

findings to the Académie des Sciences in Paris in 1789.The

Ader, WiUiam Physician from Toulouse who lived in the

fatty nature o f the adipocere was shown by M ichel Eugene Chevreul (1786-1889) in 1812.

early 17th century. He published a book in 16 21, DeAegrotis et Morbis Evangelesis, in which he attempted to prove that

A dipose Tissue [French: íjwíV, to have + de, o f TpoL, weight;

the diseases cured by Jesus were incurable by medicine.

or Latin: ijdep5, fat] See adipocere.

A derm in [Greek: í?, without + derma, skin] Old term for vit­

A diposis D olorosa Dercum syndrome.

amin B^ or nicotinic acid in 1938 because o f its action in preventing dermatitis. See nicotinic acid.

A dherent Pericardium

Subcutaneous

connective tissue disorder resulting from deposition o f fat giving rise to painful symptoms in post-menopausal

Constrictive pericarditis. Des­

women. Described by American neurologist, Francis

cribed by English physician Norman Chevers in 1842. Sir

Xavier Dercum (1856-1931) ofPhiladelphia in 1889.

William Broadbent, although he observed the physical signs

Adipsia [Greek: a, negative + dipsia, thirst] Term found in

in 1878, published his findings only 20 years later in 1898.

Cullen’s Nosology to denote the want or absence o f thirst.

Some o f the physical signs in the adherent pericardium

A dler T heory o f P sy ch o lo g y In 1920, Alfred Adler (18 70-

described by him include diastolic fixation o f the apex, dias­ tolic shock on palpation, systolic retraction and indrawing

1937) ofVienna proposed a theory that differed from other

o f the posterior lateral aspect o f the ribs during systole —

psychoanalytic and psychological approaches. In 1929 he

now known as Broadbent sign.The occurrence o f cirrhosis

held that neurosis is a defect or failure in adjustment to the

o f the liver with ascites secondary to constrictive pericardi­

social environment. He said that normal social develop­

tis was described by Friedel Pick (1867-1926) o f Germany

ment is composed o f a perfect balance between ego feeling

in 1896. Pericardiectomy as treatment was performed by

and community feeling brought about by adjustment in

Paul Hallopeau (1876—1924) o f Paris in 1921. Franz Volhard

three spheres: society, vocation and love. Neurosis arises as a

18

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ADRENALINE

defensive reaction against an obstacle in an endeavor to

syndrome o f general fatigue, hyperpigmentation and

defend the ego. He also proposed the concept o f the inferi­

hypotension associated with disease o f the adrenal glands in

ority complex and mechanisms involved in overcoming it,

1855. The vital function o f the adrenal glands required to

in 1907.

maintain life was demonstrated by his contemporary, Charles E.Brown-Sequard (1818—1894) in 1856. Occurrence

Adler, Alfred (18 70 -19 37 ) Founder o f the School o f

o f an active substance in the adrenal medulla was shown in

Individual Psychology. He was born inVienna and graduat­

the same year by Edme Felix Alfred Vulpian (1826—1887) o f

ed in medicine there in 1895. He was president o f the

Paris. Effective treatment o f Addison disease with fresh

Vienna Psychoanalytical Society founded by him, Sigmund

adrenal extracts from the hog was introduced by William

Freud (1856—1939) and others, but later broke away from it

Osier (1849—1919) in 1896. More specific use o f adrenocor­

and formed the Society o f Free Analytic Research. He

tical extracts in treatment was introduced independently by

moved to the U S A in 1932 and was appointed professor o f

two Americans,Julius Moses R o g o ff (1883—1966) and Frank

medical psychology at the Long Island College o f Medicine

Alexander Hartman o f Buffalo in 1927, and by Leonard

in 1935. See Adler theory o f psychology.

George Rowntree (1883-1959) in 1930. Use o f bovine

A donis Greek god o f fertility and the lover o f Aphrodite.

adrenal extract as an established form o f treatment followed

According to mythology, he was turned into a flower by

the work o f Rowntree and Hartman. A more purified form

Venus after he was killed by a wild boar.

o f hog adrenal extract was introduced by M . H. Kuizenga in 1943. The importance o f the sodium content o f the diet o f

A d op tion A ct o f 1926 Passed, following the Tomlin

patients with Addison disease was demonstrated by R obert

Committee report in 1925, to regulate conditions for adop­

Frederick Loeb

tion o f children. The first register for adoption o f children

(b 1895) and George Argale Harrop

(b 1 890) o f America through experiments in 1933.The dele­

was established following these acts. It was superseded by

terious effect o f high potassium intake in patients with

the Adoption Act o f 1950 and the amended Act o f 1958.

adrenal insufficiency was demonstrated by Russel Morse

A d op tion [Greek: adoptio] Practice amongst Romans and

Wilder (in 1937) and R.Truszkowski in 1936. An active crys­

Greeks where a man made another person his son giving

talline compound with effects similar to those o f the extracts

him the privileges and rights o f that relationship. During

but more potent was isolated by Swiss chemist Tadeus

the 19th century in England the number o f abandoned

Reichstein (b 1897) in 1938 who named i t ‘corticosterone’ .

children increased to alarming proportions mainly due to

Reichstein shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or

poverty. Adoption became common during this time and

Medicine

the motive varied according to circumstances. M any o f the

and Phillip Showalter Hench (1896-1965) for his work on

classics o f literature such as Oliver Twist, Mansfield Park, znd

adrenal hormones, in 1950. See water excretion test.

Wuthering Heights reflect the adoption culture during this

Calvin

Kendall

(1886—1972)

o f the kidney, were thought to arise from cells o f the adrenal

provide for them by working in the factories and farms.

glands or ‘adrenal rests’ in the kidney by German surgeon,

With the implementation o f the Abortion Act the number

Paul Albert Grawitz (1850—1932) in 1883. Subsequent work

o f abandoned children and adoptions drastically reduced.

in the following decade showed that these tumors in fact

See Adoption Act.

represented adenocarcinoma o f the kidney.

ADP, A denosine diphosphate High-energy compound

Adrenal Tum or

in cellular respiration synthesized by Baron Alexander

Radiological visualization o f adrenal

tumors by introducing air around the perinephric area was

RobertusTodd (b 1907) in 1947. See A T P .

introduced by G.F. Cawhill in 1935.The practical applica­

Adrenal Glands [Latin: ad, to + renes, kidneys] Described by

tion o f this method became limited owing to the risk o f air

Bartolommeo Eustachio (1520—1574) whose work was

embolism. See retroperitonealpneumatography.

published later by Giovanni Maria Lancisi (1654—1720) o f

A drenaline [Latin: ad, to + renes, kidneys] George Oliver

R o m e in 1714. A clear distinction between adrenal cortex

(18 4 1-1915) and Edward Sharpey-Schafer (1850—1935) in

and medulla was given by an anatomist, Emil Huschke

1895 demonstrated that extracts o f the suprarenal gland,

(1797-1858) o f Jena. See adrenal insufficiency, adrenaline,

when injected intravenously, produced contraction o f arter­

adrenal tumor.

ies and acceleration o f the heart rate, thereby increasing

Adrenal Insufficiency [Latin: ad, to + renes, kidneys] Addison

Edward

A drenal R estT um ors [Latin: ¿Jif, to + rewes, kidneys] Tumors

era. Often children were adopted into poorer families to

Thomas

with

(1793—1860)

described

a

blood pressure. The active substance in the extract was

clinical

named adrenaline in Britain. Jacob Abel (1857-1938) o f

19

ADRENERGIC

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

BLOCKADE

Johns Hopkins Medical School isolated this substance in

Adrian, Lord Edgar Douglas (1889—1977) Pioneer in neuro­

1899 and called it epinephrine [Greek: epi, upon + nephros,

physiology. Born in London and received his medical

kidney] in America. An oral form o f crude adrenaline extract

education at St Bartholomew’s Hospital. He did valuable

was used in treatment o f hay fever by an otorhinologist,

work on the activity o f the nervous system which later

Jacob da Silva Solis-Cohen (1838—1927) o f Jefferson M edi­

paved the way for the development o f the electroenceph­

cal C ollege in 1898. The first pure chemical form

alogram in clinical practice. He shared the N obel Prize for

was obtained from adrenal extract by Jokichi Takamine

Physiology or Medicine with Sir Charles Scott Sherrington

(1854—1922) ofjapan while he was working at N ew Jersey in

(1857—1952) in 1932. See nerve conduction.

1901. It was synthesized from organic compounds by

A dson Sign See cervical rib syndrome.

Friedrich Stolz (1860-1936), a German chemist, in 1903.

A dsorption

This was a landmark in endocrinology and the first time a

Phenomenon occurring on the surface o f

bacterial cells described by Willard Gibbs in 1878.

hormone had been synthetically produced. Subcutaneous administration in asthma was employed by BuUowa and

A dulteration o f F ood [Latin: adulterare, to defile] Prohib­

Kaplan in 1903. See Henry Dale, Ulfvon Euler, norepinephrine.

ited by law in England in 1272. Frederick Accum (17691838), a German-born chemist in England, focused public

A drenergic B lock ade See alpha-adrenergic drugs, beta blockers.

attention on the subject with his Death in the Pot published

A drenocortical H orm on es [Latin: ad, to + renes, kidneys +

in 1820. This was followed by Hassel’s book Food and its

cortex, h 2irk] See steroids.

Adulteration in 1855. Food analysis was started by the Analytical Sanitary Commission and The Lancet, under the

A d ren ocorticotrop ic H o r m o n e S e e A C T H .

editorship o f Thomas Wakeley, began publishing its results

A drenogenital Syndrom e An early case was described by

on food analysis in 1851. Analysis o f bread during this time

English physician, Henry Sampson (1629—1700) from

showed that most contained alum to make it heavier during

Cambridge.William Bulloch (1868—1941) and James Harry

weighing. Similarly, milk contained flour and chalk.The law

Sequira (1865-1945) described the relationship between

for preventing adulteration during modern times was

suprarenal glands and sex organs in 1905. British endocri­

passed in England in i86o.The battle against adulteration in

nologist, Arthur Carleton Crooke and N .H . Callow

America was taken up by a physician and food chemist,

described four cases due to adrenocortical dysfunction

Harvey Washington W iley (1844-1930) o f Indiana, and his

associated with adrenal tumors, in 1939.

efforts led to the enactment o f the Pure Food and Drug Act o f 1906.

A drian C o m m ittee Appointed in 1956 by the Secretary o f the State for Scotland and Minister o f Health to review the

A dynm ia [Greek: a, negative or without + dynemia, potency

practice and safety o f diagnostic radiology and radiotherapy.

or movement] Term proposed by William Cullen (1710—

The Committee published its report. The Radiological Hazards

1790) for one o f the conditions in the four orders or groups

to the Patients in i960.

o f neuroses mentioned in his Nosology:

A disorder o f

involuntary nerve actions.

Aeby, Christopher Theodor (1835—1885) Professor o f anato­ my at Bern who described the muscle rectus labi proprius in 1878. Aedes aegypti

Species o f mosquito described by Carl

Linnaeus (1707-1778) in 1762. It was later proved,by Carlos Finlay (1833-1915) in Cuba in 1881, to be the carrier o f arbovirus, which causes yellow fever. See mosquitoes.

A ediles A group o f public health officials in R o m e around A D 70. They looked after the cleanliness o f public roads, suitability o f food items for consumption, burial methods and other matters o f public health. They maintained a high Lord Edgar Douglas Adrian (1889-1977). Courtesy of the National Library

standard o f preventive medicine that was not repeated until

of Medicine

modern times.

20

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AFFUSION

A edosophia Ancient Greek medical term for the symptom

descendants o f Aesculapius and also established a medical

o f the passing o f flatus, through vagina, uterus or urinary

school in R om e. He differentiated hallucinations from delusions and acute from chronic diseases. He also proposed

bladder, in cases o f rectovesical fistula.

a theory that the body was composed o f atoms that were in

A egidius, Atheninesis Greek physician in the 8th century

constant dynamic action.

w ho later became a Benedictine monk. Fie w rote De

A esculapius [Greek: askalabos, snake] Greek god o f medi­

Pulsibus et De Venensis and several other medical works.

cine who, according to legend, was the son o f Apollo, the

A egineta,Paulus (625-690) SeePaulofAegina.

sun god o f healing and Coronis, a mortal woman. He was

A egop hon y [Greek: aego, goat + phony, voice] Physical sign

probably a man who lived around 1200 B C . Hom er also

in which a peculiar resonance o f voice is heard during aus­

refers to him as a man and not a god in his Iliad. Amongst

cultation o f the chest. Named and described by the inventor

the hundreds o f temples built to him, the chief was built

o f the stethoscope, R en é Théophile Laënnec (178 1—1826).

around 600 B C at Epidaurus. His priests glorified and per­ sonified Aesculapius and practiced medicine. The practice

Aelianus A physician quoted by Galen (129-200) with

at the onset was mainly mysticism and magic, but later gave

respect. Fie used treacle against plague with apparent

way to physical medicine, with mineral baths, massage,

success.

blood letting and the use o f therapeutics such as iron, milk

A epinus, Franz U lrich Theodosius (1724-1802) German

and honey.The grounds o f the temple contained large non-

physician and physicist from R ostock who graduated from

poisonous yellow snakes which were allowed to lick

Jena. Fie worked on electricity and natural philosophy and

diseased parts o f the body to effect healing. O w ing to this

was Director o f the Berlin Observatory in 1755, before he

practice,Aesculapius was depicted with a serpent around his

became professor o f physics at St Petersburg in 1757. Fie

staff. His daughter. Panacea, was the deity for treatment o f

wrote Tentamen Theoriae Electricitatis et Magnetisimi and

diseases, and his other daughter, Hygeia, was the deity for

Action o f Heat and Experiments on Tourmalin.

health and prevention o f disease. His two sons, Podalirius and Machaon, were also physicians and the latter is

A erootitis M edia Otitic barotrauma. The first instance o f

mentioned in the Iliad as a blameless physician.

aerootitis media occurred during a balloon journey by French physicist, Jacques Alexander in December 1783. A

A esthenia See asthenia.

scientific description was given by S. Scott in his The Ear in

A esthesiom eter Instrument to detect the degree o f tactile

relation to Certain Disabilities in Flying in 1920.

sensation o f the skin. Devised by E. H. Sieveking in the 19th

A erosol Production o f a fine suspension o f droplets o f liquid

century.

or solids in a gas was suggested by Erik Rotheim o f Norway

A ethrioscope [Greek: atheros, clear + scopein, to view]

in 1926. A device to achieve this was invented by American

Instrument to measure radiation in the sky. Invented by Sir

Julius S. Khan in i939.The commercial use o f aerosol insec­

John Leslie (1766—1822), professor o f physics at Edinburgh

ticide was introduced by L .D Goodhue and W.N. Sullivan

in 1819.

o f America in 1941.

A etius o f A m ida (AD 502-575) Royal physician to the

A erosporin Antibiotic also known as polymyxin. Discov­

Court o f Byzantium. He left a compilation o f his works on the medical practice o f his celebrated predecessors such as

ered by Geoffrey Ainsworth (b 1905) and co-workers in England in 1947.

A esclepiads

Rufus o f Ephesus, Leonides and Soranus. Many o f his treat­

Guild o f physicians who were followers o f

ments were accompanied by religious chanting related to

the Greek god o f medicine, Aesculapius. Galen (129—200)

the Old and the N ew Testaments.

referred to them as ‘a clan o f Aesclepiadae who taught their

Afferent Stretch Fibers [Latin: afferre, to bring] See Ruffini

sons anatomy, who in turn transmitted their learning to the

corpuscles.

next generation’ .

Afflatius,

A esculapiades or Asclepiades (n o —40 B C ) Physician from

Johannes

(1040-1100)

Saracen

pupil

of

Constantinus during the Salernital period. He wrote De

Bithynia who studied medicine in Greece and Alexandria

febribus et minis.

before he came to R om e. Fie was also an orator and he originated the phrase,‘to cure safely, swiftly and pleasantly’ .

A ffusion Application o f hot or cold water for the treatment

Fie was one o f the most successful physicians in R o m e and

o f disease. Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) in his Aphorisms

is supposed to have founded a new sect to include the

stated ‘in a fever that is not o f a bilious nature, a copius

21

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AFLATOXINS

affusion o f hot water upon the head removes the fever’ . A

Agar [Malaysian: agar-agar, seaweed] A polymer o f galactose

pioneer o f affusion therapy in Scotland was James Currie

units, derived from seaweed. It was introduced as an alterna­

(1756—1805),a physician in Dumfries. He published a med­

tive to gelatin, as a solid culture medium for bacteria, by the

ical treatise on the subject, Medical Reports on the Effects o f

wife o f the Berlin bacteriologist Walter Hesse (18 4 6-1911)

Water, Cold and Warm as a Remedy in Febrile Diseases in 1797.

in 1883.

Aflatoxins D uring i960 hundreds o f thousands o f deaths

A gassiz, Alexander (1835-1910) American engineer and son

involving turkeys, ducklings, sheep and pigs occurred in the

o f Jean Agassiz (1807—1873) who improved the apparatus

farming industry.The cause o f these deaths was suspected to

for oceanic studies. He made a complete study o f deep­

be an unidentified toxin in nuts, but subsequent research

water animals and plants o f the Caribbean and Pacific on

proved that this toxin came from a fungas, Aspergillusflavus

the Albatross in 1880.

and it was named A FLA -toxin and the disease was aflatoxi-

A gassiz, Jean Louis Rodolphi (1807-1873) B orn in M otier-

cosis. An assay was devised by K. Sargent andj. O ’Kelley in

en-Vuly, Switzerland. A glaciologist who emigrated to

1961. Liver damage and cancer caused by eating peanuts

America in 1846 and settled in Massachusetts. He wrote

contaminated with the fungus was noted by Michael May

The Fishes o f Brazil while he was a student in 1829. His

and B. Sporn and co-workers in 1966.

Fectures on Comparative Embryology intended for the laymen

A frican L ym p hom a See Burkitt lymphoma.

was published in a Boston newspaper in 1854. He described

A frican M edicine Callie and M ungo Park, in their descrip­

over 1000 species o f fossil fish from 1833 to 1844 and dis­

tions o f their travels in Africa, mentioned the use o f writing

covered ‘the Great Ice A g e ’ . H e was an opponent o f

as medicine. Some medicine men made their living by

Darwinian evolution and an advocator o f the recapitulation

writing prayers and incantations on a board and selling the

theory. He founded a museum o f comparative zoology at

water which was used to wash them. Similar practice

Harvard to which he gave his collections in 1859. See glacial

amongst the Africans was described by Sir John Lubbock.

period.

The Bantu tribe selected their witch doctors through

Agathinus o f Sparta {c. A D 100) Contemporary o f Plu-

dreams. Those who became witch doctors had to reveal

trach, who practiced medicine in R o m e in the ist century.

their dreams, make self sacrifices and observe taboos before

He wrote on cold baths as a cure and Galen (129—200)

they were ordained. However, they also made some scientif­

quoted him in his treatises.

ic observations on the passage o f food through the body and treated over indulgence in food with herbal laxatives. Zulu

A ge In ancient R o m e and Greece, 25 years was fixed as the

medicine men offered three explanations for disease. Either

full age required to attain majority, although a higher age

it was caused by the ghosts or amadhlozi in which case a

was prescribed for certain positions.The royal family at cer­

sacrifice must be offered to them, or it was the work o f a

tain times waived the age requirement for their heirs so

sorcerer. The third possibility was that it is an ordinary ill­

that they could assume royal status and responsibility at an

ness. Congo witch doctors wore carved wooden masks in

earlier age i f needed.

their dances to drive away diseases from villages.They treat­

A ge C oncern The National Old People Welfare Council

ed mental illness by getting patients to dance to a rapid

(N O PW C) was set up to address the problems o f elderly at

drum rhythm in a state o f trance accompanied by hysterical

the initiative o f the National Council for Social Services in

convulsions. Fetish figures were commonly used by the

1955. N O P W C became independent from the social

Congo medicine men. Protection against smallpox by the

services and was renamed Age Concern in 1974.

application o f material taken from smallpox blisters to the

A ger or Aegerius, Nicholas Physician and botanist during the

skin, was practiced by some tribes in Africa before the colo­ nial period.The surgeon and missionary explorer o f Africa,

17th century who was professor o f medicine at Strasbourg.

David Livingstone (18 13-18 7 3), described several areas o f

A friend o f Caspar Bauhin (1560—1624), he published De

medical practice during his travels in Africa. See abdominal

Anima Vegetative (1629) and Disputatio De Zoophytis (1625).

injuries, arrow wound, trypanosomiasis.

A gglutination [Latin: ad, to + glutinare, glue] Described

Sex-linked familial condition,

by M ax Gruber (1853-1927) o f Vienna and his pupil

reported in an 8-year-old boy with recurrent infection

Edward Herbert Durham (1866—1945) following their

A gam m aglob ulinem ia

by American pediatrician, Ogden Carr Bruton (b 1908)

observations in 1894 that clumping o f bacteria occurred as a

in 1952.

result o f mixing a bacterial suspension in serum with its

22

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AGRICOLA

homologous antiserum.This was applied by French micro­

A gn i A n ancient fire god o f the Hindus, who used fire for

biologist, Isidore Widal (1862-1929) to develop a diagnostic

performing rituals in weddings and burning the dead. He

test for typhoid or enteric fever.

was also called upon to cure fever.

A gglutinogens [Latin:

to

glutinare, glue] Com plex anti­

genic factors that stimulate antibodies in the body. Their presence was discovered by Edmund Weil (1880-1922) and Arthur Felix (1887—1956) in 1916, following their observa­ tion that the ‘O ’ and ‘H ’ factors o f Proteus bacteria had specific antigenic properties.

A ggression Studied by Austrian zoologist, Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (1903—1989). He developed the study o f animal behavior called ‘ethology’ and in his book On Aggression (1963), he argued that behavior in man is inherited and could be channeled to other productive activities.

A g in g

Alchemists searched for the elixir o f life to attain

eternal youth. Their search was rewarded with many

Hindus worshipping fire. Thomas Maurice, Indian Antiquités (1744). W.

serendipitous discoveries but the elixir o f life remained elu­

Richardson, London

sive. A book related to therapeutics in old age. The Cure o f

A gn od ice A midwife and female physician who studied

Old Age was written by R o ger Bacon in A D 1200. Another

under Herophilus in Alexandria around 300 B C . In her

on preserving good health in old age was written by a

days, women were forbidden by law to practice any form

Venetian, Luigi Cornaro (1467—1566) in 1550. He was 83

o f healing and she had to disguise herself as a man. For this

years old when he wrote this book and it contained many

she was brought to trial before Areophagus. Most o f her

sensible suggestions for living healthily in old age. He wrote

Athenian patients appeared on her behalf, and this resulted

rules for maintaining health and prolonging life when he

in her acquittal.The law was repealed.

was 86 years and a third book on the joys o f old age when he reached 95 years and he died in his 99th year. In 1724, Sir

A goraphobia [Greek: agora, market place + phobia, fear] A

John Floyer (1649-1734) wrote a monograph on geriatrics

description was given by the neurologist Carl Friedrich

Medicina Gerocomica. The first organized course on geri­

OttoWestphal (1833—1890) ofBerlin in 1871.

atrics at the Salpetriere was inaugurated by Jean Marie

A granulocytosis [Greek: a, without; Latin: granulum, small

Charcot (1825—1893) in iS 6 j. See geriatrics,gerontology, old age.

grain; Greek: kytos, cell] Complete disappearance o f poly­ morphonuclear leukocytes from the blood. Described by Werner Shultz in 1907 and in his description o f a case o f necrotic ulcerative lesions o f the throat in 1922.

Agraphia [Greek: iz, without + graphein, to write] Inability to express thoughts in writing because o f a central lesion in the brain was described by French physician, Jean Albert Pitres (1848-1928) in 1884.

A gregator de M edicinis Sim plicibus One o f the earliest known medical incunabulas. Published by A d olf R ush at Strasbourg in 1470.

A gricola, Georgius (1494-1555) Georg Bauer, a German Infancy and old age. Sir Charles Bell, The Anatomy and Philosophy of

physician, was born at Glauchau in Saxony. He studied at

Expression. George Bell & Son, London

the Universities o f Bologna, Leipzig and Venice and wrote several treatises on medicine, geology, weights, measures

A gnew Splint Splint for fracture o f the patella devised by

and metals. He was official physician to Joachimsthal in

Philadelphia surgeon, David Hayes Agnew (1818-1892).

Bohemia, a mining district, where he did most o f his work

23

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AGRICULTURE

on metallurgy. His De R e Metallica was published in 12

Ahlquist, Raym ond Perry (1914-1983) See beta blockers.

books at Basel in 1556, De Peste was published in 1554 and a

A hm es Papyrus The oldest existing mathematical manu­

book on physical geology, D e Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum

script copied from an earlier manuscript (1825 B C ) by

was published in 1546.

Ahmes o f Egypt in 1650 B C . It was bought by Egyptologist

A griculture For millions o f years man lived by hunting and

H enry R h ind at Cairo in 1858 and was brought to London.

gathering. Man s ability to control the ecological conditions

See mathematics.

to produce food determined his survival. The ancient

Ahura M azda or Ormuzd Mythical god o f goodness amongst

Greeks probably learnt their farming methods from

the Persians around 2000 B C . He delegated the art o f heal­

Egyptians and Hesiod, a Greek poet who lived during the

ing to an angel called Thrita who later became the god o f

8th century B C gave a description o f the three principal

medicine and healing.

parts o f the plow. A primitive form was also known to the Chinese around 3500 B C . The threshing machine was

A ID S Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. In 1981 the

invented by a Scottish millwright, Andrew M eikle in 1787.

Center for Disease Control (CD C) at Atlanta, Georgia

C orn was cut with the sickle and the scythe for many

started receiving reports o f an unusual number o f chest

centuries until the invention o f a reaping machine by a cler­

infections due to Pneumocystis carinii in young men who

gyman, Patrick Bell in 1826. An improved version was made

were not known to have any risk factors for acquiring an

by M cCorm ick in 1833 .An experimental farm was founded

opportunistic infection. At the same time a rise in the inci­

by English agriculturist. Sir John Bennet Lawes (1814—

dence o f Kaposi sarcoma was noted and the only common

1900) at Rothamsted in 1843. Pioneering work in England

factor between these infections was found to be homosexu-

on nitrogen fertilizers was done by Sir Joseph Henry

ality.The illness were mainly found in homosexuals and was

Gilbert (1817—1901) from HuU.A scientific facility was built

renamed A ID S when other groups such, as hemophiliacs

at the Rothamsted Experimental Farm in 1885 and was

and Haitian immigrants, were also noted to be at increased

manned by 40 agricultural scientists headed by Sir John

risk. Research focused on the H T L V -i virus as a possible

Edward Russell (1872—1965) in 1912. He wrote Soil

cause. A new retrovirus, HIV, was isolated in Paris by a

Conditions and Plant Growth in 19 12.The Haber process for

French molecular biologist, Luc Montagnier (b 1932) and

making cheap fertilizer by extracting nitrogen from the air

colleagues at the Pasteur Institute in 1983 and an American

to make ammonia was invented by Polish professor, Fritz

team led by R obert Gallo also claimed credit for the discov­

Haber (1868—1934) in Germany in 1908.

ery in Nature in 1983. Later findings have suggested that GaUo s sample originally came from Montagnier s laborato­

A grioth ym ia [Greek: agros, wild + thymos, mind] Insane

ry. M ontagnier was made head o f the department o f A ID S

ferocity.

and retroviruses in 1990.

A grippa A Greek name for one who is born feet first. A ikin, John (1747—1822) Physician from Great Yarmouth A grippa, Cornelius (1486—1535) From a noble family in

who wrote several poems,biographies and translations from

Cologne, Germany. He was interested in occult science, but

Tacitus.

later studied medicine. He was in eternal conflict with him­

A in hu m [African: ainhum, to saw] Disease that affects the

self and everybody around him, which drove him to wander across Europe. He was physician to the Queen Regent in

toes and forms a constriction leading to natural amputa­

Lyons for a brief period. His controversial treatise The Vanity

tion. Described amongst people o f Sudan by Clarke in i860

o f Sciences brought intense opposition, resulting in his perse­

in Dry Gangrene o f the Little Toe Among the Natives o f the Gold

cution and a prison sentence. He died as a pauper at the

Coast. It derives its name from an African word fo r‘to saw’ .

Grenoble Hospital in France.

The same disease, where a concentric ring appeared in one o f the digits leading to dry gangrene, was described

A grypnia A nervous disorder accompanied by disturbance

amongst the Hindus o f India by A. Collas o f Paris in 1867.

o f sleep.

A insw orth, Geoffrey See aerosporin.

A gue Intermittent fever or malaria. See malaria.

Air Anaximenes, Greek philosopher and disciple o f Thales

A gu e D rops Medicine containing arsenic in water used for

proposed that air is the essence o f all things including life

cure o f ague.

around 570 B C and he called it ‘pneuma’ to mean ‘breath’ . Empedocles o f Agrigento demonstrated that air had mass in

A gue-C ake Chronically enlarged spleen, owing to malaria.

24

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AIR

TRAVEL

450 B C . A study o f the physical properties, including com­

to blow away noxious vapors, making their inhabitants

pressibility, elasticity and mass was done by R obert Boyle

unhealthy and subject to bad distempers. An early treatise

(16 27-16 91) and R obert Hooke (1635-1703) in i66o.John

on the pollution o f air in London, Fumifugium: or the

Mayow (1643-1679), an English physician in 1674, showed

Inconvenience o f theAer and Smoake o f London Dissipated, was

that when a substance was burnt in a closed vessel the vol­

written by John Evelyn (1620—1706) in 1661. English physi­

ume o f air diminished and combustion stopped. His study

cian, George Bodington (1799-1882) o f Sutton Coldfield,

also included one o f the early experiments on respiratory

pointed out the value o f fresh air in pulmonary comp­

physiology. Nitrogen was obtained from air by Daniel

laints. In 1927,W illem Storm van Leeuwen (1882—1933) o f

Rutherford (1749-1819), a pupil o f Joseph Black (1728 -

Holland did extensive studies on the effect o f allergens in air

1799) in 1772. Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742—1786) demon­

on asthma. He devised allergen-free chambers that drew air

strated the presence o f oxygen in air in 1773. Cavendish

from 35 m above the ground and were airtight.These were

published his treatise on the composition o f air in 1784.

housed in buildings called van Leewen houses.The air pol­

Gay-Lussac (1778—1850), a French chemist, took several

lution from burning coal was noted by Charles Proteus

samples o f air from a balloon at different altitudes and

Steinmetz in 1910. See air sampling, ozone, smog.

formulated the law o f combination o f gases. Lavoisier pub­

A ir P u m p Devised by Otto Guericke (1602—1686), Mayor

lished his Elementary Treatise on Chemistry describing the

o f Magdeburg in Prussia in 1656 and published by a

properties o f hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen in 1789.

Jesuit priest, Kasper Schott (1608—1666) in his Mechanica

A ir B alloon Proposed by Albert o f Saxony, an Augustinian

Hydraulico-Pneumatica in 1657. This was studied by R obert

monk in the 14th century. The principle was demon­

Boyle (1627-1691) and R obert Hooke (1635-1703) who

strated to the King o f Portugal by a Jesuit priest, Laurenco

modified and improved it in 1659. Boyle conducted experi­

de Guzmon in 1709.Two brothers,Joseph Michael M ont­

ments on gases and air and demonstrated that air was

golfier (1740—1810) and Jacques Etienne Montgolfier

essential for life by creating a vacuum and studying the

(1745—1799) flew a 35 m diameter balloon in 1783. Later in

effect o f it on small animals and on combustion. His New

the same year a flight carrying a live cargo, a sheep, a cock

Experiments Physico-Mechanical touching the spring o f the A ir

and a duck, was performed before Louis X V I. The first

was published in 1660.

balloon crossing o f the English Channel was achieved by

Air Sam pling A biological study was done in 1748 by J.G .

an American physician from Boston, John Jeffries (1744-

Gleditsch, a botanist in Berlin. He obtained samples o f air

1819), who emigrated to England. Aviation medicine

and showed that they could still propagate growth o f molds

started with medical problems related to air balloon travel.

despite being introduced into a sterile closed container.

Jacques Alexander Charles, a French physicist, was the first

Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795—1876) o f Berlin did

casualty. He suffered aerootitismedia during a balloon jo u r­

further extensive studies around 1840 to prove that air con­

ney in December 1783 and never flew again. Scientific

tained contagious organisms.The presence o f organisms in

observations and physiological data were recorded by

air was also shown by Angus Smith o f England in 1846. In

Glashier and Coxwell flying to a height o f 29,000 feet in

1861, Louis Pasteur (1822—1895) demonstrated microbes in

1862. Emission o f toxic gases was a problem and many

air taken from different areas. The presence o f spores in air

unexplained deaths occurred amongst air battalions in

was demonstrated by John Tyndall (1820—1893) in 1881.

Prussia and other countries around 1884. A detailed des­

Pierre Miquel o f Paris developed the quantitative tech­

cription o f high altitude anoxia experienced by James

nique for estimating spore contents in the air in 1883 and

Glashier who performed several balloon flights at a height

similar work was carried out independently around the

o f over 26,000 feet at the Wolverhampton base in England,

same time by Walter Hesse o f Berlin.

started research into high altitude anoxia.

Air Sickness

Air Filter Filter made o f powdered charcoal for purifying air

Due to vertical acceleration and excessive

rotatory movements during aircraft flights was described

was devised by Stenhouse in 1854.They were used in 1920s

independently by F. Dammart and E. Everling o f Germany

to provide allergen-free air to patients with asthma.

in 1930. An English treatise, H/r Sickness and Sea Sickness was published by M . Flack in 1931.

A ir H unger See Kussmaul breathing. A ir Pollution Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) in his treatise

A ir Travel Regulations were drawn up in 1944 to curb the

on air mentioned that those cities in the west were so

spread o f disease through air travel by the International

influenced by those from the east that winds had no access

Convention for Aerial Navigation. The methods proposed

25

AIR

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VENTRICULOGRAPHY

included immunization against the five diseases: yellow

wrote De Morbis Mulieribus and other treatises.

fever, smallpox,plague, cholera and typhus. An English trea­

Akenside, Mark (17 2 1—1770) Physician and poet who rose

tises Epidemiology in Relation to A ir Travel was written by

to be physician to the Queen. He was a son o f a butcher at

A. Massey in 1933 .A treatise dealing with medical fitness to

Newcastle-upon-Tyne and studied divinity at Edinburgh at

travel and the transport o f invalids was written by E R ohrer

the age o f 18, changed to medicine which he studied for 18

in 1915.

months. He practiced as a surgeon in 1743. His poetical

A ir V entriculography Introduction o f air into the ven­

talents were revealed in his The Pleasures o f Imagination.With

tricles o f the brain for visualizing them radiologicaUy

the rewards from his poetry he proceeded to Leiden to

(1886-1946) o f

complete his medical degree with a dissertation on the

M issouri w ho was professor o f neurosurgery at Johns

human fetus in 1744. On his return he rapidly advanced to

Hopkins in 1918. Erik Lysholm (1891-1947) improved the

become a member o f the Royal College o f Physicians and

technique by introducing new apparatus and taking 12 dif­

fellow o f the Royal Society in 1753. He was appointed

ferent projections in 1938. His method required minimal

physician to the Queen in 176 1. His other poetry includes

Practiced by Walter Edward Dandy

introduction o f air, thereby reducing the risk. A technique

Love, an Elegy and A n Ode on the Winter-Solstice published

o f encephalography using less air was described by Edward

in 1740.

Graeme Robertson (b 1903) in 1941.

A kut See acne.

Airy, Sir George Biddle (1801-1892) Northumberland

A lastrim [Portuguese: to spread or strew about] Variola

Astronomer Royal who modernized the observatory at

minor, a mild form o f smallpox.

Greenwich. He applied photography to astronomical

Albarran, Joaquin Dominguez (1860—1912) Born in Cuba

research and founded the magnetic department o f Green­ wich Observatory in 1834. He did research on optics and

and emigrated to France, where he became professor o f med­

corrected astigmatism using lens in 1824. He performed a

icine. He made significant contributions to renal medicine.

series o f pendulum experiments to determine the mean

He also devised the Albarran lever found in early

density o f the Earth at Hartón CoUiery, South Shields near

cystoscopes. See Albarran gland,Albarran operation,Albarran test.

Newcastle and published over 500 papers.

Albarran Gland The portion o f the median lobe o f the prostate immediately underlying the uvula vesicae. First

A itken, John (1839-1919) Scottish physicist from Falkirk

described by Joaquin Dominguez Albarran (1860-1912) in

who did extensive studies on climatology, dealing with

1891.

atmospheric dust, dew and cyclones. His collected works were published posthumously by Knott in 1923.

Albarran O peration

Nephropexy. Designed by French

surgeon o f Cuban origin, Joaquin Dominguez Albarran

A itkin P ill A remedy containing reduced iron, quinine,

(1860-1912).

strychnine and arsenic. Prepared by Scottish physician. Sir WiUiamAitkin (1825—1892).

Albarran Test

Oral water-load test for assessing kidney

function. Devised by Joaquin Dominguez Albarran (i860—

A itkin, John (d 1790) Edinburgh surgeon who wrote A

1912).

System o f Anatomical Tables with Explanation in 1786 and designed the operation, which now bears his name, o f

Albee,' Houdlett Fred (1876-1945) Born in Maine, he

double pelviotomy for a narrow pelvis.

employed living bone grafts for internal splints and trans­ planted tibia into spine diseased with Pott Disease. He also

Aka M ushi [Japanese: mushi, red insect] (Syn. Shima mushi,

introduced anterior spinal fusion in the treatment o f Pott

Japanese river fever, flood fever) Seasonal fever along

disease in 1906.

the rivers o f certain regions in Japan was described independently by T. A. Palm (1878) and E. Balz (1879).

A lbers-Schonberg, Heinrich Ernst (1865-1921) German

A trombeculoid tick, known as aka mushi in Japan was

radiologist who graduated from Leipzig University in 1891.

identified as the transmitter.

He described an inherited disorder o f bone, osteopetrosis accompanied by leukoerythroblastic anemia and hepato-

Akakia, Martin (d 1551) Native o f Champagne and professor

splenomegaly in 19 0 3.The disease, also known as marble

o f physick at Paris who changed his name to the Greek,

bone disease, was later named Albers-Schonberg disease.

Akakia. He translated Galen (129—200) De Ratione Curandi. His son Martin became physician to King Henry III and

Albert D isease

26

Form o f bursitis o f the achilles tendon

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ALBUMAZER

A lbinus, Christian Bernard (d 1778) Also known as Weiss or

accompanied by pain. Described by Austrian surgeon

White. Professor o f medicine at Utrecht in 1702. He pub­

Eduard Albert (1841-1900) in 1893.

lished a history o f spiders and insects with engravings and

A lberti, Solomon (1540-1600) B orn in Nuremberg and

also wrote several treatises in medicine. He was a brother o f

studied anatomy under Fabricius. H e became the professor

Bernard Siegfried Albinus (16 9 7-177 1).

o f medicine at Wittemberg and wrote Historia pleramque

A lbiruni (AD 973—1048) Physician, astronomer and physicist

Humani Corporis partium Membratim Scripta and Tres Orationes.

who used the principle o f Archimedes to determine the

A lbertini, Ippolito Francisco (1666-1746) Italian physician

specific weight o f 18 metals and precious stones. He wrote

at Bologna who described bed rest and abstinence from

Chronology of Ancient Nations.

food as treatment for aortic aneurysm.

Albrecht, Karl Martin Paul (1851-1894) Hamburg anat­ A lbertus M agnus (119 2-1280) Dominican priest, philoso­

omist who described the basal ossicle between sphenoid

pher and scientist who studied astrology and alchemy. His

and occipital bones (Albrecht bone) in 1878.

compilation o f botanical plants in 1250, De Vegetabilibus,

A lbright Syndrom e Patchy areas o f skin pigmentation,

remained popular for many centuries. He was a follower o f

bone change, endocrine dysfunction and precocious pub­

Aristotle and wrote voluminous commentaries on his

erty in females. Described by Fuller Albright (1900—1969),

works. He described arsenic in detail.

Alan M arcy Butler (b 1894),A.O .H am pton and P. Smith in

A lbini, Guiseppe (1827—19 11) Professor o f physiology at

1937. It was described independently in the same year by

Naples who described the minute nodules at the margins o f

D. M cCune and H. Bruch, as osteodystrophia fibrosa.

the tricuspid and mitral valves o f the heart (Albini nodules)

A lbright, Fuller (1900-1969) Father o f endocrinology in

in 1856.

America. He graduated from Harvard Medical School in

A lbinism See albino.

1924 and did most o f his work at the Massachusetts General Hospital. His main interests were bone diseases and the

A lbinolo, Felix Italian who established himself in London

parathyroid glands. He described vitamin D-resistant

around 1880 selling his own brand o f ointments and supply­

rickets,

ing leeches.Thomas Holloway (1800—1883), the founder o f

osteomalacia

of

steatorrhea,

idiopathic

hypoparathyroidism, bone changes in kidney disease and

Holloway Sanatorium, got the idea o f making ointments

several other important endocrinological entities. He

from him, and made his fortune. See Holloway, Thomas;

observed the symptomatology o f Parkinson disease on

Holloway pills.

himself for over 10 years and became incapacitated by it.

A lbino [Latin: albus, white] Aristotle (384-322 B C ) men­

A lbucasis or Abul Qasim uz-Zahrawi (936-1013) Author

tioned this as leuce, a disease in which all the hairs o f the

and surgeon, born at El-Zahara near Cordova and appoint­

body turn white. It was previously called ‘snow white lep­

ed physician to Abdar Rahm an III (912-961). He wrote an

rosy’ by ancient Jews. It was defined as a change o f skin to a

encyclopedia o f medicine and surgery, H/ii?5r^The surgical

white color by a viscid and glutinous phlegm, by Paul o f

portion was published separately and became the first

Aegina (625—690). He pointed out that alphas is similar to

independent illustrated work on the subject. It contained

leuce, but the former produced a deep color change in the

illustrations o f a remarkable array o f surgical instruments

skin.Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D 50) described a

and described operations for fractures, dislocations, bladder

variety o f vitiligo which resembled leuce. Islamic physicians

stones, gangrene and other conditions. It replaced Paul o f

treated the condition as ‘morphoea alba’ , a name which

Aegina’s (62$—6go) Epitome as a standard work and remained

G uy de Chauliac (1300—1370) also used. Paul ofAegina stat­

as the most used textbook o f surgery for nearly 500 years.

ed that Negroes affected with the condition were called

The Latin translation o f Altasrif was printed in Venice in

‘albinos’ .

1497. He wrote Liber Servitorus which described medical preparations obtained from plants, animals and minerals -

A lbinus, Bernard Siegfried (16 97-1771) Anatomist whose

an early example o f chemotherapeutics. He described the

anatomical museum in Leiden was visited and admired by

obstetric position now known as Walcher position.

many eminent men, including William Hunter ( 17 18 1783) who visited in 1746. He published a three-volume

A lbum azer Arab physician in the ninth century who stud­

work on anatomy in 1744,1749 and 1753. Several muscles in

ied astronomy. His wrote Introductio ad Astronomium

his treatises were named after him.

published in 1489 and other treatises.

27

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ALBUMIN

A lb um in [Latin: albumin, white o f egg] Egg white was first

metals into gold, cure all diseases and give eternal youth.

commented upon by Aristotle. Pliny called it ovi albus liquor

The guardian or possessor o f this mythical essence or

and Palladius named it albumentum. A preparation o f

‘philosopher’s stone’ was a mythical personality, Hermes

crystalline egg albumin was made by Franz Hofmeister

Trismegeastos.The pursuit o f this goal contributed to the

(1850- 1922) in 1899.The te rm ‘albumin’ for proteins that

development o f methods o f experimentation in chemistry

are soluble in water and salt solutions is based on the pro­

and metallurgy. Some o f the works on alchemy are found

posal o f the British Physiological Society (1907) and the

in the writings of, Geberius in the Middle Ages; Albertus

American Physiological Society (1908). The molecular

Magnus (1206-1280), a Dominican monk; R o ger Bacon

weight o f egg albumin was calculated at 34000 d by PL.

(1214—1294), and a Benedictine monk, Basilus Valentinus

Sorenson (1868- 1939) in 1917.

(AD 1500). Paracelsus (1493-1541) proposed that the true

A lbum inuria Albumin present in the urine. White clouds

aim o f alchemy should be to cure diseases and the prepara­

in the urine were noted by Hippocrates (460—377 BC ).

tion and study o f drugs should be the main object o f the

Albumin in the urine was shown by boiling and the

chemist.

addition o f acetic acid by Fredericus Dekkers (1648—1720)

A lcm a eo n

o f Leiden in 1694. Dominic Cotugno (1736-1822) o f

Philosopher and a pupil o f Pythagoras who

founded the Sicilian School around 500 B C . He dissected

Vienna rediscovered it in the urine by a similar method in

animals and studied their brains. He proposed the balance o f

1764 and the term albuminuria was introduced by Martin

body fluid in health and disease which probably formed the

Solon o f Paris in 1838. English physician John Blackall

basis for the Hippocratic theory o f the four humors. He is

(177 1—1860) demonstrated it in cases o f dropsy in 18 13.The

credited with the discovery o f the optic nerve and the

relationship between albuminuria and renal disease was

Eustachian tube.

established by Richard Bright (1789—1858) in 1827. Its occurrence in fevers was described by Martin Solon in

A lcock, Benjamin (b 1801) Irish professor o f anatomy, born

1838 and named febrile albuminuria by Carl Gerhardt

at Kilkenny and graduated from University o f Dublin in

(1833—1902) o f Germany in 1868.The presence o f albumin

1827. He was the first professor o f anatomy at Q ueen’s

in the urine o f mothers with puerperal convulsions or

College, Cork in 1849. He described the fascial canal lying

eclampsia was observed by John Charles Lever (18 11—1858),

on the obturator internus in the lateral wall o f the ischiorec­

a lecturer in midwifery at G u y’s Hospital in London in

tal fossa which is named after him. He was forced to

1843 .The presence o f massive albuminuria in subarachnoid

resign over a dispute on the Anatomy Act in 1853. After an

hemorrhage was noted by French pathologist and microbi­

unsuccessful petition to the Queen, he left for America.

ologist, Georges Fernand Isidore Widal (1862—1929) in

A lcock, Nathan (1707-1779) English physician, born at

1 9 0 3 . benign albuminuria.

Runcorn, Cheshire. He studied under Herman Boerhaave

A lcadinus A native o f Salerno and a celebrated physician o f

(1668-1738) in Leiden and took his doctor’s degree in 1737.

the 12th century. He was physician to the French Court and

His On the Effects of Climate was unfinished at the time o f his

his works in Latin include De Balneis Puteolanis and De

death.

Trumphis Henrici Imperioris which he wrote after he cured

A lcock, Sir Rutherford (1809-1897) Ealing surgeon who

Emperor H enry o f a rare malady.

trained at Westminster Hospital. He became the British

A lcandrius A Latin document on astrology o f Arabic origin

Consul in China and helped to establish the port at

dating back to A D 950 bearing the name o f Alcandrius has

Shanghai. In 1858 he moved to Japan as the Consul General

provided evidence for Arabic influence in Europe during

but resigned in 1871 and returned London. His Notes on the

that period. It also has occasional use o f Hebrew script in it

Medical History and Statistics of the British Legion of Spain was

which suggests that it must have passed through Jewish

published in 1838.

hands.

A lch em y [Greek:

A lcock, Thomas (1784-1883). The father o f Sir Rutherford

Arabic: kimiya,2irt o f counterfeiting

A c o c k (18 0 9 -1 897),a surgeon who became British Consul

gold or silver + al, the] Its origin is difficult to trace but it is

in China. He was a surgeon at St James’ Workhouse in

supposed to have been practiced by the Chinese in 133 B C .

London. He contributed several scientific essays to medical

Documented literature dates to the fourth century written

journals.

in Alexandria by Zosmismus o f Papolis.The fundamental o f

A lcocke, Nicholas (d 1550) Surgeon to KingEdw ardVI.

alchemy is to obtain the ‘essence’ which would change base

28

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ALDEHYDE

A lcoh ol [Arabic: alkohl\ Term adopted by alchemists for

Some remarks on the Effects of Lignum Quassiae Amarae

fermented grapes. It is the oldest drug known to man and

published in 1786. James Jackson (1777—1867) o f Boston

the Chinese were probably the first to make wine. Scottish

M edi-cal School described the clinical features in On a

diplomat Sir John Malcolm (1769-1833) in his History of

Peculiar Disease Resultingfrom the Use of Ardent Spirit in 1822.

Persia credited the Persians with the discovery o f alcohol. In

A n account o f alcoholic paraplegia was given by Samuel

Greek mythology, the god Dionysos is credited with the

Wilks (18 24 -19 11) in 1868. Julius Dreschfield (1845-1907)

discovery o f wine making. The earliest charge o f drunken­

o f Manchester divided the clinical presentation o f alcoholic

ness was documented around 1300 B C . Pliny described

neuritis into paralytic and ataxic groups in 1898 and it was

over 100 varieties o f wine made in ancient R om e. Alcohol,

also known as pseudotabes o f alcohoHcs. Patrick Manson

mainly in the form o f wine, was used as a medicine, aphro­

(1844—1922) in 1898 pointed out the association with thia­

disiac, social stirnulant and chemical. Arabian alchemist

mine deficiency and G .C. Shattuck in 1928 and other

Geberius, who lived around the 8th century at Seville,

workers

called it aqua vitae. An attempt at producing absolute alco­

deficiency.

hol was made by Arnold ofVillanova (1234—1311) in 1300,

confirmed

the

part

played

by

nutritional

A lcoh olic Psychosis Associated with delirium tremens

w ho introduced brandy into the pharmacopoeia. German

and described by Thomas Sutton (1767—1835) in 18 13 .The

Benedictine monk, Basil Valentine obtained absolute

neurological manifestation o f chronic alcoholism, charac­

alcohol in the year 1400. Alcoholism was recognized as a

terized by polyneuritis and marked mem ory loss with

problem in England in the i8th century during the

confabulation, was described by Russian physician, Sergei

gin-drinking era (1740-1742). Legislation to curb the use o f

Korsakoff (1853-1900) in 1887.

foreign alcohol fueled by a nation o f excessive gin drinkers was passed by Parliament in 1736 but was ineffective and

A lcoh olics A non ym ou s A worldwide fellowship to pro­

was followed by a prohibitive tax on alcohol. Lavoisier

mote abstinence and rehabilitation amongst alcoholics.

discovered that alcohol contained carbon, hydrogen and

Originated in Ohio in 1935.

oxygen and the proportion o f these elements was estimated

A lco h o lism Described by Pliny (AD 23—79) as‘paUor, pen­

by Nicolas T. de Saussure (1767—1845) in 1814. Production

dulous cheeks, bloodshot eyes, tremulous hands which spill

o f beer was known to ancient Chinese and Egyptians and

the full cup and an ever-present penalty, sleep disturbed by

became popular in Germany around 1600. A microchemi­

furies, restlessness at night and lastly monstrous passions and

cal method o f measuring small quantities o f alcohol in

even crimes which in their eyes have become supreme

blood using a photoelectric colorimeter was devised by

delight.The next day the wine infects their breath and their

J.G . Gibson in 1938. See alcoholism.

memory is dead’ . See addiction, drunkenness, temperance.

A lcoh ol D ehydrogenase Enzyme crystallized from yeast

A leóla A secret remedy offered by the Physicians Cooper­

by E.N egelein andJ.W ulffin 1937.

ative Association o f Chicago as treatment for drunkenness in the late 19th century. Three kinds o f tablets were pre­

A lcoh ol Injection Treatment for neuralgia introduced by

scribed to be taken in a complicated ritual manner. These

French physician Jean Albert Pitres (1848—1928) in 1887.

were later found to contain lactose, calcium and traces o f

Injection into the deep foramina o f the exit o f the main

strychnine.

fifth nerve in the skuU as treatment for trigeminal neuralgia was performed by Jean Pitres and Henry Verger (1873—

A lcuin (AD 735—804) English monk from York who had

1930) o f Paris in 1902 and French ophthalmologist, Joseph

considerable influence on Emperor Charlemagne which

Louis Jean Abadie (b 1873) advocated the same treatment.

helped to bring about educational reforms and establish­

Ferdinand Levy andA.Baudouin devised another approach

ment o f schools in many parts o f France. He helped to

for injection from outside the cheek to the foramen ovale

transmit knowledge and learning o f the earlier ages into the

and foramen rotundum in 1906 and this was established over

Middle Ages.

the

previous

intra-oral

route. An

alcohol

injection

A ldehyde Named by German chemist, Johann Christian

into the Gasserian ganglion through the sigmoid notch

Poggendorf (1796-1877), professor o f chemistry at Berlin.

was performed by Wilfred Harris (1869—1960),a neurologist

He produced a collection o f biographies o f over 8000 phy­

at St M ary s Hospital in 1910.

sicists from all countries in two volumes, which has since

A lcoh olic P olyneuritis The earliest account o f this condi­

been extended to 18 volumes. He discovered a multiplying

tion was given by John Coakley Lettsom (1744-1815) in

galvanometer (1821) and a magnetometer (1827).

29

ALDERMAN

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NERVE

A lderm an N erve The auricular branch o f the vagus nerve.

A lexander ofTralles orTrallianus (525-605) Philosopher

Named because o f the practice o f applying cold w^ater

and physician, considered one o f the best Greek physicians

to the external auditory meatus by aldermen to induce

after Hippocrates (460—377 B C ). He described parasitic

vomiting after excesses.

worms for the first time in his work on medicine which was published in Paris in 1543.

A lderotti, Taddeo (1223-1303) Professor o f medicine in Bologna v^ho ^vrote Della Conservazione Della Satue and

A lexander the Great (356-323 B C ) The symptoms o f

Consilia, OT sl collection o f clinical cases.

Alexander during his last illness are described in Greek royal journals. M uch speculation has taken place regarding its

A ld in ol A drug used as an anti-obesity agent in America in

nature and his symptoms fit the description o f Ardent

the 1930S. See dinitrophenoL

fever for which there are many possible causes. The two

A ldolase Enzyme crystallized from rabbit and rat muscle by

commonly proposed causes o f his death are yellow fever

J.E Taylor and co-workers in 1948.

and malaria.

A ld o m e t a-methyl dopa, the first effective inhibitor o f the

Alexander, Benjamin (1735-1768) Irish physician who

synthesis o f norepinephrine. Discovered by Theodore R .

graduated from Leiden in 1761 and was elected physician

Sourkes o f M cG ill University in 1954. It was introduced

to the London Hospital in 1765. He is remembered for

into clinical practice for treatment o f hypertension by Oates

his English translation o f Morgagni s De Sedibus et Causis

and Sjoerdsma in i960 and remains the longest surviving

Morborum.

antihypertensive drug.

Alexander, G. Franz (1891—1954) A student o f the BerHn

A ldosterone Sodium-retaining factor in venous blood from

Psychiatric Institute and co-author o f the History of Psychiatry

the adrenal glands. Identified through chromatography by

published posthumously in 1966.

S.A. Simpson, J.E Tait and P.G.G. Bush in 1952. It was isolated from beef renal extract by Hillary Grundy in the same year.The clinical syndrome due to excessive secretion

Alexander, Nicholas (d 1728) Benedictine monk and med­ ical writer in the early i8th century. His Physic and Surgery

o f aldosterone was described by William Jerom e Conn

for the Poor (1738) was published after his death.

(b 1907) o f Michigan in 1955 and it was named Conn

A lexanderini de N eu stain, Julius, (1505-1590) Physician

syndrome.

from Trent who was physician to Maximilian II. He wrote

A ldosterone A ntagonist The 17—spironolactone, a com­

De Medicina et Medico, Paedotrophia, Methodus Mendi and

pound with the reverse effects o f aldosterone, was produced

Salubrium sive de sanitate tuenda.

by C .M . Kagawa and J.A . Celia in 1957. Its sodium diuretic

Alexandrian C ollege or Museum Linked the culture and

effect was explained by G.W. Liddle in the same year. The beneficial effect in treating ascites o f cirrhosis was

education from Egypt to Macedonia, was founded by

demonstrated by D.N.S. Kerr, A .E. Read, R .M . Haslam

Alexander the Great in 331 B C . It became a great university

and Shiela Sherlock in 1958.

where scholars from all over the world such as Euclid the mathematician, Archimedes the physicist, Herophilos the

A ldrich Syndrom e See Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome.

anatomist, Erasistratos the physiologist and scores o f others

Aldrovandus, Ulysses (1527—1605) Professor o f medicine

came to study and participate. It consisted o f four depart­

and philosophy at Bologna. He wrote Ornithology (1599) in three volumes. Quadrupeds which Divide the Hoof Insects (1602) and other works on biology and natural science.

ments: literature, mathematics, astronomy and medicine world, counting over 400,000 volumes. It was supported by

A le Egyptians were supposed to be the first to have made

descendants o f Ptolemy, who was general to Alexander

liquor from corn by fermentation. It was known as a bever­

the Great. Though the Ptolemic dynasty ended in 30 B C

and its library was the largest and the most famous in the

age as early as in 404 B C . Ale-houses are mentioned in the

the university lasted until A D 600 until R o m e replaced

laws o f the K ing o f Essex in A D 688 and were regulated in

Alexandria as the learning center. Its Hbrary was partly

1551. In 1603 during the reign o f James I, the price and the

destroyed by Bishop Theophilus in A D 390 and was fuUy

measure o f ale were specified and duty was introduced in

burnt by the Mohammedans in A D 640.

1643-

A lexin Eduard Buchner (1860-1907) noted a thermolabile Due to endemic leishmaniasis in Aleppo.

substance in the serum which promoted the killing o f

Described by Jean Louis Alibert (1766—1837) in 1829 and by

bacteria. He named it alexin. Paul Ehrlich (1854—1915) and

Alexander Russel in 1856.

Jules Vincent Bordet (1870—1961) did further work on

A lep p o B o il

30

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ALKALI

bacteriolysis in 1901 and alexin was renamed‘complement’

anonymous algorism written in the 14th century gives the

by Ehrlich and Julius Morgenroth in the same year. The

puzzle o f a wolf, a goat and a cabbage that must be ferried

complement fixation reaction in immune hemolysis was

across a stream by a boatman.

described by M artin M anfred M ayer (1916 —1984) and

A lh azen or ibn A l-H aitham (AD 965 -1038) Arab mathe­

Lawrence Levine (b 1924) in 1954.

matician o f Basra who studied the properties o f light and

A lexipharm aca [Greek: alexein, to ward o ff + pharmakon,

used convex lenses. His Kitab Al-Manazir (Book o f Optics)

poison] A poem on poisons and antidotes was written

included refraction, reflection and study o f lenses, formed

by the Greek poet Nicander in 200 B C . Euricus Cordus

the basis for the invention o f spectacles, telescopes and

translated it into Latin in 1532.

microscopes. A Latin translation o f his mathematical works was done by R obert Grosseteste (1175—1253), Bishop o f

A lfonso X , King o f Castille (1223—1284). He studied astron­ omy and the Alfonso Tables in astronomy were completed

Lincoln, around 1210. His treatise on astrology was printed

under his auspices in 1253. Four volumes o f Alphonsine

in Latin at Basel in 1572.

tables were reprinted by the Spanish Government in 1863

A lib ert, Jean Louis M arc le Baron o f Villafranche de

A lgae A n early study was done by Germ an botanist,

I’Aveyron (1766—1837) Considered the founder o f modern French dermatology. He described mycosis fungoides as

Nathaniel Pringsheim (1823-1894) in 1823.

piors fungoide in 1806 and cancroide (keloid) in 1810. See

A lgazirah (d 1004) Abu Jafar Ahmed ibn-Abraham Abu

Aleppo boil.

Chalid was physician at Kairouan in Tunisia and a prolific writer. His Viaticum peregrinantis, a compendium o f medical

A lim entary Canal [Latin: alimentary, nourishment] A series

symptoms and treatment, was translated into Latin by

o f organs, the names o f which are derived from Latin, Greek

ConstantinusAfricanus (d 1087).

and other languages. Pharynx denotes throat or gullet in Greek, lumen is a term for ‘windows’ in Latin, esophagus

Algebra Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khowarisimi, an Arab who

means ‘food carrier’ in Greek and anus means ‘a ring’ in

lived around A D 825, introduced letters in place o f numbers

Latin.The w ord ‘gut’ is an Anglo-Saxon term.

and figures in calculation in his treatise al-jabr wa I muqabalah (‘joining the parts to make a w hole’). Diophantus, an A lex­

A lison, William Pulteney (1790-1859) Graduated in medi­

andrian mathematician during the time o f Nero, wrote 13

cine from Edinburgh in 18 11 and appointed physician to

books on arithmetic which led to the establishment o f the

the N ew Town Dispensary in 1815. His special interest was

present system o f algebra. Brahmagupta, a Hindu mathe­

study o f fevers and he made several contributions with his

matician from Ujjain around 7th century, assigned rules for

articles in the Edinburgh Medical Journal from 18 17 to 1819.

negative numbers in algebra.The use o f letters in algebra to

He was professor o f jurisprudence in 1820 and promoted

designate known quantities was popularized in Europe by

health for the poor. His pamphlet Observations on the

French mathematician, FrancisVieta (1540—1603).A treatise

Management of the Poor in Scotland and its Effects on the Health

in English was w ritten by English physician R o b e rt

of the Great Towns was published in 1840. Two o f his other

Recorde in 1542. The concept o f group, which is the

important publications were Outlines of Physiology (1831)

cornerstone o f modern algebra, was proposed by French

and Outlines of Pathology and Practice of Medicine (1844). He

mathematician, Evariste Galois (18 11—1832) around 1829.

was later appointed professor o f medicine at University ofEdinburgh.

A lgh izi, Thomas (1669—1713) A lithotomist from Florence who wrote Lithotomia Overodel caver la Pietra.

A lgid

A lizarin R e d dye used as biological stain was isolated by French entomologist, Jean Henri Fabre (1823—1915) o f

Extreme coldness o f the body associated with a

Aveyron.

morbid state such as cholera or remittent fever.

Alkali A ct To control the emission o f toxic gases into the

A lgop hily [Greek: algos,pAn + philos,love] A collective term

atmosphere by factories or ‘alkali works’ in England was

for masochism and sadism. See sadism, masochism.

A lgorism

enacted in 1863. It was amended in 1874.

Derived from ‘al-Khowarisimi’ , an Arab who

invented algebra. It is related to the exposition o f H indu-

Alkali [Arabic: alqaliy, potash] Defined in early dictionaries

Arabic numerals which were popular in the 14th century.

o f medicine as a salt without an acid.The modern definition

Besides containing discussion o f numerals, they included

considers such substances to have properties which turn

application o f arithmetic to problems and business. An

litmus paper blue and neutralize acids.

31

ALKALI

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

DISEASE

Alkali D isease In horses, due to selenium poisoning from

the progeny o f first cousin marriages in 1904. He intro­

industrial waste was described by Madison, an army sur­

duced the concept o f inborn errors o f metabolism with his

geon from South Dakota, in 1856. It was named due to the

theory that this defect was inherited according to M endel’s

mistaken notion that it was caused by alkali in waste from

laws.

factories.

A lkindi (813—873) Abu YusufYaqub ibn Ishaq A l-Kindi o f Basra, also known as Alkindus, was a physician to the court

A lkaloid C linic A publication originally devoted to phar­ maceuticals, started by Calvin Abbott (18 57-1921), the

o f Al-M am un at Baghdad. He is considered as the first Arab

founder o f Abbott Laboratories. It later became the

philosopher and is credited with over 200 works out o f

AmericanJournal of Clinical Medicine.

which 22 are on medicine. Several were translated into Latin by Gerard o f Cremona. He wrote on optics, dealing with the reflection o f light and translated Ptolemy‘s Almagest.

Alkindus SeeAlkindi. A U -or-N one P h en o m en o n Found in muscle contraction and proposed in 1871 as a mechanism by American physiol­ ogist at Boston,H enry Pickering Bowditch (1840—19 11). In his work on the animal heart, he proved that if a stimulus was adequate to provoke a response in a motor unit the response became independent o f the size o f the stimulus. He demonstrated the refractory period following response Apparatus for extracting alkaloids from plants. R A Cripps, Galenic

during which no stimulus was effective. It was further

Pharmacy 0893). Churchill, London

described and demonstrated by Keith Lucas (1879—916) from Cambridge and Lord Edgar Douglas Adrian (1889—

A lkaloid [Arabic: n/^iî/iy, potash] Nitrogen-based substances found in plants.The transition from herbal medicine to sci­

1977). A summary o f their work is found in The Conduction

entific pharmacology started with the discovery o f several

of Nerve Impulse published in 1917.

alkaloid extracts in the 19th century. The alkaloid quinine

A llan A nti-Fat A secret cure for obesity sold by the

was extracted from cinchona bark by Pierre Joseph Pelletier

American ‘Botanic Medicine Com pany’ based in London

(1788-1842) and J.B . Caventou (1795-1877) o f Paris in

at the turn o f the 19th century. On analysis it contained

1820, and ephedrine, one o f the earliest o f the alkaloids

mainly glycerin and potassium iodide.

known to the Chinese, was extracted by Nagajosi Nagai

A llantois [Greek: alias, sausage + oeides, shape] Term used

(1844—1929) in i887.The N obel Prize in Chemistry for the

by Galen (129—200) to denote the embryonic structure

study o f plant alkaloids was won by Sir R obert Robinson

presently known as the allantois. Its structure and forma­

(1886—1975) ofEngland in 1947.

tion in the embryo was described by W ilhelm His, Senior

A lkalom etry Alkaloidal therapy or dosimetry denotes a

(1831-1904) in 1887.

method o f prescribing practiced by doctors during the late

Allbutt, Sir Thomas Clifford (1836—1925) Clinician from

19th century.They determined the dose o f the active ingre­

Dewsbury and a medical historian. He invented the short­

dient on an individual basis and prepared medications in

stemmed clinical thermometer in 1866, wrote an early

the form o f pellets, granules or liquid, suited to individual

description o f joint symptoms in locomotor ataxia in 1858

patients.

and gave the Goulstonian Lecture on diseases o f the heart in

Alkaptonuria Metabolic disease that causes urine to turn

1896. He was professor o f physics at the University o f

black on exposure to air. Described by Alexander John

Cambridge in 1902. His publications on medical history

Gaspard Marcet (1770-1822) in 1822. The presence o f

include Science and Medieval Thought (1901), The Historic

homogentisic acid in urine in the condition was noted

Relations of Medicine and Surgery (1905) and Greek Medicine in

by Carl Wilhelm Boedeker (1815—1895) o f Germany in

Rome and other Historical Essays (1921). He edited The System

1859. Archibald Garrod (1857—1936), a physician to St

of Medicine in eight volumes from 1896 to 1899 and was

Bartholomew s Hospital and the Hospital for Sick Children

President o f the British Medical Association from 1916 to

at Great O rm ond Street, London, observed its frequency in

19 21.

32

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ALLOPLASTIC

ADAPTATION

A llelom orp h or allele [Greek: allelon, o f one another +

A llergic A lveolitis (Extrinsic alveolitis) Farmer’s lung.

morphe, form] One o f two or more dissimilar genes was

The symptoms were noted by Bernardino Ramazzini

studied by Gregor Mendel (1822—1884) in 1865 and his

(1633—1714) in 1700 and Manchester physician, Charles

work led to the postulation o f the M endel’s first law o f

Blackley (1820—1900) wrote a treatise on it in 1873. It was

inheritance. See genetics

known as heymaedi in Iceland in the late i8th century. J.H . Salisbury o f Ohio developed a skin test for diagnosing it in

A llen and H anbury Early Quaker pharmaceutical estab­

1861. Five cases were presented by J.M . Campbell in ‘Acute

lishments founded by Sylvanus Bevan, grandson ofWilliam

symptoms following work with hay’ in the British Medical

Bevan, a merchant from Swansea. He established an apothe­

Journal in 1932. It was registered as an occupational disease

cary shop and a laboratory at Lombard Street, London in

in 1965 under the National Insurance Industrial Injuries

1725 and acquired a good reputation. The business was

Act o f 19 45.The causative organism, which belongs to a

taken over by his brother,Timothy, and was passed on to his

group o f aerobic thermophilic actinomycètes, was named

son, Joseph Bevan, in 1775. He took William Allen from

Micropolyspora faeni in 1968. See bagassosis, paprika-splitters

another eminent Quaker family into the business, and two

lung.

o f his nephews Cornelius and Daniel Hanbury and the firm was named Allen, Hanburys and Barry in 1824. It became

A llergic G ranulom atosis Involving the lung. Described

Allen and Hanbury and produced quality medical products

by N ew York pathologist J. Churg (b 1910) and L. Strauss in

including medical and surgical instruments.

the American Journal of Pathology in 1951. It was later named Churg—Strauss syndrome.

A llen C em en t Made o f silica, to jo in porcelain teeth to a plate. Formulated by N ew York dentist, John Allen

A llergic R hinitis Hay fever (Syn: Bostock catarrh, catarrhus

(1810-1892).

aestivus, vasomotor rhinitis) Described by John Bostock (1773—1846) o f G u y’s Hospital, London in 1817. See.allergy,

A llen Starvation Treatment for diabetes proposed in 1913

John Bostock, hayfever.

by Frederick Madison Allen (b 1876), a leading Boston diabetologist. He used starvation as a method to lower

A llergy [Greek: alios, other + ergon, activity] The term means

blood sugar. He was born in Iowa and studied medicine in

‘altered activity’ and was coined by a pediatrician, Clemens

California before he joined Harvard as a research fellow

Peter Pirquet von Cesenatico (1874-1929) o f Austria in

on the study o f sugar metabolism.

1904. The common allergic condition now called hay

A llen Test A test for peripheral vascular disease o f the hand,

fever was described by John Bostock (1773—1846) o f G u y’s

by compressing and relieving the ulnar and radial vessels

Hospital, London in 1817. He called it ‘catarrhus aestivus’

and observing color changes. Described by E.V. Allen

and was himself affected. Pollen was identified as a cause

(1900—1961), a medical graduate from Nebraska. He

o f hay fever by John EUiotson (1791—1868) o f University

became professor o f medicine at the Mayo Clinic and wrote

College, London in 1831. See hayfever, asthma,pollen.

a treatise on peripheral arterial disease.

A llingham , William (1829-1908) A surgeon during the

A llen, Edgar (1892-1943) Biochemist from St Louis who did

Crimean war at the Scutari Hospitals. On his return he

extensive work on ovulation and hormones and isolated the

became a specialist on fistula and diseases o f the rectum at

active principle o f the ovarian hormone (estrin) in 1928. See

St M ark’s Hospital, London.

ovulation, hormones.

Allopathy [Greek: alios, another + pathos, suffering] D oc­ trine o f counteractive treatment which has been practiced

A llen, Harrison (1841—1897) Anatomist from Philadelphia who became the President o f the Association o f American

since ancient times .Treatments such as cooling for fever and

Anatomists in 1891. He described Allen fossa on the neck o f

laxatives for constipation were originally based on this con­

the femur in 1882.

cept. Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) in his treatise on Airs declared ‘contraries are the cure o f contraries’ . The term

A llen, John (177 1-18 4 3) Born in Edinburgh, he took his

was defined and described by Christian Friedrich Samuel

medical degree in 179 1. He was a lecturer in physiology in

Hahnemann (1755—1843), the founder o f homeopathy, in

Edinburgh but chose to let politics and his interest in phi­

1810.

losophy and metaphysics overshadow his medical career.

A lloplastic A daptation [Greek: alios, another + plassein,

He accom panied Lord Holland abroad as his fam ily physician.

mold + ad, to + aptare, to fit] Term used by Sandor Ferenezi

33

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ALLOPURINOL

(18 7 3 -19 3 3 ), a friend o f Sigm und Freud (18 56 -19 39), to

A lm eloveen, Thomas Jassend Dutch physician and botan­

denote the conscious adaptive efforts o f man, such as

ist in the 17th century. His Hortus Malabaricus and Flora

making fire to keep warm and building shelters to protect

Malabarica were published in 1678.

himself. He named the natural adaptation o f animals like

A lm enar, Juan Spanish physician during the 15 th century

growing fur and feather to warm themselves, autoplastic

who wrote on venereal diseases. His De Morbico Gallico was

adaptation.

published in Venice in 1502. He recommended mercury for

A U opurinol Used in the treatment o f gout, and developed

the treatment o f syphilis but his religious faith made him

by George H. Hitchings o f N ew York in 1943.

believe that the mechanism o f transmission o f syphilis in the clergy was different, in that it was through air.

AUotransplant [Greek: alios, another + trans, across] Trans­ plantation o f tissue between members o f the same species.

A lm o n er Name given to an official in ancient R o m e who

Italian surgeon, Guiseppe Baronio (175 9 -18 11) demon­

distributed the King s alms.

strated the fundamental principle that a graft from the same

A lm shou ses Built to provide shelter, food and medical care

animal was successful, whereas a graft from another animal

for the poor, aged, disabled and insane. Conditions in many

was rejected, in an experiment on skin grafting in 1804.

such institutions were appalling with all patients, including

Alexis Carrel (1884-1947) made a major advance by per­

those with contagious diseases and the insane, being housed

forming a successful allotransplant in dogs in 1906. See renal

together, with little or no segregation o f sexes. The first

transplant, heart transplant.

Almshouse in America was opened in Boston in 1665.

AUotrophy [Greek: alios, another + trophos, habit] Substances

The R e d Lion Almshouse at Westminster, Whittington s

which have different sets o f properties but are o f the same

Almshouse at Highgate Hill and the London Almshouse at

origin.

Brixton were founded in 1577,18 26 and 1833, respectively.

A lm agest W ritten by Ptolemy o f Alexandria in A D 130

A l-N afis o f D am ascu s

Medical writer and surgeon in

is considered to be the greatest work on astronomy. It

the 13 th century. He was one o f the first to dispute Gal­

was named A l magiste by the Arabs to mean the greatest. Its

en’s (129—200) works and gave a description o f the

contents include illustrations o f ancient astronomical

‘lesser circulation’ or pulmonary circulation. He wrote a

instruments and elaborate astronomical tables. It was trans­

comprehensive work on medicine (80 volumes).

lated into Latin in the 12th century and printed in Basel in

A lop ecia [Greek: alopex, fox] Disease in which the hair falls

1538.

out. Described by Pliny in the ist century as ‘patchy shed­

Alm aliki See Abbas, Haly.

ding o f hair from a fox whose urine is said to make places

A lm am u m Al-Meiamun Son ofHarun-al-Rashid for whom

barren and bald for an year’ .

the tale o f Arabian Nights was written. He founded the

a - 1 -A ntitrypsin D eficien cy Deficiency o f a plasma pro­

Academy o f Bagdad during his reign (815-833). He was

tein produced in the liver that inhibits trypsin, a proteolytic

an astronomer who measured the Earth by measurements

enzyme, thus contributing to the development o f emphyse­

o f the meridian. He encouraged the collection and transla­

ma. The electrophoretic pattern o f the serum proteins was

tion o f Greek and Rom an medical classics into Arabic. See

described by C.B. Laurel and S. Erikson in 1963. Its associa­

Abbasides.

tion in liver diseases in children was pointed out by M . Odievre and colleagues in 1976.

A lm anac [Arabic: al, the; Hebrew: munach, to count] Ptolemy produced almanacs in Alexandria around A D 100.The first

a-A d renergic D ru gs The anti-hypertensive agents, phen-

almanac o f Europe, Kalendarium Novum, was produced in

tolamine and piperoxan were used in the late 1940s. H ow ­

Budapest, Hungary in 1475 and thereafter almanacs became

ever, they were soon abandoned as main-line drugs but

common.

continued to be used as test drugs for differentiating essen­ tial hypertension and pheochromocytoma until the 1960s.

A l-M ansur H ospital One o f the earliest hospitals, estab­ lished in Cairo in 1276. It was a marvel o f medicine at that

a -C h a in D isease A case was noted in the serum o f a young

period, containing wards for special diseases, clinics, lecture

Arab patient who had marked plasma cell infiltration o f the

rooms, a library and many other parallels o f a modern

gut wall, by M . Seligman and co-workers in 1968. Patients

hospital.

were also noted to have steatorrhea, weight loss and finger

34

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ALTERNATIVE

MEDICINE

clubbing. It was first called Mediterranean lymphoma, as it

Egypt and wrote De Medecina Aegyptorum (1591), Historia

was thought to he restricted to Arabs and Jews, but it was

Naturalis Egypti, De Medicina Methodica and other works. He

later detected in other races.

discovered sex and generation o f plants and the genus o f plants Alpinia is named after him.

a-F etop rotein The possibility that adult malignant cells

A lport Syndrom e Hereditary hemorrhagic nephropathy

may revert to production o f primitive embryonic con­ stituents has been raised intermittently since 1930. The

associated with loss o f hearing and vision. Described

synthesis

induced

by South African physician and graduate o f Edinburgh

hepatomas o f mice was demonstrated by G.I. Abelev in

University, A .C . Alport (1880-1959), in 1927. He included

o f a-i-fetop ro tein

in

chemically

1971. Later in the same year he demonstrated its appearance

a family o f 19 individuals, through three generations, w h­

in the sera o f patients with hepatoma, testicular teratomas

ich was originally studied by L. Guthrie in 1902. He was

and viral hepatitis. Its increase in amniotic fluid during the

professor o f medicine at Cairo from 1937 to 1944.

last tri-mester o f pregnancy in cases o f anencephaly was

A l-R hazi SeeRhazes.

reported by D.J.H. Brock and R .G . Sutcliff in 1972.

Alsaharavius Another name for Albucasis, an Arabian physi­ a -H e m o ly tic Streptococcus Since the name ‘streptococ­

cian who lived around A D 980. He wrote an important

cus’ was introduced by Anton Julius Friedrich Rosenbach

textbook on surgery, Altasrif.

(1842-1923), a German surgeon in 1884, a long drawn out debate and controversy continued regarding the classifica­

A lston, Charles (1683-1760) Scottish physician who prac­

tion o f streptococci. In 1920 Brown published a monograph

ticed in Edinburgh. He opposed the system o f classification

in the medical researches o f the Rockefeller Institute which

o f Linnaeus and wrote Tyrocinium Botanicum Edinhurgense (1753) and Lectures on Materia Medica (1770).

classified the group into A , B , A ’ and G, based on the type and degree o f hemolysis produced in a blood agar plate.

A ltam ira Cave P aintings Painted by Cro-M agnon man

Those producing greenish discoloration or partial hemoly­

and discovered by M aria Sautuola in Spain in 1879. The

sis were assigned to the alpha group. See streptococci, Lancefield

paintings o f bison were the first Paleolithic art works to be

group.

discovered. See cave drawings. Effective inhibitor o f the synthesis o f

A lternating Current The theory o f alternating current

norepinephrine. Discovered by Theodore R . Sourkes o f

was proposed by a Polish electrical engineer, Charles

M cGill University in 1954. It was introduced into clinical

Proteus (b 1865). A successful commercial generator was

practice for treatment o f hypertension by Oates and

built by Belgian electric engineer, Zenobe Théophile

a-M ethyl D o p a

Sjoerdsma in i960 and remains the longest used anti­

Gramme (1826—1901) in 1867.A study on the effects on the

hypertensive on the market.

heart was performed in a dog by W.B. Kouwenhouven, D .R . Hooker and O .R . Langworthy in 1932.The advantage

a-R ays Term used in 1899 by Ernest Rutherford (18 71— 1937) o f Cambridge, to refer to radiation rays from radium

o f direct current over alternating current, and a direct cur­

which could pass through aluminum foil o f more than one-

rent capacitor discharge capable o f depolarizing the

fiftieth o f a millimeter in thickness.

myocardium transthoracically was developed by B. Lowen and R.Amarasingham in 1962. See cardioversion.

a R hythm See Berger rhythm. Alternative M edicine

The present scientific system o f

Vitamin E. Isolated from wheat germ oil

medicine has evolved from sorcery, magic, religious rituals

by Herbert McLean Evans o f California in 1935. Its formu­

and herbal m edicine, practiced since ancient times.

a T ocopherol

la was determined by Fernholtz o f N ew Jersey and its

Hippocrates (460—377 B C ), considered to be the father o f

synthesis was completed by Paul Karrer (1889—1971) o f

medicine, established medicine on a scientific basis. The

Switzerland in 1938.

medicine o f the ancient Brahmins is still practiced as Ayurvedic medicine in parts o f India and Sri Lanka. Some

A lp hon so or A lfonsine Tables See Alfonso X .

effective ancient medicines were investigated scientifically

A lpine Scurvy Pellagra in Italy was described as ‘alpine

and embraced into modern medicine. The Chinese herbal

scurvy’ by Odoardi in 1776.

drug Ma Hung used as treatment 5000 years ago, was found

A lpini, Prospero (1553-1617) Physician and botanist from

to contain ephedrine. Hundreds o f other ancient remedies

Venice. In 1580 he was physician to the Venetian consul in

such as foxglove, St Jo h n ’s w ort, rye fungus and Ammi

35

ALTITUDE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SICKNESS

visnaga have had their active ingredients identified and been

(18 18 -18 8 1), a French chemist ofWest Indian origin.The

incorporated into the m odern pharm acopoeia. Those

effect on health o f using aluminum vessels for cooking

methods which are not scientifically explained, although

was investigated by Plagge and Lebbin in 1893 .This and fur­

they may be effective, still remain as alternative medicine,

ther work, published in The Lancet in 1913, concluded that

fringe medicine or complementary medicine. Bone setters

aluminum was safe for cooking.

have evolved into chiropractors or osteopaths and their field

Alvarez, Walter Clements (b 1884) Worked at the Mayo

remains complementary or on the fringes o f medicine.

Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota. A pioneer in the use o f X -

See acupuncture, aromatherapy, bone setters, herbal medicine,

ray cinematography in 1934 for investigation o f stomach

spondylotherapy, hypnosis, chiropractic medicine.

lesions.

A ltitude Sickness [Latin: altus, high] The symptoms o f

Alveolus [Latin: alveus, hollow] Word used by Andreas

mountain or altitude sickness were described by a Jesuit

Vesalius (1514—1564) to denote the socket for the tooth, in

priest,Jose de Acosta (1539—1600) who himself experienced

1550. It was used to describe the lung by Rossignol in 1846.

the symptoms while he crossed the Peruvian Andes in 1590.

Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) used cellulae pulmoni for the

It was known to the people o f Peru as puna or sorache, and

alveoli in 1670.

later named Acosta disease. Nicholas Theodore de Saussure

Alzaharavius SeeAlbucasis.

(1767—1845) described the symptoms o f anoxemia in 1786 during his ascent o f M ont Blanc, the highest peak in western Europe. An account was also given by a Peruvian physician from Lima, C. M onge (1884—1970). Anoxemia as the cause o f the symptoms was shown in 1878 by Paul Ebert, a physiologist and successor to Claude Bernard at Paris.

A ltm ann, Richard (1852-1900) Professor at Leipzig who detected peculiar granules within the cell with his special staining methods in

1894. These were later named

mitochondria.

Altounyan, R oger Edward CoUingwood (1922-1987) British physician o f Armenian origin born in Syria. In 1967 he obtained sodium cromoglycate from the Ammi visnaga plant, which has been used for centuries as a treatment for

Alois Alzheimer (1864-1915). Courtesy of the National Library

asthma. He developed the spinhaler, based on the aerody­

of Medicine

namic principles o f the aircraft, for the delivery o f drug to

A lzheim er D isease A form o f presenile dementia described

the lungs via inhalation. He himself had asthma.

(1907) by German psychiatrist, Alois Alzheimer (1864—

A lu m Used during ancient times to prepare leather and

1915), w ho was born in M arkbreit and educated at

mentioned in the Ebers papyrus written around 2000 B C .

Würzburg. D uring his research on neuropathology at the

Sir Thomas Chaloner o f LonghuU Manor,Yorkshire started

Emil Kraepelin Psychiatric Clinic in M unich, he studied

its manufacture in 1600. An economic way o f producing it

the brains o f demented and senile patients and correlated

on a large scale, using sulfuric acid, was invented by Scottish

his histological findings with the signs and symptoms in

chemist Peter Spence in 1845.

dementia. He was professor o f psychiatry at Breslau in 1912 and died o f rheumatic endocarditis 3 years later.

A lu m in um The word alumen was used by the Rom ans to denote substances with astringent properties. Its presence in

A m aas Term used for smallpox in South Africa. Derived

clay was demonstrated by German chemist, Sigismond

from the Dutch words‘m asef o r‘mazelen’ .

Marggrafe (1709-1782) in 1754 and Oerstedt (1777-18 51)

A m algam [Greek: malakos, soft] Term introduced for alloys

obtained the chloride o f aluminum in i826.The pure metal

o f various metals by Thomas Aquinas (1225—1274) in 1240.

was extracted by E Wohler in 1827 and the mode o f obtain­ ing aluminum metal was later simplified by R obert Bunsen

A m altheus, Jerom e (1507-1574) Italian physician and poet

(18 11—1899). Production in commercial quantities was

born in Venice. He was a professor at Padua and became a

achieved in 1855 by Henri Etienne Saint-Claire Deville

scholar in Latin.

36

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

Am anita muscaria

AMBROSINI

a case o f 2 8-year-old woman to the Edinburgh Obstetrical

Scarlet fly cap fungus. Hallucinogenic

fungus, known to the northeastern Siberian tribes since the

Society in 1890. Other associated malformations were

17th century who used it to produce intoxication, halluci­

presented by W. Wylie in 1888 and L. R em fry in 1896.

nations and uncontrolled excited dancing. As the active

Am bard C oefficien t Formula to determine the concen­

principle was excreted in urine, the participants collected

trating power o f the kidney, using blood and urea ratios.

their urine and drank it to prolong intoxication. The first

Proposed in 1910 by a physiologist, Leo Ambard (b 1876) o f

fungal toxin, muscaria, was isolated by O. Schmiedeberg o f

Strasbourg. However, owing to its practical inaccuracies and

Germany in 1869.

technical difficulties, the method was abandoned.

Amanita phylloides Death cap fungus. Said to be the cause o f

A m b er [Arzhic: Anbar, Greek: elektron] Fossil gum. The first

death in 90% o f cases o f mushroom poisoning. In 1909

substance noted to produce electricity by Thales in 600 B C .

William Webber Ford estimated that at least 15 deaths occ­

The Greeks called white amber electrum and it was held in

urred in America from this species. It was investigated by

esteem as a medicinal cure. Theophrastus (370-287 B C )

Letellier, who isolated ‘amanatin’ which was thought to be

wrote about its medicinal values.

the poisonous substance, in 1826. A powerful hemolysin

A m bidextrous [Latin: ambo, on both sides or both ways +

was extracted by Eduard R u d o lf Robert (1854—1918) who named i t ‘phallin’ in 1891. John Jacob Abel (1857-1938) and

dexter,

William Webber Ford (18 71—1941) demonstrated two

states that ‘a woman does not become ambidextrous’ .This

hand] Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) in his Aphorisms

different poisons in the lungs in 1908.

notion arose from the assumption that women were o f a feeble constitution.

Amanita verna Destroying angel fungus. A poisonous mush­

A m bivalence [Latin: ambo, on both sides or both ways +

room described by Buillard o f France in 179 1.

valens, having strength or worth] Psychiatric term to denote

A m atus Portuguese physician in the i6th century whose

contradicting emotions such as love and hate experienced

real name was John R o d de Castelbranco. He wrote a

by psychotic patients. Coined by Eugene Bleuler (1857-

commentary on Avicenna (980—1037) and Dioscorides.

1939), professor o f psychiatry at Burgholzli Hospital.

A m aurosis [Greek: amaurosis, obscuring] (Syn. gutta serena)

A m blyopia [Greek: amblyos, dull + opius, eye] Hippocrates

Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) mentioned it. It usually refers to

(460—377 B C ) used the term to mean dullness o f eyesight in

blindness without apparent disease o f the eye, brought on

old age and Paul o f Aegina (625—690) used it to describe

by lesions in the brain or the optic nerve. A condition o f

incomplete amaurosis. See amaurosis.

the eye, involving a diminution or total loss o f sight, was described by Galen (129-200) andAetius ofA m ida (502-

A m blyopia Toxica (Syn. nicotinic amblyopia, tobacco amb­

575). I f it occurred suddenly, they referred the cause to

lyopia) A condition o f dimness o f vision due to tobacco

obstruction and paralysis o f the optic nerve; if it was grad­

smoking described by William Mackenzie (179 1-1868) in

ual, they believed the cause was either thickening o f the

England in 1835. A more accurate description was given by Jonathan Hutchinson (1828-1913) in 1864 and it was dis­

coats o f the optic nerve or change o f the spirits or humors

cussed exhaustively by Carl Friedrich Richard Forster

o f the eye. In the acute stages they recommended bleeding

(1825—1902) o f Germany in 1868.

from the back part o f the head and purging. Later Arab physicians, including Haly Abbas (930—994), followed the

A m b lyoscope Stereoscopic instrument designed to train

same methods.

the eye to overcome squint. Developed by London oph­ thalmologist, Claude Worth (1896-1960) around 1906.

A m aurotic Fam ily Id iocy Tay—Sachs disease and its ocu­ lar manifestations. Described by British ophthalmologist

A m boreceptor or am b ocep tor [Latin: ambo,both + capere,

and surgeon, Warren Tay (1843-1927) at the London Hos­

to take] A term given by Paul Ehrlich (1854—1915) in 1904

pital in 1880. Steinthal gave an accurate description in 1884

to the heat-resistant immune bodies which facifitated the

and the cerebral manifestations occurring almost exclusive­

fixing o f complement to the immune complex.

ly amongst Jewish children were described in detail in 1887

A m brosini, Bartholomew (d 1657) Professor o f physics and

by N ew York physician, Bernard Parney Sachs (1858-1944),

director o f the botanical garden at Bologna. He wrote De

o f Bavarian origin.

Pulsebus (1645), Theorica Medicina in Tabulas Digesta (1632)

A m azia Absence o f the mammary gland. A rare congenital

and several other treatises. He was succeeded by his brother,

condition.John William Ballantyne (1861—1923) presented

another great botanist.

37

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AMBULANCE

(1843-1910) found the same organism in the stools o f patients with dysentery in Egypt and proved it to be the causative organism. Fritz Schaudinn (18 71—1906), who discovered Treponema pallidum inoculated himself with Entamoeba histolytica and was said to have died o f its effects. W illiam Thom as Councilm an (18 54 -19 33) o f Harvard University introduced the term in 1890. M odern work was done by Clifford DobeU (1886—1949),an eminent protozo­ ologist. He wrote Ameba Living in Man (1919) and Intestinal Protozoa of Man (1921). The organism was successfully grown in culture by Boeck and Drbohlav in 1925.The path­ ogenicity o f Entamoeba histolytica was demonstrated by Early French ambulance. L Legoueste, Traité de Chirurgie d'Armée (1872).

London pathologist. Sir Leonard Rogers (1868-1962) who

Baillière et Fils, Paris

prescribed emetine as treatment.

A m bulance [Latin: ambulare, to walk] The concept o f walk­

A m ebic H epatitis M ild cases o f hepatitis in patients with

ing or ambulant hospital was proposed by the French, but

amebic dysentery were reported by A .M .M . Payne in 1945.

Queen Isabella o f Castille developed the idea o f field hos­

The occurrence o f parenchymal liver damage in patients

pitals and ambulances in 1487. H er hospital, the Q ueens

was shown by D. Shute in 1947.

Hospital, had over 400 wagons called ambulancia, which

A m eb o id M ovem ent [Greek: i3moi7?e, change + oido5, shape]

led to the current term. Later, Dominique Jean Larrey

Characteristic movement in lower organisms such as the

(1766-1842), the great army surgeon o f France, employed

ameba was noted by R osenh off (Rosel) in 1755. A des­

carts drawn by horses, which were called ‘flying ambu­

cription o f the granular movement o f protoplasm in the

lances’ to transport the wounded and the sick, in 17 8 1.The

pseudopodia o f rhizopods was given by Felix Dujardin

modern ambulance service was initiated by the Order o f

(1801—1860) o f Paris in 1841. The observation o f ameboid

St John o f Jerusalem in England in 1831. They established

movements in the protoplasm o f higher animals was made

the St Jo h n ’s Ambulance Association in 1877. It served to

by Wharton Jones during his studies on the movements o f

spread instruction in first aid and organized the transport

the white blood cells o f fish in 1846.

o f helpless patients. It was recognized by a Q ueen’s charter

A m eb o m a Mass produced by inflammation in amebiasis.

and the St Joh n ’s Ambulance Brigade was formed in

Ameboma presenting as carcinoma and vice versa was

1888. Surgeon M ajor Hutton was appointed to organize

noted by C .N . Morgan in 1946.

the ambulance work on railways in Britain in 1890. A motorized ambulance, an electromobile, was presented

A m enorrhea A symptom exploited by quacks in the 19th

by the Brigade to St Vincent’s Hospital in N ew York in

century. Hundreds o f secret remedies appeared in the

1900. The use o f motorized ambulances gradually became

market during this period were really camouflaged aborti-

established around 1913.

facients. Their names include: Dumas’ Paris piUs, Nurse Powell’s corrective piUs, Nurse M ann’s remedy. D r John

A m bulativa Ancient Greek term for herpes.

H ooper’s female pills. D r Davis’s female mixture, Jefferson

A m eba [Greek: amoibe, change] First drawn accurately by the

D odd’s corrective, M artin’s apiol and Monaid tablets.

portrait painter R osel von R o sen h of in 1773 and described

The use o f estrogenic hormones for the treatment was

in detail by O.F. M uller in 1773. The living nature o f

documented by Carl Kaufmann in 1933.

substance or sarcode (protoplasm) was recognized by

A m entia [Greek: a, without; Latin: mens, mind] Old term for

French zoologist Felix Dujardin (1801—1860) ofTours in

mental diseases in childhood.

1835. A scientific monograph. Ameba Living in Man was published by Clifford Dobell (1886-1949) in 1919. See

A m erican A cadem y o f O rth opedic Surgeons Founded

amebic dysentery, ameboid movement.

in

See American OrthopedicAssociation.

A m ebic D ysen tery The ameba was isolated from the stool

A m erican A ssociation for C ancer R esearch Founded

o f a patient with intestinal disease by Friedrich Losch

in 1907. Prior to this time funds and facilities for cancer

(1840-1903) in 1875, who called it Ameba coli. R obert Koch

research were poor in A m erica although the Buffalo

38

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AMERICAN

MEDICAL

A m erican Journal o f S cien ce

Cancer Laboratory managed to obtain some state funds in

JOURNALS

Founded in 1818 by an

1898 to continue their research. Later, in 1914, a group o f

American chemist, Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864) o f

physicians met in N ew York City and formed the American

Connecticut. He was the father o f Benjamin Silliman

Society for the Control o f Cancer.

(1816-1885),professor o f chemistry atYale who showed that petroleum was a mixture o f hydrocarbons.

A m erican A ssociation for the A dvancem ent o f Science Founded in 1847, with William Redfield (b 1789) o f

A m erican M edical A ssociation Although this was found­

Connecticut as its first president.

ed in 1 847, it remained ineffective for its first 50 years, failing to exert any influence at the state or national level. In 1899

A m erican A ssociation o f M edico-P hysical R esearch

it created the Committee on National Legislation to rep­

See Abrams, Albert.

resent it before Congress. In 1901 a reformed constitution

A m erica n B oard o f O b stetric s and G y n e c o lo g y

was brought about by a com m ittee w hich consisted o f

Around 1920 the quality o f obstetric standards in America

Joseph N. M cCorm ack o f Kentucky, P. M axwell Foshay

caused considerable concern owing to the alarming statis­

o f Cleveland and George H. Simmons o f Chicago. For the

tics on maternal deaths. This led to political intervention

next decade it expanded rapidly in terms o f membership,

and the Sheppard-Towner Act was passed to provide

leading to its increased influence on health care and medi­

postnatal and antenatal care. A strong lobby, initiated by a

cal education at a national level. This was spearheaded by

professor o f obstetrics at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, John

William James Mayo (1905), William C. Gorgas (1908) and

Whitridge Williams (1866-1931), led to the establishment

William H.Welch (1909), who served as presidents.

o f the American Board o f Obstetrics and Gynecology.

A m erican M edical B ook s Although printing was invent­

It was the third board o f specialty to be established in

ed in Europe in the 15th century it did not reach America

America in 1930.

A m erican C ollege o f Physicians

until the late i6th century. Opera Medicinalia by Francisco

Founded in 1915 in

Bravo was printed in M exico in 1570 and only three copies

N ew York after the efforts o f Heinrich Stern, who was

have survived. Summa y recopilcion de Cirugia by Lopez de

inspired by his visit to the R oyal College o f Physicians in

Hinozoso and Tracto breve de Medician by Fray Augustin

London in 1913.

Farfan were printed in M exico in 1578 and 1592, respec­

A m erican C ollege o f Surgeons Initiated in 1913 by

tively. An American treatise on smallpox was written by

Chicago surgeon, Franklin Martin, following a series o f

Thomas Thacher (1620—1678) in 1677 and a book dealing

successful

with smallpox vaccination was written by Benjamin

clinical

congresses

attended by American

Colman (1673-1747) o f Boston in 17 2 1. A book on tumors

surgeons in 19 11 (Philadelphia) and 1912 (NewYork).

was published by American surgeon, John Collins Warren

A m erican G astroenterological A ssociation One o f the

(1778-1856) in 1837. A textbook o f pediatrics, A Treatise

first specialized associations in America was founded in

on Physical and Medical Treatment of Children, was written

1897.

by William Potts Dewees (1768—1848) o f Philadelphia in

A m erican H osp ital A ssociation Started as the Association

1825. A treatise on pathological anatomy was written by

o f Hospital Superintendents in 1899. It was given its present

William Edmonds H orner (1793-1853) in 1829 and a book

name in 1906. It developed into an influential institution representing hospitals on national matters and maintaining

on toxicology was written by Theodore George Wormley (1826-1897) in 1867.

standards.

A m erican M edical Journals The first was Medical Repository, A m erican Journal o f C linical M edicin e See alkaloid clinic.

edited quarterly in N e w York by Elihu Smith, Samuel

A m erican Journal o f O bstetrics The first specialized

MitchiU and Edward MiUer. It remained as the only medical

journal to be published in America, in 1868. Its name

journal in America for 5 years and ceased in 1824.The New

was later changed to the American Journal of Obstetrics and

England Journal of Medicine and Surgery was started in 1812 and merged with the Boston Medical Intelligencer 2iS the Boston

Gynecology in 1920.

Medical and Surgical Journal in 1828. It later became the

A m erican Journal o f P harm acy See American Pharmaceu­

New England Journal of Medicine. The Philadelphia Journal of

tical Association.

Medical and Physical Sciences was published in 1820 and the

A m erican Journal o f P hysiology Founded in 1898 by a

American Medical Journal of Sciences commenced in 1838. A

group o f physiologists from the American Physiological

journal in psychology, American Journal of Psychology, was

Society.

published by Granville Stanley Hall in 1887.

39

AMERICAN

MEDICAL

SCHOOLS

AND

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

HOSPITALS

A m erican M edical S ch ools and H ospitals The oldest

Aimerican Psychiatric A ssociation Founded in 1844 in

hospital in America appears to be the Bellevue Hospital in

Philadelphia as the Association o f Medical Superintendents

N ew York City. It is supposed to have descended from a hos­

o f American Institution for the Insane by 13 superintendents

pital built by the West India Company in i650.The Blockly

o f mental hospitals. The initial object was to streamline the

Hospital, currently known as the Philadelphia General

administration and day-to-day care at mental hospitals. It

Hospital, began as an almshouse in 1720. It is probably the

later

oldest hospital in America to have functioned continuously

Association and its name was again changed in 1944.

since its formation. The Pennsylvania Hospital received its

became

the

American

Medico-Psychological

A m erican P ublic H ealth A ssociation Founded through

charter in 1751. The first medical school in America was

the efforts o f Lemuel Shattuck o f Boston. He presented an

formed at the College o f Pennsylvania in 1765 .The first reg­

exhaustive account o f the poor sanitary conditions in

ular medical degree o f Bachelor o f Medicine in America

America in Report of the Sanitary Conditions of Massachusetts

was given to ten men who graduated from the College o f

in 1850, which initiated sanitary reforms.

Philadelphia in 1768. Two more were awarded medical degrees at K ings College, N ew Y ork in 1769.The Harvard

A m erican Scientific Journals The AmericanJournal of Science

Medical School, the third medical school to be established

and Arts was founded by a chemist, Benjamin Silliman

in America in 1783, was planned by an army surgeon who

(1779-1864) o f Connecticut in 1818. Scientific American the

also served as its first professor o f anatomy.TheYale Medical

first American scientific magazine for the general reader

School was established in 1810.

was founded by Alfred Beach in 1845.

A m erican N eu rological A ssociation Founded at the sug­

A m erican Society for Pharm acology and E xperim en­

gestion ofW illiamAlexander Hammond (1828-1900), with

tal Therapeutics Founded by John Jacob Abel (1857-1938)

Roberts Bartholow (1831—1904) o f Cincinnati, Meredith

in 1908.

Clym er,J.S.Jewell,Edward Constant Seguin (1843—1898) o f

A m iadarone Antiarrhythmic drug obtained in 1961 as a

Columbia University, James Jack Putnam (1846—1918) and

result o f research on the medicinal effects o f khellin, from

T .M .R . Cross as founder members in June 1875. Silas Weir

the plant Ammi visnaga.

Mitchell (1829-1914) was its first president.

A m ici, Giovanni Battista (1786—1863) Italian physicist from

A m erican O p hthalm ological and O tological S ociety

Modena. He constructed the reflecting microscope and

Founded in i864.The otologists later withdrew and formed

improved the achromatic objective o f the microscope in

their own American Otological Society in 1868.

1812. He invented the water immersion objective in 1840 and produced the first high-power objectives using menis­

A m erican O rth opedic A ssociation Founded in 1887

cus lenses in 1844. He was professor o f astronomy at the

with Virgil P. Gibney (1847—1927) as its first president. He

University o f Pisa in 1835.

graduated fiom Bellevue Hospital Medical College, and was the first professor o f orthopedics at the Columbia

A m idopyrene Introduced as an antipyretic and analgesic in

University College o f Physicians and Surgeons from 1894.

1889. O wing to its serious side-effect o f agranulocytosis, its use was prohibited in England in 1936.

A m erican O tological S ociety See American Ophthal­ mological and Otological Society.

A m ilorid e or M K 870 Introduced as a diuretic by A.F. Lant and co-workers in 1969.

A m erican Pharm aceutical Association William Proctor (b 1817), from an eminent Quaker family who emigrated

A m ines [Greek: ammoniakon, resinous gum] See catecholamine,

fromYorkshire and settled in N ew Jersey, was a major figure

amphetamine, protamine, antihistamine, histamine.

in its foundation. He is considered the father o f American

A m in o A cid s Glycine was recognized as a hydrosylate o f

pharmacy, and edited the American Journal of Pharmacy in

gelatin (protein) by Henry Braconnot in 1820. Albrecht

1837.

Kossel (1853—1927), professor o f physiology at Hamburg,

A m erican P h ysiological S ociety Initially a society for

Germany, postulated in 1898 that proteins are made up o f

hygiene and health founded in 1837. The present Society

polypeptides, which in turn are composed o f amino acids.

was founded in 1887 with Newell Martin (1848—1896) as

Asparagine was discovered by Louis Nicolas Vanqueline

a founder member. American Journal of Physiology was first

(1763-1829) in i8o6;WiUiam Hyde Wollaston (1766-1822)

published in 1898.

discovered cystine in 1810; leucine was discovered by J.L .

40

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AMMOTHERAPY

Proust (1754—1826) in 1819; and Bopp discovered tyrosine

methotrexate, was found to be more effective in treatment

in 1849. German chemist Emil Fischer (1852—1919) in 1902

o f leukemia. See methotrexate.

linked 18 amino acids. Their importance in human diges­

A m inorex Introduced as an appetite suppressant in Switzer­

tion and metabolism was not recognized until 1906 when

land as M enoril in 1965. It was found to be the cause o f an

Otto Folin (1867-1934) o f Harvard University and Willey

epidemic o f pulmonary hypertension from 1965 to 1968

G. Dennis o f Massachusetts General Hospital demonstrated

and was withdrawn in 1968.

that they appeared in blood after a protein meal. Specific amino acids were isolated from blood by John J. Abel

A m itosis [Greek: mitos, thread + a, negative prefix] Direct

(1857—1938) in 1913. He also isolated epinephrine and

method o f ceU division such as that found in ameba, investi­ gated by Walther Flemming (1843-1905) o f Leipzig in 1882

antidiuretic hormone. The ‘nitrous acid’ method o f esti­

but later found to be a misinterpretation.

mation by measuring the volume o f nitrogen liberated was invented by Donald Dexter Van Slyke (1883—1971) in

A m m an , John Conrad (d 1730) Swiss physician who devot­

1912. A few years later Thomas Burr Osborne (1859—1929),

ed his time to teaching the deaf to speak in France and

Lafayette Benedict Mendel and others distinguished be­

Holland. He published Surdus Loquens in 1692.

tween essential and non-essential amino acids. The study

A m m an , Paul ( 1634—1691) German physician and botanist

was advanced by the introduction o f electrophoresis in

who became professor o f natural history, philosophy and

1930 by Swedish chemist, Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius

botany at Leipzig. He wrote Archaeus Syncopticus, Irenecum

(1902—1971). His principle was used for the development o f

Numae Pompilii cum Hippocrate, Character Naturalis Piantarum

chromatography by A .H . Gordon, R .L .M . Synge and John

and many other works.

Porter Archer Martin. They used water on cellulose (filter A m m i visnaga A plant from the eastern Mediterranean used

paper) as a medium for electrophoretic analysis in i944.This technique was used by Charles Dent to identify 60

for centuries to treat asthma. Its active ingredient, kheUin,

different amino acids in 1948.The solid phase method o f

was found to increase coronary blood flow and was tried as

synthesizing peptides and peptones was devised by R obert

treatment for angina in 1936. Sodium cromoglycate, currently used in the prophylactic treatment o f asthma, was

Bruce M errifield (b 1921), a professor at Rockefeller U ni­

obtained from its seeds in 1967.

versity, N ew York, in 1959.The sequence o f nucleic acids in each o f the 20 amino acids o f the human body was deter­

A m m o n Fissure Pear-shaped aperture in the sclera at an

mined by Har Govind Khorana (b 1922) from Raipur,

early fetal stage. Described by Friedrich August von

Pakistan while he was at the Institute o f Enzyme Research

Ammon (1799—1861), professor o f pathology at Dresden.

atWisconsin.

A m m o n , Friedrich August von (1799-1861) Professor o f pathology at Dresden. He described the cilia on the inner

A m inoaciduria The presence o f amino acids in urine and cystine crystals in bone marrow o f patients with cystinosis

surface o f the ciliary body o f the eye (Ammon filaments)

was demonstrated by Dutch pathologist, G.O.E. Lignac

in 1858.

(1891—1954) in 1924. A form o f renal tubular dysfunction

A m m o n H orn The pes hippocampi. In transverse section it

(Fanconi syndrome) leading to aminoaciduria and cystic

resembles a ram’s horn. The ram-headed Egyptian god is

fibrosis o f the pancreas was described by Guido Fanconi (1892—1979), a Swiss professor o f pediatrics at the Univer­

Ammon.

A m m o n ia Supposed to have been obtained by burning

sity o f Zurich in 1946. Routine diagnostic examination

camel dung in the temple o f Ammon in'Libya.The compo­

o f urine for different forms o f aminoaciduria was made

sition, a mixture o f nitrogen and hydrogen, was suggested

possible by the application o f chromatography by C.E.

by a chemist, Joseph Priestley (1733—1804) from Leeds in

Dent in 1946. See chromatography.

A m inocaproic A cid

1774 and it was shown by C.L. Berthelot (1827—1907) in

Synthetic fibrinolytic inhibitor

1875-

discovered by Okamoto and colleagues in 1957.

A m m o n ia s o f A lexandria or L ith otom os (283-247 B C )

A m in oglycosid es See actinomycin, streptomycin,gentamycin.

A surgeon who performed lithotrity for stones in the urinary bladder. He used a hook to hold the stone in the

A m inop terin Antifolic acid agent. Introduced as treatment

bladder and a blunt instrument to break the stone.

for leukemia by Sidney Faber, an American cancer scientist, in 1948. It was introduced as treatment for psoriasis by

A m m otherapy [Greek: ammos, sand + therapeia, healing]

R . Gubner o f America in 1951 .A closely related compound,

Treatment o f disease by sand bath.

41

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AMNESIA

A m nesia [Greek; a, negative + mnasthai, remember] Loss o f

reports o f 1893 most cases occurred in the provinces o f

memory. Mnemosyne, the mother o f the Muses, was the

Rem bang and Madura.

Greek goddess o f memory.

A m on ton s, Guillaume (1663-1705) French mathematician

A m n iocen tesis Contributions to the Theory of Liquor Amnii

and instrument maker at Paris who invented: an air

and its Origin was written by L. Prowchownick o f Germany

thermometer (1702); conical nautical barometer (1695);

in 1877.

obtained amniotic fluid samples using an egg

hygrometer (1687); and a folded barometer (1688). He

membrane piercer. Application o f this procedure to humans

proposed the relationship o f air to pressure and temperature

was suggested by F. Schatz in 1882. The procedure was

in 1707.

performed by M . Henkel o f Germany in a case o f polyhy­

A M P or A denosine M onophosphate Discovered by Earl

dramnios in 1919. The next documented use was for the

Wilbur Sutherland (1915-1974) during his research on hor­

amniography by three radiologists T D . M enees,J.D. Miller

mones at Washington University, St Louis around 1950. He

and L.E. H olly in Michigan in 1933. O wing to fetal deaths,

received his medical degree from the University School o f

the interest in amniography tailed ofi'until it was revived in

Medicine in St Louis in 1942 and became Director o f the

1952 by Douglas C .B ev in o f England who used it to diag­

Western Reserve University in Cleveland in 1953. He was

nose or predict hemolytic disease o f the newborn. Studying

awarded the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for

chromosomes o f cells in amniotic fluid was introduced by

his work on hormones in 19 71. See A TP.

Steele and Breg in 1966. Prenatal diagnosis o f D own syn­ drome by amniocentesis was made in 1968 and has become

A m pere, Andre M arie (1775—1836) Lived during the time

an important tool in antenatal diagnosis.

o f French Revolution and his father was guillotined. He deduced the formula for measuring electricity while

A m niography [Greek: amnion, bowl + graphein, to write]

professor at the Ecole Polytechnique o f Paris in 1775 and

Method introduced in 1930 by T D . Menees,J.D. M iller and

the SI unit o f current is named in his honor.

L.E. H olly for localizing the placenta. It was further devel­ oped by Munroe Kerr and Makay in 1933 but, owing to

A m phetam ine Synthesized in 1927 and amphetamine

reports o f several fetal deaths following the procedure, it was

sulfate was introduced into cHnical use for treatment o f

gradually abandoned.

narcolepsy in 1935. Dexamphetamine and methylamphetamine became available a few years later. Dependence on

A m n ion [Greek: amnion, bowl] Introduced into anatomy by

amphetamines was recognized as a problem after World War

Galen (129—200) to refer to the fetal membrane.

U. Early abusers were mainly women who were prescribed it

A m n ioscop y [Greek: amnion, bowl + skopein, to look] A

for slimming or for depression. Following the demonstration

method o f assessing the color and volume o f the liquor

o f the psychotic and addictive properties o f amphetamines

amnii before the onset o f labor when the membranes are

by

ConneU

in

1958, their

use

became

restricted.

stiU intact. Introduced around 1964. In 1966, E. Saling

A m p him ixis [Greek: amphi, both ways + mixis, mingling]

published a series o f 894 patients who had undergone amnioscopy and his work showed the risk o f perinatal

Reproduction by fusion o f two gametes during fertilization

mortality from the procedure to be 9 per 1000 births.

was described by August Friedrich Leopold Weismann (1834-1914) ofjena in 1891.

A m n io tic Fluid E m b o lism Reported by J .R . M eyer o f Brazil in 1926 in a 2 1 -year-old woman with a dead fetus

A m phioxus A lancet-shaped marine creature discovered in

who suddenly died during labor. A detailed account o f

British waters in 1824. It has been used extensively in

Maternal Pulmonary Embolism by Amniotic Fluid As a Cause

embryology due to features common in the lowest verte­

of Obstetric Shock and Unexpected Deaths in Obstetrics was

brates and all vertebrate embryos. An early work was done

given by two Americans, Paul Steiner (1902-1978) o f

by Hackels pupil, Alexander Kowalewsky (1840—1901) in

Chicago and a medical student C .C . Lushbaugh (b 1916)

1866.

in 1941.

A m p h oric Breath Sounds [Greek: amphora, vessel] Sounds similar to those o f blowing air through the mouth o f a

A m n iotic Fluid See amniocentesis.

vessel. Noted on auscultation o f the chest by R en é Laënnec

A m o k [Malay: amok, impulse to murder] A disorder o f mind

(178 1-18 26 ) in 1819.

amongst Malays and Indians, where the affected person, after a period o f withdrawal or depression, made violent

A m p h otericin B Potent antifungal agent obtained from a

attempts to kill people. A ccording to official colonial

culture o f Streptomyces nodosus from Venezuela by W. Gold,

42

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

AMYLOIDOSIS

5000 years ago by the Egyptians. Bezoars (goats) were

H .A. Stout and others in 1956.

supposed to prevent melancholia and precious stones were

A m pule Container for sterile solutions used for injections.

used as amulets by high priests. Parts o f animal bodies and

Invented by Stanislaus Limousin o f Paris in 1886.

metals were also used as cures. Seefolklore.

A m pulla o f Vater [Latin: ampulla, drinking vessel with a A m ussat O peration Jean ZuUena Amussat (1796-1856) a

bulge in the center] The ampulla o f the bile duct was des­

surgeon at Paris,performed a lumbar colotomy for obstruc­

cribed by Abraham Vater (1684—1751), professor o f botany,

tion o f the colon in 1839. He later adapted the procedure

anatomy, pathology and therapeutics at Wittenberg in 1720.

to treat atresia o f the anus. During this latter operation the

A m putation The Greek surgeon Archigenes, who lived

mucous membrane was brought down and sutured to the

around A D 100, amputated limbs for indications such as

margin o f the new anus. See artificial anus.

gangrene, malignant tumors, life-threatening injuries and

A m ygdaloid [Greek: amygdale, almond + oeides, shape] Term

severe deformities o f the limb preventing its use. R ed-h ot iron was applied to stop bleeding and he suggested ligature

for swollen tonsils during the translation o f Avicennas

to stop bleeding. Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) and Galen

works in A D 1000. The inferomedial parts o f the cerebella

(129-200) recommended that it be performed at a joint.

hemispheres lodged within the foramen magnum were

Paul o f Aegina (AD 625-690) recommended amputation

later termed amygdalae, owing to their similarity to swollen

for the same indications as suggested by Archigenes. French

tonsils.

surgeon

Ambroise

Paré

(1510-1590)

revolutionized

A m yl N itrate Discovered by Jerome Antoine Balard (18 02-

surgery by introducing ligation. The circular method o f

1876) o f Paris in 1844. Samuel Guthrie (1782-1848), a well

amputating limbs was used by English naval surgeon, John

known chemist, described its inhalational effects. Sir

Woodall (1556—1643) in 1617 and his technique was later

Benjamin Ward Richardson

improved by another English naval surgeon, James Yonge

Gamgee

(16 47-1721) o f Plymouth. Dominique Jean Larrey (1766-

(1828—1896) and Arthur

(18 4 1—1909) observed the vasodilator and

hypotensive effects. It was tried as a treatment for angina

1842), the famous French army surgeon, performed three

pectoris by Thomas Lauder Brunton (1844-1916) o f St

amputations at the hip joint, two in Egypt and one in

Bartholomews Hospital in 1867 and proved to be very

France, around 1760.

effective. It remained as the only effective drug for treat­ ment for angina until nitroglycerin was introduced by William Murrell (1853-1912) in 1879.

A m ylase [Greek: amylum, starch] Enzyme identified by Gottlieb Sigismund Constantin Kirchhoff (1764-1833) in 18 11. French chemist Anselme Payen (179 5-1871) extracted a substance from germinated barley seeds that was capable o f breaking down starch to sugar in 1833 and named it. Julius Wohlgemuth (1874—1948) o f Germany detected it in urine o f patients with pancreatitis in 1908.This was the first instance o f the diagnosis o f a disease through detection o f an enzyme and it formed the basis for diagnostic enzymology. Amputation. Lorenz Heister, A General System of Surgery (1757). Innys, Richardson, Clark, Mansby, Whiston, Whyte, Cox & Reymers, London

Estimation o f serum amylase as a routine diagnostic test for pancreatitis was advocated by R . Elman in 1937.

A m yloidosis Described in 1842 in the kidney by Karl

A m singiu, John Asseur or Ampsingius (1559-1642) Dutch

Rokintansky (1804—1878) who called it the ‘bacon kidney’ .

physician who became professor o f medicine at Rostock.

The characteristic reaction o f amyloid to iodine and sulfu­

He wrote Dessertio latromathematica, De Theorica and De

ric acid was demonstrated in 1853 by J. Meckel, who

Morborum Differentiis.

mistook amyloid for cholesterol. Rudolph Virchow (18 21—

A m u let [Arabic: /îijmiï/ei, pendant] Charms or talismans have

1902) considered it to be cellulose and coined the term in

been used as protection and cures o f diseases since ancient

i854.The clinical features o f amyloid kidney were described

times. The symbol o f the eye o f Horus was used in amulets

by R obert Bendy Todd (1809-1860) o f K ing’s College,

43

AMYOTONIA

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

CONGENITA

London in 1857. Secondary amyloidosis o f liver, spleen,

exposure to oxygen the lactic acid disappeared.

intestines and kidneys arising as a result o f empyema,

Anal Fissure The causes, mechanism o f production and

hepatic abscess or pulmonary phthisis was described by C.

treatment o f the condition were described in detail by

Neumann o f Germany in 1861. A case o f primary

French surgeon,Alexis Boyer (1757-1833) in 1819.

amyloidosis was reported by Carl Wild in 1886.

Anal Fistula Surgical operations are described by Susruta,

A m yotonia C ongenita See Oppenheim disease.

(AD 500), in a book belonging to the Brahmins o f India.

A m yotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Wasting palsy Guillaume

Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) in his de Fistulis, considered it to

B.A . Duchenne (1806-1875) described it in 1849 and

be the result o f a tubercle (abscess) or contusion accumulat­

French physician, François Amilcar Aran (1817—1861) later

ing in the nates near the anus, specially owing to activities

described it as progressive muscular atrophy in 1850. Aran’s

such as rowing or horse riding. He advised early incision to

view that it was a primary disease o f the muscle was shared

prevent it opening in to the rectum. Aulus Cornelius Celsus

by Duchenne in 1853. French pathologist,Jean Cruveilheir

(25 B C —A D 50) also described an operation for it. British

(1791-1874) described it in 1853 and it came to be known as

surgeon John o f Ardane (1307—1390), who practiced as a

Cruveilheir disease. Lockhart Clarke (1817-1880) des­

specialist in rectal disorders in London, operated on anal fis­

cribed the changes in the anterior horn cells o f the spinal

tula. He excised the wall o f the fistula while he controlled

column in 1861 .Wasting o f the ganglion cells was described

bleeding by applying pressure. He later wrote an illustrated

by Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893) who differentiated it

treatise on the subject which is probably the first surgical

into two conditions: the Aran—Duchenne type, manifesting

monograph on proctology.

primarily as muscle wasting; and another type showing

A nalgesic N ephropathy The association between pro­

degeneration o f the pyramidal tract o f the spinal cord.

longed analgesic use and chronic renal failure was pointed

A m ytal S od iu m Synthesized in 1923. One o f the first intra­

out by O. Spuhler and H .U. Zollinger o f Germany in 1953.

venous barbiturates used for anesthesia by Leon Grotius

Phenacetin was the first drug to be incriminated in this.

Zerfas (b 1897) and J.T .C . MacCallum o f Indianapolis in

A nalgesics Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D 50) wrote

1929.

De Medicina which mentioned the use o f mandrake and

A N A or A ntinuclear antibodies Their detection by the

poppy for relief o f pain in his fifth book on drugs. M yrrh, a

fluorescence technique was described by E.J. Holborn,

substance obtained from Commiphora, was used as an anal­

D.M.Weir and G.D.Johnson in the British MedicalJournal in

gesic by ancient Greeks and Rom ans.The bark o f the white

i957.The different nuclear patterns o f staining seen in vari­

willow, Salix alba, containing salicylic acid, remains an

ous disease conditions by fluorescence was published byJ.S.

ancient remedy for pain. M odern analgesics started to be

Bech in The Lancet in 1961.

discovered in the 19th century.The first analgesic drug, sali­

A nabolism [Greek: ana, up + bolos, throw] Constructive

cylic acid, was obtained in a pure form in 1853 and

stage o f metabolism. See metabolism.

acetanilide followed in 1875. Phenacetin was introduced in 1SH6. See aspirin.

A naerobic B acteria [Greek: ¿7, without + aer, 2iir + bios, \i£c] Term used by Louis Pasteur (1822—1895) to refer to a group

A nam nestic R eaction The production o f antibodies in an

o f bacteria that existed without oxygen and were harmed

animal remains dormant until it is challenged by the same

by its presence. He made this discovery during his experi­

antigen. Noted by Clemens E. von Pirquet (1874—1929) in

ments on the resolution o f tartaric acid into racemes in

19 11.

1848.

Anaphase [Greek: ana, up + phasis, appearance] Used to A naerobic M etabolism Decisive experiments linking mus­ cle

contraction

with

anaerobic

glycolysis

describe the third phase o f cell division by mitosis [Greek:

were

thread] byWalther Flemming (1843-1905) o f Prague

performed by William Fletcher and Frederick Gowland

in 1882. It was popularized by German botanist, Eduard

Hopkins (1861-1947) in 1907. While working on isolated

A d olf Strasburger (1844—1912) in 1884.

frog muscles they found that contraction o f the muscles caused by electrical stimulation, in the absence o f oxygen, led

Anaphrodisiacs [Greek: a, without + phrodesia, venus]

to accumulation o f lactic acid. If the anaerobic stimulation

Medications and methods used to diminish sexual passion.

was continued the muscle eventually failed to resp­

Some used in the past include cold baths, ice, flagellation

ond and was said to be fatigued. They also noted that on

and warm underclothes. Bromide o f potassium and

44

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANATOMY

ammonium, iodide o f potassium, camphor, digitalis, purga­

ACT

A natom y [Greek: îzwîï,through + temnein,to cut]The ancient Chinese believed that the trachea opened into the heart and

tives, nauseates and bleeding v^ere tried in the 19th century.

the spinal cord into the testicles.The Egyptians learnt most

Anaphylaxis [Greek: ana, backward or up + phylax, protec­

o f their anatomy through embalming bodies. Most o f the

tion or guard] Term used to denote an allergic reaction by

anatomical knowledge o f the Jews during this period was

R obert Charles R ich et (1850—1935), professor o f physiolo­

obtained through inspection o f meat at slaughterhouses.

gy at Paris in 1902. It has been known since ancient times

Herophilus o f Chalcedon and Erasistratus who was a

and a Chinese herbal drug called Ma Hung, containing

teacher at the University o f Alexandria, were the first to

ephedrine, was used as treatment 5000 years ago.The fatal

do human dissections, around 250 B C . Human dissections

effects o f injecting albumin into rabbits that were already

were banned in the Rom an Empire around 150 B C , and

sensitized to this protein by previous injections was demon­

from this period up to the time o f Andreas Vesalius

strated by François Magendie (1783-1855) in 1839. In 1894

(1514—1564), the knowledge o f anatomy remained patchy

Simon Flexner (1863—1946) reiterated this finding by

and inaccurate. Galen (129—200) based most o f his deduc­

demonstrating the fatal effect o f the second dose o f dog

tions from dissections o f apes and other animals. Some

serum in animals which had previously received a dose o f

notable anatomists o f the Middle Ages in Europe include

the same serum. R ichet found that extracts from sea

Thaddeus o f Florence (1223-1303), his pupil Mondino di

anemones and other sea organisms did not produce any ill

Luzzi (1270-1336) and Henri de Mondeville (1270-1320).

effects when injected into the dogs for the first time. The

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) made accurate anatomical

same substance when injected for the second time pro­

drawings o f muscles, heart, nerves, bones, blood vessels and

duced a severe life-threatening reaction.These observations

other organs .Vesalius produced his magnificent textbook o f

led to the concept and early understanding o f sensitization,

anatomy in 1543. He was the first to challenge the erro­

leading to understanding o f the antigen—antibody reaction.

neous statements on anatomy by Galen. After Vesalius,

The physiological mechanisms o f anaphylactic death were

anatomy became a regular part o f the curriculum in med­

studied by John Auer (1875-1948) and Paul Lewis (1879-

ical studies and anatomical theaters were established at

1929) in 1910. Samuel James Meltzer (1851—1920) extended

Padua (1549), Montpellier (1551) and Basel (1588). The

these findings to clinical studies by proving that similar

first anatomy book in English, A Treasure for Englishmen,

physiological mechanisms were involved in asthma. Richet

Containing the Anatomie of Man's Body was written by a sur­

later received the N obel Prize for his work on anaphylaxis

geon from Maidstone,Thomas Vicary (1495—1561) in 1548.

in 1913. The phenomenon o f passive anaphylaxis was

A law was passed in England in 1540 allowing barbers and

demonstrated by Maurice N icolle (1862—1932) o f the

surgeons to dissect four bodies o f executed criminals each

Pasteur Institute in 1907.

year in order to promote anatomy. Following the establish­

A narguori [Greek: a, without + arguor, silver] Physicians

ment o f the study o f anatomy as a regular subject in the

who practiced without fees or any other form o f reward. St

English medical curriculum, an acute shortage o f bodies for

Cosmos and St Damien o f Syria were two such physicians

dissection emerged, which led to body snatching and

in the 5th century.

murders.The supply o f bodies for dissection was later regu­ larized by the Anatomy Act o f i832.The study o f anatomy

Anasarca [Greek: ana, through + sarcx, flesh] Massive gener­

related to diseases (morbid anatomy) was established

alized edema o f the body. See dropsy.

by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682—1771) who was a

A nastom osis [Greek: ana, up or through + stoma, mouth]

professor at Padua in the early i8th century.

Connection o f one vessel to another. The fact that severed

A natom y A ct When the study o f anatomy became a regular

arteries and veins could be reunited by end-to-end ana­

part o f the medical curriculum in England around 1700,

stomosis was demonstrated by John Benjamin M urphy

there were no organized sources o f cadavers for anatomical

(1857—1916) in i897.The modern method o f vascular anas­

dissections. Body snatching from burial grounds was a com ­

tomosis was introduced by Alexis Carrel (1884—1947), a

mon method o f obtaining bodies and murders began to

pioneer in transplantation surgery in America. See intestinal

take place in order to supply bodies for profit. In 1829, the

anastomosis.

exposure o f 16 murders committed by William Hare and

A natom ical S ociety o f Great B ritain and Ireland

William Burke in Edinburgh, in order to supply bodies,

Founded by Charles Barrett Lockwood, a surgeon at St

dictated the need for the control o f the supply o f bodies for

Bartholom ews Hospital,London in 1887.

dissection.

45

Later,

in

1832,

Lord

H enry Warburton

ANATOMY,

PRIVATE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCHOOLS

(1784-1858) brought in the Anatomy Act, which made pro­

A ncrod or arvin Proteinase obtained from the venom o f

vision for all unclaimed bodies to go to the medical schools.

the Malayan pit viper, Agkistradon rhodostoma. The clinical

See burking, William Burke, Burke and Hare murders.

features o f patients following the bite were described by H .A. R eid and co-workers in 1963. A predominant

Anatom y, Private S chools Many private anatomy schools,

systemic feature was a hemostatic defect which R e id and

which also taught physiology, were established during

others attributed to defibrination caused by the venom. A

the period 1740—1840. The Great Windmill Street School

purified fraction o f the venom was obtained as a therapeutic

started under Samuel Sharp (1700—1778), a London sur­

agent for anticoagulation as ‘ancrod’ and was tried as treat­

geon and pupil o f Cheselden. It was taken over by William

ment for deep vein thrombosis by W R . Bell and colleagues

Hunter (1718—1783) in 1746 and then existed at Covent

in 1968.

Garden. John Hunter (1728-1793) also lectured at the

Anchylostoma duodenale [Greek: ankylos, crooked or hooked

school and when William died in 1783, Matthew Baillie (176 1—1823), his nephew, took over. A complete course o f

+ stoma, mouth] (Syn. anemia o f Ceylon, tropical chlorosis,

anatomy, surgery and medicine started at the school around

mal de coeur, dirt-eating disease) The symptoms o f hook­

1800. Charles Bell (1774-1842) joined it in 1812 and with

worm disease were known to the ancient Egyptians and

the foundation o f University College in 1828 the Windmill

described in the Ebers Papyrus. It was described as opilatio

Street School ceased to exist. John Bell (1763-1820), a

by Willem Piso (16 11-16 78 ) who observed it in Brazil in

brother o f Charles Bell, opened the first private anatomy

. Anchylostoma was described as an intestinal parasite by

school at Edinburgh in 1790. The Webb Street School in

Angelo Dubini (1813—1902) in 1838, who also gave the par­

London, started by Grainger o f Birmingham in 1819, pro­

asite its present name in 1843. It was identified as the cause

vided courses in anatomy, surgery, midwifery, medicine and

o f Egyptian chlorosis by Wilhelm Griesinger (1817-1868)

chemistry. It had several hundred students and lasted until

in 1854. The fecal test for diagnosis o f hookworm disease

i842.Joseph Carpue (1764—1846) started his school in Dean

was devised by Giovanni Battista Grassi (1854—1925) o f Italy in 1878, before which time it was diagnosed only at post-

Street, Soho around 1800 and it lasted until 1830.

mortem.The mode o f entry o f the parasite through the skin

A naudos [Greek: a, negative or without + audos, voice]

was demonstrated by Charles Albert Bendy (1873—1949) in

Ancient term for loss o f voice.

i902.The American variety o f the hookw orm , Necator americanus, was discovered by Allan J. Smith and named by

Anaxagoras (488-428 B C ) Greek scientist who gave expla­ nations for eclipses, meteors, rainbows, sun, moon and stars,

Charles Wardell Stiles (1867—1941) o f the U S Public Health

although some o f his theories were obscure and bizarre. He

Service in 1902. See miner’s anemia.

considered the sun to be a mass o f metal reflecting the light

A ncylostom iasis SeeAncylostoma duodenale.

o f the moon, and stars to be heavenly bodies made white hot by heat. Despite some o f his other rational explanations

A ndernach, Johann Winther von (1487—1574) Professor o f

he was prosecuted on religious grounds and had to leave

medicine at Louvain who described the wormian bones or ossa suturarum (Andernach ossicles) in 1536.

Athens.

Anders, James Mescheter (1854-1936) American physician

A naxim ander o f M iletus (611—547 B C ) He mapped the

and graduate (1877) o f the U niversity o f Pennsylvania,

Earth giving details o f its surface and speculated on the size

Philadelphia, where he became professor o f medicine. He

and distances o f the heavenly bodies or stars. He proposed

described small fatty subcutaneous tender nodules in the

that man evolved from aquatic animals.

extremities or on the abdomen (Anders disease).

A naxim enes (570 B C ) Greek scientist and philosopher who

A ndersen Syndrom e See cysticfibrosis.

proposed that the essence o f all things was air which he named ‘pneuma’ to denote ‘breath’ .

A nderson, Elizabeth Garrett (1836—1917) The first woman to qualify in medicine in England. She was born in London

A nazoturia Reduced excretion o f urea and solids in the

and brought up in Aldburgh, Suffolk. She obtained her

urine.Term coined by R.W illis in 1838.

diploma from the Society o f Apothecaries in 1865 against

A nconeus [Greek: ancon, elbow] Galen (129—200) used the

much opposition and established a dispensary for women

term ‘ancon’ for the olecranon. Jakob Benignus Winslow

in London in 1866. She started medical courses for women

(1669—1760) named the muscles attached to the olecranon

at her dispensary at Euston R o ad under the name N ew

‘anconeii’ around 1740.

Hospital for Women, later renamed the Elizabeth Garrett

46

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANDROGEN

Anderson Hospital. She was elected the first woman mayor

was instrumental in establishing the London Hospital, in

in England,at Aldeburgh in 1908.

which he was a senior physician. He wrote A n Account of the Tilbury Water (4 editions) in 17 37 ,H Case of Epilepsy Hysteria

A nderson O peration A procedure for lengthening a ten­

and Fits and St Vitus Dance, with the Process of Cure (1746)

don. Devised by R o ger Anderson (b 1891), an orthopedic

and Observations Upon a Treatise on the Virtues of Hemlock in

surgeon from Seattle,Washington. He also devised an exter­

the Cure of Cancers (1761).

nal fixation splint (Anderson splint) for fracture o f long bones in 1934.

Andrews O peration A method o f treating inguinal hernia with the application o f overlapping sutures. Designed by

A nderson Scots Pills A secret remedy offered by Patrick

American surgeon, Edward Wyllys Andrews (1856-1927)

Anderson, a physician at Edinburgh in the 17th century. He

o f Chicago in 1895.

published the virtues o f the pills in Grana Angelica in 1635. After his death his pills were marketed by his daughter

Andrews, Thomas (1813—1885) Physician from Belfast who

Catherine who communicated the secret to an Edinburgh

studied chemistry and became professor o f chemistry there

surgeon,Thomas Weir.The pills remained in popular use for

in 1849. He did a remarkable series o f experiments with

well over 200 years until 1910. Analysis showed that they

carbon dioxide from 1863 to 1869 and was the first to estab­

contained 40 ingredients but no specific therapeutic value

lish the true nature o f ozone as an allotrophic form o f

could be determined.

oxygen. In his experiments with carbon dioxide he found

A nderson Syndrom e

the critical temperature o f gases above which they cannot

Bronchiectasis and vitamin A

be liquefied, in 1869.

deficiency in children with cystic fibrosis o f the pancreas, often leading to a fatal outcome. Described by N ew York

A ndrogenesis or Male Parthenogenesis Asexual repro­

pediatrician,Dorothy Hansine Handerson (b 1901).

duction o f male gamete without fertilization. Described

A nderson, Sir Thomas M cCall (1836-1908) Professor o f

by American professor o f zoology at Columbia University,

physics at the University o f Glasgow and a founder o f the

N ew York, Edmund Beecher Wilson (1856—1939) from

Hospital for Skin Diseases which started as a clinic at

Illinois in 1928.

Elmbank Street. He published Diseases of the Skin (1887) and

A ndrogen [Greek: aner, male + gennan, to produce] The use

Diagnosis and Treatment of Syphilitic Affections of the Nervous

o f testicular tissue as treatment for impotence was described

System.

in the Ayur-Veda o f the Hindus. A scientific demonstration

A nderson, Tempest (1846—1913) Ophthalmic surgeon from

o f the remote effects o f an internal secretion from the testis

York who was educated at University College, London. He

was given by Arnold Adolph Berthold (1803-1861). He

returned to York as ophthalmic surgeon to the York County

transplanted the testis o f a rooster to another part o f the

Hospital.

body in a different bird which had been castrated. He was able to prevent the sequelae o f castration and maintain the

A nderson, W. (1842-1900) English physician who graduat­

normal growth o f the comb in 1849. The first active male

ed from St Thomas’ Hospital in 1864 and served as head

hormone extract was obtained from the lipoid fraction o f

o f the Naval Medical College in Tokyo for 7 years until

bull testis by Lemuel Clyde M cG ee (b 1904) o f America in

his return to St Thomas as a surgeon in 1880. He described

1927. He injected this fraction into capons and demonstrat­

the sex-linked disorder characterized by skin lesions and

ed its effect in correcting the sequelae o f castration (capon-

renal failure, angiokeratoma corporis diffusum universale

comb test). A crude active male hormone was extracted

(Anderson-Fabrey disease) in 1898. The same condition

from male urine by Casimir Funk

had been described earlier by a German dermatologist,

(1884—1967) and

Benjamin Harrow (1888—1970) in 1929. A quantitative

J.Fabrey (1860—1930).

physiological assay o f this was designed by Frederick

Andral, Gabriel (1797—1876) French physician at Paris. He

Conrad Koch, TF. Gallagher and Carl Richard M oore

described the characteristic posture (Andral sign) in

(1892—1955).The pure crystalline form was obtained in 1931

pleurisy, in which the patient assumes a supine position,

by A d olf Friedrich Johan Butenandt (b 1903) o f Germany,

resting on the healthy side.

who named it androsterone. He established the structural formula for it in 1933 and extracted dihydroandrosterone

Andre, Nicholas (1658-1742) SeeAndry, Nicholas.

from male urine in 1934. Testosterone from the testicular

Andree, John (1739—1785) Physician from Switzerland who

tissue was isolated by K. David, E. Emanse, F. Freud and E.

graduated from Rheim s in 1739. He settled in London and

Laqueur in 1933. It was prepared artificially from cholesterol

47

ANDROMACHUS

OF

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

CRETE

by Swiss chemist, Leopold Ruzicka (1887-1976) from

infections such as syphilis and malignant diseases were rec­

Croatia and Albert Wettstein o f Switzerland in 1935.

ognized as a cause o f anemia in the early 1900s, but the

Butenandt and Ruzicka shared the N obel Prize in

mechanism o f production remained obscure. A classifica­

Chemistry in 1939. The orally active preparation o f testos­

tion based on red cell morphology was proposed by

terone, methyltestoster-one, was produced by K. Miescher

M axwell M yer Wintrobe (b 1901) in 1930. See hemolytic

andE.Tschopp in 1938.

anemia,pernicious anemia.

Androm achus o f Crete (AD 60) Physician to Emperor

A nesthesia [Greek: a, negative + aisthesig, sensation] The

Nero. He invented a cure-all remedy or panacea, Thericae

term was used in a philosophical sense by Plato around 400

Andromachi, composed o f 60 different medicines. His fo mula

B C . Dioscorides used it to denote the absence o f physical

was used by Greek and Arab physicians for over 1500 years.

sensation. From ancient times up to the Renaissance anes­ thetic drugs used to relieve pain were obtained from herbs

A ndrosterone See androgen.

such as hemlock, mandragora, opium, hellebore and others.

Andry, Nicholas (1658-1742) French surgeon from Lyons

Wine was used liberally and mandrake wine was used for

who became professor and Dean o f the Royal College at

surgery by Dioscorides. Mandrake was also a popular

Paris. His works include Traite de la generation des vers dans

anesthetic during the Middle Ages. The method o f com­

lecorps de Vhomme, Remarques de medicine sur differents sujets

pression o f the carotid artery until the patient became

and Examen de differents points dAnatomie. He suggested the

unconscious to perform

germ theory o f disease, coined the term ‘orthopedics’ and

mentioned in Aristotle’s Historia Animalorum. Herbal nar­

surgery or relieve pain is

wrote a textbook on orthopedics in 1741. He described

cotics were less used in the late Renaissance period and

infraorbital neuralgia in 1756.

induction o f stupor by herbal narcotics was banned in France during this period. Valerius Cordus (1515-1544)

A nel O peration SeeAnel, Dominique.

wrote the first European pharmacopoeia and obtained

Anel, Dominique (1679—1725) French surgeon fromToulouse

ether from sulfuric acid and alcohol in 1540. He called the

who was the first to catheterize the lachrymal duct in 1712.

substance oleum dulci vitrioli, which meant sweet vitriol.The

He devised the procedure (Anel operation) o f tying the

name ‘ether’ was given two centuries later by Frobenus o f

aneurysm at the proximal end, before John Hunter (1728—

Germany in 1730. Its anesthetic property was not recog­

1793),in 1710.

nized until

1842, when Crawford Williamson Long

A nem ia [Greek: a, without + haima, blood] Hippocrates

(1815—1878), a physician from Georgia, used it successfully

(460—377 B C ) noted the clinical features o f anemia, the first

to remove a tumor from the neck o f a patient. Sadly, his fail­

clinical description was given only in 1620 by Varandal or

ure to report his results in time denied him the credit.

Johannes Varandaeus. Various names such as icterrius am

Inhalation gas therapy with nitrous oxide was demonstrated

anterium, morbus virginius and cachexia virginium were

by Humphry Davy (177 8 - 1829) in 1799, although its value

given to it with no apparent cause. Anemia in young

was not realized for another 50 years. H enry Hill Hickman

women during puberty, commonly called ‘chlorosis’, was

(1800—1830), an English surgeon from Shropshire, began

described by Johann Lange (1485-1565) in 1554. H ippo­

experimenting with the inhalational effects o f carbon diox­

crates also described a condition similar to chlorosis in

ide and published his findings in A Letter on Suspended

his book on the diseases o f virgins. This type was later

Animation in 1824. His discovery was ignored by his peers

recognized to be due to iron deficiency. Pernicious anemia

thus further delaying its advent. American, Horace Wells

was described by James Scarth Com be (1796—1883) in 1824

(1815—1848), a dentist in Boston, learnt in 1844 o f the

but its cause and treatment remained unresolved for

inhalational effect o f nitrous oxide from Gardner Q.

nearly a century. George Hoyt Whipple (1878-1976) and

Colton, a traveling lecturer in chemistry. After achieving a

Robschet-Robbins made the observation in 1925 that raw

successful tooth extraction under nitrous oxide. Wells

or lightly cooked liver could treat pernicious anemia.

arranged a demonstration at the Massachusetts General

George Richard M inot (1885—1950) and William Parry

Hospital on December 12, 1844. Unfortunately for no

M urphy (1892-1987) further established the treatment o f

apparent reason, his method failed and he was subjected to

anemia with a raw liver diet. The anti-pernicious factor or

ridicule. He continued using nitrous oxide with success for

B j 2 was identified and isolated in 1948.A clear and accurate

a few years, but eventually gave up and later committed

description o f anemia in pregnancy was given by Hermann

suicide. William Thomas Green M orton (1819—1868) an

Nasse in 1836. Anchylostoma duodenale and other chronic

assistant ofWells and later a medical student, gave a success­

48

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANFINSON

chromosomes is produced. Described byTackholm in 1922.

ful demonstration o f the effects o f ether in surgery on 30 September 1846 and was hailed as its discoverer. Oliver

A neurin [Greek: a, without + neuron, nerve] Anti-beriberi

Wendell Holmes (1809-1894) in the same year, gave the

factor isolated and identified as an essential food factor by

name anesthesia to what had previously been called sus­

Barend Coenraad Petrus Jansen (1884—1962) and Willem

pended animation or etherization. James Young Simpson

Frederick Donath (1889-1957) in Jakarta in 1926. They

(18 11—1870),an obstetrician from Scotland, while searching

named it ‘aneurin’ because o f its antineuritic properties.

for a better agent than ether for anesthesia, began success­

It was renamed vitamin B j or thiamin [Greek: brimstone].

fully using chloroform in 1847. Controversy over the use o f

Synthesis was achieved by R .R . Williams in 1936, and

chloroform ended when John Snow (1813—1858), a physi­

Alexander RobertusTodd (b 1907), professor o f chemistry

cian who specialized in anesthesia, administered it to

at Cambridge in 1937. See beriberi.

Queen Victoria during her delivery o f Prince Leopold. Ether was first used in England by R obert Liston

A neurysm [Greek: ijna, through + e«rM5, broad] Galen (12 9 -

(1794—1847) at University College Hospital in 1846.

200) was the first to describe and treat aneurysm. He obser­

Anesthetic record charts were advocated by E.A . Codman

ved the development from an accidental puncture during

and Harvey Cushing (1869-1939) in 1894. Introduction

venesection and advocated applying pressure over it with sponges and bandages. Applying pressure continued to be

o f endotracheal anesthesia by Samuel James Meltzer (18 51-

practiced for the next 17 centuries. Aneurysms o f peripher­

1920) and John Auer (1875-1948) in 1909 ushered in the

al vessels were described by Antyllus in A D 250 and Aetius

modern era. It was recognized as a specialty in England at

(AD 500) gave an account describing causes, signs and sur­

Oxford when Lord Nufheld created the first Chair at

gical treatment. He also recognized the risk o f treating an

the Radcliffe Infirmary in 1922 and R obert Reynolds

aneurysm in the neck and advised the avoidance o f opera­

Macintosh was appointed first professor. The first diploma

tive interference. Paul o f Aegina (625—690) advised against

in anesthesia in England was awarded in 1935. See ether, chlo­

incision o f an aneurysm in the armpit, groin or neck.

roform, local anesthesia, nitrous oxide, regional anesthesia, rectal

Albucasis (936-1013), Rhazes (850—932) and Haly Abbas

anesthesia, endotracheal anesthesia, inhalational anesthesia,

(930—994) also described the nature o f the aneurysm and its

closed- circuit anesthesia, electrical anesthesia, epidural anesthesia,

surgical treatment. Their surgical method o f tying it at the

intravenous anesthesia, spinal anesthesia.

proximal end was practiced in the i8th century by Dominique Anel (1679—1725), John Hunter (1728-1793) and John Abernethy (1764—1831). Ante-mortem diagnosis o f an aortic aneurysm was made by Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) in 1555 and his diagnosis was confirmed 2 years later at autopsy. Abernethy, a pupil o f John Hunter, ligated the external iliac artery in 1796.The use o f elastic dacron in modern arterial surgery including the repair o f aneurysms was introduced by D. Em erick Szilagyi (b 1910) and co­ workers in 1958. See cardiac aneurysm, intracranial aneurysms.

A neurysm orrhaphy [Greek: ana, through + emus, broad + rhaphe, sewing] Partial excision o f the aneurysmal sac o f a traumatic left brachial artery aneurysm was performed by R udolph Matas (1860—1957) o f America in 1888. Use o f elastic dacron in modern arterial surgery was introduced by D. Em erick Szilagyi (b 1910) and co-workers in 1958.

A nfinson, Boehmer Christian (b 1916) American biochemist, born at Monessen, Pennsylvania and educated at Harvard. Intravenous administration of saline. P.J. Flagg, The Art o f Anaesthesia

He lectured at the National Institutes o f Health at Beth-

(1916). Lippincot, Philadelphia

esda,Maryland from 1950 to 1982 and did research on chro­ matographic identification o f peptides. This led to the

A neup loid y [Greek: ¿î , without + ew,well + aploos, ono-fold]

conclusion that 128 amino acids o f ribonucléase were

A state in cell division in which an incorrect number o f

formed into a single peptide chain with four disulfide bonds

49

ANGELUCCI

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SYNDROME

with a single N-terminus. He was awarded the Nobel Prize

visualization o f cardiac chambers by injecting contrast into

for Chemistry for his work on the molecular biology o f

the

disulfide bonds in 1972.

(bi898) and Israel Steinberg (bipoz) in 1938. See cardiac

veins

was

described

by

George

Porter R o bb

catheterization, left ventriculography.

A ngelucci Syndrom e Conjunctivitis, tachycardia and vaso­

A ngiogram See angiography.

motor lability Described by Italian ophthalmologist and professor at Naples,A.Angelucci (1854-1933).

A ngiography [Greek: angeion, vessel + graphein, to write]

A ngelu cci, Theodore Italian poet and physician in the 15 th

The visualization o f blood vessels by injection o f a radio­

century. He was professor at Padua and a member o f the

opaque substance was done by E. Haschek and O .T

academy ofVenice. He wrote Sententia quod metaphysica,

Lindenthal in 1896.The method was introduced into clini­

Ars Medica, De Natura et curatione malignae Febris and other

cal radiology by Barney Brooks (b 1884) who used sodium

treatises.

iodide in 1924. Pulmonary angiography was introduced by Antonio Egaz M oniz (1874-1955), L. de Carvalho and

A ngina P ectoris [Latin: angere, to strangle + pectoris, o f the

A. Lima in 1931 .The technique o f thoracic aortography was

breast] The classic symptoms o f acute myocardial ischemia

demonstrated by Bror Leonhard Johan Broden (b 1910) in

were described by William Heberden, the elder (1710—

1948. See angiocardiography.

1801) who named it ‘angina pectoris’ in 1768. Thomas Lauder Brunton (1844—1916), while resident medical offi­

A n g io lo g y [Greek: angeion, vessel + logos, treatise] The term

cer, noticed the relief o f symptoms by inhalation o f amyl

was used by Galen (129—200) to denote a procedure o f

nitrite in 1867 and this opened the door for use o f coronary

bleeding or excision o f the temporal artery in order to cure

vasodilators in treatment. Nitroglycerin was introduced

resistant headache. Paul o f Aegina (625—690) used it to refer

by William Murrell (1853-1912) in 1879. Sympathectomy

to varicose veins. It was used to denote the study o f blood

was tried by Thom a Jonnesco (1860—1926) o f Rom ania in

vessels by the German surgeon, Lorenz Heister (16 83-

1916. The characteristic changes in the electrocardiogram

1758),in 1720.

during an attack were recorded by Guy William John

A ngioneurotic E dem a (Syn. Milton disease, giant urticaria)

Bousfield (1893-1974) in 1918. Paravertebral nerve injec­

A description was given by Marcello Donati (1538-1602) o f

tion was performed by Mandl o f Austria in 1925. Samuel

Italy in 1586.The next account was given by Stolpertus in

Levine (b 1891) and Herman Ludwig Blumgart (b 1895)

1778. A classic description was given in 1876 by London

tried total thyroidectomy in 1933 and functional thyroidec­ tomy with thiouracil was tried by W. Raab in 1945. Khellin,

dermatologist,John Laws Milton (1820—1898) who named

from the plant Ammi visnaga, was introduced as a vasodilator

it ‘giant urticaria’ . German professor o f medicine at Bern

for treatment by G.V. Anrep in 1949 but its use was short­

in Switzerland, Heinrich Iranius Quincke (1842—1922) des­

lived. See coronary atherosclerosis, coronary artery bypass graft,

cribed it in 1882 and the name was suggested by Strubing in

smoking.

1 885. The hereditary form was described by William Osier (1849—1919) in 1888 and the absence o f alpha-globulin, the

A ngina SufFocativa [Greek: angere, to strangle] The term

inhibitor o f C ’- i A esterase as a cause was shown by V.H.

used to refer to diphtheria by Samuel Bard (1742—1821) o f

Donaldson and R .R . Evans o f America in 1963.

Philadelphia in 177 1.

A ngioplasty [Greek: angeion, vessel + plasein, to mold] The A ngina, Ludwig See Ludwig angina.

relief o f atherosclerotic intraluminal obstruction o f the ilio­ femoral arteries using a percutaneous catheter was achieved

A ngina,V incen t See Vincent angina.

by C .T Dotter and M elvin P. Judkins in 1964. Their tech­

A ngiocardiography [Greek: angeion, vessel + kardia,\1e2irt +

nique was modified and improved b y T W Stable in 1968.

graphein,to write] X-rays were used to assess the systolic and

The use o f a baUoon-tipped catheter was introduced by

diastohc phases o f the heart and aorta by H. Guilleminot

two Americans, Andreas R . Gruentzig (d 1985) and D A .

in 1899 and this remained the only radiological method

Kumpke in 1974. Gruentzig used this method for treating

o f studying the cardiovascular system until the invention

renal artery stenosis in 1977 and established it as a form o f

o f angiocardiography. Werner Forssman (1904-1979) o f

treatment for coronary artery stenosis in 1979. Balloon

Germany, in 1929, was the first to insert a catheter into a

angioplasty as a treatment for aortic valve stenosis was

living human heart and he performed the first angiography

advocated by J.T.Walls and colleagues in 1984.

in 1931. He first catheterized himself and took X-rays to confirm

his

technique. The

first

cinefluorographic

A ngiotensin Converting E nzym e Inhibitor The South

50

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANIMAL

DISSECTION

American arrowhead viper, Bothropsjararca, was noted to pro­

Records show that medicine was part o f its curriculum.

duce venom that contained a potentiator o f bradykinin by

Following the Viking invasion towards the end o f the 9th

Sergio H. Ferreira in 1965 .The effectiveness o f this in inhibit­

century, many libraries and monasteries were destroyed and

ing angiotensin converting enzyme was demonstrated

learning declined. See Leech book.

by Y.S. Bakle in 1968. The amino acid sequence and the

A ngstrom , Anders Jonas (18 14 —1874) Swedish physicist from

structure were identified later and led to the development

Lodgo who introduced the unit for the wavelength o f light,

o f substanceYS 980, known as captopril.This was followed

ten milhonth o f a millimeter, the Angstrom unit. He was

by the introduction o f M 421 or enalapril.

awarded the Rumford medal o f the Royal Society in England in 1872. He also discovered hydrogen in the solar atmosphere

A ngiotensin Discovered by Irwin Henley Page (b 1901) and

and published a map o f the solar spectrum in 1868.

O.M. Helmer in 1939. It was found independently around the same time by E. Braun Menendez and co-workers in

A niline An extract from coal tar used as a dye, and later

Argentina,and they named it ‘hypertensin’ .The two differ­

recognized as a cause o f methemoglobinemia. Its precursor,

ent forms, angiotensin I and angiotensin II, were identified

nitrobenzene, was found to be carcinogenic. R obert Koch

by Leonard T. Skeggs and J .R . Kahn o f America. The pure

(1843-1910) used aniline dyes for microscopic staining in

form was isolated by W S. Peart in 1955. The structure o f

1877. See bladder carcinoma.

both angiotensin I and angiotensin II and their amino acid

A nim a [Latin: anima, breath or life] The theory that consid­

sequence was described by Peart in 1956. Synthesis was accomplished by EM . Bumpus, H. Schwarz and Page

ered the soul as the vital moving force o f the body was

in 1957.

proposed by a chemist and professor o f medicine at the University o f Halle, George Ernst Stahl (1660-1734). He

A ngle C lassification Classification for various modes o f

considered the characteristics o f the body to be governed

malocclusion o f teeth. Proposed by American orthodontist

not by chemical and physical laws but by the laws o f

from St Louis,Edward Hartley Angle (1855—1930).

the soul. This was essentially the same as the concept o f psyche proposed by Aristotle (384—322 B C ).T h e anima is

A ngle o f Louis Between the manubrium and the body

synonymous with archaeus or pneuma.

o f the sternum. Described by Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis (1787—1872), a physician and a leading authority on

A nim al D issection

tuberculosis in Paris.

Animal dissections were promoted

during the time o f Galen (129-200) as ecclesiastical and secular authorities did not approve o f dissection o f human

A nglicus, Gilbertus English physician in the 13th century. He wrote a compendium o f physick in which he gave an

corpses. M any o f his observations on animals were applied

original description o f leprosy, which remained as the main

to humans and went unchallenged for over 1000 years.The

source o f information during the medieval period. He also

study and development o f comparative anatomy through

suggested the contagious nature o f smallpox. He died in

animal dissections has contributed significantly to our pre­

1230 and his work was published in 1507.

sent knowledge o f physiology, embryology and evolution.

A nglicus, Ricardus English medical writer who lived around 1230. He was educated at Oxford and Paris and wrote several medical treatises.

A n glo-S axon M edicine Few records exist on medicine at this time. An early book is the Leech Book of Bald written around A D 950. Others include Peri Didaxeon and Lacnunga (recipe or medications). Several versions o f Lorica were written including that by Aethelwold, Bishop o f Lichfield, around A D 820. Lorica comes from the Latin for a leather coat or a metal breastplate and is used for a book o f prayer in which several anatomical parts o f the human body are men­ tioned while praying for protection. Rational medicine was introduced to England through missionaries around A D 600.The school at Canterbury was established around A D

Studies on animal electricity related to the heart. Augustus Waller, An

800 by Theodore, the Greek Archbishop o f Canterbury.

Introduction to Human Physiology (1893). Longmans, Green & Co., London

51

ANIMAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ELECTRICITY

A nim al E lectricity The phenomenon was known in the

Lavoisier (1743-1794) the chemist and Joseph Ignace

ancient w orld through the electric properties o f fish.

Guillotine (i738 -i8 i4),w h o devised the method o f execu­

Aristotle in his Historia Animalium (340 B C ) studied the

tion. It was discredited by the Academy o f Sciences, but

Mediterranean torpedo fish and stated that it ‘narcotizes

two ofM esm er’s students, the Marquis de Puysegur (1751—

the creatures it wants to catch by the strength o f the shock

1825) and his brother, continued to practice it. The term

that is resident in its body’ .John Walsh (1725-1795) in 1774

‘mesmerism’ was used by a German philosopher and friend

studied the electrical nature o f the torpedo fish and estab­

o f Mesmer, Karl Wolfhart. It was revived in 1830 by John

lished the existence o f animal electricity. Luigi Galvani

Elliotson (1791-1868), professor o f surgery at theUniversity

(1737-1798) in 1786 studied bioelectric effects using frog’s

o f London, who later resigned because o f opposition to his

legs. Electric current in organic tissues was shown by the

practice. James Braid (1795-1860), a Manchester surgeon,

German physiologist Emil Heinrich D uBois-Reym ond

substituted the word ‘hypnotism’ in 1843 and used it to

(1818—1896) in 1843. He showed that a flow o f electric

produce surgical anesthesia. It was introduced to America

current took place from injured to surrounding non-

by Charles Poyen in 1836. See hypnosis.

injured tissue. See action potential, electrophysiology.

A nim al Spirit Erasistratus, a teacher at the University o f

A nim al E xperim ents A large list o f contributions such as

Alexandria around 300 B C , studied the brain and described

William Harvey’s (1578-1657) discovery o f blood circula­

the fluid in the cerebral ventricles as ‘animal spirit’ . He

tion, Humphry D avy’s (1778-1829) demonstration o f the

explained (erroneously) that muscular contractions were

inhalational effects o f gases, and Matteo Realdo Colom bo’s

brought about by distension o f the animal spirit from the

(1516—1559) discovery o f the pulmonary circulation were

brain, transmitted through the nerves. This view was held

made possible through animal experiments. The use o f live

by philosophers and physicians up to the time o f the

animals for experiments, some causing great suffering, was

Renaissance.

common in the 19th century and guidelines had to be laid down. Benjamin Ward Richardson (1828-1896) and others

A nion A Greek term meaning ‘that which goes up’ used

realized the importance o f animal experiments for the

by Michael Faraday (179 1—1867) to denote electronegative

advancement o f science but were concerned about the way

bodies.

in which they were done. He devised a lethal chamber for

A nisophygm ia Old term to denote the inequality o f pulse

the painless slaughter o f experimental animals in 1866. See

pressure and pulse volume.

antivivisection.

A nkle C lonus or fo o t clonus A nim al H eat Around 350 B C , Aristotle (384-322 B C)

Diagnostic physical sign

described by OttoWestphal in 1875.

equated the heat o f the body with vitality, and considered

A nkylosing Spondylitis [Greek: ankylos, crooked + spho-

the heart as the heat center. Joseph Black (1728-1799) o f

ndylos, vertebra] (Syn. spondylitis o f M arie—Strümpell and

Glasgow studied the phenomenon scientifically. In 1779

von

Adair Crawford (1748—1795) conducted experiments and

Bekhterev, spondylitis

ankylopoetica, spondylitis

rhizomelique) A mention involving the vertebrae an

proposed a theory in which the disengagement o f caloric

sacroiliac

heat occurred following generation o f carbon dioxide in

regions

was

made

by

Bernard

Connor

(1666—1698) o f Ireland in 1691. A clinical description asso­

the breath. Muscles were shown to be the principal source

ciated with bony ankylosis o f the spine and polyarthritis

by Hermann Helmholtz (1821-1894) in 1848.

was given by

A nim al M agnetism or M esm erism The ancient Hindus

Sir Benjamin Brodie

(1783—1862) in

Pathological and Surgical Observations on the Diseases of the

knew that snakes and fowls could be hypnotized with

Joints published in

1818. Jacques

Mathieu

Delpech

sound. Study was revived by Hehl, a Jesuit inVienna in 1774.

(1777—1832) described it in 1828, and James Paget followed

Franz Anton Mesmer (1734—1815) called it ‘animal magnet­

in 1877. It was described at necropsy as ‘poker back’

ism’ in the belief that hypnosis was due to an effect similar to

by Charles Hilton Fagge (1838-1883) o f G u y’s Hospital

that o f a magnet and he gave a demonstration inVienna in

in 1877. A dolf von Strümpell (1853-1925) o f Germany

1776. Although his theory was incorrect, its practice later

described

formed the basis for hypnosis. It became an important topic

logist, Vladimir Bekhterev (1857-1927) at St Petersburg

two

cases

in

1884

and

Russian

neuro­

in the 18th century and Louis X V I appointed a commission

described it detail in 1897. He also described the superior

chaired by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) to inquire into

vestibular nucleus in 1885. Pierre Marie (1853- 1940) o f

it in 1784. Other members included Jean Bailly, Antoine

France described it as ‘la Spondylose rhizomelique’ in 1898.

52

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANTACID

THERAPY

mosquito was shown by Amico Bignami (1862—1929) and

It is also known as Strümpell—Bekhterev—M arie syndrome.

Giovanni Battista Grassi (1854-1925) in 1899. Mosquitoes

A nkylosis [Greek: angchein, to press tight] Contractures o f

were also shown to be carriers o f yellow fever by Carlos

joints arising from impacted humors or nervous tension

Finlay (1833-1915) in Havana in 1889. See mosquito.

were called ‘ancylae’ or ‘ancylosis’ by ancient Greek physi­ cians. An osteotomy in the U S A for ankylosis o f the hip

A norexia [Greek: a, without + orexis, a longing for] Greek

joint was performed by John R h ea Barton (1794—1871) o f

physician, Paul ofAegina (625-690) defined it as‘loathing o f

Lancaster in 1826.

food, either from prevalence o f intemperance o f stomach, or a collection o f humors’ and advocated melca, a mixture

A nkylostom iasis SeeAnchylostoma duodenale.

o f milk and garlic, as treatment. Aulus Cornelius Celsus

Annals o f Internal M edicine First journal o f the College

(25 B C —A D 50) recommended undiluted wine to restore

o f American Physicians, the Annals of Medicine, was pub­

appetite. See appetite, anorexia nervosa.

lished in 19 21, but was discontinued after three issues.

Anorexia N ervosa [Greek: îî, without + orexis, a longing for]

Annals of Clinical Medicine was published in 1922 but

Simone Porta (1496—1554) gave a description in a 10- year-

response was also poor and its name was changed to Annals

old girl who refused to take food. John Reynolds described

of Internal Medicine in 1927.

it as prodigious abstinence in 1669. In 1694 Richard M orton The earliest British

(1637—1698), physician to James II, gave a classic description

medical journal, published in 1796. It became the Edinburgh

in two patients and named it ‘nervous atrophy’. He also

Annals o f M edicine, Edinburgh

Medical and SurgicalJournal in 1805 and continued until 1855,

noted the triad o f anorexia, wasting and amenorrhoea. A

before it combined with the Monthly Journal of Medicine to

case o f anorexia in a male, A Remarkable Case of Abstinence,

become the Edinburgh MedicalJournal.

was written by London dermatologist, R obert Willian (1757—1812) in 1790. This was also noted by William Gull

Annandale, Thomas (1838-1909) Surgeon from Newcastleupon-Tyne who succeeded Symes as the professor o f

(1816—1890) in 1868 who called it ‘apepsia hysterica’ .A case

surgery at Edinburgh. He wrote Malformations, Diseases and

o f extreme cachexia associated with pituitary destruction

Injuries of the Fingers and Toes (1864). He performed surgery

was found by a pathologist from Hamburg, Morris

for displaced semilunar cartilage o f the knee in 1884.

Simmonds (1855-1925) in 1914 and thereafter it became confused with Simmonds disease, especially with its new

Annulus M igrans or geographical ton g u e Physical sign

term ‘pituitary cachexia’ . Between 1930—1940, it was gradu­

described by Bridou Gubler o f Paris in 1872.

ally recognized as a separate entity due to work o f several

A nodyne [Greek: a, negative + dyne, pain] Substance used

endocrinologists in Europe and the U SA.

to relieve pain. Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C -A D 50 )

A nosogn osia Term coined in 1914 by Joseph François Felix

described several sleep-inducing drugs which could be

Babinski (1857—1932) to denote the denial o f a striking

obtained from herbs as anodynes.

neurological disorder by a patient.

A nom alous C ond uction

See atrioventricular anomalous

A noxem ia See altitude sickness, aviation medicine.

conduction.

A noxem ia Test Diagnostic test for angina in which the

A nom alou s Coronary A rtery See Bland—White—Garland

patients breathe oxygen-poor (10%) air to provoke angina.

syndrome.

Test in use in the early 20th century.

Anopheles [Greek: anophele, hurtful] A genus o f mosquito. Their role as transmitters o f malaria was mentioned in

Anrep, Vasili Konstaninovich (1852—1918) Physician who

the Sanskrit works o f the Brahmin, Susruta (AD 500).The

suggested the use o f cocaine as a local anesthetic in 1880.

suggestion that it carried the malarial parasite was made by

Antabuse or disulfiram In 1949 when tetraethylthiuram

French parasitologist, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran

disulfide was tried as a worm treatment, those who took it

(1845-1922) in 1880. A surgeon in the Indian Medical

became very ill i f they consumed alcohol.This observation

Services, Ronald Ross (1857—1932) traced the parasite to

led to the development o f disulfiram for treatment o f

mosquitoes while working in the N iligiri mountains in

chronic alcoholism.

India in 1897. He later demonstrated transmission to birds through bites o f infected mosquitoes. The extracorporeal

A ntacid Therapy Treatment o f peptic ulcer disease with

development o f the malarial parasite in the Anopheles

frequent milk feeds and compounds such as magnesium

53

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANTEFEBRIN

hydroxide Popularized by American gastroenterologist,

pituitary-Hke hormone’ .The main source was found to be

BertramWelton Sippy (1866-1924) in 1915.

the placenta.

A ntefebrin See acetanilide.

A nterior Spinal A rtery Syndrom e (Syn.Beck syndrome) Occlusion o f the anterior spinal artery resulting in complex

Antenatal Care [Latin: ante, before + natalis, pertaining to

neurological signs. Described by Karl Beck o f Germany in

birth] Eucharius Rosshn o f Germany devoted a chapter to

1951.

diseases in pregnancy in his Rose Gardenfor Pregnant Women and M/dtwVei,published in 1513.This was translated into EngHsh as

A nterior Spinal Fusion See scoliosis.

Byrth of Mankind in 1540. François Mauriceau (1637-1709),

A nthim ius Byzantine physician to Theodoric the Great in

the French obstetrician, included several chapters on diseases

the 5 th century.

o f pregnancy in Des Maladies des Femmes Grosses et Accouches

A nthocyanin See acidity.

published in 1668. The Hôtel Dieu o f Paris, founded in A D 650, was one o f the first hospitals to adopt a policy o f admitting

A nthracosis Term coined in 1837 byThom as Stratton o f

women who presented themselves after they had reached the

North Shields, England to denote a form o f lung disease. It

9th month o f pregnancy The Hôpital de la Salpêtrière admit­

manifests as abundant expectoration o f black sputum, and

ted pregnant women before the last month o f pregnancy A

was shown to be due to inhalation o f soot by J.W iesner o f

monograph on antenatal care in England, Hints to Mothersfor

Germany in 1892.

the Management of Health During the Period ofPregnancy and in the

Anthrax (Syn. carbuncle, wool sorter disease, bacteridie du

Lying Room, mth Common Errors in Connection mth these Subjects was written byThomas BuU in 1837.TI1ÍS was so popular that it

charbon) Considered by the ancients to be a product o f bad

under went 25

Pinnard

humors and dangerous. Major epidemics occurred in R om e

(1844—1934), professor o f obstetrics at Paris, wrote on malpr

around A D 80 causing nearly 50 000 deaths. The Greeks

esentation in 1878. A shelter for abandoned pregnant wome

named it as it consumed victims Hke a burning fire. In 1849

was esta lished in Paris at the initiative o f Madame Becquet in

French physician, Casimir Joseph Davaine (1812—1882),

1892. A similar establishment connected to the Royal

found rod-shaped organisms in the blood o f sheep that had

editions by

1877. Adolphie

Maternity Hospital, Dublin opened in 1899. James Haig

died o f anthrax. The same organism was found in the spleen

Ferguson (1862—1934), an obstetrician at this hospital, started

by Aloys PoUender (1800-1879),a German physician, in 1855.

the first antenatal clinic in 1915.The father o f antenatal care in

R obert Koch (1843—1910) o f Germany demonstrated in

Britain, John William BaUentyne (1861-1923), published A

1876 that these organisms were capable o f producing the dis­

Pleafor a Pro-Maternity Hospital'm 1901 and established antina­

ease in experimental animals. In 1881

tal care and antenatal diagnosis. Funds for promoting bed for

(1822—1895) showed the protective eftect o f inoculating small

antenatal care were donated by Freeland Barber, a co-author

doses o f anthrax bacilH in animals.This successful experiment

Louis Pasteur

o f the Manual of Gynaecology published in 1882. The first bed

opened the way for active immunization.The thermoprecip­

was named after Hamilton, who founded the Edinburgh

itin reaction for diagnosis o f anthrax was devised by Alberto

Maternity Hospital in 1791. In America antenatal visits were

AscoH (1877—1957) o f Germany in i g i i . See Bacillus anthracis.

started at the Boston Lying-in Hospital in 1901 and by 1912 it was allocating three antenatal visits per patient. It was one o f the first to expand to provide complete antenatal care in America.

A ntergan See antihistamines. A nterior P ituitary H o rm o n e See gonadotropic hormone. Anterior Pituitary-like H orm on e

In 1926 Selmar

Aschheim (1878—1965) o f the Womens Hospital, BerHn and professor o f gynecology at BerHn, Bernhardt Zondek (1891-1966) found a substance in urine o f pregnant women

Bacillus anthracis. Illustration from G. Sims Woodhead, Pathological

similar to gonadotropic hormone firom the anterior pituitary.

Mycology (1885), one of the first English books on systematic microbiology.

They called it ‘Prolan’ .American workers named it ‘anterior

Young, J. Pentland, Edinburgh

54

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANTIBODY

A n th ro p o lo g y [Greek: anthropos, man + logos, discourse]

A n tib io sis [Greek: anti, against or opposite + bios, life]

Study o f the human race in relation to its origin, evolution,

Bacterium that produced a substance that killed another

distribution and culture. Aristotle is supposed to have been

bacterium was observed by Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and

the first to use the term . M agnus Hundt s (14 4 9 -1519 )

J. Joubert (1834—1910) in 1886. Inhibition by Pseudomonas

Anthropologium de Hominis Diginate (1501) deals with the

pyocyanae o f growth o f anthrax was found by French bacte­

anatomy and physiology o f the human body. It was defined

riologist, C.G . Bouchard, in the same year. It was named

as ‘a treatise on man’ by Diderot and D ’Alembert in 1772.

‘antibiosis’ by P.Vuillemin in 1889, and was the first step

The term was used in its present sense by Johan Friedrich

towards the discovery o f antibiotics.

Blumenbach (1752-1840), professor o f medicine at Göttin­

A n tib io tics [Greek: anti, against or opposite + bios, life] The

gen. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a German philosopher

term ‘antibiosis’ was introduced by P.Vuillemin as the oppo­

and professor o f logic and metaphysics from Königsberg

site o f ‘symbiose’ . It was later used to denote a substance

suggested an animal origin for man in Anthropology pub­

produced by one organism that was capable o f destroying

lished in 1798. Physical evidence for the antiquity o f man

another organism or inhibiting its growth. The introduc­

was unearthed by Johan Friedrich Esper (17 32 -17 8 1) at

tion o f the first antibacterial sulfonamide com pound.

Gailenreuth Cave in i770.A n attempt to trace man’s ances­

Pro tonsil, revolutionized the treatment o f bacterial disease.

tors was made by Heinrich Phillip August Ernest Haeckel

A report o f a case o f a lo-m onth-old infant dying o f staphy­

(1834—1919) in his Generelle Morphologiae published in 1866.

lococcal septicemia and saved by treatment with a drug,

British surgeon, Edward Tyson (1649—1708) from Bristol

Streptozon, was given by O.H. Foerster o f Germany in

published The Anatomy of the Pigmy compared with that of a

1933. Clinical trials in Germ any by Gerhard D om agk

Monkey, an Ape and a Man in 1698. It became a branch o f

(1895—1964) and others established the successful treatment

science in the i8th century due to the work o f Thomas

o f conditions such as empyema, erysipelas and puerperal

Huxley, Charles Darwin (1809—1882), Sir Charles Lyell

fever with Protonsil in 1935. Sulfanilamide was measured

(1797-1875), EdwardTylor,Arthur Keith (1866—1955), Paul

in blood by Eli Kennerly Marshall (1889-1966), professor

Broca (1824-1880), Rudolph Virchow (18 21-19 0 2) and

o f pharmacology at Johns Hopkins University in 1937.

Blumenbach.The first Anthropological Society was formed

The importance o f maintaining therapeutic blood levels

in Paris by Broca in 1859. The Anthropological Society in

o f antibiotics in treatment was demonstrated by Perrin

England was founded in 1863 with John Hunt. Antiquity

Hamilton Long (b 1899) and E.A . Bliss in 1939. Although

of Man was published by Lyell in the same year. Pierre

Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) discovered the antibac­

Marcellin Boule (1861—1942), professor at the Natural

terial action o f Pénicillium mold while working at St M ary’s

History Museum in Paris who made the first complete

Hospital in 1929, the difficulty o f obtaining the antibiotic in

construction o f Neanderthal skeleton, published Les Hommes

a pure form prevented its therapeutic use. It was isolated

Fossiles in 19 21. See evolution.

in a pure form from Pénicillium notatum later, in 1940.

A n th ro p o m e try [Greek: anthrops, man + metron, measure]

Streptomycin was isolated in 1944 by an American micro­

The study o f proportional measurement o f organs and the

bio- logist o f Russian origin, Selman Abraham Waksman

body in humans and in their predecessors, particularly in

(1888—1973), and was used in the treatment o f tuberculosis

relation to the skull and the brain. An early study was done

in 1948. He use the term ‘antibiotic’ in 1941 and received

by British surgeon, Charles White (1728—1813) around

the N obel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in

1755. Paul Broca (1824-1880) founded the science o f

1952. See chemotherapy, sulfonamides,penicillin.

anthropometry with his invention o f 27 craniometric and

A n tib o d y [Greek: anti, against + bodig, body] An immuno­

cranioscopic instruments. Belgian mathematician and

globulin that binds to a specific antigen.Their presence in

statistician,LambertAdolpheJacques Quetelet (1796—1874)

blood o f atopic or allergic individuals was demonstrated by

wrote UAnthropometri, ou measure des differentes facultes de

a British immunologist o f German origin, Otto Carl W illy

Vhomme in 1871. The metafacial angle o f anthropometry

Prausnitz (1876-1973) and Heinz Kustner in 19 21. They

(Serres angle) was described in 1824 by Antoine Etienne

were shown to be gamma globulins by Arne W ilhelm

Renaud Augustin Serres (1786—186 8), professor o f anatomy

Kaurin Tiselius (190 2-1971) and Elvin Abraham Kabat in

and natural history at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. See

1939. Prausnitz transferred fish hypersensitivity o f his part­

craniology.

ner Kustner to his own skin by a method o f sensitization

55

ANTICARDIOLIPIN

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANTIBODIES

and the hypersensitive reaction o f the skin was named the

A nticonvulsants See antiepileptic drugs.

Prausnitz—Kustner reaction. His finding was subsequently

Antidepressants [Greek: anti, against + deprimere, to press

used clinically to diagnose atopic hypersensitivity Anti­

down or to lower] Lithium was recommended as treatment

bodies in the IgA globulin fraction o f atopic individuals

for gout by Alfred Baring Garrod (1819-1907) o f K ing’s

were discovered by J.E Heremans and co-workers in

College, London in 1859 and became an over-the-counter

Belgium. IgE antibodies were identified in serum by

treatment around 1867.As periodic depression was suspect­

Kimishige Ishizaka and co-workers in Denver in 1970.The

ed to be due to uric acid diathesis, Alexander Haig in

presence o f a higher concentration o f IgE antibodies in the

London tried lithium for depression in 1892. W hen the

serum o f patients with hay fever and asthma was also

drug Iproniazid was used for the treatment o f tuberculosis

demonstrated by Ishizaka and this contributed to further

it was noted to produce an elevation o f mood.This observa­

research in the pathogenesis o f immediate hypersensitivity

tion led to the search for similar compounds to treat

reactions. See immunoglobulins, bacteriolysis.

depression —called ‘psychic energizers’ prior to use o f the

A nticardiolipin A ntib odies [Greek: anti, against + kardia,

term ‘antidepressants’ . Iproniazid was noted to have

heart + lipos, fat] Discovered in blood by August Paul

monoamine oxidase inhibiting properties in 1952 and fur­

Wasserman (1866—1925) who used liver extract as antigen

ther research led to the discovery o f other tricyclic and

in 1907. A pure form o f cardiolipin antigen, or active phos­

monoamine drugs as treatment for depression. Imipramine,

pholipid, was obtained from beef heart by M ary Candace

the first tricyclic compound with antidepressant properties,

Pangborn (b 1907) and was introduced as an agent for

was developed by R o n ald Kuhn in 1956. H owever, its

serological diagnosis o f syphilis in 1942. See antiphospholipid

parent substance iminobenzyl was synthesized by Thiele

syndrome.

and Holzinger in 1898. See melancholy, lithium.

A nticoagulants [Greek: anti, against or opposite + coagulare,

A ntidiptheria Serum Produced from the blood o f infected

to curdle] Swiss physiologist, Jean Louis Prévost (1790—

horses by Emil A d olf von Behring (1854-1917) in i89i.T h e

1850), used defibrinated blood in Paris to prevent clotting

toxin—antitoxin substance produced by B eh rin g was

during experimental blood transfusion on animals in 18 21.

employed for active immunization against diphtheria by

Leeches were used to prevent the clotting o f blood during

William Hallock Park (1863—1939) and colleagues in 1914.

treatment with an artificial kidney by John Jacob Abel

A ntidiuretic H o r m o n e (vasopressin) A pituitary extract

(1857—1938) ofjohns Hopkins University in i9io.T he leech

was shown in 1901 to produce diuresis by a German profes­

was used because it produces an anti-clotting factor,

sor o f pharmacology at Utrecht, R u d o lf Magnus (18 73-

hirudin, but this method was abandoned as thousands o f

1927) and the British physiologist, Ernest Starling (1866—

leeches had to be processed to produce a significant antico­

1927). The presence o f colloid droplets in the posterior

agulant effect. Oxalates and citrate solutions were shown to

pituitary was described by Percy T heodore H erring

be effective anticoagulants by Maurice Nicholas Arthus (1862—1945) and Calixte Pages in 1890 and their work was

(1872—1967) in 1908. The physiological effects o f the ex­

confirmed by C.A . Peckelharing in 1892. Heparin was dis­

tract was demonstrated by John Jacob Abel (1857—1938) o f

covered in 1918 by William H enry Howell (1860—1945) o f

Johns Hopkins University. He mistakenly attributed the

Johns Hopkins University and became available after 22

mixed action o f the extract on the urine, uterus and blood

years. The story o f warfarin, one o f the coumarin group o f

pressure to a single hormone. British pharmacologist,

anticoagulants, began with a cattle disease that occurred

Ernest Basil Verney (1894—1967) noted the association

around 1920 in the mid-western United States and Canada.

between polyuria o f diabetes insipidus and the action o f

This disease killed hundreds o f thousands o f cattle and aU

the posterior pituitary extract in 1929. The two closely

the affected animals bled excessively during their illness.

related hormones, vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone and

A veterinary pathologist, Frank Schofield o f Ontario,

oxytocin, were identified and synthesized by an American

observed that these animals had all eaten moldy or spoilt

biochemist and professor at Cornell University,Vincent du

clover. His observation went unheeded until a toxic

Vigneaud (1901—1978) in 1950. He was awarded the N obel

substance, dicoumarol or coumadin, was isolated from

Prize in 1955. Inappropriate secretion o f antidiuretic

clover by a biochemist, Karl Paul Link o f Wisconsin, in

hormone in patients with bronchial carcinoma was

1940.This was later called ‘warfarin’ and is used to produce

described by W B . Schwartz,W. Bennet, Frederic C. Bartter

anticoagulation.

and co-workers in 1957.

56

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY

A ntihelm intics [Greek:

A ntidotarium A book o f mainly herbal treatments written

DRUGS

against + helminth, worm] Male

by Nicholas Praepositus o f Salerno in the I2th century.

fern was used against tapeworms and roundworms by

It was translated into many languages and remained an

Theophrastus (370-285 B C ), Pliny (AD 28—79) and Galen

apothecary’s handbook for centuries.

(129—200).This was revived as treatment for hookworm by Edoardo Perronicito (1847-1936) in 1880 and thymol was

A ntid ote [Greek: anti, against or opposite + didonai, to give]

recommended by Cam illoBozzolo (1845—1920) ofTurin in

See toxicology.

1881. Chenopodium was used as an antihelmintic by W

A ntidrom ic Stim ulation Neurophysiological method to

Schuffner and H.Vervoort in Sumatra, in 1913. A critical

determine the refractory period o f the motor neuron.

method o f testing the efficacy o f antihelmintics on animals

Devised by N ew Zealand-born British neurologist, Derek

was introduced by a veterinarian from the U S Bureau o f

Ernest Denny-Brown (1901—1980), in 1929.

Animal Industry, Maurice Crowther Hall (1881—1938) and

A ntiepileptic D ru gs [Greek: anti, against + lepsis, seizing]

E.B. Cram in 1915. Carbon tetrachloride was introduced

Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D 50) mentioned that

by Maurice C. Hall in 19 21. However, the active ingredient

some people were cured o f epilepsy after drinking the

o f oil o f Chenopodium, ascaridole, continued as the most

blood o f a stabbed gladiator. Burnt human bones were sug­

commonly used drug for hookworm and roundworm.

gested as a cure by Galen (129—200).The Materia Medica o f

Tetrachloroethylene replaced carbon tetrachloride in

Dioscorides in the middle o f the first century mentions

1925, owing to its lower toxicity. The curative effect o f

liver o f ass, stomach o f weasel and blood o f turtle as anti­

emetine against schistosomiasis was demonstrated by A .C .

epileptics and h oo f o f the elk was used by the Norwegians.

Hutcheson in 1913. See Dryopterisfelix mas.

Belladonna was used over 300 years ago and was followed

A ntih em oph ilic Factor A globulin effective in promoting

by digitalis. Silver salts were used for hysteria and epilepsy in England in the i8th century. Drugs used in the 19th century

coagulation in hemophiliacs was isolated from normal

include bromides o f sodium, potassium and ammonium,

human plasma by Francis Henry Laskey Taylor (1900—1959)

borax and nitroglycerin. Bromide o f potassium was recom­

and Jackson Arthur Patek (b 1904) in 1937. Despite this

mended by Sir C. Locock (1799—1875) in 1853 and

finding, the transfusion o f blood or fresh frozen plasma

subsequently it became one o f the most commonly used

remained the main treatment for hemophiliacs until 1954.

compounds for nearly a century. A major drawback o f the

R obert Gw yn Macfarlane (1907—1987) at Oxford obtained

drug was depression and drowsiness due to overdose. A syn­

factor V III from bovine blood in 1953. It was isolated in

thetic camphor preparation, cardiazol or metrazol, was used

a purer form from human plasma and became the main

as an injection in the early 1930s. Diphenyl hydantoin

treatment for hemophilia.

(epinutin) or hydantoin, were introduced by Hiram

A ntihistam ine [Greek: anti, against + histos, tissue + ammo-

Houston M errit (1902—1979) and Tracy J. Putnam in 1938.

niokon, resinous gum] Research on drugs to combat rhinitis,

Secret remedies were common at the turn o f the century.

urticaria, hay fever and pruritis began in France in

The role o f flicker mechanisms in precipitating fits was

i937.Daniele Bovet (1907-1992) o f the Pasteur Institute dis­

recognized by G.H. M onrad-Krohn ofAm erica in 1936 and

covered the antihistamine properties o f aminoethanol

this led to a significant reduction in the number o f attacks.

derivatives in 1936, but these were too toxic for therapeutic use. An effective antihistamine was introduced in 1939,

A ntigens [Greek: anti, against + genos, birth] Substances capable o f generating the production o f antibodies.

followed

Observed by Edmund Weil (1800—1922) and Arthur Felix

way for the treatment o f human allergic conditions.

(1887-1856) in 1916. They found the ‘O ’ and ‘H ’ factors

Research on similar compounds continued in America and

with specific antigenic properties in Proteus bacteria.Tissue-

diphenhydramine was prepared by Loewi in 1945.

specific antigens were found by Paul Theodor Uhlenuth

by

Antergan

in

1942

which

paved

the

A nti-Infective V itam in See vitamin A.

(b 1870) o f Germany in 1903. Histocompatibility antigens were demonstrated on an experimental basis by American

A nti-Inflam m atory D rugs Salix alba,the white willow,

geneticist, Clarence C o ok Little (1888-1971) in 1916.

the source o f salicylic acid was a folk remedy for fever and

The importance o f histocompatibility in organ transplanta­

rheumatism for centuries. Its anti-inflammatory properties

tion was shown by French immunologist, Jean Dausset

were demonstrated by Franz Striker o f Germany in

(b 1916) ofToulouse in 1958 and his contribution led to the

1875. Acetanilide followed in 1875 and phenacetin was

procedure o f tissue typing before transplantation.

introduced in 1886. Use o f salicylates in acute rheumatism

57

ANTI-LYMPHOCYTE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

GLOBULIN

was shown by Peter W. Latham, who wrote On the

the use o f antimony and their lobbying produced a ban.

Administration of Salicylates in Acute Rheumatism in 1895.

W hen King Louis X IV had typhoid fever, antimony was

Phenylbutazone was introduced for rheumatoid arthritis

used as treatment and, following his recovery, was restored

b yJ.P C u rrie ,R .A .B ro w n and G.Will in 1953.The mecha­

to the pharmacopoeia. It was promoted as a medicine

nism o f anti-inflammatory action o f aspirin and similar

by Johan Tholde, an alchemist who wrote The Triumphal

drugs through inhibition o f prostaglandin formation was

Chariot of Antimony in i6o6.Tartar emetic or potassium anti­

demonstrated by J.R.Vane and co-workers in 1970.

mony tartarate was introduced by Adrian van Mynsicht in 1631. Intravenous administration was given by A. Broden

A nti-L ym ph ocyte G lobulin An early substance similar

and J. Rodhain in 1906 and its effectiveness in treating

to anti-lym phocyte globulin was observed by Elie

trypanosomiasis in experimental animals (maladie du som-

M etchnikoff (1845-1916) in 1899. B.H . Waksman in 1961

meil) was shown by H arry George Plimmer (1856— 1918)

showed that delayed hypersensitivity could be reduced

and John D.Thompson in 1908 .J.E .R . M cDonagh used it in

using anti-lymphocyte globulin. It was used experimentally

treatment o f vesical bilharziasis in 1915.

to prolong the survival o f transplanted skin allografts by M .EA .W oodruff and A. Anderson in 1963.

A ntim ony P oison in g The dangers o f keeping vinegar and other acidic foods in antimony dishes were observed by

A ntim alarials [Greek: anti, against + mal, bad + aer, air]

Lehmann in 1902. Outbreaks o f antimony poisoning due

Cinchona bark was used in treatment o f malarial fever or

to lemonade made from lemon stored in enamelware

ague prior to the isolation o f quinine from it by Joseph

occurred in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1928, Folkestone in

Pelletier (1788-1842) in 1820. Mepacrine or atebrine was

1929 and later in London. The outbreak in London

introduced in 1933 which drastically reduced the mortality

occurred at a hospital Christmas party in 1932 and affected

o f troops from malaria during World War 11. Development

65 persons who developed vomiting and collapsed. The

o f resistance to mepacrine by Plasmodium falciparum was

Ministry o f Health issued a warning in 1934 about the

noted by N .H . Fairley in 1947. Chloroquine was tested by

danger o f drinking lemonade or similar products stored in

R obert Frederick Loeb in 1946. Paludrine or proguanil was

enameled vessels.

synthesized in England in 1944 and tested against avian malaria by F.S.H. Curd and co-workers in 1945. Alfred

Antineurasthin Sold as a nerve and brain food for neuras­

Adams introduced paludrine as treatment o f human malar­

thenia in the early 20th century. Its analysis later showed

ia later in the same year. The effectiveness o f paludrine on

that it was mainly composed o f protein, lactose and potato

a large scale was demonstrated by N .H . Fairley from

starch.

the Medical Research Unit o f the Australian army in

A ntiphlogistica [Greek: anti, against + phlogist, burn]

1946. Primaquine, an 8-aminoquinoline derivative, was

Drugs used for inflammation, otherwise known as anti­

introduced as treatment by Harold John Edgcomb and co­

inflammatory drugs. See anti-inflammatory drugs.

workers in 1950. R .S . H ockwald,J. Arnold,J. d aym an and A.S. Alving noted that 5-10 % o f previously healthy

A ntiphospholipid S yndrom e (Syn. Hughes syndrome)

African— American troops developed hemolytic anemia

Thrombosis, abortion and cerebral disease in the presence o f lupus anticoagulant in the blood. Described by G .R.V.

after treatment with primaquin in 1952. Subsequent studies

Hughes in the British Medical Journal in 1983.The presence

by P E . Carson, C.L. Flanagan, C .E . Ickes and A.S. Alving in

o f antiphospholipid antibodies that predispose patients

1956 showed that the hemolysis was due to genetically

to thrombotic events was pointed out by H. P. M cN eil and

linked deficiency o f glucose-6—phosphate dehydrogenase

co-workers in 1985.

in the red blood cells. See cinchona, Baike William Balfour, chloroquin, Peruvian bark.

A ntipyretics [Greek: anti, against + pyrexia, fever] Ice, cold baths, diaphoretics, alcohol, quinine, aconite, purgatives

A ntim ony In R om e, wine allowed to stand in goblets made

and venesection formed the main treatment for fever until

o f antimony produced Calices vomittori or Pocula emetica as it

salicylic

absorbed the antimony and was then used to induce vomit­

acid

was

introduced

by

Herman

Kolbe

(1818—1884) in 1 874.The other antipyretics were: antipyrin

ing. The practice o f making goblets out o f antimony was

(1884), phenazone (1884), acetanilide or antefebrin (1886),

revived during the Middle Ages. Basilius Valentinius, a

phenacetin (1887) and aspirin (1899).

Benedictine monk and alchemist, rediscovered antimony in

A ntipyrin [Greek: imh, against

the 15th century. It was known as stibium during the time o f

pyrexia, feYer] Derivative o f

phenyl hydrazine, synthesized by Ludwig Knorr at the

Paracelsus (1493-154 1). In 1566 doctors in Paris opposed

58

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANTITOXINS

University ofW iirzburg in 1883. It was the first complete

comparing the germicidal effects o f various substances.

synthetic drug to be produced and was introduced into

A quantitative study o f disinfectants was introduced by

clinical practice as an antipyretic by Wilhelme Filehene in

Bernhard Theodor Ludwig Claus Kronig (1863—1918) and

1884. See antipyretics.

Theodore Paul (1862—1928),who also showed the disinfec­

Antirabies Vaccine

tant effects o f acids and alkalis on bacteria in 1897. The

One o f Louis Pasteurs (1822-1895)

antiseptic effect o f alcohol was demonstrated by Epstein in

greatest achievements was the development o f a rabies vac­

the same year. Simon Flexner (1863—1946) showed that a

cine from the stored infected brains o f animals. He used this

0.85% solution o f sodium chloride caused the disintegra­

for human inoculation on a young boy named Joseph

tion o f meningococcal bacteria in 1907. Gentian violet was

Meister, who was bitten by a rabid dog, on 6 July, 1885.

used by John Woolman Churchman (1877—1937) in 1912.

Further study and development o f the vaccine was contin­

The effect o f ultraviolet light was studied by Laroquette and

ued at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, founded with a public

he also discovered,in 19 18 ,that blue wavelengths were more

donation o f 2.5 million francs in 1888. Rabies vaccine was

effective as disinfectants.

also tried in shock treatment therapy for neurosyphilis by several workers including L. Tommasi and L. Cruveilhier

A ntistreptolysin T iter Hypersensitivity to streptococcal proteins in patients with rheumatic fever was demonstrated

(1933).

with skin tests by Birkhaug who published his findings in

A ntisepsis or asepsis [Greek: anti, against + septikos, that

Journal of Infectious Diseases in 1929. Bernard Schlesinger

which causes putrefaction] The word ‘antiseptic’ was used

(1896—1984) and Frederick John Poynton (1869—1943) in

by Sir John Pringle (1707—1782) in his essay Experiments

their contribution to Recent Advances on Rheumatism in 1931,

upon Septic and Antiseptic Substances published in 1750.

pointed out that post-streptococcal arthritis following ton­

The concept was initiated on a scientific basis by Ignaz

sillitis was due to allergy to bacterial products rather than to

Semmelweiss (1818—1865) ofVienna. He demonstrated in

toxins from the bacteria. Their contribution led directly to

1847 that mortality due to puerperal fever could be reduced

the use o f the antistreptolysin titer as a diagnostic marker in

from 18% to less than 2% if students and doctors washed

post-streptococcal rheumatic fever and nephritis.

their hands before attending patients in the ward. However, his findings were ignored and he was ridiculed and perse­

A ntithyroid D rugs The goitrogenic effects o f cabbage were

cuted. Louis Pasteur (1822—1895) in 1857 proved that

noted by Alan M . Chesney (b 1888) o f Johns Hopkins

microorganisms were the cause o f fermentation, thus

Hospital while he was experimenting with syphilis in rab­

undermining the theory o f spontaneous generation.

bits in 1928. Julia and Cosmo Mackenzie from the same

Around the same time, in i860, Joseph Lister (18 27-19 12)

hospital identified the antithyroid properties o f thiourea

advocated use o f carbolic acid for the prevention o f infec­

while they were experimenting with other products to

tion during surgery, with remarkable effect. Destruction o f

induce intestinal suppression o f bacterial flora in 1930.

microorganisms by heat was shown by Pasteur in 1868.

Phenyl thiourea was discovered about the same time by

Thomas Porter Blunt, while working with Sir Arthur

Curt Richter. However, the effectiveness o f thiourea on

H enry Downs (1851—1938), demonstrated the retarding

humans was established much later, in 1940, by Edwin B.

effect o f sunlight on putrefaction in 1877. Use o f rubber

Astwood (b 1909) o f Boston who also introduced thiourea

gloves in surgery was introduced in the early 1900s by

and thiouracil as treatments for hyperthyroidism in 1943.

American surgeon,William Halstead (1852—1922).

Radioactive iodine as a treatment for thyrotoxicosis was introduced by G.W. Blomfield and co-workers in 1951.

A ntiseptics Sir John Pringle, (1707—1782) investigated the effect o f various substances on putrefaction in 1750. His

A ntitoxins [Greek: anti, against + toxicon, poison] Antibody

work was not followed up for more than a century until H.

against a toxin. Two antitoxins successfully tried in animals

Buchholtz used an infusion o f tobacco leaves to investigate

were for diphtheria and tetanus.Their effectiveness in ani­

antiseptic effects in 1875. Sir Arthur Henry Downs (18 5 1-

mals was demonstrated by Emil von Behring (1854—1917),

1938) andThomas Porter Blunt demonstrated the retarding

an army surgeon from Western Prussia and Shibajaburo

effect o f sunlight on putrefaction in 1877 and the resistance

Kitazato ((1852-1931) o f Tokyo in 1890. Successful clinical

o f bacterial spores to sunlight was demonstrated by E.

use o f diphtheria antitoxin in a child suffering from diph­

Duclaux in the same year. R obert Koch (1843-1910) and

theria in Berlin was demonstrated by von Behring in 1891.

Wolffhugel studied the effect o f heat on bacteria in 1881 and

The child recovered within a few days and he received the

later in the same year Koch introduced the method for

first N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1901.

59

ANTIVENOM

SERUM

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OR A N T I V E N E N E

A ntivenom Serum or antivenene [Greek: anti, against;

Vesalius (1514—1564) in 1555 and was confirmed 2 years later

Latin: venenum, poison] First prepared by Sir Richard

at autopsy o f the same patient. Another antemortem diag­

Thomas Fraser (1841—1919) against cobra venom in 1895.

nosis was made by Raym ond de Vieussens (1641—1715)

See ophidism.

around 1700. Phrenic nerve palsy as a sign o f thoracic aortic aneurysm was described by Scottish surgeon and cardiolo­

Antiviral D rugs See Acyclovir.

gist, Allan Burns (17 31—1813), in Observations of Some of the

A ntivivisectionists [Greek:

against; Latin: vivus,living +

Most Important and Frequent Diseases of the Heart published

secare, to cut] The Society for the Prevention o f Cruelty to

in 1809. Tracheal tugging, as a physical sign o f thoracic

Animals was founded in 1824, but use o f living animals in

aneurysm (Porter sign), was described by William H enry

experimentation was questioned in England by the Medical

Porter (1790—1861) in 1826. A case in the thorax which

Times and Gazette only in 1858. Societies for preventing cru­

communicated with the pulmonary artery was described

elty to animals were formed in Dresden and Paris in 1859.

by physician. Sir Willoughby Francis Wade (1827-1906) o f

The antivivisectionist movement gained momentum and

Bray, W icklow in 1861. Visible pulsation o f the arteries

lobbying led to the appointment o f a Royal Commission

in the nostrils (Bozzolo sign) was described by Camilo

which recommended restriction o f animal experiments.

Bozzolo (1845-1920) in 1880. A modern operative tech­

The National Antivivisectionist Society, the Antivivisec­

nique, Babcock operation, was designed by WiUiam Wayne

tionist Association and the Church Antivivisection League

Babcock (1872—1963), surgeon to the Samaritan and

were founded in 1875,1876 and 1899,respectively.

American Stomach Hospitals, Philadelphia, in 1926. An

A nton Syndrom e Denial o f visual disturbance or blind­

operative method for abdominal aneurysm was devised by

ness. D escribed by an Austrian neurologist, G. Anton

Babcock in 1929. A description o f the dissecting aneurysm

(1858—1933) in 1899. Fie graduated from the University o f

o f the aorta was given by Frank NichoUs (1699—1778), a

Prague in 1882 and succeeded Wernicke at Halle in 1905.

physician to George II. He also described its pathogenesis. Resection o f a saccular aneurysm o f the thoracic aorta was

A ntrum o f H igh m ore [Latin: antrum, cave or hollow]

performed by John Alexander and Francis Byron in 1944.

MaxiUary antrum. Illustrated by Leonardo DaVinci (1452—

Michael Ellis DeBakey (b 1908) and Arthur Denton Cooley

1519) around 1500. Nathaniel Highmore (1613—1685) gave a

(b 1920) resected a thoracic aneurysm and replaced it with a

description in 1651. Two cases o f empyema o f the antrum

graft in 1953.

were described by M . Saint Hillaire in 1898.

A ntyllus (AD 250) Greek surgeon who distinguished between a traumatic aneurysm and an aneurysm due to dilatation. He devised a method o f tying the aneurysm at both ends, known as the Antyllus operation, which was in use until the end o f the 19th century.

Anus [Latin: ring] First used in anatomy by Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D 50).The term was used during earlier Rom an times to denote an old woman with wrinkled skin.

A onian Christian physician commissioned by Al-Mansour, Caliph o f Baghdad, in the 8th century to translate some o f the Greek classics, including the aphorisms o f Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) and the works o f Galen (129-200).

A orta [Greek: aeiro, to lift, or aorte, the great artery] Term used

Aortic Aneurysm. Wepfer, J-J, Observationes Medico-Practae de Affectibus Capitis. Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

by Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) to refer to a branch o f the windpipe. Aristotle used it around 350 B C to denote ‘the

A ortic C oarctation Described as an ‘amazing narrowness

large artery from which the heart was hung’ .The expression

o f the aorta near the heart’ by Giovanni Battista Morgagni

‘arch o f the aorta’ was introduced by German surgeon,

(1682—1771) in 176 1. M . Paris gave a classic description in

Lorenz Heister in 1732.

1791 and it is called ‘maladie de Paris’ . Erosion o f the ribs

A ortic A neurysm [Greek: aneurysma, dilatation; French:

in coarctation was observed by J.E Meckel in 1827 and

eurys, wide] An antemortem diagnosis was made by Andreas

was radiologically detected by Hugo Roesler (b 1899) o f

60

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

APERT

Germany in 1928. Infant and adult types were classified

death o f a colleague, Horace Smithy, who had a critical

by L.M . Bonnet in 1903. Successful surgical resection and

aortic stenosis. Smithy had earlier worked on devising a suc­

anastomosis o f cut ends was performed by Clarence

cessful surgical method but died before he could make

Crafoord (1899-1984) and Karl Gustav Wilhelm N ylin

further progress. Continuing the work started by Smithy,

(1892-1961) o f Sweden in 1944. R obert Edward Gross

Bailey demonstrated a successful commissurotomy in 1950.

(1905-1988) operated on the second patient in the U S A in

A ortic Valve An accurate illustration o f the aortic valve

1945 and demonstrated the success o f the procedure by

and its root was given by Leonardo Da Vinci (1452—1519).

operating on 60 patients in 1949. See cardiac surgery.

Charles Anthony Hufnagel (1916—1989) was the first sur­

A ortic D epressor N erve Thomas WiUis (16 21-1675) des­

geon to explore the possibility o f developing an artificial

cribed a branch o f the vagus supplying the aorta as a

aortic valve. He commenced his research in 1940 and after

wandering nerve in i664.Thiele (1824) and E. Cyon (1865)

10 years he produced the first practical aortic valve prosthe­

showed that the stimulation o f this nerve caused a drop

sis. An implant o f this valve in a female patient was done at the Georgetown University Medical Center in 1952.

in blood pressure. Julius Bernstein (1864) and Carl Ludwig

Although the patient lived for several years, her case

(1866) demonstrated slowing o f the cardiac rate by

was further complicated by a coexisting coarctation o f the

stimulating it. N.Wooldridge identified it in the dog in 1883

aorta, and she succumbed to progressive cardiac failure. See

and named it the aortic nerve. In humans this nerve

aortic stenosis, aortic insufficiency.

was found to be represented by a branch o f the superior laryngeal nerve.

A ortitis Syphilitic aortitis described by Arnold Ludwig Gotthilf Heller (1840—1913), professor o f pathological

A ortic D issection See dissecting aneurysm.

anatomy at Kiel in 1900. Treponema pallidum was discovered

A ortic In com p eten ce See aortic insufficiency.

in the syphilitic aorta by Karl Otto R euter (b 1873) in 1906.

A ortic Insufficiency The condition was noted by English

A ortocoronary Bypass See coronary artery bypass graft.

physician William Cowper (1666—1709) o f Hampshire in

A ortopulm onary D efec t or arterial septal d efect A

1705.Thomas Hodgkin (1798—1866) gave a description in

congenital malformation noted by John Elliotson (1791—

1828 and a classic account with an illustrated plate was given

1868) o f University College, London in 1830. A series o f

by Sir Dominic John Corrigan (1802-1880) in 1832.

cases was published by H. Perelman and co-workers in

Corrigan pulse or waterhammer pulse, characterized by

1949.

a sudden impact and rapid faU in aortic insufficiency, was also described by him. The two separate murmurs heard

A pepsia H ysterica See anorexia nervosa.

over the femoral and solidus or brachial artery during

A perient [Latin: aperiens, opening] M ild medicines which

the diastolic and systolic phases o f the heart, were described

produce a gentle action on the bowel. Castor oil is men­

by French physician, Louis Paul Duroziez (1826—1897) in

tioned as a purgative in the Ebers papyrus from 1550 B C .

18 6 1.The mechanism o f production o f these murmurs was

Leaves from the shrub Senna were used by Arabs in A D 750.

explained by Herman Ludwig Blumgart (1895—1977) in

Paul o f Aegina (625—690) mentioned rhubarb, soft eggs,

1933-

mallows and soup o f shellfish as mild aperients. For a stronger laxative effect he recommended the leaves o f the

A ortic Stenosis Noted by Lazare Riviere (1589—1655) in

elder tree, Sambucus, the root o f oak-fern. Polypodium, milk-

1674 and a postmortem description o f calcific aortic

whey with salt and dodder o f thyme taken in wine after supper.

stenosis was given by Théophile Bonet in 1679 .An illustrated plate was drawn by an English physician, WiUiam Cowper murmur,

A p eritif Asafoetida gum was used by the Saracens to stimu­

an apical mid-diastolic or presystolic functional murmur

late appetite and, owing to its aroma, it is stiU used in many

originating from the mitral valve, was described by Austin

food products and sauces. The French used mainly red

(1666—1709),

in

1705. The

Austin

Flint

Flint (1812-1886) o f N ew York in 1862. Johann Georg

wines as aperitifs with the addition o f bitter ingredients.

Mönkeberg (1877-1925) o f Bonn described two causes:

W ormwood has been known as an appetite stimulant for centuries and is still in use as a bitter ingredient in

one with inflammation and the other due to sclerosis,

vermouth, which is sometimes taken to stimulate appetite.

in 1904. Successful correction by surgery was done by Theodore Tuffier (1857—1929) in 19 12 . Charles B ailey

A pert, Eugene (1868—1940) Parisian endocrinologist and

became interested in the surgical treatment following the

pediatrician. In

61

1910

he classified manifestations o f

APEX

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

BEAT

described sensory aphasia, to which the w ord ‘deafness’ was

hypernephrosis or adrenal cortical hyperfunction on the basis o f age o f onset, from the embryo to old age. He also

assigned by A d olf Kussmaul (1822-1902). The site o f the

described the condition associated with syndactyly, mental

lesion in sensory aphasia was identified by Karl Wernicke

retardation and visual loss (Apert syndrome) in 1906.

(1848—1905) in 1874. See speech disorders.

A ph em ia Defective articulation o f speech or motor aphasia.

A p ex B eat [Latin: apex, summit] Contraction o f the heart in

See aphasia.

systole forcing the blood out o f the ventricles. Described in the second chapter o f William Harveys (1578—1657) great

A phorism s o f H ippocrates (460—377 B C ) [Greek: aporis-

work on the circulation o f the blood, Exercitatio anatomica de

mo5, definition] Contains 406 famous sayings, thought to be

motu cordis, et sanguinis in animalibus published in 1628. In the

later works by his disciples. A translation into English was

third chapter he stated‘At the moment when the heart con­

done in 1610, followed by others by: Sprengel (1707), Coar

tracts and when the breast is struck, when in short the organ

(1822) and Underwood (1828).

is in a state o f systole, the arteries are dilated, yield a pulse and are in a state o f diastole’ . Cardiac palpation as an aid to

A phrodisiac Love potion. Named after the Greek goddess

diagnosis was introduced by Hippolito Francisco Albertini

o f love. Aphrodite. Since ancient times thousands o f substances have been suggested including: vaginal discharge

(1662-1746) o f Italy in 1728.

from mares in heat, tongue o f certain birds, roe mixed with

A pgar Score Proposed in an attempt to evaluate the state o f

wine and pigeon blood, and tiger testicles in arrak. Pliny the

newborn infants under different conditions o f delivery and

Elder (AD 23—79) recommended the feet o f the hippopota­

anesthesia by a graduate o f Columbia University, Virginia

mus and Dioscorides suggested aniseed. Rhinoceros horn is

Apgar (1909—1974) in A Proposal for a New Method of

used in several parts o f the world.

Evaluation of New Born Infants published in 1953.

A phthous U lcers or apthae [Greek: apto, inflame] Hippo­ crates (460—377 B C ) described apthae amongst the other diseases o f dentition. Aretaeus the Cappadician (81-138) noted the abundance o f these mouth ulcers amongst the Egyptians and attributed it to impurities in the water. Various recommendations such as honeyed water, juice o f the pomegranate, vegetable acids and borate o f soda were made by Paul o f Aegina (625-690), Avicenna (980-1037) and Galen (129-200).

A picolysis See collapse therapy. A pnea [Greek: a, without + pneuma, breath or air] The earliest study on its physiology in humans was by Italian physiologist,AngeloMosso (1846—19 10),in 1 9 0 3 . cardiac resuscitation.

A pollina Patron saint regarded as the guardian o f teeth and patron o f toothache, after she attained martyrdom in A D 250 at the hands o f an anti-Christian mob in Alexandria,

Virginia Apgar (1909-1974)

who broke all her teeth.

A p ollo

Aphakia [Greek: a, negative or without + phakos, lentil or

On the island o f Delos he killed the great snake

which symbolized disease and thereby became the Greek

lens] Absence o f the lens in the eye.

god o f health. He also had the power to unleash pestilence

Aphasia [Greek: a, negative + phasia, speech] Described by

and to confer health.

Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) in 1745. The site o f the lesion

A pollonius o f C itium

in the brain was suggested by Jean Baptiste Bouillaud

Physician who lived around 100

B C . He wrote a commentary on the Hippocratic treatise

(1796—1881) in 1825. It was called‘alalia’ by J.Lordat in 1841.

on articulations, with a number o f illustrations.

Paul Broca (1824-1880) re-named it,‘aphemia’ .The current name was given by a Greek scholar, Chrysaphis. In 1869 a

A p om orp h in e [Greek: apo, from + morphia, form] Organic

British neurologist, Henry Charlton Bastian (1837-1915),

base obtained by Matthieson and W right by adding

62

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

APOTHESIS

Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) states that i f morbid residue fails

hydrochloric acid to morphine in 1869. It was used as an antiemetic in the same year by London physician, S. Gee.

to be evacuated by mouth, rectum, urethra or skin pore it will result in an eruption, tumor or gangrene.

A poneurosis [Greek: apo, from + neuron, tendon] Term in anatomy refers to the insertion o f a muscle that was not

A pothecaries A ct Act o f Parliament to regulate the prac­

made o f fleshy fibers.

tice o f apothecaries in England and Wales. Passed in 1815 during the reign o f King George III.

A pophysis Term used by Galen (129-200) to refer to the blunt end o f a bone.

A pothecary The official name for the person in the royal

A p op lectiform Cerebral C ongestion Condition des­

palace or great household in England who administered

cribed by Armand Trousseau (1801—1867) o f Paris around

drugs, spices, perfumes and sweetmeats. Previously known

1850, probably the syndrome now known as transient

as Spicers or pepperers. The office o f Court Apothecary

ischemic attack. He described transient acute neurological

existed from the time o f King John and one o f the earliest

deficits such as loss o f speech, loss o f sight and staggering

mentions o f the apothecary in England is found in Oxford

that lasts for a few seconds and related these to areas o f inter­

records from 1277. Several references have been made

nal carotid artery distribution in the brain. Despite the

to ‘apothecaria’ or ‘ipotecaria’ in deeds found at Oxford

name, he believed that there was no congestion o f the

around i320.Another early record shows them as court offi­

brain. In i860 Lamare-Picquot thought that the presence o f

cials during the reign o f King Edward II in 1313. Falcand de

excess red globules in the blood predisposed the patient to it

Luca was the first apothecary to sell medicine in England in

and prescribed arsenic. This was probably the first sugges­

1357. In the 14th century they belonged to the Spicer’s

tion o f increased risk o f stroke in patients with an excess o f

Guild or Guild o f Grocers. They later joined the ‘craft and

red blood cells or polycythemia. A case o f internal carotid

mistery o f the Company o f Grocers’ and remained mem­

artery reconstructive surgery in a patient with intermittent

bers until the charter for the Society o f Apothecaries was

hemiplegia or transient ischemic attacks was reported by

granted by James I o f England in 1617.

Regius professor o f medicine, George White Pickering (1904-1980), H .H .G . Eastcott and C .G . R o b in The Lancet in 1954.

A p op lexy [Greek: apo, from + plexein, to strike] In ancient usage ‘apoplexy’ denotes a condition in which the individ­ ual suddenly falls, like an ox felled by the butcher. Paul o f Aegina (625-690) stated that‘W hen the common origin o f the nerves is affected and from it aU other parts o f the body have lost their motion and sensibility, the affection is called apoplexy’ . He recommended use o f clysters, bleeding and rubbing o f oil as treatments. It is known to have had a poor prognosis, and this was reflected in the aphorism o f Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) that ‘It is impossible to remove a strong attack o f apoplexy and not easy to remove a weak attack’ . Aretaeus o f Cappadocia (81—138) and Caelius Aurelianus, a physician in the 5th century, observed that cold winter weather predisposed a person. A scientific study with associated changes in the brain was published by Johann Jacobus Wepfer (1620—1695)

1648.The term was

confused with epilepsy during these times.The occurrence o f Cheyne—Stokes respiration in apoplexy was mentioned

Fifteenth century depiction of the apothecary. P. Bousell and H.

by John Cheyne (1771-18 36 ) in 1818 and later by William

Bonnemain, Histoire de la Pharmacie (1977). Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris

Stokes (1801-1878) in 1854.

A pothesis An ancient term for placing the fractured limb

Apostasis [Greek: apo, away + stasis, standing] The end o f an attack o f a disease. A theory o f pathogenesis proposed by

in a resting position.

63

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

APPENDICITIS

A ppendicitis [Latin: appendix, an addition or supplement;

Julius Carlson (1875) in Control of Hunger in Health and

Greek: itis, inflammation] A description o f the appendix

Disease, published in 1916. An early description o f loss o f

vermiformis

surgeon, Jacopo

appetite or anorexia in malignancy was given by William

Berengario da Carpi (1470—1530) in 1521. An abscess o f the

Brinton (1823-1867) o f St Thomas’ Hospital, London in

vermiform process was described by German surgeon,

Diseases of the Stomach published in 1859. See hunger.

was

given

by

Italian

Lorenz Heister (1683-1758) in 17 11 and a case o f inflamed

A pprenticeship Part o f every doctor’s training until about

appendix was recorded by Mestivier in 1759. His patient

1870. During the i8th and 19th centuries each surgeon had

was a 45-year-old man who underwent drainage for appen­

one to four apprentices who paid large fees ranging from

dicular abscess but failed to survive the operation. A rusty pin-like

organ -

the appendix -

^£250 to ;4^iooo to their master. They were bound to him

was found later

for 7 years at the Surgeon’s HaU. One o f the duties o f

during his postmortem examination. Successful drainage o f

the Barber-Surgeons Company was to supervise both

an abscess was performed by H enry Hancock (1809—1880)

master and apprentice during the apprenticeship. At the

o f Charing Cross Hospital in 1848. John William Keys

end the young surgeons took an examination and were

Parkinson (1785—1838), a London physician, described

granted three different levels o f license depending on the

perforated appendix and recognized it as a cause o f death in

examiners’ perception o f their capability and performance.

1 812. An operation in America was done by Willard Parker (1800-1884) in 1867 and the term was coined by Reginald

A P U D Cells or co n cep t An acronym for Amine Precursor

Heber Fitz (1843—1913), a surgeon from Boston in 1886.

Uptake and Decarboxylation.The concept o f cells respon­

Henry Barton Sands (1830—1888) o f N ew York successfully

sible for production

removed an appendix before rupture in 1888. His assistant,

proposed by A .G .E . Pearse in 1966 and extended to include

Charles M cBurney (1845-1913), described the site o f maxi­

endocrine, neural and neuroendocrine cells in 1975.

mal tenderness, the M cBurney point. Sir Frederick Treves

A qua R eg ia

o f polypeptide

hormones was

Mixture o f nitric and hydrochloric acids

(1853— 1923) was amongst the first to advocate the current

developed by Arab alchemist, Geber, during his search for

practice o f removal o f the appendix during early stages

potable gold or elixir o f eternal youth.

o f infection to prevent complications. He saved the life o f King Edward VII by persuading him to postpone his

A qua V itae [Latin: aqua, water + vitae, life] Term used for

coronation for 2 days and successfully removing his

alcohol by Arab alchemist Geber who lived around the 8th

inflamed appendix in 1902.

century at Seville.

A quae Sulis See bath.

A pp en dix V erm iform is [Latin: appendix, supplement + vermis, worm]

Called the ‘worm

o f the bowel’ by

A qu ed uct o f Fallopius [Latin:

water + ducere, to lead]

ancient physicians in Egypt, and known as ‘caecum

The canal for the facial nerve in the temporal bone was

intestinum’ around 1600. A description was given by Jacopo

named after Italian anatomist Gabriele FaUoppio (1523—

Berengario da Carpi (1470—1530), an Italian surgeon, in

1562).

152 1. See appendicitis.

A qu ed uct o f Sylvius [Latin: aqua, water + ducere, to lead] A

A ppert, Nicolas François (1749—1841) French confectioner

channel that passes through the midbrain. Described by

w ho discovered a method o f preserving meat and vegeta­

Franciscus Sylvius (1614—1672), also known as Sylvius de la

bles by

Böe, o f Leiden in 1660.

excluding

air from

the

containers. Joseph

Gay-Lussac (1778—1850) examined Appert bottles and

A quilian Law o f R o m e Enacted to control surgery and

found that they were devoid o f oxygen and concluded that

healing in 30 0 B C .

oxygen caused putrefaction. Appert used the autoclave for sterilization in 1810 and he opened a canning factory

Aquinas, Thomas (1225-1274) Pupil o f Albertus Magnus

in 1812. In 1795 he won a prize offered by Napoleon for

(1192—1280). He separated the body from the soul and

finding a practical way o f preserving food.

attributed sensory functions entirely to sensory organs and not the brain. He also sought to embrace aU sciences into

A p p etite Regarded as an index o f physical health and the

Christianity.

loss o f appetite as a symptom o f physical disease since the

A quino de Chateau, Lyon or Peter Louis (d 1797)

time o f Hippocrates (460-377 B C ). The sensations o f appetite and hunger were described by William Beaumont

French

(1785-1853) in Physiology of Digestion (1845) and by Anton

Hommes Celebres dans les Sciences.

64

physician

who

published

Lettres

sur

le

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ARCHAEUS

Arab M edicin e A modification o f Greek medicine translat­

A ranzi, Giulio Cesare or Arantius (1520-1589) Physician and

ed and adapted to suit the religion, climate and race. The

anatomist who was professor o f medicine and surgery at the

rulers o f Baghdad from A D 750-1258 helped to preserve

University o f Bologna. He named the hippocampus o f the

the Greek and R om an works on medicine and other sci­

brain and described the choroid plexus, foramen ovale and

ences. Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) was known as Ihucrat or

ductus arteriosus. He wrote De Humano Poeto in 1564.

Bukrat to the Arabs and his treatises were translated between

A ran -D u ch en ne D isease

Progressive spinal muscular

A D 750—850. The works o f Aristotle (384-322 B C ) was

atrophy. Described by French neurologist Guillaume

translated by Sergius o f R as-al-’Ayn (AD 530) and Hunayn

Benjamin Duchenne (1806—1875) in 1849.Another French

ibn Ishaq (AD 850). Some o f the great Arab medical men

physician,François Amilcar Aran (1817—1861) published his

during this period include, Rhazes (850—932) who des­

description in 1850. See amylotrophic lateral sclerosis.

cribed measles and smallpox in A D 900, Haly Abbas

Arber, Agnes, née Robertson (1879-1960) English botanist,

(930-994) who wrote the great medical book Al-maleki,

born in London and educated at University College. She

Avicenna (980-1037) who wrote the Canon and Albucasis

developed the technique o f using serial sections for study­

(d 1013) who wrote an illustrated surgical treatise around

ing plant anatomy and studied early printed herbáis. Her

A D 1000. Arabic works in translation exercised a great

Herbáis,Their Origin and Evolution was published in 1913.

influence on European medicine and astrology from the

A rbor V itae Cerebelli [Latin: arbor, tree + vitae, life] Term

Middle Ages to the beginning o f the i6th century. See

used to denote a tree-like arrangement o f the white fibers

Abbasides, Cordova, Nestorian medicine.

in the cerebella structure o f the brain by Danish anatomist

A rachnodactyly Term suggested by Charles Emile Achard

BegnigmusWinslow (1669-1760) in 1740.

(1860-1944) o f Paris in 1902 to denote the spider-like appearance o f fingers in patients with Marfan syndrome.

A rb u th n o tjJo h n (1667—1735) W riter and physician, born at

The long, slender limb features o f Marfan syndrome were

Arbuthnot near Montrose and educated at Aberdeen. He

described as ‘dolicho-stenomelia’ by French pediatrician,

was appointed physician to Queen Anne in 1709. He became a fellow o f the R oyal College in 1714. His medical

Bernard Antonin Jean Marfan (1858-1942) in 1896.

works include Effect of A ir on Human Bodies and Essay

A rachnoid Layer [Greek: arachne, spider] The term ‘arach-

concerning Ailments. Miscellaneous Works of Dr Arbuthnot was

noeides’ was first used by Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) to

published in Glasgow in 1751.

refer to sediments in urine. Galen (129—200) used it to mean

Arbutin A hydroquinone glycoside. The leaves o f Arbutus

any plexus o f veins or arteries. The present term for the

have been used as a remedy for urinary conditions since the

cobweb-like membrane lying between the pia mater and

time o f Galen (129—200), and its chief constituent, arbutin,

dura mater was introduced by the Anatomical Society o f

was isolated by Kawalier in 1852.

Amsterdam in 1664.

A rchaeopteryx Almost the entire remains o f a primitive

Arachnoiditis [Greek: arachne, spider] Inflammation o f the

bird from the Jurassic period were found in deposits o f

spinal canal. Described in a patient as ‘meningitis circum­

a quarry at Solenhoven in southwest Germany in 1861.

scripta spinalis’ by William Gibson Spiller (1863-1940),

Wagner named the bird ‘Gryphosauraus’ after the Greek mythical bird ‘Gryphon’ . Herman von M eyer renamed it

J.H . Musser and Edward Martin (1859—1938) in 1903. A description o f a similar case as ‘meningitis serosa spinalis’

‘Archaeopteryx’ to denote a primordial bird. Sir Richard

was given by K. Mendel and Saul Adler in 1908. Victor

Owen (1804—1892), an opponent o f Darwinian theory,

Horsley (1857—1916) described it as ‘chronic spinal menin­

published On the Archaeopteryx von Meyer in which he

gitis’ in 1909. War injuries were thought to be responsible

pointed out the existence o f these birds prior to the Tertiary

byT. Mauss and H. Krugger in 1918. Chronic arthritis o f the

period. Darwin in Origin of Species has quoted this strange

spine was incriminated by C.Vincent in 1930.J.D. French in

bird in support o f his theory.

1946 pointed out a protrusion o f an intervertebral disc as a

Archaeus [Greek: archaios, ancient] The principle o f life, pos­

cause. A presently established cause, spinal anesthesia, was

tulated by Paracelsus (1493—1541) o f Switzerland. I f activity

identified by W G . Haynes and FA . Smith in 1942. Lipiodol

o f life takes place in a normal manner, unimpeded by any

and other contrast media were noted as a cause by P. B ucy

obstacle, the state is called health. I f activity is impeded by

and I.J. Spigel in 1943.

some factor, it is called disease. It is an essence equally

Arantius (1530—1589) SeeAranzi, Giulio Cesare.

distributed in all parts o f the body.

65

ARCHAGATHOS

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OF P E L O P O N N E S U S

Archagathos o f P eloponnesus Greek physician who prac­

architecture led to later hospitals such as the Lazaretto near

ticed in R o m e around 219 B C . He was initially a successful

Milan (1488) and Hospital de Santa Cruz, Toledo (1505).

surgeon but, being too ready with the knife, he was

Leone Battista Alberti (1404-1472) o f Italy specified that

nicknamed, Carnifex, the executioner.

hospitals for infectious diseases should be built away from towns and highways. In England R obert Hooke

Archelaus Greek philosopher before the time o f Socrates.

(1635—1703) designed the new Bethlem Hospital which

He was one o f the first to propose that the Earth was not

opened at M oorfield in 1676. Sir Christopher Wren (1632—

flat.

1723) designed several hospitals in London.

A rchetype [Greek: arche, beginning + typos, type] Meaning

A rchitronics Subdivision o f the brain into different regions

original and adapted to psychiatry by Carl Gustav Jung

o f specific structure. Pioneered by Swedish histologist,

(1875-196 1).

H am m arberg in 1895. Know ledge was advanced in

A rch ezoic P eriod [Greek: archaios, ancient or primitive

England by Alfred Walter Campbell (1868-1937) and in

+ zoic, life] Earliest geological era which started with

Germany by Cecile Vogt (1875-1962) and Oskar Vogt (1870—1959). Cytoarchitronics, dealing with cell structure

unicellular life.

and specific areas o f the brain, was pioneered by Campbell

Archiatri Public physicians in ancient R o m e who belonged

in 1905 and later by Lewis Bevan in 1909.

to the Collegium Archiatrorum. The ‘archiatri populares’ were district physicians, ‘archiatri palatini’ were the court

Archives de P sy ch o lo g ie Founded by Swiss psychologist,

physicians, and ‘archiatri municipali’ were municipal

Edouard Claparede (1873-1940) and his cousin Theodore

physicians.

Flournoy (1854—1920) in 1901.

Archusia Carcinogenic growth stimulator. See Burrows,

Archibald, Cameron (1707—1753) Scottish physician who

Montrose.

studied for the bar before he took medicine. He was exe­ cuted at Tyburn for participating in the Rebellion o f 1745.

A rculanus, Johanus or Giovanni d’A rcoli (14 12 -14 8 4 )

A rchigenes Greek surgeon who lived around A D 100. He

French professor and surgeon at Bologna. He suggested the

amputated limbs for indications such as gangrene and

use o f amber electrified by friction for extracting metal

malignant tumors and suggested the use o f ligature to stop

splinters from the eye. See artificial teeth.

bleeding during amputation. He listed several applications

Arcus Senilis [Latin: arcus, bow + senilis, aged] A circular

for toothache including: spirit o f nitre, hot fermentation

opacity surrounding the cornea. Attributed in the past to

with vinegar and heated linseed. He recommended filling

various causes, such as deposition o f hyaline bodies,lime par­

holes in teeth caused by caries.

ticles, fatty degeneration and arrest o f corneal development. In 1870 Jacob Mendes da Costa (1833-1900) associated

A rchim atthaeus A physician in Salerno in the early 12th

corneal change seen in arcus senilis with fatty degeneration

century. He wrote The Instructions of the Physicians and The

o f the heart.

Practice.

A rdent Fever or ardentes febres [Latin: ardere, to burn] Paul

A rchim edes (287—212 B C ) The father o f hydrodynamics

o f Aegina (625—690), Areatus, Avicenna (980—1037) and

was born at Syracuse in Sicily. He discovered the principles

Rhazes (850—932) described the symptomatology o f ardent

o f flotation while he was contemplating an experiment to

fever which occurred in several diseased states. Hippocrates

determine the content o f gold. He also discovered the lever

(460—377 B C ) referred to long walks, summer weather and

and its mechanism and the Archimedian screw. He was

protracted thirst as causes. A commonly practiced method

killed by a Rom an soldier during the capture o f Syracuse by

o f treating high temperature during ardent fever was by

the Romans.

external cooling with cold sponges and oral intake o f cold

A rchitecture Its contribution to medicine and health has

fluids. Hippocrates in Epidemics described the symptoma­

been significant by way o f providing hospitals.The temples

tology which occurred with great heat, thirst, dry tongue

o f Aesculapius were probably the first buildings devoted

and delirium. The mechanism was thought by Hippocrates

to healing and inpatient treatment. The R om an architect,

to be the veins becoming dry and attracting bilious humors.

Markus Vitruvius who lived around 50 B C pointed out the

He considered that cases which occurred with black or dark

damage caused to health by lead pipes used for drainage in

urine would often be fatal. These description were later

R om e. During Medieval times sick rooms became attached

found to be consistent with blackwater fever by John

to churches and places o f religious healing. This pattern o f

William Watson

66

Stephens

in

1937, although

some

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ARGYLL

ROBERTSON

authorities earlier (Fuchs, 1866) have attributed them to

described by P.Masson in 1928.The suggestion that abdom­

typhus. See black waterfever.

inal carcinomatosis may be associated with a direct release o f hormones was made by Maurice A. Cassidy in 1931. A

Arderne, John (1307-1360) Warwickshire surgeon who

tumor with the classic symptoms and involvement o f the

practiced and wrote on surgery. He was mostly self-taught,

valves o f the right heart in a 19-year-old boy was described

although it is possible that he may have received some train­

by G. Biorck, O. Axen and A .R . Thorson in the American

ing in Montpellier, France. He specialized in proctology and his practice was initially at Mitcham, Surrey before he

Heart Journal in 1952. The same workers reported seven more patients who had excess

moved to Newark in Nottinghamshire. His fees were said

5-hydroxytryptamine

or serotonin levels, thought to be responsible for their

to be enormous and sometimes consisted o f ransoms

symptoms, in 1954. As the cells responsible for this tumor

meant for knights who were held by the Turks during the

contained granules which showed an affinity for silver stain,

Crusades. See analfistula.

the condition was named argentaffinoma. The high con­

Aretaeus o f C appadocia (81-138) From eastern Asia

centration o f serotonin in the tumor, serum and urine was

M inor who lived in Alexandria. He ranks beside Hippo­

demonstrated by B. Pernow and J.Waldenstorm in 1954.

crates (460-377 B C ) in his study and description o f disease.

Argentier, John (1513-1572) Piedmont physician who

He gave the name ‘diabetes’ , distinguished between spinal

opposed Galen’s (129-200) views. Some o f his works were

and cerebral paralysis and gave classic descriptions o f angi­ na, elephantiasis, dysentery, asthma and many other diseases.

printed in Venice in 1592.

He observed mentally ill patients and established that manic

A rgentum [Greek: argos, shining] The chemical symbol A g

and depressive states could occur in the same patient. This

was assigned to silver by Berzelius (1779-1848). See silver.

was probably the earliest recognition o f bipolar illness. He

A rginase

described the prepsychotic personality. His only surviving

A key enzyme in Krebs cycle was isolated by

work De Cavesis et signis Acutorum Morborum was published

London chemist, Henry Drysdale Dakin (1880-1952) and

in 1552.

Albrecht Kossel (1853-1827) at Marburg.

A rginine Amino acid isolated by Schulz from lupin seed­ lings in 1886. Its presence in the basic proteins o f cell nuclei was demonstrated by a professor o f physiology at Hamburg, Albrecht Kossel (18 53-1927),in 1896.

A rgon The English physicist John William Strutt Rayleigh (1842—1919), during his experiments, repeatedly noticed that nitrogen from air was heavier than nitrogen obtained otherwise. Scottish chemist. Sir William Ramsay (1852— 1916) pointed out to him at a Royal Society meeting in 1894 that Henry Cavendish (17 31-18 10 ) had noted this finding a hundred years earlier. Ram say and R ayleigh announced their discovery o f argon, which had previously escaped detection due to its inertness, at the British Scientists Research Workers meeting on August 13,1894. Aretaeus of Cappadocia (81-138). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

Argyll R ob ertson P up il

Light rigidity o f the pupil.

Douglas Argyll Robertson (1837—1909), an ophthalmolo­

Argellata, Peter (d 1423) Physician in the 15th century who

gist at Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, described four cases

became professor o f logic at Bologna. His work on surgery

o f spinal meiosis in his remarks on the action o f light on

was printed posthumously in 1480 and it passed through

the pupil in the Edinburgh Medical Journal in 1869. This condition associated with taboparesis was later named after

several editions.

him. See Argyll Robertson,pupillary reaction.

A rgentafiinom a [Latin: argentum, silver + afifinitas, affinity]

Argyll R obertson , Douglas Moray Cooper Lamb (1837-

(Syn. Carcinoid syndrome) The term Karzinoide (carcinoid) was introduced in 1907 by S. Obendorfer to describe a

1909) Scottish ophthalmic surgeon who gave the first

group o f intestinal tumors. Carcinoid syndrome, consisting

course in practical physiology at Edinbugh R oyal Infirm­

o f flushing, wheezing, diarrhoea and valvular lesions was

ary. He showed the constructive effect o f eserine from

67

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ARGYRIA

Calabar bean on the pupil and described the Argyll-

numerals had bases o f 10 and 60 and Egyptian numerals

Robertson pupil in 1869. See Argyll Robertson pupil.

were based on symbols for i and multiples o f ten. Hiero­ glyphic symbols were also allocated for numbers by the

A rgyria Confusion with congenital heart disease, discov­

Egyptians.The oldest Greek numbering system consisted o f

ered in the latter half o f the 19th century due to its

assigned numbers to the 24 letters o f the Greek alphabet.

association with skin discoloration. It was later found to

Ancient Rom an numbers also had symbols for multiples o f

occur as a result o f using nose drops containing silver.

A riboflavinosis

5 as well as for powers o f 10. We use the Arabic system o f

The occurrence o f a magenta-colored

numbers.

smooth tongue devoid o f papillae in riboflavin deficiency

A rkw right, Joseph Physician and great-grandson o f indus­

was noted by Hugh Stannus (b 1877) in 19 11. P.H. Bahr

trialist Sir Richard Arkwright (1732-1792). He gave up

described the tongue lesions in A Report on Researches in Sprue in

medicine owing to ill health and joined the Lister Institute

published in 1912. Additional features, such

as a bacteriologist in 1906. He discovered the rickettsial

as neuritis and impairment o f vision, were observed in

bodies which were later identified as the cause o f typhus

Jamaicans by H .H . Scott in 1918.These signs and symptoms

fever. He also observed the rough and smooth colonies o f

were produced experimentally in American prisoners by an

dysentery bacilli and their relevance to antigenic properties.

Austrian-American physician, Joseph Goldberger (18741929) andWilber FredTanner (1888) in 19 25.Occurrence o f

A rloing, Saturnin (1846—19 11) A physician who designed a

retrobulbar neuritis was demonstrated by Fitzgerald M oore

séroagglutination test for the tubercle bacillus in 1898.

in 1930 and yeast extract was noted as a cure. A complete

Arlt Sinus A dilatation o f the lachrymal sac. Described by

neurological picture was given by J.V. Landor and R .A .

Carl Ferdinand Ritter von Arlt (1812-1887), professor o f

Pallister in 1935. It was shown to be due to riboflavin defi­

ophthalmology at Prague in 1855.

ciency by W.H. Sebrell and R .E . Butler who named it

A rm iger, Thomas Jeremiah (1782—1844) Demonstrator in

ariboflavinosis in 1938.

anatomy at the London Hospital. He wrote The Rudiments

A riege Cave French cave in which paintings done by Cro-

of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Body, illustrated

Magnon man, who lived 39,000 years ago, are found

with plates, in 1816.

showing a human wearing a skin around the shoulders with

A rm strong, Charles (1886—1967) Microbiologist who iden­

deers antlers on his head but naked from the waist down.

tified the causative viruses o f St Louis encephalitis and

A ristotle (384—324 B C ) Greek philosopher and scientist

lymphocytic choriomeningitis in 1934.

born in the province o f Chalcidice next to Macedonia. His father was court physician to the King o f Macedonia who

A rm strong, George (1719-1789) He opened a dispensary

was the grandfather o f Alexander the Great. W hen he was

for the poor in London in 1769, at R e d Lion Square. He

18 years he traveled to Athens to study under Plato (428-

treated thousands o f poor children at his own expense and

348 B C ) and remained his pupil for 20 years. At 41 years

started the movement to provide medical care for the poor. His An Essay on the Diseases most Fatal to Infants was

he was appointed teacher to Alexander the Great who was

published in 1767.

13 years old. W hen Alexanders father King Philip was assassinated in 336 B C Aristotle returned to Athens at the

A rm strong, John (d 1779) Poet and physician from

age o f 53 years. His earliest and the greatest treatise on biol­

Castleton. He graduated from Edinburgh in 1732 with a

ogy, Historia Animalorum, was written after his return to

thesis DeTabe Purulente dedicated to Sir Hans Sloane (1660—

Athens. His other works include DeAnima , De Generatione

1753). He published an anonymous essay on the study o f

Animalorum and De Partibus Animalorum. Aristotle formed

physick in 1735 and wrote The History and Cure of Venereal

his Lyceum in Athens during the year 336 B C .A Latin trans­

Diseases in 1737. A poetical work. The Art of Preserving

lation o f his three great biological treatises was published by

Health, W2LS published in 1744 and a collection o f his medical

Theodore Gaza (1400-1478) in Venice in 1476. Most o f his

essays appeared in 1773.

teachings remained valid for 2000 years.

A rm y M edicin e and Surgery Pythagorus is said to have

A rithm etic [Greek: arithmos, number] The earliest docu­

served as an army physician. After being captured by the

mentation is found in the papyrus written by an Egyptian

Persians in 500 B C he is supposed to have gained his free­

priest named Ahmes in 1800 B C . It contains some common

dom by successfully treating King Darius for a dislocated

arithmetic operations and multiplications. Babylonian

ankle and Queen Atossa for breast cancer. Field hospitals

68

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ARNOLD

were established by the Byzantine Emperor, Leo V I, in the

A rn old o f Villanova (1234—1313) Italian physician from

9th century. H e also had ambulance men known as deputati

Valencia in Spain who also studied theology and law. He

to carry the wounded men. Queen Isabella o f Spain intro­

was professor at Montpellier for most o f his career and was

duced one o f the earliest systems o f army medical services

physician to Peter III (1285) and King Philip at Paris (1299).

in the 15 th century that provided a mobile unit o f physi­

He also had three popes as his patients but came into con­

cians and surgeons. Gunshot wounds were a major cause o f

flict with the church owing to his unorthodox views on

morbidity and mortality and they were studied in detail by

theology.This led to some o f his work being publicly burnt.

many surgeons such as Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) o f

His voluminous work, amounting to about 138 treatises

France and Jerome o f Brunswick. Harris von Gersdorf pro­

on medicine, astronomy and chemistry. Opera Omnia, was

duced a field book o f army surgery in 1517. Dominique Jean

published in Lyons in 1532.

Larrey (1766—1842) o f Paris was one o f the greatest military surgeons in history. W hile working in the Hôtel Dieu in Paris in 1789 he introduced the ‘flying ambulances’ to provide first aid for the wounded. These ambulances were two- or four-wheeled carts drawn by horses. He later wrote five volumes o f Mémoires de Chirurgie Militaire in 1812. Arm y medical services in the British Isles remained a regimental system from 1660 to about 18 73.James M cGregor ( 17 7 11858) was an army surgeon who served for nearly 50 years from 1815. George James Guthrie (1785-1856) firom London was a surgeon in America and in the Peninsular War, was named the ‘British Larrey’ . H e wrote On Gunshot Wounds of the Extremities in 1816 and Commentaries on the Surgery ofWar in 1 85 5. Another two reformers o f the British Arm y medical system were William Taylor andWilliam M uir w ho brought an integrated hospital system to the military services in the

Arnold of Villanova (1234-1313). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

19th century. Nicolai Ivanovitch Pirogoff (1810—1881) from M oscow served in the Crimean War and advocated female nursing for the wounded. He published Principles of General

A rnold, Friedrich (1803-1890) Professor o f anatomy from

Military Surgery, in 1854.

Heidelberg who described the otic ganglion o f the 5 th cra­ nial nerve (Arnold ganglion) and several other structures

A rndt-Schultz Law Weak stimuli cause strong physiological

which now bear his name.

responses and strong stimuli diminish or abolish physiological

A rnold, Joseph (1782—1818) Physician from Beccles, Suffolk

activity. Proposed by German psychiatrist, R u d o lf Arndt

who graduated from Edinburgh. His main interest was

(1835-1900).

botany and he accompanied the British colonial adminis­

A rnem an, Justus (1763—1807) Professor o f surgery at

trator, Sir Thomas Raffles (178 1—182 6), on an expedition to

Gottingen who pioneered the study o f diseases o f the ear.

Sumatra, where he died. He discovered the largest flower in the world, Rafflesia arnoldi, which measures over a meter in

A rneth, Joseph (1873-1955) German physician who differ­

diameter.

entiated polymorphs into 5 groups according to their nuclear configuration, in 1904. He described a method o f

A rnold, Julius (1835—1915) Succeeded his father, Friedrich

counting cells in each group to assess bone marrow res­

Arnold (1803—1890) as professor o f anatomy at the U ni­

ponse to toxemia and infection. His method, initially

versity o f Heidelberg. He described fragments o f red blood

known as the Arneth count, was later renamed the poly­

cells (Arnold granules) in 1897.

morphonuclear count by William Edmond Cooke and

A rnold, Thomas (1742-1816) Physician from Leicester who

Eric Ponder in 1914.

devoted himself to mental disorders. He wrote Observations

Arnisaeus, Kenningus (d 1635) German professor o f physics

on Insanity (1782), Dissertatio de Pluratide (1766), A case of

at Helmstadt. He wrote several treatises on politics and was

Hydrophobia Successfully Treated (1793) and Observations on the

physician to the K ing o f Denmark.

Management of the Insane in 1809.

69

ARNOLD-CHIARI

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SYNDROME

A rnold—Chiari S ynd rom e A tongue-like abnormal pro­

(1852—19 11). He advanced the theory o f electrolyte dissoci­

trusion o f the cerebellum and medulla oblongata through

ation, or the ionic theory, previously proposed by Van’t H o ff

the foramen magnum causing hydrocephalus and atrophy

and established the concept o f the dissociation constant in

o f brain tissue. Described by Austrian pathologist, Hans

1883. He formulated the effect o f temperature on the rate o f

Chiari (1851—1916) in 1891 and further described by

chemical reaction in 1889 and was awarded the N obel Prize

German pathologist,Julius Arnold (1835—1915), a professor

for Chemistry in 1903.

at Heidelberg, in 1894.

Arrhenius, O lo f Son o f Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhenius.

A rnot, H enry (18 4 3-19 31) Surgeon and lecturer at St

He applied pH measurement in determining the suitability

Thomas’ Hospital, London, who wrote Cancer, Its Varieties

o f specific crops in relation to acid, alkaline or neutral soil.

and Diagnosis in 1874. He held several Church appointments

A rrhenoblastom a [Greek: arrhen, male + blastos, bud]

and was made honorary canon o f Rochester in 1905.

Tumor o f the ovary consisting o f convoluted tubules resem­

A rnott, James M . (1794—1885) Surgeon at Middlesex Hos­

bling the seminiferous tubules o f the testis. Described by

pital who founded the Middlesex Hospital Medical School.

E.P. Pick o f Berlin in 1905. G. Schikele described a second case with similar histology in 1906.The term was proposed

A rnott, N eil (1788—1874) Scottish physician, inventor and

in 1930 by Robert M eyer (1864-1947) to denote this group

philanthropist. In 1827 he published Elements of Physics,

o f masculinising tumors.

which was translated into several languages. In 1855 he gave up medicine to pursue research. He invented a smokeless

Arrhythm ia [Greek: a, without + rhythmos, measured

grate known as Arnott Stove, a waterbed, a ventilator, a

motion] The irregularities o f the heart rate have been noted

hydrostatic bed and other devices. His last invention was

from ancient times from studying the pulse. The Chinese

a chair bed to prevent seasickness. He also gave large sums

emperor and physician, Huang T i N ei Ching Su Wen, who

o f money to the University o f London and Scottish univer­

lived around 2000 B C , described the irregular rhythm and

sities. He never patented his inventions and did not seek to

volume o f the pulse. Paul o f Aegina (625—690) described

profit from them.

rhythmic and arrhythmic pulse. A description o f paroxys­ mal tachycardia was given by Irish physician William Stokes

A rom atherapy The application o f essential oils through baths, inhalation and massage has been practiced from

(1807-1878) in 1854, but the term ‘paroxysmal tachycardia’

ancient times to treat disease and revive health. M yrrh has

was coined by Leon Bouveret (1851—1925) o f Paris in 1889.

been in use since biblical times and Egyptian priests used it

A report o f syncope due to cardiac arrest or heart block was

to treat chronic diseases such as arthritis. Theophrastus, a

given by Marcus Gerbezius (1658—1818) in 1692.The same

botanist who lived around 300 B C , wrote a treatise on odors

condition was described as ‘epilepsy with slow pulse’ by

in which he described the effects o f various scents on body

Giovanni Battista Morgagni (16 8 2-1771) in 1761 and an

and m ind.The term ‘aromatherapy’ was coined by French

account o f‘a clear case o f syncopal attacks with heart block’

chemist, R ené-M aurice Gattefosse in 1928. His interest

was given by R obert Adams (1791—1875) in 1827. Pulsus

began with the accidental discovery that lavender oil healed

bigeminus was described by a professor o f pathology at

a severe burn on his hand and prevented scarring. He later

Berlin, LudwigTraube (1818-1876) in 1872. An account o f

established an oil-house and started demonstrating the ben­

death due to ventricular fibrillation was given by Alexander

efits o f essences on the body. Around the same time, French

John MacWilliam (1857—1937) in 1889. A graphic record

physician, Jean Valnet and skin-care specialist, Maguirete

o f arrhythmia was achieved by Sir James MacKenzie

Maury, established aromatherapy.

(1853—1925) with his polygraph in 1897. The nature and

Burnt in large fires in an attempt to control

E G G characteristics o f atrial fibrillation were established

plague in Athens in 429 B C and used during pestilence up

around the same time by Sir Thomas Lewis (1881-1945)

to the Middle Ages.

o f University College, London. Low n-G anong-Levine

A rom atics

syndrome, a condition o f shortened P R interval and nor­

A ronson Culture M ed iu m For growing Vibrio cholerae.

mal Q R S on E G G tracings associated with paroxysmal

Devised by German bacteriologist, Hans Aronson (1865-

tachycardia, was described by Bernard Low n o f Brigham

1919).

Hospital, Boston, WF. Ganong and Samuel Albert Levine

Arrhenius, Svante August (1859—1927) Swedish chemist,

(1891-1966) in 1952. See Stokes-Adams, auricularflutter, heart

born inW ijk near Uppsala. He moved to Stockholm in 1 881

block, paroxysmal atrial tachycardia, ventricular tachycardia,

and became a student o f Jacobus Henricus Van’t H o ff

ventricularfibrillation,Wolf-Parkinson—White syndrome.

70

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ARTEMISIA

MARITIMA

A rrow P oison The South American arrow poison, curare,

‘sugared’ with arsenic. It also results from spraying fruit and

was described by Peter M artyr Angherius in 1516 and an

vegetables with arsenic-containing insecticides. Traces o f

account o f its paralyzing effects was given by Charles

arsenic were found in common food products such as jams,

Waterton (1782-1865) in Wanderings in South America pub­

marmalade, sweets, lemonade and liqueurs around 1910

lished in 1825. Claude Bernard (1813-1878) demonstrated

and the practice o f coloring food products with arsenical

the neuromuscular blocking effect o f curare in 1856. The

pigments also became a common problem in the 1920s

search for the medicinal effects started around 1880, when it

until it was banned by the Public Health Act related to

was noted that poison from Antiaris toxicaria, the upas tree

Preservatives in 1925.

from the Malay Archipelago had effects similar to digitalis in

A rsenic Preparations Found byA.Lingard,in 1899 to cure

small doses. The explorer and doctor, David Livingstone

trypanosomal disease called ‘Surra’ in horses in India. The

(1813—1873), described the effects o f an arrow poison called

African explorer David Livingstone (1813—1873) was the

kombe obtained from the Strophanthus vine during his trav­

first to use arsenic in treatment o f the African horse disease

els in southwestern Africa. A sample o f this was analyzed by

or ‘nagana’ in 1857. An aromatic arsenical was prepared by

Sir Thomas Richard Fraser (1841—1919) o f Edinburgh in

Bechamp in i860. Atoxl (p-amino phenyl arsenate) was

1885, who found it to be similar to digoxin and equally

identified as a cure for human African trypanosomiasis by

effective in the treatment o f dropsy. Tetanus toxin in

Harold Wolferstan Thomas and Anton Breinl in England in

an unidentified crude form was used as an effective arrow

1904, but its toxic properties on the optic nerve limited its

poison by people o f the South Pacific islands.

use. Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) pursued the search for safer

A rrow root A starch prepared from Maranta arundinacea, and

arsenic compounds and produced salvarsan (arsphenamine)

used in special diets. A reference to it as Canna indica radice

which was found to cure relapsing fever, syphilis and try­

alba alexipharmica was made by Sir Hans Sloane (1660-

panosomiasis, in 19 11.

1753)» a physician to the Governor o f Barbados, in his

A rsphenam ine Used in the treatment o f Oroya fever by

catalogue o f plants from Jamaica published in 1696.

J.A rce in 1918. See arsenic preparations.

A rrow W ound Theodoric o f Cervia (1260) described a

Artane or b en zh exol Introduced as treatment for Parkinson

method o f surgical removal o f an arrow while chanting

disease by Kendall Brooks Corbin (b 1907) in 1949.

prayers. French surgeon, G uy de Chauliac (1300-1370) o f

A rtedi, Peter (d 1735) Swiss physician and friend o f Carl

Auvergne, wrote on instruments for withdrawing arrows

Linnaeus (1707—1778) who wrote on fossils and quad­

embedded in the body. David Livingstone (1813—1873), the

rupeds. His work on ichthyology was completed and

great African explorer and surgeon, described the surgical

published after his death.

removal o f arrowheads from wounded patients by African surgeons. O n one occasion the surgeon successfully excised

A rtem isia absinthium W ormwood probably obtained its

part o f the lung in order to remove an arrow from the chest.

name from its paralyzing effect on intestinal worms. It is included in the Materia Medica o f Dioscorides as a treatment

A rsenic [Greek: arrenikon^mAe] Compounds o f arsenic were

for intestinal worms. It was an ingredient o f absinthe which

known in Egypt during the time o f the i8th dynasty.

was a popular social drink amongst the elite in Paris around

The term ‘arsenicon’ was used by the Greek herbalist

i860. See absinthe.

Dioscorides in A D 50 to denote a substance that was used as a cure for asthma. Early alchemists, including R o ger Bacon

A rtem isia m aritim a A plant known to the ancient Greeks

(1214-1294) and Albertus Magnus (119 2-128 0), were also

and Romans for its medicinal values. Dioscorides men­ tioned the seeds o f the plant which he found growing

familiar with the properties o f arsenic.

in Cappodocia as treatment for Ascarides and Lumbrici

A rsenic C ancer Arsenic was suggested to be a carcinogen

around A D 60. Alexander o f Tralles (525—605) advocated

byJohnAyerton Paris (1785-1856) in 1820. A case o f cancer

its use against intestinal worms. Kahler, an apothecary

due to arsenic exposure in a 34-year-old clerk was recorded

at Düsseldorf, extracted the active ingredient in 1830.

by Jonathan Hutchinson (1828-1913) in 1872.

Augustus Alms, a druggist’s assistant at Penzilin in M ecklen­ burg-Schwerin,

A rsenic P oison in g Arsenic has been used as a poison as it is

independently

extracted

the

same

tasteless and odorless. Arsenic poisoning occurred inVienna

substance and named it santonin, which was widely used as

in the 1930s owing to an apple cake being mistakenly

an antihelmintic in the 19th century.

71

ARTERIAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

BAROREFLEX

Arterial Baroreflex The part played by the arterial baro-

by British physiologist, Marshall Hall (1790—1857) o f Nottingham in 1831.

reflex in control o f circulation was demonstrated by German physiologist, Heinrich Ewald H ering (1866—1948)

Arteriosclerosis [Greek: aer, air + tero, I preserve + skeleros;

at Leipzig in 1923.The presence o f sensors in or around the

hard] Thickening o f the arteries was described by Antonio

heart to detect variation in blood pressure in order to adjust

Scarpa (1747—1832) o f Italy in i8o4.The term ‘arteriosclerosis’

the blood volume was suggested by John Peters in 1935.

was introduced by Frederic Martin Lobstein (1777—1835), professor o f pathology at Strasburg in 1833. He used the

Arterial B lo o d Gas Analysis See blood gas analysis.

term to refer to thickening and hardening o f the

Arterial E m b olism François Quesnay, a surgeon in Paris,

arteries. It was later named atherosclerosis by Felix Jacob

suggested an arterial cause for gangrene in Traite de la

Marchand (1846-1928) o f Leipzig in 1^04.. See atherosclerosis.

Gangrene published in 1739. Hebred in 1817 proposed that

A rteritis [Greek: aer, air + tero, I preserve + itis, inflamma­

gangrene was caused by an obstacle in the interior o f the blood vessels and embolism as a cause o f gangrene was

tion] See temporal arteritis, polyarteritis nodosa, Takayasu

pointed out by H. Ball in Thesis de Paris published in 1862.A

syndrome, aortitis.

classical description o f dislodged arterial emboli from the

A rtery [Greek: aer, air + tero, I preserve or terein, to keep] The

heart was given by William Senhouse Kirkes (1823—1864) in

Greek physician Erasistratus, who lived around 300 B C ,

1852. Hematuria with focal glomerular lesions in the

postulated that arteries contained air or the ‘breath o f life’

kidney, due to minute bacterial emboli from endocardial

and veins carried nutrients, and the word artery is derived

vegetations in bacterial endocarditis, was observed by M ax

from this. Galen (129—200) declared that arteries were full o f

Hermann Friedrich Loehlein

(1877—1921) o f Leipzig

blood. Thereafter no significant progress was made until

in 1907. The method o f arterial embolectomy through a

William Harvey (1578—1657) discovered the role o f arteries

balloon catheter was devised by Thomas J. Fogarty and

in the circulation o f the blood in 1628. See blood circulation.

colleagues in 1 9 6 3 . embolism.

A rtery Forceps Catch forceps were used to occlude blood

A rterial Encephalography or cerebral angiography

vessels by producing a twist or torsion by Jean Zulema

Introduced by Antonio Caetanode Egas M oniz (1874-

Ammusat (1796—1856) o f France, R obert Liston (1794—

1955), clinical professor o f neurology at the University o f

1847) o f London and others from 1830 to 1850. This

Lisbon. He demonstrated serial radiograms after injection

replaced the previous practice o f using the assistant’s fingers

o f 25% sodium iodide into the carotid artery in 1931.

to control bleeding. Spring clips or bulldog forceps were

A rterial Pyem ia

introduced to occlude veins in i850.Thomas Spencer Wells

Probably the first account o f bacterial

(1818—1897) designed and advocated crushing vessels with

endocarditis, called‘arterial pyemia’ was given by Sir Samuel

the forceps,known as‘forci-pressure’ . Serrated teeth on for­

Wilkes (1824—19 11) in iS jo . See subacute bacterial endocarditis.

ceps were introduced by Webber in 1863. Eugene Koeberle

A rterial Suture The end-to-end suture o f the femoral

(1828—1915) and Emile Jules Pean (1830—1898) in France

artery was performed by John Benjamin M urphy (1857—

modified them to include a locking device around 1865. In

1916) o f America, in 1896. The modern technique was

1879 Spencer Wells (1818-1897) added variable pressure

devised by Alexis Carrel (1873—1944) in 1902.

adjustment to the locking device, and this has changed very little up to the present.

A rteriogram [Greek: aer, air + tero, I preserve + graphein, to write] A record o f the impulse o f the heart on the radial

Arthritis [Greek: arthros,joint or arthrosia, to articulate + itis,

artery during the cardiac cycle was made on a smoke-

inflammation] Greek physicians used the term ‘arthritis’ .

covered drum by Etienne Jules Marey (1830—1904) in 1863.

English medical writer in the 13 th century, Gilbertus

This was initially referred to as an arteriogram by several

Anglicus, believed that it was caused by sexual excess.John

cardiologists, including Paul Wood (1907—1962) in the

o f Gaddesden in the 14th century thought that overindul­

early 20th century. The term ‘arteriogram’ currently refers

gence in food followed by sexual intercourse led to it.

to radiological visuaHzation o f arteries after injection o f

Rheum atoid arthritis was used to describe a form that dif­

radio-opaque dyes. See angiography.

fered from gout by Sir Alfred Baring Garrod (1819—1907) o f King’s College, London in 1858. See rheumatoid arthritis,gout.

A rterioles Although the capillaries were desfcribed by Marcello Malpighi (1628—1694) in 16 61, a clear distinction

A rthrodesis [Greek: arthros,joint + desis,binding] A method

between capillaries and arterioles was made much later

o f surgical fixation o f a joint by fusion o f joint surfaces in

72

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ARTIFICIAL

FEVER

cases o f destructive joint disease. Performed by FLenry Park

A rtificial Anus A n operation for congenital atresia o f the

(1744-1831) in 1733. Eduard Albert (1841-1900) ofVienna,

anus was designed by Pierre Duret (1745—1851) in 1798. A

vrho performed the procedure in the ankle o f a paralytic

more popular operation for treatment o f anal atresia was

foot in 1882, coined the term. Arthrodesis for deformities o f

described by Jean Zulema Amussat (1796-1856), a surgeon

the foot was pioneered in the U S A by G. Davis (1913), M .

in Paris, around 1840. American surgeon, Phillip Syng

FLoke (1921), E.S. Ryerson (1923). J.A . Key described

Physick (1768—1837) devised another operation in 18 21. See

positive-pressure arthrodesis or the compression method

Amussat operation, colostomy.

for tuberculosis o f the knee joint in 1932. In England,

A rtificial Eye The French surgeon Ambroise Paré (1510—

Herbert Alfred Brittain (1904-1954) o f N orw ich per­

1590) designed artificial eyes, limbs and teeth. The eyelids

formed subtrochanteric osteotomy and wrote Architectural

were also sometimes made with gold and the eye was held

Principles of Arthrodesis in 1941.

in position by a large spring on the side o f the head.

A rthrogryposis M ultiplex C ongenita [Greek: arthros,

A rtificial F eeding

joint + grypes, hooked] A clinical description o f the condi­

Extrabuccal feeding has existed as a

therapeutic resource for over 1000 years. R ectal feeding was

tion in infants was given by a professor o f anatomy at

practiced by Spanish physician, Avenzoar (1113 -116 2 ). He

Breslau,Wilhelm A d olf Otto (1786-1845).

also carried out nasogastric feeding through a metal tube in

A rthroplasty [Greek: arthros,joint + plasmein, to mold] First

a patient with esophageal stricture.This method, by placing

tried with success on a 2 1 -year-old male named John Coyle

the food into the stomach through a tube, called ‘gavage’ ,

with tuberculosis o f the hip b y j. R h ea Barton (179 4 -18 71),

was revived by Georges Maurice DeBove (1845-1920) in

a surgical graduate o f the University o f Pennsylvania, in

1881. Other methods, such as rectal feeding through an

1818. M odern arthroplasty for ankylozed joints was

enema and percutaneous feeding by rubbing nutrients into

pioneered by John B. M urphy (1857—1916), an American

the skin, were in use in the 19th century. In 1927, Stejskal

orthopedic surgeon o f Irish origin at Appleton, Wisconsin,

estimated from his experiments that 1350 calories could be

in 1913.

supplied daily through the skin.

A rthroscopy [Greek: arthros,joint + skopein, to look] A mod­

A rtificial Fever W. Bierman in History of Fever Therapy in

ified form o f a cystoscope was devised in 1918 by Kenji

Treatment of Disease (1942) attributed the saying ‘give me

Takanagi (1888—1963), a professor at Tokyo University. An

the power to produce fever and I will cure all disease’ to

account o f the procedure using a modified laparoscope in a

Hippocrates (460—377 B C ). Use as treatment for mental

series o f 18 patients was published by Swiss surgeon, Eugen

diseases was introduced by Austrian psychiatrist, Julius

Bircher, in 19 21. A description o f the arthroscopic appear­

von Wagner-Jauregg (1857-1940) in The Influence of Fever

ance o f the joints on a cadaver was given by Michael S.

Producing Diseases on Mental Disorders published in 1877. He

Burmann in 1931. An atlas o f arthroscopy was published by

won the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1917

Masaki Watanabi o f Japan in 1957. Arthroscopic surgery o f

for his discovery o f malarial fever therapy for the late stage

the knee in the U S A was mostly developed by Richard

o f syphilis. J.G . Kiernan, during his work on variola and

L. O ’ C onnor (1933—1980), an orthopedic surgeon in

insanity in 1883, observed that some patients with tabopare­

California, and founding member o f the International

sis improved after an attack o f smallpox. A method o f

Arthroscopic Association. D.J. Dandy popularized the

inducing hyperpyrexia up to 39.5 °C was introduced by K.

procedure in England.

Phillips in 1883 .Wagner-Jauregg succeeded R obert Krafft-

Arthrosia Podagra [Greek: arthorosia, to articulate + podos,

Ebing (1840—1902) as professor o f psychiatry at Graz in

feet + agra, seizing] Radulphus, a Dominican doctor refer­

1889, and demonstrated the beneficial effects o f treating

red to gout as 'cum gutta quam podagram vel arthriticam' in the

general syphilitic paresis by inoculation with malaria in

13 th century. See gout.

1917. W. Kahler and E KnoUmeyer used a cabinet heated

Arthus P h en om en on A local skin reaction following

with electric light to induce pyrexia in 1929 and many

the injection o f antigen in experimental animals (rabbits)

other special means, such as diathermy, high-frequency

which were previously sensitized through repeated sys­

currents and electromagnetic induction, were developed

temic injections o f horse serum. Demonstrated by French

during this period. However, complications such as shock,

physiologist, Maurice Nicholas Arthus (1862-1945) at the

coma and dehydration continued to be the main limita­

School o f Medicine, Marseilles in 1903.

tions. Most o f the machines for producing pyrexia in

73

ARTIFICIAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

HEART

America received the approval o f the Council on Physical

around 1951. English orthopedic professor at Manchester

Therapy o f the American Medical Association. Such meth­

University, John

ods o f producing artificial fever continued to be practiced

prosthesis for total hip replacement around 1965.

for syphilis and other conditions until the advent o f chemo­

(19 11-19 8 2), developed a

A rtificial Insem ination Bartolommeo Eustachio (1524-

therapy in the early 1940s. Another important monograph

1574) advised a husband to insert his finger into the vagina

was written by Clarence Adolphe Neymann (b 1887) in 1938.

Artificial H eart

Charnley

o f his wife after intercourse in order to push the semen into the mouth o f the uterus.The technique was performed on a

A prototype was developed by Alexis

Carrel (1873-1944) and A. Lindbergh in i936.The first arti­

dog by Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729—1799) in 1785. In 1790

ficial heart was implanted into an animal by Soviet scientist

John Hunter (1728-1793) performed it successfully in a

Vladimir P. Demikhov in 19 37.A ‘heart’ made o f Silastic was

woman whose husband had hypospadias. James M arion

later inserted successfully into a calf and maintained for

Sims (1813-1883) used it with success in 1866 in a patient

12 1 days, in 1969. Based on this finding, Michael De Bakey

with a history o f 9 years o f infertility. The first center for

(b 1908) o f Houston, Texas applied the procedure to

artificial insemination was founded by Russian biologist,

humans and succeeded after three trials. Denton Cooley

Ilaya Ivanovich Shigry (b 1870) in 1901.

(b 1920) and Domingo Liotta kept a patient alive for over 2

Artificial K idney Extracorporeal hemodialysis. A dialyzing

days, while he awaited a living heart transplant in 1969.

membrane was constructed for use in experimental animals

Willem K o lff o f America implanted an artificial heart in a

by John Jacob Abel (1857—193 8), Leonard George Rowentree

man and kept him alive for 112 hours in 1982. The heart

(1883-1959) and Benjamin Bernard Turner (b 1871) who

used in this operation was devised by the American R obert

published On the Removal of Diffusible Substances from the

Jarvick, and it was calledJarvick-7. See cardiac transplant.

Circulating Blood by Means of Dialysis in 1913. G. Hass treated

A rtificial H eart Valve American surgeon, Charles Anthony

a human with an artificial kidney using the type o f mem­

Hufnagel (1916-1989) explored the possibility o f develop­

brane described by Abel.This method was inefficient as the

ing an artificial aortic valve. He commenced his research

area o f the membrane used was small and nearly 24 hours

in 1940, and eventually produced the first practical aortic

were required to reduce blood nitrogen by 4 m g /100 ml. H.

valve prosthesis. Implant o f this in a patient was at the

Necheles improved this method in 1923 using a peritoneal

Georgetown University Medical Center in 1952. Cardiac

layer o f ox cecum, known as ‘gold beater’s skin’ since it was

valve surgery was revolutionized by the invention o f several

used to separate hammered gold leaf.WThalheimer in 1937

artificial valves which were mainly heterografts, in i960.

used cellophane as a dialyzing membrane and heparin as

EH . Ellis used the first flap valve in i960. The ball-valve

an anticoagulant. Dutch-born American physician, Willem

prosthesis developed by Albert Starr o f the University o f

Johan K o lff (b 19 11) constructed the rotating-drum artifi­

Oregon Medical School became popular during this time.

cial kidney and treated his first patient in 1943.An artificial

J.P. Binet and A. Carpentier improved the valves and the

kidney o f therapeutic significance was designed by H.T.J.

latter introduced glutaraldehyde treatment in 1968 for the

Berk in 1944. Several workers, including N .Alw all (1946),

porcine valve prior to its insertion. The pig aortic valves

L.T. Skeggs (1947) and J .R . Leonards (1949), continued to

fixed with glutaraldehyde were introduced by G.A. Kaiser

improve the design and function. K o lff and B. Watschinger

and colleagues in 1969. See aortic valve.

reported two cases o f uremia treated by hemodialysis and ultrafiltration with their twin-coil kidney in 1956. Their

A rtificial H ip Joint The first recorded prosthetic replace­

dialyzer and ultrafilter later came to be mass produced as a

ment o f a hip joint was performed by Themistocles Gluck

disposable unit. The shunted cannula, which made long

(1853—1942) o f Germany in 1890. Pierre Louis E. Delbet

term repetitive dialysis possible for patents with chronic

(1861-1925) replaced the femoral head with a prosthesis in 1903. Ernest Williams Hey-Groves (1872-1944) o f England used an ivory ball and stem for hip arthroplasty in 1923.

renal failure, was developed by W. Quinton and colleagues in i960.

A rtificial Lim b The earliest limb prosthesis, probably

A total hip replacement with a joint made o f steel was

belonging to the Etruscans, was found in Capri. This was

developed in 1938 by English surgeon, Phillip Wiles (1899— 1967) at the Middlesex Hospital in London. G .R .M ck ee o f

for use in amputation above the knee and was made o f

N orwich, England produced an entirely metal prosthesis

wood and bronze. A German pirate, Gotz von Berlichingen

74

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ARTIFICIAL

TEETH

(1480—1562), used an iron hand prosthesis in 1509. The

the dark kingdom o f disease than that introduced into the

Prince o f Homberg (1633—1708) was fitted with an artificial

path o f the consumptive through the discovery o f artificial

leg, which he used for 50 years. French surgeon Ambroise

pneumothorax’ .Treatment for tuberculosis continued until

Paré (1510—1590) designed and fitted ingenious artificial

the advent o f chemotherapy in the early 1930s.

limbs on a larger scale. In England, Sir George Cayley

Artificial R espiration The first experiment on artificial

(177 1—1857) o f Scarborough, a mechanical physicist and

respiration in animals was performed in 1667 by R obert

pioneer in aviation, designed artificial limbs in the early

Hooke (1635-1703), who kept the animals alive by blowing

19th century. The current internationally known artificial

air through their lungs with bellows. Similar experiments

limb-fitting center at Queen M arys Hospital in London

were done by R obert Boyle (1627—1691) in the same year.

was established in 1915.

John Fothergill (1712—1780), a physician from Yorkshire, in 1744 referred to the recovery o f a man dead in appearance by distending his lungs with air. In 1855 Marshall Hall (1790—1857) o f Nottingham, began his pioneering studies and introduced a method o f artificial respiration. Theodore Tuffier (1857—1929) and Louis Hallion used the insufflation method in a patient during surgery for partial resection o f his lung in 1896. This method was improved by Eugene Louis Doyen (1859—1916) and Rudolph Matas (i860- 1957), who were cardiothoracic surgeons.The nega­ tive-pressure chamber was developed by German surgeon, Ferdinand Sauerbruch in 1903, and was in use up to 1940. Endotracheal insufflation used on a wider basis in early 1900 made it practical and revolutionized surgery and anesthesia.

A rtificial Silk As early as 1664, R obert Hooke (1635-1703) in his Micrographia suggested that it was possible to make an artificial glutinous compound resembling silk. The first o f such filaments was produced by Sir Joseph Wilson Swan (1828—1914) o f Sunderland in 1883 by squirting solutions o f Artificial leg made for the Prince of Homberg (1633-1708)

nitrocellulose. Artificial silk sutures with high tensile strength were developed around 1950.

A rtificial Pacem aker See cardiac pacing.

A rtificial Sw eetener Saccharin (2—sulfobenzimide),the first

A rtificial P neum othorax James Carson (1772-1843) o f

artificial sweetener, was obtained from coal tar by two

Liverpool advocated induction o f a pneumothorax as treat­

Americans, Constantin Fahlberg and Ira Rem sen in 1879. It

ment for patients with pulmonary tuberculosis, in 18 21.

remained as a prescription product until the Food and Drug

James Houghton described a case in a bricklayer o f

Administration allowed it to be used as an industrial food

advanced tuberculosis that improved after a spontaneous

additive in 1938.Another sweetener, aspartamine, 200 times

pneumothorax,in 1833.William Stokes (1804—1878) point­

sweeter than sucrose, was prepared from two amino acids,

ed out the beneficial effects in tuberculous patients in 1837.

phenylalanine and aspartic acid, in 1965.

Pierre Carl Edouard Potain (1825—1901) treated a case o f

A rtificial Teeth Teeth made o f ivory were used in ancient

hydropneumothorax by withdrawing the fluid and replac­

R om e. Fragments o f an ancient skull with gold-inlaid teeth

ing it with air in 1884. John Cayley treated several cases o f

have been found at the Atacames site in Ecuador. Albucasis,

hemoptysis by incising the chest wall and reported his study

the Arab surgeon in the n th century, described replace­

to the Clinical Society o f London in 1885. Its induction was

ment with ivory teeth. G uy de Chauliac (1300-1370)

established as regular treatment for pulmonary tuberculosis

recommended replacing fallen teeth with those o f another

by Italian surgeon. Carlo Forlanini (1847—1918) in 1888. In

person or artificial teeth made o f ox bone. Johannes

1927 Clive Riviere, a London chest physician, wrote ‘no

Arculanus (1412-1484), a professor at Bologna, referred to

more hopeful ray o f sunshine has ever come to illuminate

gold leaf as a filling material and French surgeon Ambroise

75

ARTISTIC

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANATOMY

Paré (1510—1590) designed artificial teeth, often made o f

years whose autopsy at Charing Cross Hospital in 1900

gold. Peter Lowe (1560—1610) in his treatise on surgery

revealed extensive pulmonary fibrosis. Ten others who

written in 1654 mentioned artificial teeth made o f whale­

worked with him died before the age o f 30 years and these

bone and ivory fastened by wire. Parisian dentist, Nicholas

observations were reported by M . M urray in 1907. An

Dubois de Chement, wrote a dissertation on artificial teeth

unequivocal relationship between asbestos and pulmonary

in 1788. Porcelain teeth were introduced in France in 1774

fibrosis was established by Edmund H enry Seiler (1891—

and into America in 1814. The method o f taking a plaster

1978) in 1928. The first recorded case o f carcinoma o f the

cast for replacement o f teeth was invented in America in

lung in asbestosis was described by Kenneth M errill Lynch

1844. Use o f atmospheric pressure to fix dentures to the jaw

(b 1887) and W.A. Smith in 1935 and the first case o f

was discovered by James Gardette o f Philadelphia in 1800.

mesothelioma in an asbestos worker in England was pub­

Sir John Tomes (1815—1895), a dental surgeon to the

lished by H.Wyers in 1946. A definite association between

Middlesex Hospital, wrote a detailed book The Management

mesothelioma and exposure to asbestos was pointed out by

ofArtificialTeeth, in 1851. His name is also associated with the

I.C. Wagner, C.A . Sleggs and P. Marchand o f South Africa

discovery o f odontoblast processes which continue into the

in i960.

tubules o f dentine. See dental caries, dentistry.

Ascariasis Intestinal worms resembling earthworms were

A rtistic A natom y Antonio Pollaiuolo (1428—1498) and

described by Paul o f Aegina (625—690). An anatomical

Andrea delVerrocchio (1435-1499) o f Italy applied accurate

description ofAscaris lumbricoides or roundworms was given

surface anatomy to their drawings. Michelangelo (1475—

by Edward Tyson (1649—1708) in 1683. The egg and the

1554) and Raphael (1483-1520) did dissections in order to

reproductive process were described by Francesco R ed i

study and represent human forms with anatomical accura­

(1626— 1697) o f Italy in 1684. The migration o f larvae

cy. Leonardo Da Vincis drawings showed in great detail

through the lungs was discovered by EH . Stewart in 1916,

anatomic representations o f human internal organs such as

and the full life history was worked out by Brayton Howard

the heart, its valves and the aortic root. Albrecht Dürer

Ransom (1879-1925) in 1917.

(1471—1528) o f Nuremberg was an artistic anatomist who

Ascaris lumbricoides See ascariasis.

made painstaking studies o f the proportions o f the human body which he represented in his drawings. A Manual of

A sch, Baron George Thomas de (1729-1807) Russian

Artistic Anatomy was published by R obert Knox ( 17 9 1-

physician and pupil o f Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777)

1862), a comparative anatomist at Edinburgh, ini852. One

at

o f the revivers during modern times was Matthias Marie

Gottingen University and also contributed to the Russian

Duval (1844-1907), professor o f anatomy at the National

pharmacopoeia and wrote several treatises.

School o f Fine Arts in Paris who published Artistic Anatomy

Gottingen.

He

made

considerable

donations

to

A scham , R o ger (1515-1568) British educational reformer

in 1880. M ax Brodel (1870-1941) was an artist from

from Kirkby Wiske. A book containing his views on educa­

Leipzig who did medical illustrations. He traveled to

tion, Scholemaster,^2iS published 2 years after his death.

America in 1893 and later came to be recognized as the founder o f illustrative medical art there.

A ryten oid Cartilage [Greek: aretaina, ladle + eidos, form] The structure derives its name from its resemblance to the spout o f a pitcher. Galen (129—200) used the term for the cartilage in the neck but believed that there was only one cartilage in humans. The existence o f paired arytenoid cartilages was established in the 15 th century.

A safetida [Latin: asa, gum] A gum resin obtained from a perennial plant. Ferula asafetida. In the past considered to be an excellent remedy for hysterical disorders.

A sbestosis [Greek:

Selmar Ascheim and Bernhardt Zondek. Reproduced with permission from

not + 56^5^05, inextinguishable] The use

Klin Wchschr. 7, 8-9, 1928

o f asbestos to make clothes was mentioned by the Greek historian, Herodotus (485—425 B C ).A case o f asbestosis was

A schheim and Z on dek Test for Pregnancy Two German

observed in a man who worked on a carding machine for 14

gynecologists at Berlin, Selmar Aschheim (1878—1965) and

76

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ASHBY

Bernhardt Zondek (1891—1966) while investigating the

determining small quantities in the blood was devised by

influence o f the pituitary on sexual development, conceived

Chester Jefferson Farmer and A.F.Abt in 1936. It was used to

the idea o f concentrating the urine and injecting the con­

cure infantile scurvy by Leonard Gregory Parsons (1879—

centrate into animals to study its effects. In 1927 they found

1950), a pediatrician at Birmingham Children’s Hospital.

marked devolvement o f the ovaries in experimental

See scurvy.

animals.This enabled them to diagnose early pregnancy for

Aselius SeeAselli, Caspar.

the first time by a laboratory test. See estrogen.

A selli, Caspar (1581—1626) Italian physician and the discov­ A schheim , Selmar (1878-1965) See Aschheim and Zondek

erer o f lacteals. He was born in Cremona and studied

testfor pregnancy.

medicine at the University o f Pavia where he was later pro­

AschofF B o d y

fessor o f anatomy. W hile vivisecting a dog in 1622 he

A characteristic histological lesion found

noticed milky filaments in its abdomen which he called

in rheumatic carditis. Described by Karl Albert Ludwig

white veins o r‘lacteals’ .

Aschoff (1866-1942) o f Germany in 1904.

A schofFN odule See Aschoff, Karl Albert Ludwig. AschofF, Karl Albert Ludwig (1866—1942) German patholo­ gist whose work on rheumatic myocarditis and the reticu­ loendothelial system has held its ground up to the present. He described the characteristic lesion called the AschofF body, found in rheumatic carditis in 1904 and also coined the name ‘endothelial system’ in 1913.

A scia

A winding method o f application o f a bandage.

Described by Hippocrates (460-377 B C ).

A scites [Greek: askos, leather bottle] Edema o f the body was described by Paul ofA egina (625—690):‘the liver is greatly congealed, sometimes primarily, as when it has been in­ flamed, indurated or otherwise affected, or when from the sympathy o f the other parts, the process o f sanguification ceases and the affection is called dropsy’ . H e was probably

Gaspar Aselli (1581 -1626). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

referring to edema or dropsy from hepatic causes. He also accurately defined ascites as a great collection o f fluid with a very small proportion o f air between the peritoneum

A sepsis See antisepsis.

and the intestines. Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) described

A septic M eningitis Acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis.

the causes and treatment o f dropsy due to disease o f the

A clinical condition characterized by signs o f meningeal

spleen and the liver and advocated paracentesis abdominis

irritation and sterile cerebrospinal fluid. Described by Arvid Johan Wallgren (1889—1973) o f Stockholm in 1924. The

as treatment.

causative virus was identified by Charles Armstrong

A sclepiades oFBythnia (110-4 0 B C ) SeeAesculapiades.

(1886—1967) and Ralph Dougall Lillie (b 1896) in 1934.

A sclépios See Aesculapius.

Several viruses including lymphocytic choreomeningitis virus, E C H O virus and coxsackie virus were later identified

A scoli, Alberto (1877-1957) See Bacillus anthracis.

as causes.

A scorbic A cid [Greek: askos, bag + karpos, fruit] Vitamin C A septic N ecrosis Necrosis o f the bone following fractures

was isolated by S.S. Zilva in 1924 and later by Charles Glen

and other causes. Treated surgically by American ortho­

K ing (1896-1988) and W.A. Waugh o f Pittsburgh, in 1932.

pedic surgeon, Dallas Burton Phemister (1882—1951) o f

Its role in scurvy was identified by Albert Szent-Gryogyi

Pennsylvania in 1930.

(1893—1986) o f Hungary in 1928. It was synthesized inde­ pendently by Walter Norm an Haworth (1833-1950) o f

Ashby, H enry (1846—1908) B orn at Carlshalton,England and

England andTadeus Richenstein (b 1897) o f Switzerland in

studied medicine at G u y’s Hospital. He was physician to

1933 and Haworth named it ascorbic acid. A method o f

Manchester Children’s Hospital and Victoria Hospital and

77

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ASHBY

contributed to the improvement o f the health and

was initially a Hindu and converted to Buddhism. Records

living conditions o f children in Manchester.

from rock inscriptions in Girnar, near Junagarh in India, show that he built many hospitals where people were given

Ashby, Winifred (1879—1935) London-born American path­

herbal treatment as well as physical therapy. He published 14

ologist. She emigrated to the U SA with her family in 1893 and graduated from

Chicago

University

(1903)

edicts, one setting out a system o f medicine for humans and

and

animals.

Washington University, St Louis (1905). She later joined the Mayo Clinic and developed a special technique for estimating

A sot See antistreptolysin titer.

red cell survival and demonstrated for the first time the life

Asparagine The first amino acid to be discovered. Obtained

span o f the red blood cell.

A sherm an

Syndrom e

from asparagus by Louis Nicholas Vanquelin (1763-1829), Intrauterine

adhesions

with

a French analytical chemist, and Jean-Pierre Robiquet

amenorrhea. Described by a Czechoslovakian obstetrician,

(1780-1840) in 1806.

Joseph Asherman (1889—1968) in 1948. In 18 44 James Young

A spartam ine A sweetener that is 200 times sweeter than

Simpson (18 11—1870) observed a similar condition in

sucrose. Prepared from phenylalanine and aspartic acid in

which the uterine cavity was obliterated. Trauma due to

1965. It was approved as an artificial sweetener for soft

curettage and cauterization was pointed out as a cause by

drinks in 1983.

H enry T. Ford in 1903.

Aspartic A cid

A shurbanipul K ing o f Assyria (668-626 B C ) Thousands o f

Prepared by Plisson in 1826 and isolated

from a protein hydrosylate by H. Ritthausen in 1868.

clay tablets related to the Assyrian culture were found in the remains o f his royal library at Nineveh in the late 19th cen­

A spergillom a See aspergillosis.

tury. The cuneiform texts in these tablets were studied by

A spergillosis A description o f human pulmonary asper­

CambellThompson in 1906 and they unlocked vast knowl­

gillosis was given byT. Sluyter in 1847 and this was followed

edge o f historical, medical, astronomical, social, literary and

by another by Rudolph Ludwig CarlVirchow (18 21—1902)

religious aspects o f ancient Assyria.

in 1 856. The term was introduced by G. Fresenius in 1863.

A sbw ins Offspring o f the sun and Hindu physicians o f the

In 1894 G- Dieulafoy o f France noted the increased inci­

god who united the 5 th head o f Brahma when it was

dence o f pulmonary aspergillosis amongst French gaveurs

severed by Bairava. According to Hindu mythology they

de pigeons, or squab feeders, who acquired the disease from

also healed the paralyzed arm o f the goddess Indra.

their habit o f chewing nuts and forcing them down the gullet o f the pigeons with their tongue. A differentiation

A siatic C holera See comma bacillus, cholera.

between forms —allergic, saprophytic and septicemic —was

Askanazy, M ax (1865—1940) Germ an physician from

made by Hinson and Plummer in 1952. Aspergilloma was

Tübingen. The first to relate the findings o f osteitis fibrosa

differentiated from bronchopulmonary aspergillosis by

cystica to parathyroid tumors in 1904.

F.Deve in 1938.

Askew, Anthony (1722—1784) Westmoreland physician who

Asphyxia [Greek: and lesser than < signs

performed in England by James Hinton o f G u y’s Hospital,

were introduced by Thomas Harriot (1560—1621), a

London in 1868. Radical mastoidectomy was introduced by

mathematician from Oxford.

Ernest von Bergmann (1836—1907) ofB erlin in 1888.

M athem atics The Chaldeans who ruled Babylonia fiom 606

M atches They were used in fire lighting by Chinese women

to 539 B C apphed mathematics to astronomy.They divided

around A D 577. Chemical matches were made by Chancel

the Zodiac into twelve parts and the celestial equator into

o f Paris in 1805 o f brimstone and asbestos mixed with oil o f

360 degrees. The oldest existing mathematical manuscript

vitriol. The friction match was made by John Walker

by Ahmes in 1650 B C was copied from an earlier manu­

(178 1—1859), a chemist from Stockton-on-Tees,England in

script. It was brought to London around the middle o f the

1827. Phosphorus was used by Arthur Albright o f Birm ing­

19th century by Alexander Henry R hind (1833—1863), a

ham in 1845. Necrosis o f the jaw (phossy jaw) secondary to

Scottish Egyptologist, and came to be known as R h ind ’s

white phosphorus exposure in industry was observed in

papyrus. It is now in the British Museum in London.Thales

match factories near Vienna in 1844 and described by Karl

(640—546 B C ), a merchant from the city o f Miletus in Asia

Thiersch (1822—1895), professor o f surgery at Erlangen in

Minor, was one o f the first to devote his time to the study o f

1867.

mathematics. He measured the height o f a pyramid by its

Finland abolished use o f white phosphorus in the

match industry in 1872, and it was prohibited in England in

shadow and developed geometry. Pythagorus, from the

1910. See red phosphorus, phossyjaw.

island o f Samos, was his pupil and introduced geometry as an essential science. Other notable ancient mathematicians

M ateria M edica Term coined by Dioscorides (AD 40—90)

include:Euclid (300 BC),Eratosthenes (274-194 B C ),H ip ­

during the early days o f the R om an Empire to denote a

pocrates o f Chios (430 B C ) and Archimedes (278- 212 B C ).

compilation and description o f medical substances taken

Four o f the most important Hindu mathematicians were:

internally It has now largely been replaced with the term

Aryabhata (AD 475-550) o f Benares, Brahmagupta (AD

pharmacopoeia. See pharmacology.

628) o f Ujjain, Mahavira (AD 850) o f Mysore, and Bhaskara

M aternity H ospitals The first lying-in hospital in Britain

(AD 1 1 14—1185) o f Ujjain. In Britain, Harriot (1560—1621)

495

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MATHER

contributed to algebra, Briggs (1560—1630) and Napier (1550—1677)

invented

logarithms,

and

M augham , Wilfiam Somerset (1874—1965)

Surgeon and

Oughtred

writer o f Irish origin, born in Paris and quafified from St

(1574—1660) invented the slide rule. The first substantial

Thomas’ Hospital. He practiced in the London slums and

book on history o f mathematics. Histoire des Mathématiques,

wrote his first novel Liza of Lambeth in 1897. His famous

was written by a Frenchman from Lyons, Jean Etienne

book. O f Human Bondage,w2iS published in 1915.

Montucula (1725-1799) in 1758. See algebra, arithmetic.

M aum ene Test Used to detect sugar in urine by adding stanous chloride to give a distinct brown color. Devised by

Mather, Cotton (1663—1728) Born in Boston, son o f Increase Mather, president o f Harvard College in 1681. Though he

French chemist, Edm e Jou les M aum ene (18 18 —1891)

was a distinguished clergyman his beHefin witchcraft led him

around 1850.

to persecute those accused o f the practice. He also practiced

M auriac D isease Erythema nodosum syphiliticum was first

medicine, and attributed diseases to man s sins. He advocated

described by French physician, Pierre M auriac (1832—

smallpox inoculation in America, where the first inoculation

1905). Another syndrome o f growth retardation, obesity and

was done by Zabdiel Boylston (1680-1766), a Boston physi­

hepatomegaly in juvenile diabetes was described by him

cian, in 172 1. Mather published The Wonders of the Invisible

in 1930.

World, or theTrials ofWitches, a treatise on smallpox vaccination (1722),and 381 other works on a variety o f subjects.

M athijsen, Antoine (1805-1878) Belgian surgeon who introduced plaster-of-Paris into surgery in 1851 and pioneered the use o f galvano-cautery.

M atteucci, Carlo (18 11—1868) Itafian physiologist who, in 1838,showed that current can be made to flow from the cut end o f an isolated muscle to its uncut surface, if these points were connected by a galvanometer.

M atthiolus, Pietro Andrea (1500-1577) B orn in Sienna, a medical graduate from Padua who practiced in R om e, where he was appointed physician to MaximiUian II. He published Commentary on Dioscorides.

Transverse fetal presentation. From the translation of Mauriceau's work.

M auchart L igam ents [Latin: ligamentum, bandage] Found

The Disease o f Women with Child and in Child-bed by Hugh Chamberlain,

at the neck o f the ocular muscles and described by

the Elder. London

Burkhard

of

M auriceau, François (1637—1709) French obstetrician who

Maudsley, Henry (1835—1918) English psychiatrist from

since biblical times and delivered his patients in bed. His

David

Mauchart

(16 96 -1751),professor

surgery atTübingen.

dispensed with the obstetrical chair that had been used

Giggleswick in Yorkshire who advocated the idea that

Des Maladies des Femmes Grosses et Accouchées was translated

insanity is fundamentally a disease o f the body. He qualified

into Enghsh by Hugh Chamberlain in 1693.

from University College Hospital and became superinten­

M authner, Ludwig (1840—1894) Professor o f ophthalmolo­

dent o f the Royal Lunatic Asylum at Manchester in 1859.

gy atVienna who described the membrane surrounding the

Maudsley s The Pathology and Physiology of the Mind

axis cyhnder o f the nerve within the sheath o f Schwann

published in 1867 is considered a classic in Enghsh

(Mauthner membrane) in i860.

psychiatry. See Maudsley Hospital.

M audsley H ospital

M axilla [Latin: maxillus] The maxillary antrum was illustrated

Established in 1907 with a fund o f

in the drawings o f Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) and

30,000 pounds gifted by Henry Maudsley (1835—1918), a

Nathaniel Highmore (1613-1685) gave a description in

psychiatrist from Yorkshire. A site was bought at Denmark

1651 .The first series o f operations was published by William

Hill in London in 19 11 and building commenced in 1913.

Cowper (1666—1760) in 1707. The successful removal o f a

After a delay due to the war, it opened in 1923 .The Maudsley

tumor o f the maxillary sinus was performed by Plaignaud o f

Hospital and Bethlehem Hospital were amalgamated in

Paris in 179 1, and excision o f the superior maxilla was done

1948 to become the Institute o f Psychiatry.

by Horatio Gates Jameson (1788-1855) ofAm erica in 1820.

496

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MAYO

Two cases o f empyema o f the maxillary antrum were

Mayerne, Sir Theodore Turquet (1573—1661) Successful physician in London who was born in Geneva. He obtained

described by M . Saint Hillaire in 1898.

his M D from MontpeUier in 1597 and practiced as royal

M axillary Sinus See maxilla.

physician at Paris before he came to England in 1616. He

M axw ell, James Clerk (1831-1879) See Clerk Maxwell.

was physician to four royals: H enry IV o f France, James I, Charles I, and Charles II. He left his magnificent library to

M axwell, Sir James Crawford (1869—1932) Physician from

the Royal College o f Physicians but most o f his books,

Dundee who graduated from Edinburgh University. He

along with other possessions o f the college, were destroyed

was appointed Governor and Com m ander-in-Chief o f

during the Great Fire o f London ten years later.

Northern Rhodesia in 1927.

Maynv^raring, Everard (1626-1699) Graduated from Dublin

May, Charles Henry (1861—1943) C h ie f o f the eye clinic o f

and practiced medicine in London. His treatise on protec­

Columbia University and eye surgeon to M ount Sinai Hos­

tion o f long Hfe and detection o f its brevity, published in

pital in N ew York. He designed a simple self-illuminating

1664, was an important work on preservation o f health.

ophthalmoscope and published Manual of Diseases of the Eye

Mayo, Charles Horace (1865—1939) Son ofW illiam Worrall

(with Claude Worth) in 1906.

Mayo w ho emigrated from England to the United States in

Mayan C ivilization The first archeological evidence was

1845. After practicing as a chemist in N ew York City he

unearthed by John Lloyd Stephens (1805—1852), a lawyer

took his medical degree in 1854

from N ew Jersey, and an artist, Fredrick Catherwood

settled in Rochester,

Minnesota. See Mayo Clinic.

(1799-1856), during their exploration o f M esoAmerica in 1 83 9.Their work brought the cities o f Copan, Quirigua and Palenque in theYucatan peninsula, dating back to about 300 B C , to light. They practiced human sacrifice, ancestral worship and self-mutilation.Their major city,Teotihuacan, was well planned and remained central until about A D 600. They devised an advanced system o f counting and recorded astronomical events using a system o f glyphs, and had accu­ rate calendars. It peaked around A D 600 and went into decay around 900, possibly due to the spread o f yellow fever.They were replaced by the Aztecs. See Aztecs.

Maydl, Karel (1853—1903) Surgeon at Prague and Vienna who performed the first successful colostomy in 1888 and the uretero-intestinal anastomosis with insertion o f the extroverted bladder into the rectum for ectopic vesicae in 1894.

Mayo Clinic. Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

Mayer, Julius Robert von (1814—1878) German physicist and

Mayo Clinic Started with 13 patients and 5 nurses by William

a medical practitioner from Heilbron, Bavaria. After obtain­

Worrall Mayo and his two sons, William James Mayo

ing his medical degree in 1838 he traveled to Java as a ship s

(1861—1939) and Charles Horace Mayo (1865—1939) in 1889.

surgeon in 1840. He was one o f the first to propose the laws

It developed into the present prestigious Mayo Clinic at

o f the mechanical equivalent o f heat in Bermerkungen über

Rochester in 1905.The Mayo Foundation for Medical Edu­

die krafte der unbelebten Natur which appeared in the

cation and Research was founded by the two brothers in 1917.

Annals der Chemie und Pharmacie in 1846. Mayer attempted

Mayo, William James (1861—1939) Surgeon from the Mayo

suicide in 1850, and spent several years in an asylum. His

family and one o f the reformers o f American medicine dur­

theory on heat was later recognized as forerunner o f the law

ing the latter part o f the 19th century. He devised a new

o f conservation o f energy.

procedure o f partial gastrectomy for carcinoma o f the

Mayer L igam ent [Latin: ligamentum, bandage] A suspensory

pyloric end o f the stomach in 1900. He co-founded the

ligament o f the carotid body first described by an anatomy

famous Mayo CHnic with his brother Charles Horace Mayo

professor at Bonn, M.F. Mayer in 1833.

(1865-1939) in 1905.

497

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MAYOU

Mayou, Marmaduke Stephen (1876—1934) London ophthal­

M cC lintock Sign Pulse rate o f over 100, indicative o f post

mologist who described the symmetrical changes in the

partum hemorrhage. Described by an Irish physician,Alfred

macula in juvenile amaurotic idiocy in 1904.

Henry M cClintock (1822-1881).

M cC lung, Clarence Erwin (1870—1946) American cytolo-

Mayow, John (1641—1679) English chemist and physiologist who studied medicine at Oxford University and practiced

gist who suggested in 1902 that accessory chromosomes

in Bath and London. H e observed that the process o f

were determinants o f sex.

combustion involved a chemical union with a substance in

M cC ollum , Elmer Verner (1879-1967) American bio­

the atmosphere. He named this substance ‘igneo-aereum’ ,

chemist from Fort Scott, Kansas and assistant professor at

later shown to be oxygen. He also demonstrated the differ­

the University ofWisconsin when he gave the first descrip­

ence between arterial and venous blood in 1668 and is

tion o f an accessory food factor and discovered vitamin A in

regarded as the first experimenter in respiratory physiology.

M cArdle Syndrom e

1913.

He was appointed professor o f biochemistry at the

School o f Hygiene atJohns Hopkins University in 19 17 and

R are form o f myopathy due to a

detected the rickets-preventing factor, vitamin D, in cod

deficiency o f phosphorylase enzyme in the muscle leading

liver oil in 1922. He published Chemistryfor Medical Students

to accumulation o f glycogen. Described by London neu­

(1916), The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition (1918), The

rologist, Brian McArdle (b 19 11) who graduated from G u y’s

American Home Diet {igi^),2Lnd A History of Nutrition (1957).

Hospital (1933) in i 959-

McCoy, George Walter (1876—1952) Professor o f preventa­

M cBain, James (1807—1879) Scottish surgeon and naturalist

tive medicine at the medical school o f Louisiana State

from Kirriemuir, Forfarshire, who did official surveys o f the

University. He observed tularemia amongst rodents in 1 9 1 1 .

shores and seas o f Orkney and Shetland in 1827.

M cC rae,Joh n (1872—1915) Physician and poet, born at Guelph,

M cBurney In cision The abdominal wall is opened during

Ontario and educated in Toronto. He joined M cG ill U ni­

appendectomy, along the layer o f muscle fibers, rather than

versity as a pathologist in 1899 and later served as an officer

cutting across the fibers. Described by N ew York surgeon,

in the South African war. His poem In Flanders Fields was

Charles M cBurney (1845-1913) in 1889.

first published anonymously in Punch in December 19 15.A volume o f his poems with the same title was published by

M cBurney P oint Site o f maximum tenderness in the right

Sir Andrew Macphail in 1919.

iliac fossa in appendicitis. Described by N ew York surgeon, Charles M cBurney (18 4 5 -19 13),in 1889.

M cC u U och ,Joh n (1773-1835) Geologist and physician from

M cC arrison, Sir R o b e rt (18 78 -196 0) D irector o f the

Jersey who graduated from Edinburgh at the age o f seven­

Nutritional Research Laboratories at C oonoor in India

teen. He undertook several scientific surveys o f Scotland for

who pioneered studies on nutrition and essential food

the government, and published System of Geology, andTheory

factors and performed classical research on goiter and

of the Earth (1831), A Geological Classification of Rocks (1821),

iodine deficiency. H e described the three-day Chitral fever

The Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland (1824), and

o f the Blue Mountains or N ilgri (6000 feet above sea level)

A Description of the Western Islands of Scotland, including the Isle of Man (1819). His medical publications include Malaria

in India. He proved that the sand fly was the cause o f

(1827), and Remittent and Intermittent Diseases (1829).

phlebotomus fever in 1903.

MacCuUoch died during amputation o f one o f his limbs

McCarthy, Daniel Joseph (1874—1965) Urologist in N ew

following an accidental injury which he sustained during a

York who designed a panendoscope, prostatic electrotome

holiday in Cornwall.

and several other endoscopic instruments.

M cD erm ott, Walsh (1909-1881) American physician and a

M cClellan, George (1796-1847) American surgeon who

founder o f the Institute o f Medicine o f the National

founded the Jefferson Medical School in 1825 to which he

Academy o f Sciences. He introduced pyrazinamide in

was appointed first professor o f surgery.

combination with isoniazid as first-line treatment for tuberculosis in 1954.

M cC lintock, Barbara (b 1902) American botanist and gene­ ticist who discovered the genes in corn move from one area

M cD ougall, R e v Francis Thomas (1817-1886) B orn in

to another and thus affect future plants. She received the

Sydenham in Kent, he was the only bishop o f England

N obel Prize in 1983.

to pass examinations and become a Fellow o f the Royal

498

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

M D U

College o f Surgeons in 1854. He served as a bishop in

He used skin grafting to establish the relationship between

Labuan and Sarawak.

twins who became separated after birth. H e also devised an operation for construction o f the vagina in cases o f its

M cD ougall, William (1871-1938) Psychologist from M an­

congenital absence in 1938. He developed long curved

chester who was educated at Owen s College. He graduated

scissors known as the M clndoe scissors.

from St Thomas’ Hospital in London and traveled to

M cK enzie, R obert Tait (1867-1938) Canadian sculptor and

Borneo where he studied pagan tribes. O n his return he established a new tradition o f psychology at Oxford and

a physician who graduated from M cGill University in 1891.

published Social Psychology in 1908.

He was professor o f physical education at the University o f Pennsylvania for 27 years and sculptured several athletes for

M cD ow ell, Benjamin George (1829-1885) Dublin surgeon

which he was decorated by the King o f Sweden at the

at Sir Patrick D un’s Hospital, and physician to the King in

Olympic games in 1912.

Ireland. He was the first to describe the suspensory ligament o f the pectoralis major tendon which is named after him.

M cD ow ell,

Ephraim

(1771-18 30)

B orn

in

M cLean H ospital R e v John Bartlett, the chaplain for the Boston Almshouse, first pointed out the need for a hospital

Danville,

for the mentally ill in Boston in i8io.This led to the forma­

Kentucky, he was a pioneer in abdominal surgery. He per­

tion o f the Massachusetts General Hospital, whose trustees

formed the first removal o f an ovarian cyst, weighing 22

established an asylum for the mentally ill in 1816. They

pounds, without anesthesia in 1809.

purchased a colonial house in Charlestown, designed by

M cGill, Arthur Ferguson (1846—1890) English surgeon who

Charles Bulfinch, and opened a 60 bed asylum. A country

first performed a suprapubic prostatectomy in 1887.

physician, Rufus Wyman, was appointed as its first super­ intendent in 1818. In 1823 John McLean, a Boston

M cG ill University First medical school to be established in

merchant, left $150,000 to the institution and it was

Canada, founded by James M cG ill (d 1813) from Glasgow.

renamed M cLean Hospital in 1892.The first training school

He studied for a year at Glasgow University and emigrated

for nurses in a hospital for mentally ill anywhere in the

to Canada before the American Civil War. He settled in

world was established there in 1882. It moved to its present

Montreal and left his estate to establish a college (McGill

location in 1895.

University) in the traditions o f Glasgow University. Lectures on medicine were first started in 1822 by four

McMurray, Thomas Porter (1887—1947) First professor o f

physicians who had trained in Edinburgh. SirWilliam Osier

orthopedics in England at Liverpool and founder o f the

served as professor o f medicine for ten years from 1874.

military orthopedic center at Alder H ey in Liverpool. He

McGraw, H. Theodore (1839-1921) Surgeon at Detroit,

introduced subtrochanteric osteotomy as treatment for

Michigan who introduced a new method o f ligature for

osteoarthritis o f the hip joint and described the clinical test (McMurray test) for meniscal tear by rotating the knee.

performing intestinal anastomosis.

M cN aughten R ules Formulated after the case o f Daniel

McGregor, John (1848-1932) Medical graduate o f Glasgow

M cNaughten who shot and killed Edward Drummond,

University who served as a surgeon in the Indian Medical

private secretary to R obert Peel, after mistaking him for

Service. He published several literary works including:

Peel. He was tried in 1843 and not found responsible for his

Luinneagan Luaineach (1897), a set o f poems in Gaelic,

actions due to his mental state, and was committed to the

Through the Buffer State (1896), and The Legend ofAlampra

Bethlehem Hospital.The matter was taken up in the House

(1923)-

o f Lords in 1843 and the judges stated that ‘to establish a

M cG rigor, Sir James (1771-1858) B orn in Inverness-shire, he

defense on the grounds o f insanity, it must be clearly proved

was the founder o f the Aberdeen Medical Society with

that, at the time o f the committing o f the act, the party

James Robertson and ten medical students from Marischal

accused was laboring under such a defect o f reason, from

College in 1789. He was appointed surgeon-general o f the

the disease o f the mind, as not to know the nature and qual­

Arm y Medical Service in 1815.

ity o f the act he was doing, or if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong’ . It established that

M cln doe, Sir Archibald H ector (1900-1960) N ew Zealand-

the accused in any crime was sane until proved otherwise.

born London surgeon who described a procedure for reconstruction o f the urethra with the use o f a dermal graft.

MDU

499

(The

Medical

Defence

Union)

The

longest

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MEAD

established defense organization in Britain, offering protec­

later defined by a Royal decree in England in 1824 as the

tion to members o f the medical profession, estabhshed in

length o f a pendulum placed at Greenwich with a period o f one second. The Imperial Standards for measures in Britain

1885.

was set by a commission in 1758.The carat (Greek: keration,

M ead, George Herbert (1863—1931) American psychologist

horn-Hke pods) for measurement o f diamonds and gold was

from South Hadley Massachusetts. He pubhshed Philosophy

originally obtained from the average weight o f seeds o f the

of the Present (1932), and Mind, Self, and Society in 1934.

carob tree, a native tree o f Africa and the southern Mediter­

M ead, Richard (1673—1754) Physician and one o f the holders

ranean. When diamonds were first discovered in India the

o f the gold-headed cane o f the president o f the R oyal C o l­

seeds were transported to be used as a measure.The English

lege o f Physicians. He was physician to King George II and

carat was fixed at 3.1683 grains by the Board ofTrade in 1888

wrote a book on diseases in the Bible, De Morbis Biblicis. His

and was replaced by the metric carat in 1914. The kilogram

other pubhcations include: A Mechanical Aaount of Poison,

was established as an official unit by the Bureau ofWeights

Discourse containing Pestilential Contagion and Mónita Medica.

and Measures at the Pavilion de Bretail near Paris in 1875.

Westminster Hospital erected a monument in his honor.

It is a standard bar o f a platinum-iridium alloy and has remained unchanged up to today. See metric system.

Mean Corpuscular H em oglobin Concentration (M CHC) See red cell indices.

M eat P oison in g Seefood poisoning.

M ean C orpuscular V olum e (M CV) See red cell indices.

M echnikov, EHya See Metchnikoff.

Developed by American bacteriologist

M eckel, Johan Friedrich, Jr (178 1—1833) Professor o f anato­

and N obel Prize winner,John Franklin Enders (1897—1985)

my at Halle, regarded as one o f the greatest comparative

ofWest Hartford, Connecticut in 1962.

anatomists prior to Johan Muller. The diverticulum o f the

M easles V accine

ileum resulting from the persistence o f the yolk sac o f the

Measles The oldest treatise on smallpox and measles, Uber de

embryo (Meckel diverticulum) was discovered by him in

variolis et morbillis, was written by Pdiazes (850-932) in 910.

1809. The cartilage o f the first brachial arch (Meckel

H e mentioned the Pandects written by the Alexandrian

cartilage) was described by him in 1805.

physician, Aaron, who appears to have been well acquainted with these two diseases in the 7th century.The term ‘variola’

M eckel, Johann Friedrich, Senior (1724—1774) Professor o f

was first employed by bishop Marius o f Avenches in 570.

anatomy and gynecology at Berlin. He described the

‘Bothor’ is an ancient Arabic term for measles or smallpox.

sphenopalatine ganglion (Meckel gangfion) and the dural

The term ‘mesles’ was first used by Gilbertus Anglicus in

space (Meckel cave) in which the Gasserian ganglion was

1595. An accurate description was given by Thomas

lodged in 1749.

Sydenham (1624-1689) in Processus integri published in 1676.

Medawar, Sir Peter Brian (1915—1987) British immunologist

Francis Home (1719—1813), a physician from Edinburgh,

and pioneer in the study o f rejection reactions in organ

pioneered experimental inoculation against measles and

transplantation. He was born in R io de Janeiro to an Eng­

demonstrated human transmission in 1759. Kopick spots as a

lish mother and a Lebanese father. He studied zoology

diagnostic sign were described by American pediatrician,

at Magdalen CoUege, Oxford and became interested in

Henry Kopick (1858—1927), and by Russian pediatrician.

immunology through his work on skin grafting for burn

Nils Fedorovich Filatov (1847—1902).The successful culti­

victims during World War 11. He shared the N obel Prize in

vation o f the virus was achieved by Harry Plotz (1890-1947)

i960 with Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet (1899—1985) for his

o f Paris in 1938. See German measles.

work on immunological tolerance in organ transplantation.

Measures Many o f the names used as units o f measurement

He was appointed as director to the National Institute for

came from body parts or easily obtainable materials. The

Medical Research in 1962.

oldest preserved standard o f length, the foot, derives its

M edian N erve C om pression

origin from the foot o f the statue o f the ruler o f Gudea in

Carpal tunnel syndrome.

the Mesopotamian city o f Lagash, in 4000 B C . It measures

T heT inel sign, where tapping over the carpal tunnel causes

10.41 inches and was divided into 16 parts.The inch proba­

paraesthesia over median nerve distribution o f the hand, was

bly comes from the Latin w ord‘uncia’ for thumb.The ounce

described by French neurologist,JulesTinel (1879—1952) o f

was fixed as 640 dry grains o f weight by King Henry III.The

Rouen. It was shown in 1947 to be due to pressure on the

yard denoted the distance from the tip o f the nose to the end

transverse carpal Hgament o f the wrist by British neurologist

o f the fingers when the right arm was outstretched. It was

Walter Russel Brain (1895-1966),Baron ofEynsham.

500

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

M ediastinum

[Latin: mediastinus, servant]

M EDICAL

SOCIETY

OF

L O N D O N

M edical Murders See Pritchard, Edward; Crippen, Harvey;

See oat cell

Lamson, George.

carcinoma, diaphragm.

M edical OflScer o f H ealth Sir Edwin Chadwick (1800—

M edical A cts King Hammurabi (1945—1905 B C ) ofBabylon devised a code o f conduct that was inscribed on a huge

1890), the great sanitary reformer o f England, gave his

stone excavated at Susa, east o f the Tigris. The inscriptions

report in 1842 after which the City Sewage Act was passed

contained a code o f conduct for all walks o f Hfe, including

and the post o f medical officer was created in 1848. Sir John

rules and regulations for the practice o f the physicians, how

Simon (1816—1904) was appointed as the first medical

to set their fees, and prescribed punishments for their fail­

officer in London, and by 1855, others were appointed for

ures. The Aquilian Law made physicians and surgeons in

most districts. The Association for Medical Officers was

R o m e accountable for their action and was enacted in 300

formed in 1856. Sir H enry Duncan Littlejohn ofEdinburgh

B C . The Laws o f Manu (200 B C —A D 200) o f the Indian

was appointed as the first medical officer o f health in his

Brahmins contain the rules for daily life, and stated that

town in 1862. He was a pioneer in public health and gave his

physicians could be punished for improper treatment, that

report on the sanitary conditions ofEdinburgh in 1865.

if the cured patient refused to pay the doctor his property

M edical P hotography

The method o f photographing

should be confiscated and given to the doctor. Brahmin

capillary vessels o f the eye with the use o f a krypton-xenon

priests, the poor, and friends were exempted firom payment

laser was developed by American electrical engineer

o f medical fees. R oger, founder o f the Christian kingdom

and professor at Massachusetts Institute o f Technology,

o f Sicily, declared in 1140 that anyone who desired to prac­

Harold Eugene Edgerton (1903-1990) from Nebraska. See

tice medicine should present himself before a magistrate

photomicrography.

and obtain authorization, or otherwise would be impris­

M edical Physics

oned and have his wealth confiscated. His law led directly to

Some o f the major advancements in

medicine include: the compound microscope o f R obert

the granting o f medical degrees by universities. The edicts

H ooke (1635—1703) (1667); the invention o f the short­

controlling education and licensing o f medical men in Sici­

stemmed chnical thermometer by Sir Thomas Cliftbrd

ly and southern o f Italy were issued by Frederick II in 1224.

AUbutt (1836—1925) (1866); the introduction o f sphygmo­

See General Medical Council, Anatomy Act.

manometer by Samuel von Basch (1837—1905) (1893); the

M edical and Chirurgical S ociety o f L on don Founded

discovery o f X-rays by Röntgen (1895); the development o f

in 1805 and received a royal charter from K ing WiUiam IV

the electrocardiograph from the string galvanometer o f

in 1834.

W illem Einthoven (1860—1927) (1903); the invention o f a microlaser for use in medicine by Marcel Bessis in 1962; the

M edical B ook s See books on medicine.

discovery o f computerized axial tomography by Sir

M edical D egree The title o f doctor was first conferred by

Godfrey N ewbold Hounsfield (b 1919) and Allan M acLeod

the church. The first degree o f doctor for a medical person

Corm ack (b 1924) around 1973; and the appfication o f

was conferred at Salerno in the n th century.The degree o f

ultrasound to examine the fetus in utero by Ian Donald

doctor in England was conferred in i207.The first Bachelor

(1979). See radiotherapy, C A T scanner, laser, ultrasound. X-rays.

o f Medicine degree in America was given to ten men who

M edical Research C oun cil Following the National Health

graduated from the College o f Philadelphia in 1768. K ing’s

Insurance Act o f 19 11, a Medical Research Committee was

College, N ew York awarded medical degrees to two more

created in 19 13.This developed into the Medical Research

men in 1769.

Council, which received its Royal charter in 1920.

M edical D iction aries See dictionary of medicine.

M edical Social S ervice See social services in medicine.

M edical D irectory The first medical directory, a guide to

M edical S o ciety ofE d inb urgh The oldest medical society

recognized medical practitioners, was produced by James

in Britain, founded in 1737.

Yearsley (1805—1869),a London otorhinologist in 1845.

M edical S o ciety o f L ondon The oldest medical society in

M edical Journals See Journals in medicine, British Medical

London was founded by physician and philanthropist,John

Journal, American medical journals. The Lancet, New England

Coakley Lettsom (1744—1815) in 1773. Its original member­

Journal of Medicine.

ship was hmited to 30 from each o f the three groups o f

M edical Jurisprudence Seeforensic medicine.

physicians, surgeons and apothecaries.

501

M EDICAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

STATISTICS

M edical Statistics The first book, Hemenis of Medical Statistics,

M edullary S pon ge K idney The first case was described in

was published by Francis Bisset Hawkins (1796—1894) in

1938 by G. Lenarduzzi,and the second was reported 10 years

1829.

later by H.J. Dammermann.The disease was initially known

He defined medical statistics as ‘the application o f

numbers to illustrate the natural history o f man in health

as sponge kidney and a detailed description was given by

and disease’ .William Farr (1807-1883) proposed a column

Cacchi and R icci in 1949.The term ‘medullary’ was added

to record disease or cause o f death in the first Registration

to ‘sponge kidney’ by D i Sieno and Guarechi in 1956.

Act o f England. The founder o f medical statistics in France

M egacolon [Greek: megas, hrge + colon] See Hirschsprung disease.

was Charles Pierre Alexander Louis (178 7 -18 72 ),a contem­

M egakaryocytes [Greek:megas,hrge + karyon,2inut + kytos,

porary o f Armand Trousseau (1801-1867). H e provided

cell] See platelets.

medical statistics on diphtheria, typhoid and yellow fever. A 20th century classic. Principles of Statistics, was published by

M egaloblastic A nem ia [Greek:

large + blastos, hud +

ahaima,without blood) See pernicious anemia, anemia.

Sir Austin Bradford Hill (1897—1991) in 1939. Epidemics and crowd diseases: an introduction to the history of epidemiology (1935)

M egaloblasts [Greek: megas, large + blastos, bud] Primitive

was pubhshedby M ajor Greenwood (1880-1949),professor

nucleated blood cells, first described by Paul Ehrlich (1854—

o f m edical statistics and epidem iology at the London

1915) around 18 8 1. Further studies were made by J .R .

School o f H ygiene and Tropical Medicine in 1935. See

Gilmour in 1941.

normal distribution curve, statistics.

M eges o f S idon (c 20 B C ) Regarded by Aulus Cornelius M edicare A federally financed insurance system in America

Celsus (25 B C -A D 50) as a skilled surgeon. H e invented

for care o f those eligible for social security benefits. The

several instruments for use in Hthotomy.

amendment o f social security laws by President Lyndon

M eglin P oint Point o f emergence o f the descending palatine

Johnson in 1963 paved the way for the program, and it was

nerve from the palato-maxillary canal. Described by French

set up by the Congress in 1965. It became effective in 1966.

physician, J.A .M . M eglin (175 6 -18 24 ), an anatomist at

M edin, Oskar (1847—1927) Swedish pediatrician. See acute

Sultz,in 1816.

anterior poliomyelitis.

M eibom ian Gland Sebacean follicles between the tarsi and

M editation Technique for attaining a state o f inner peace

the conjunctiva o f the eyelids. Described by German

and tranquillity, known as ‘Nirvana’ by Buddhists. First prac­

anatomist, Heinrich M eibom (1638—1700), professor o f

ticed by Gautama Buddha, a Hindu prince who founded

medicine at Helmstadt in 1666 who published Scriptores rerum Germanicarum. The gland was described earlier by

Buddhism around 500 B C .

M editerranean Fever

Guilio Casserius (1561—1616) o f Padua in 1609.

(Syn: abortus fever, brucellosis,

M eib om ,

undulant fever, Malta fever) Low-grade fever with remissions

John

Henry

(1590—1655)

Physician

from

Helmstadt who published L fe of Maecenas. His son was Heinrich M eibom (1638-1700).

noted in the Mediterranean region since Hippocratic times. The causative organism. Micrococcus melitensis, was discovered by Sir David Bruce (1855—1931) in 1887. Karl

M eige D isease

Form o f hereditary edema o f the lower

Friedrich M eyer and Shaw o f America named it ‘brucel­

limbs, described by French physician, H enri M eige (1866—

losis’ in 1920 in honor o f Sir David Bruce (1855—1931). See

1940) in 1901. See Milroy disease.

brucellosis.

M eigs Capillaries Capillary blood vessels in the muscular

M edulla O b longata [Latin: medulla, innermost part + ob, over +

fibers o f the heart, first described by Arthur Vincent Meigs

long] JulienJean Cesar Legallois (1775—1814),

(18 5 0 -19 12 ), a lecturer in histology at the U niversity o f Philadelphia,in 1899.

a physician and physiologist from Cherneix in Brittany, demonstrated the presence o f a respiratory center in the

M eigs, Charles Delucina (1792—1869) Professor o f mid­

medulla oblongata in 1812. M . J. Pierre Flourens (1794-

wifery at Jefferson Medical College who was the first to

1867) confirmed it in 1837 by inducing a lesion in the

recognize embolism as a cause o f maternal death in 1849.

bilateral ‘vital nodes’ o f the respiratory centers leading to

M eigs Syndrom e Ovarian tumor associated with ascites

asphyxia in experimental animals. Basal gangfia were suggested to be internodes connecting the medulla oblon­

and pleural effusion, first described in 1937 by American

gata and the cerebrum by Thomas Willis (16 21—1675) in

professor o f gynecology at Harvard, Joseph Vincent Meigs

1664.

(1892-1963).

502

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

M ELLANBY

M eiosis [Greek: meiosis, diminution] Cell division in sex

understanding’ . He recommended the use o f hellebore,

cells at maturation by means o f v^hich each daughter cell

decoctions, other herbs, and also coitus ‘to refieve the mind

receives half the number o f chromosomes found in a somat­

from cares that beset it’ .Bartholomeus Angeficus, Paris pro­

ic cell. First observed in 1887 by Belgian cytologist,Edouard

fessor o f theology, wrote a chapter in his book De Proprietati-

Joseph Louis-M arie van Beneden (1846—1910).The process

bus o f 1535. One o f the greatest monographs. Anatomy of

where the nucleus divides twice but the chromosomes only

Melancholy, was written by Robert Burton (1577—1640) in

once was first described byJ.B . Farmer (1865-1944) andJ.E.

16 21. He is said to have suffered from it and gained an insight

M oore (b 1892) in 1905.

which contributed to the success o f his book, which is

M eissner C orpuscles

supposed to have been inspired by A Treatise on Melancholy

Tactile sensory nerve endings,

written in 1586 by Timothy Bright (1551-1616), an English

described in 1852 by Georg Meissner (1829—1905) and

physician. EngHsh clergyman, Richard Baxter (1615-1691),

R u d o lf Wagner .(18 05-1864) , professors o f physiology at

published H discourse ConnectingTrouble of Mind and the Disease

Gottingen, Germ any

M eissner Plexus alimentary

of Melancholy in 1691.

Found in the submucous layer o f the

canal.

Described

by

Georg

M eletius (AD 400) Christian monk from R o m e who wrote

Meissner

several works on physiology and anatomy.

(1829—1905),professor o f physiology at Gottingen in 1853.

M elioidosis

[Greek: melis, a distemper o f asses + eidos,

resemblance + osis, process] A glanders-like disease, first described in 1912 by Alfred Whitmore (1876-1946) and C.S. Krishnaswami. Whitmore was a surgeon in India and he studied further cases in Rangoon, Burma, and isolated a motile Gram negative bacillus from patients.The causative organism was named Bacillus whitmori, and the disease was called melioidosis by Sir Ambrose Thomas Stanton (18751938) in 1917 and William Fletcher (d 1938) and Stanton published a book in 19 21.

Mellanby, Lady May, née Tweedy (1882-1978) Wife o f Sir Edward Mellanby (1884-1955), she was a pioneer in nutrition and vitamins A and D related to the development o f teeth. She spent her early years in Russia and in 1902 entered Girton College, Cambridge where she was permit­ ted to attend some lectures not normally open to women. She was the first woman to present a paper to the British Orthodontics Society in 1919.

Mellanby, Sir Edward (1884-1955) English pharmacologist

Melancholy. Luden Mass, Curiosités Médico-Artistiques (1907), Albin Michel, Paris

and pioneer in the study o f vitamins and nutrition. Born in West Hartlepool and educated at Emmanuel College,

M elancholy [Greek: melano.hhck + choie,hile] Black bile from

Cambridge where he began research with Frederick

the lower intestines was thought to be the cause o f melancho­

Gowland Hopkins (1861—1947). He moved to London in

lia or depression by Hippocrates (460-377 B C ), and he

1907, graduated in medicine from St Thomas’ Hospital

proposed purgatives as treatment. Several centuries later

Medical School in 1910 and became a physiology demon­

Cicero (143—106 B C) disputed this theory and attributed

strator there. His first paper, on creatine and creatinine, was

melancholia

published in 1908,before his graduation. He was appointed

to psychological

difficulties. Galen

(AD

129—200), observed that it sometimes changed into epilepsy.

in 1913 as professor o f physiology at the K ing’s College for

Various treatments from demonology to bezoars, were

Women, London. He became professor o f pharmacology at

employed, and precious stones, parts o f animal bodies and

Sheffield University in 1920 and was elected secretary to the

metals were used by high priests. Paul o f Aegina (AD 625-

Medical Research Council in 1933. He produced rickets

690) defined it ‘as a disorder o f the intellect without fever,

in dogs by maintaining them on a deficient diet and

occasioned mostly by a melancholic humor seizing the

suggested that the missing nutrient factor was a fat-soluble

503

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MELTZER

substance, vitamin D. He advocated cod liver oil as a source

assortment were pubHshed in 1865.They went unheeded

o f vitamin D which led to the elimination o f what was then

until Enghsh geneticist William Bateson (1861—1926)

a prevalent disease. His research on vitamin A during

rediscovered them and wrote MendeVs Principles of Heredity

embryonic development caused him to suggest that a

published in 1902. See MendeVs laws.

bleaching process used in wheat flour may lead to serious

M endel, Lafayette Benedict (1872-1935) American professor

bone and nerve defects.

atYale. In 1913 he demonstrated the fat-soluble nature o f the

M eltzer, Samuel James (1851—1920) American physiologist

accessory nutritional factor, later called ‘fat soluble A ’ by

and pioneer in endotracheal insufflation o f ether as

Elmer Verner M cCollum (1879—1967) o f Wisconsin and

anesthesia during thoracic surgery. He also did clinical stud­

N. Simmonds in 1917. See night blindness.

ies to demonstrate the physiological mechanisms involved

M endel’s Laws Discovered by Gregor Mendel (1822—1884),

in asthma.

M elvill,

an Augustinian monk, who corresponded with Karl

Thomas

(1726—1753)

Scottish

scientist from

Wilhelm von Nageli (1817—1891), a contemporary Swiss

Glasgow University who demonstrated the spectra o f the

botanist who gave negative comments. Mendel later

luminous gases in 1753.

published his findings in the local Brunn Natural History

M em brane Potential The basic theory states that electric

SocietyTransactions in 1865 .They went unnoticed for 30 years

forces in muscles and nerves are related to selective perme-

until Hugo deVries (1848—1935) o fT h e Netherlands, and

abihty o f the Hving membranes to cations and anions. It was

Erich Tshermak (18 71-196 2) independently expanded

proposed by German chemist and N obel Prize winner,

M endel’s work.

Wilhelm

Ostwald

(1853-1932)

around

1909. JuHus

M endeleeflf P eriod ic Table

Sequential arrangement o f

Bernstein (1839—1917), a German professor o f physiology at

elements according to their atomic weight, devised by the

Halle who invented a diflerential rheotome to record the

Russian chemist, D im itri Ivanovich M endeleeflf (18 34 -

voluntary contractions o f the muscle on a time related basis

1907).The elements show similar characteristics at regular

in 1 890, proposed the theory to explain electrical properties

intervals, making it possible to predict their properties even

o f muscle in 1912.

before they were discovered. See periodic law.

Mendeleeflf, Dmitri Ivanovitch (1834—1907) Russian chem­ ist, born at Tobolsk in Siberia. He was the 14th and youngest child o f a schoolteacher. After his father lost his jo b due to blindness, his mother set up a glass workshop and worked single handedly to support the family and educate the children. He studied at the local school and went to the University o f St Petersburg at the age o f 16, and later to the University o f Heidelberg. He became a professor at St Petersburg Technical Institute in 1863 and the University o f St Petersburg in 1866. He pubHshed his great work.

M

Principles of Chemistry, in 1869 proposing his periodic law which he refined over the next 20 years. This was initially received with some skepticism but, as more elements were discovered and fitted his table, it became accepted. His

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

greatest contribution was in recognizing that some

M endel, Gregor Johann (1822-1884) Founder o f genetics,

elements still had to be discovered, and that their properties

born near Udrau, a remote village in Moravia. He worked

could be predicted, and so he left gaps in his table for them.

on hybridization o f pea plants, while a monk at an Augus-

See Mendeleeffperiodic table.

tinian monastery at Brünn, growing about 30,000 plants which he artificially fertilized to produce specific charac­

M endelson Syndrom e

teristics. He studied science in Vienna and returned to his

Aspiration o f gastric contents

during general anesthesia in labor. Described by American

monastery, becoming abbot in 1868. As a lone worker he

obstetrician and gynecologist, Curtis Lester Mendelson

acquired his own microscope and worked laboriously and

(b 1913) in 1946.

published his epoch-making work enunciating the laws o f genetics. His laws o f segregation and o f independent

M énétrier D isease

504

Giant gastric hypertrophy with

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

M ERCURIALIS

hypoproteinemia, diarrhea and protein losing enteropathy. Described

by

French

histopathologist,

Pierre

E.

M énétrier (1859-1935) in 1888.

M enghini, Vincenzo Antonio (1704—1759) Italian physician

M ental D isease See psychiatry, psychology, asylum. M ental H ospitals See asylum. M ental H ygien e [Latin: mens, mind; Greek: hygieia, health] Term first used by William Sweetser (1787-1875) in the title

who demonstrated the presence o f iron in blood in 1746.

M eniere Syndrom e

o f his book published in 1843. It was used in psychiatry by A d olf M eyer (1866-1950) o f the N ew York State Psychi­

Characterized by episodic vertigo,

tinnitus and progressive deafness. Described by French

atric Institute.The Connecticut Society o f Mental Hygiene

otorhinologist, Prosper Menière (1799—1862) o f Paris in

was formed in 1908 and the National Committee for

1861. A method o f surgical treatment was described by

Mental Hygiene was set up in 1909. The journal Mental

Walter Edward Dandy (1886—1946) ofA m ericain i928.The

Hygiene appeared in 1917.

beneficial effects o f betahistidine was described by T.J.

M ental Q u otien t See intelligence quotient.

Wilmot in 1972.

M eningiom a [Greek: meninx, membrane + oma] Tumor o f

M epacrine Quinacrine hydrochloride, used against malaria inWorldWar U. SeeAtebrine.

the meninges, usually next to the dura mater, first called

M ephenesin or Mynesin Early tranquilizer and muscle

endothelioma by Camille Golgi (1843—1926) in 1869.

relaxant, discovered in 1946 by EM . Berger and Bradley

Harvey Cushing (1869-1939) wrote a monograph in 1938.

o f England during their search for a preservative for injec­

M eningitis [Greek: meninx, membrane + itis, inflammation]

tions. The muscle relaxing action due to its effect on the

See cerebrospinalfever, aseptic meningitis, tuberculous meningitis.

nervous system was the first pharmacological property to

M eningococcal M eningitis See cerebrospinalfever. M eningococcus

be noted, hence its use in anesthesia until it was recognized as a tranquilizer.

[Greek: meninx, membrane + kokkos,

berry] Gram negative bacterium, Nesseiria meningitides, first

M eprobam ate Tranquilizer first synthesized by EM . Berger,

isolated from six patients with acute cerebrospinal menin­

medical director o f the Wallace Laboratories, around 1952.

gitis by Anton Weichselbaum (1845-1920) ofVienna in 1887 and

named

Diplococcus

M eralgia Paresthetica [Greek: meros, thigh + algos, pain]

intracellularis meningitides. His

Affects the external cutaneous nerve o f the thigh. Also

observations were confirmed and the organism was

called Bernhardt disease or Bernhardt—R o th

established as a the cause o f meningitis by von Lingleshiem

disease.

Described by German neurologist, Martin M ax Bernhardt

o f Germany in 1905.

(1844—1915) in 1878, and Russian neurologist, Vladimir

M enkes Syndrom e Inborn error o f leucine and isoleucine

Karolovich R o th (1848-1916).

metabolism leading to mental deficiency. Described by

M ercaptopurine Antileukemic drug (6-mercaptopurine)

American pediatrician,John H. Menkes (b 1928), in 1954.

produced by two American biochemists, George Herbert

Due to the maple syrup odor o f the urine, it is also known

Hitchings (b 1905) o f Washington and N ew York bio­

as maple syrup disease, or, because o f the effect on hair, as

chemist, Gertrude BeUe Elion (b 1918) in 1953. Its clinical

kinky hair syndrome.

evaluation in patients was done by Joseph Holland

M ensturation [Latin: mensis, month + sturere, to flow] R est

Burchenal (b 1912) and co-workers in the same year.

from physical activity was first suggested by N ew York

Mercier, Charles Arthur (1852—1919) Physician to a private

gynecologist, M ary Putnam Jacobi (1842—1906) in 1876.

asylum in London. He delivered the FitzPatrick lectures on

She was the first woman to receive a medical doctorate

Astrology in Medicine in 1913, and in the same year he

from the University o f Paris, and to be admitted to the N ew

published a small volume o f verses. The King’s Fishing.

York Academy o f Science. Premenstrual swelling o f the endometrium was first noted by Hans Kundrat and George

M ercier Bar Transverse curved ridge joining the internal

Englemann in 18 7 3 .The normal cyclical changes in the

openings o f the urethras within the bladder. Described in

endometrium were first described by two Viennese gyne­

1848 by Louis Auguste Mercier (18 11—1882), a urinary

cologists, Ludwig Adler (1876—1958) and Fritz Hitschmann

surgeon from Paris.

(1870—1926) in 1907. See premenstrual tension, safe period.

M ercurialis, Hieronymus (1530—1606) Professor o f medi­ cine at Bologna, Padua and Pisa who wrote the first

M ental D eficien cy See idiocy.

505

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

M ERCURY

systematic treatise on skin diseases in 1572. He also wrote

diphenylhydrantoin (epinutin) as treatment for epilepsy

the first Italian book on obstetrics in 1586 in which he

in 1938.

advocated cesarean section in cases o f contracted pelvis. He

M erry A ndrew Another name for Andrew Boorde (b 1490)

produced an illustrated book on gymnastics and exercises

who lived in the reign o f Henry VIII. See Boorde, Andrew.

for health, Dc Hrie Gymnastica, in 1569.

M erseberg Triad Consisting o f exophthalmos, goiter and

M ercury [Latin: mercurius] Called quicksilver by Aristotle

palpitations in hyperthyroidism. Described by Carl Adolph

(384—322 B C ) and liquid silver by Dioscorides (AD 40—90).

von Basedow (1799-1854), who named it in honor o f his

It was used for treatment o f syphilis by Paracelsus (14 9 3-

home town, Merseberg in Gerniany.

1541), and became a common drug for venereal diseases. Gabriele Falloppio (1523—1562) opposed its extensive use

M ersenne, M arin (1588—1648) French M inim friar and

for syphilis during the m id-i6th century. M ercury injec­

mathematician from Paris. He discovered the law relating to

tions in the form o f diethyl mercury was introduced as

the length and period o f oscillation o f a pendulum and

treatment for syphilis by P. Hepp o f Germany in 1887, but

measured the speed o f sound.

abandoned due to toxicity. See mercury poisoning.

M esenteric E m b olism

M ercury P oison in g Com m on cause o f necrotizing neph­

The first diagnosis in a living

subject was made by A d olf Kussmaul (1822—1902) in 1864.

rosis. Anuria was first observed by Ulrich von Hutton

Mery, Jean (1645-1722) Surgeon at the Hôtel Dieu at Paris

(14 8 8 -152 3) in 1519 . M ercury poisoning in goldsmiths

who described the pair o f Cowper glands related to the

was described by Bernadini Ramazzini (1633—1714) in his

male urethra in i684.These were later named after William

treatise on occupational diseases in 1700. A d olf Kussmaul

Cowper (1666—1760) who re-described them in 1700.

(1822-1902) described loss o f teeth, stomatitis and redden­ ing o f the pharynx (Kussmaul sign) in mercurial poisoning.

M escaline

Poisonous alkaloid obtained from the cactus

Hatter s shakes or mercurial tremor were observed in work­

{Lophophora williamsit) and used in ancient rituals for its

ers in industry who constantly dipped hats in mercuric

hallucinogenic properties. The first clinical description o f

nitrate in the i8th century. Organic mercurial compounds

its effects was given by American neurologist, Silas Weir

were used in chemical research in 1863, and two research

Mitchell (1829—19 14 ),in 1896.

workers at St Bartholomew s Hospital died as a result o f

M esm er, Franz Anton (1734—1815) Physician from M ersberg

their research with dimethyl mercury in 1866. Diethyl mer­

in Swabia who introduced the practice o f animal magnet­

cury injections used as treatment for syphilis in Germany in

ism. His first publication appeared in 1766 and contained a

1887, were abandoned due to toxicity. Mercurial com­

description o f the planetary influence from heavenly bodies

pounds as fungicidal seed dressings for cereal led to several

which diffused through a subtle fluid and acted on the

cases o f poisoning. Sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate was

nervous system. Though his theory was scientifically

introduced as an antidote by Rosenthal in 1934. See mercury.

unfounded his method later developed into the practice o f

M erkel C orpuscles

Sensory tactile nerve endings first

hypnotism. See animal magnetism, mesmerism, hypnosis.

described by Friedrich Sigmund Merkel (1845—1919),

M esm erism Animal magnetism, named after its founder,

professor o f anatomy at Gottingen in 1880.

Franz Anton Mesmer (1734 -18 15) by his friend and Central fossa between the two cavities o f

philosopher Karl Wolhart. Mesmer published his doctrine

the larynx. Described by Carl Ludwig Merkel (1812—1876),

in 1766 and called it ‘animal magnetism’ in the belief that

professor o f laryngology at Leipzig in 1857.

the trance was due to an effect similar to that o f a magnet.

M erkel Fossa

M erriam , Clinton Hart (1885—1942) N ew York zoologist,

His m ethod was later developed to produce anesthesia

naturalist and early conservationist, instrumental in estab­

and renamed ‘hypnosis’ by James Braid (1795-1860), a

lishing the National Geographical Society (now the Fish

Manchester surgeon, in 1843. See animal magnetism, hypnosis.

and Wildlife Service) in 1888. He devised a system o f life

M esoderm [Greek: mesos,middle + derma,skin] Middle layer

zones based on temperature differences in Life Zones and

o f the three primary germ layers o f the embryo. The con­

Crop Zones of the United States published in 1898.

cept o f embryonic development o f organs from different

M errit, Hiram Houston (1902-1979) Professor o f neurology

germ layers was first proposed by Estonian, Karl Ernst

at the College o f Physicians and Surgeons in N ew York.

Ritter von Baer (1792—1876), professor at St Petersburg

He was editor o f the Archives of Neurology. He introduced

in 1828. The germ layers were classified into ectoderm.

506

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

endoderm

and

mesoderm

by

Polish-born

METAPHYSICS

German

scientific monograph on diabetes, Der Diabetes Mellitus,

physician,Robert R em ak (18 15-18 6 5),in 1845.

was written by Bernard Naunym (1839—1925) in 1895. Frederick William Pavy (1829—19 11), a physician at G uys

M esopotam ian M edicine The area between the rivers

Hospital devoted his career to the study o f metabolism o f

Tigris and Euphrates, known as Mesopotamia, was the

sugars. Sir Archibald Edward Garrod (1857—1936), o f St

cradle o f civilization around 4000 B C . W riting was

Bartholomew s Hospital, pioneer in the study o f inborn

developed here by the Sumerians around 3000 B C . Mesopotamian doctors attributed disease to sin and sought

errors

divine help to reveal them. They regarded the liver as the

alkaptonuria, cystinuria, and pentosuria. See metabolism,

storage organ o f blood and hence the seat o f life.They stud­

basal metabolic rate.

ied livers o f animals and made clay models o f the organ with

o f metabolism, gave

original descriptions

of

M etabolic Pathway See citric acid cycle, carbohydrates, Krebs

markings on them.Their medical practice was chiefly in the

cycle,glucose-1 -phosphate kinase,glucose- i -phosphate.

hands o f three groups o f priests. O f them, Asu, was a physi­ cian; Ashipu was an exorcist; and Baru predicted the

M etabolism [Greek: meta, after or beyond + bole, change]

outcome o f diseases through divine help. See Sumerian

The first person to experimentally study metabolism was

medicine, Babylonian medicine, Hammurabi.

Sanctorio Sanctorius (1561—1636), a physician from Padua. He designed a balance to calculate the weight o f invisible

M esotheliom a [Greek: mesos, middle + thele, nipple] See

respiration and perspiration. His work was published in

asbestosis.

Ars de statica medicina in 1614, and translated into English by

M essenger R N A Ribonucleic acid units which serve as

John Quincy (d 1723). He also invented the first clinical

templates for protein synthesis. The existence o f messenger

thermometer for use in his metabolic studies.The pathway

R N A was confirm ed by François Jacob (b 1920) and

through which food is converted to energy was first

Jacques Lucien M onod (1910-1976) o f Paris in the Journal of

demonstrated by German physiologist, Karl von Voit

Molecular Biology in i960. The chromosome segment that

(1831-1908) in 1865, who also developed a test for basal

codes for a single m R N A molecule and regulates transcrip­

metabolism in 1873. M ax R ubner (1854-1932), a physiolo­

tion and translation o f a protein was discovered and named

gist from Munich, was a pioneer in the modern study o f

‘operon’ ,by F.Jacob, Sydney Brenner (b 1927), F. Cuzin and

metabolic diseases. He

M onod in 1963.

obtained its energy from fats, carbohydrates and proteins

demonstrated that the body

M esue, Jr or Maswijah al—Marindi (d 1015) B orn at Marindi

and used the nitrogen from these sources for its vital func­

on the Euphrates and studied medicine and philosophy at

tions. He measured metabolic changes in the body in 1891

Baghdad. He wrote several medical treatises including one

using it as a calorimeter. He also described the specific

on surgery, Phlebotomia secundum Damascenum. The materia

dynamic action o f food.

medica, Grabadin, bearing his name was very popular in the

M etapsychosis Term for various philosophies where theo­

Middle Ages, and was one o f the first medical works printed

ries are not justifiable on logical grounds but verifiable by

in Venice in 1471.

experiment

or

observation, was

first

proposed

by

M esue, Sr orYohannan ibn Masawayh (AD 777-857) Arabian

Pythagorus in 528 B C .T h e practice o f embalming o f dead

physician, known to Latin Europe as Janus Damescenus. He

bodies by the Egyptians is supposed to have resulted from

was born at Jundishapur where his father was a pharmacist.

this belief.

His work is mentioned by Rhazes (850—932), and nine

M etam orphosis

editions are in the British M useum.The Mesue Opera, illus­

[Greek: meta, after + morphosis, shaping]

Term first used by a London naturalist, Thomas M oufet

trated with pictures o f medicinal herbs, was printed in

(1553—1604), in entomology to denote changes o f the

Venice in 1603. His other works include: Aphorisms, Book of

embryo during its development into an adult.

Fevers and On the Pulse.

M etaphase Stage in mitotic ceU division during which the

M etabolic D isease [Greek: meta, after + bole, change] One

undivided centromeres lie on the spindle. Described by

o f the oldest known diseases o f metabolism, diabetes, was

German botanist from Bonn, Eduard A d olf Strasburger

described and named by Aretaeus (AD 81—138). Santorio

(1844-1912) in 1880.

Santorius (1561—1636) pioneered scientific study o f metab­ olism in health. His findings, following 30 years o f study,

M etaphysics

were published in Ars de statica medicina in 1614.The earliest

[Greek: meta, beyond, phuein, make grow]

Science o f abstract reasoning began with Aristotle (384—322

507

METASTATIC

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

CARCINOMA

B C ). Andronicus o f Rhodes, a Greek philosopher who

M ethane H oly phosphorescent light over marshy ground

lived around 58 B C , introduced the term ‘metaphysics’ for

was

the science o f thought and influences unseen, and incapable

W ill-o-the-wisp or Jack-o-Lantern.The inflammability o f

o f direct recognition by senses. One o f the earliest books

the air from the marshes was shown to be caused by

noticed

in

i6th

century Europe

and named,

(of ethics) on metaphysics and psychology was written by

methane gas by Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) in 1778. Its

Benedict de Spinoza (1632-1677) and published in 1677

inflammability was a major threat to mine workers and Sir

after his death.The International Institute o f Metaphysics at

Humphry Davy invented the miner’s lamp in 1816 to

Paris was founded in 1919.

overcome this.

M etastatic C arcinom a [Greek: meta, after + statikos, caus­

M ethanol Methyl alcohol toxicity was reported as early as

ing to stand] The spread o f a tumor by metastasis was first

1855. Its toxicity to the eye was recognized in 1910, but it

investigated by Germ an anatomist, W ilhelm Gottfried

was stiU used as an alternative to ethyl alcohol in alcoholic

Waldeyer (18 37-1921) in 1867.

drinks in N ew York and other places until around 1920.

MetchnikofF, Elie (1845-1916) Immunologist and embryol­

M ethionine Amino acid discovered in 1921 by American

ogist, born to Jewish parents in the Ukraine, he attended

pathologist, John Howard Mueller (b 1891) during his

Kharkov University and received his doctorate from the

research on growth factors for microorganisms.

University o f St Petersburg in 1867. After his initial interest

M ethodists An ancient sect or school o f medicine, rival to

in zoology, he studied bacteriology in 1882. He left Russia

the Hippocratic system, founded byThemison ofLaodicea

and, after spending time in Italy and Odessa, in 1887 he

(100 B C ), a physician and disciple o f Aesculapiades in 50

became director o f the Pasteur Institute in Paris.The Nature

B C . He explained diseases on the basis o f relaxation or con­

of Man was one o f his first books translated into English by

traction o f pores in the body. Methodists named acute

Peter Chalmers Mitchell and published in 1903. While at

disease ‘status strictus’ , state o f contraction, and chronic

the Pasteur Institute in Paris, he discovered the phagocytic

disease ‘status laxus’ , state o f relaxation.

function o f white blood cells and demonstrated their role in

M ethotrexate Developed by Sidney Faber, a cancer scientist

combating bacterial invasion. He also successfully transmit­ ted syphilis from man to a higher animal. He advocated

in the United States, from aminopterin in 1948 as a

eating large quantities o f yogurt to promote good health.

folic acid antagonist in treatment o f leukemia. Li, Hertz

He did classic studies on antibacterial immunity and was

and Donald B. Spencer used it in the treatment o f

awarded the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in

choriocarcinoma in 1956. The use o f methotrexate and

1908 (together with Paul Ehrlich, 1854-1915).

cyclophosphamide in the treatment o f Burkitt lymphoma (a viral cancer) was introduced by Denis Parsons Burkitt

M eteorites They were worshipped during prehistoric times

(19 11-19 9 3) o f Enniskillen, Northern Ireland in i960, while

and known as thunderbolts from the skies.The dark reddish

working in Uganda. Chemotherapy with it in metastatic

brown sacred stone, Kaaba at M ecca, is believed to be a

osteosarcoma was pioneered by South African surgeon,

meteorite. The largest known meteorite lies at Groot-

Norman Jaffe (b 1933) o f Johannesburg in 1972.

fontein in South West Africa.They contain a mixture o f iron

M ethyl B rom ide Non-inflammable gas used for refrigera­

and silica in varying proportions. Edmund Halley,Wallis and

tion, as a fire extinguisher, and fumigant was first noted to

others studied them.

cause poisoning by A. Jaquet in 1893. Escape o f this gas from

M ethem oglob in em ia [Greek: meta, after + haima, blood;

refrigerators led to a number o f casualties in Europe and

Latin:^/o/?W5, globe] Condition in which oxidation o f hemo­

America in the 1920s.

globin to the ferric state results in cyanosis, headache,

M ethylene B lue Histological stain for nerve tissue intro­

fatigue, nausea, tachycardia, coma and, sometimes death. It

duced by Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) in 1885. Also tested by

may be chemically or drug induced, or be an abnormality in

Ehrlich as chemotherapy against the malarial parasite in

hemoglobin M , or due to a deficiency in cytochrome b5

1891.

reductase. It can also be caused by administration o f

It was first used as treatment for methemoglobinemia

by W.B.Wendel in 1939.

sulfacompounds, and the mechanism o f formation o f sulfhemoglobin or methemoglobin was shown by L. Snap­

M etric System In 1790 a committee consisting o f Claude

per in 1925. Methylene blue was first used as treatment for

Louis BerthoUet (1749—1822),Pierre Simon Laplace (1749—

methemoglobinemia by W.B.Wendel in 1939.

1827) and others devised a uniform system for measures. A

508

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MICHAELIS-MENTEN

EQUATION

meter is a distance equal to a ten millionth part o f the

M eyer Glands Found beneath the tongue, in the hypo-

distance between the poles and the equator.The rest o f the

glossus muscle. Described by Georg Hermann von Meyer

metric system was completed in 1799.

(18 15 - 1 892),professor ofhistology at Zurich in 18 71.

M etrodorus o f C hios Disciple o f Democritus (460—370

M eyerhof, Otto Fritz (1884—1951) American biochemist o f

B C ) and a physician. Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) is said to

German origin who trained in medicine at the University

have been one o f his pupils.

o f Heidelberg and became the director o f Kaiser Wilhelm

M etropolitan Ear and Throat H ospital

Institute for Medical Research in Berlin (1924—1929) and

Founded by

Heidelberg (1929-1938). He left Germany in 1938 and,after

James Yearsley (1805-1869), a London otorhinologist, in

working in France and Spain, went to the University o f

1838 at Fitzroy Square, London. He described the artificial

Pennsylvania in America in 1940. He worked out the path­

tympanum, and identified aflFections o f the nose and throat

way o f glucose use in muscle metabolism known as the

that cause deafness.

Embden—M eyerhof cycle.The HiU—M eyerhof theory relat­

M evalonic A cid Key intermediate in synthesis o f steroids and

ed to metabolic changes in the cytoplasm o f muscle during

terpenes. Isolated from a yeast byproduct by American bio­

contraction was proposed by Archibald Vivian Hill (1886—

chemist, Karl August Folkers (b 1906) and his team in 1956.

1977) and M eyerhof around 1912. M eyerhof also discovered

Meyer, A d olf (1866—1950) Psychiatrist and neurologist, born

glycogen as a source o f lactic acid in the muscle in 1920.

in Niederweiningen in Switzerland. He emigrated to

M eyerhof and Hill shared the N obel Prize in Physiology or

America in 1892 and joined the Johns Hopkins Medical

Medicine in 1922.

School in 1910 as head o f the new Phipps Psychiatric Clin­

M eynert D ecussation O n the tracts o f tegmenti within the

ic, where he served until his retirement. He proposed the

spinal canal, first described by Theodor Herman Meynert

concept o f psychobiology which integrated medicine and

(1833-1892), professor o f neurology at Vienna in 1869.

psychiatry, and sought to explain mental disorders on the

M eynert also studied cortical cells and identified the five

basis o f maladjustment.

horizontal layers in 1867.

Meyer, Carl Friedrich (1884—1974) Professor o f microbiolo­

M eynet N o d es Nodules in the capsules ofjoints or tendons

gy at the University o f California. In 1920 he introduced the

in rheumatic conditions, especially affecting children.

generic term Brucella for bacteria which caused Malta fever,

Described by French physician, Paul Claude Hyacinthe

in honor ofits discoverer Sir David Bruce (1855—1931).

M eynet (1831-1892) ofLyons.

Meyer, Hans Horst (1853—1939) German pharmacologist

M ichael the S cot ( 117 5 -12 3 5 ) Translator o f Arabic and

who suggested in 1899 that the effect o f an anesthetic agent

Greek science into Latin. His work on astrology was a major

is related to its lipid solubility in the nerve tissue.

work in Latin. The first Latin versions o f the works o f Averroes and Aristotelian biology were produced by him.

Meyer, Julius Lothar von (1830—1895) German chemist and medical graduate from Zurich. He was first professor o f

M ichaelis R h o m b o id Diamond-shaped area over the pos­

chemistry at Tübingen University. He demonstrated in 1857

terior aspect o f the pelvis bounded by the dimples o f the

that oxygen combines with hemoglobin during respiration.

posterior iliac spines, the lines formed by the gluteal mus­

He demonstrated that atomic volumes were functions o f

cles, and a groove at the lower end o f the spine. Described

atomic weights, and proposed the periodic table indepen­

by Gustav A d olf Michaelis (1798—1848), an obstetrician

dently o f Dimitri Ivanovich M endeleeff (1834-1907) in 1864. He also suggested that the carbon atoms in benzene

from Kiel.

M ichaelis-M enten Equation The rate at which catalytic

formed a ring structure.

reactions take place. Developed by Berlin-born American

Meyer, Viktor (1848—1897) German chemist, born in Berlin,

biochemist, Leonor Michaelis (1875—1945) and American

and professor o f chemistry at Zurich, Göttingen, and

physician, Maude Lenore Menten (1879—1960) in 1913.

Heidelberg. He coined the term ‘stereochemistry’ for the

They worked on rate-controlling steps in enzyme reac­

study o f molecular shapes and devised a method o f

tions, assuming that substrate combines with enzyme to

determining vapor density.

form an intermediate complex which then breaks down to

Meyer Cartilage Anterior extremities o f the inferior thy­

give the product and the unmodified enzyme.The equation

roarytenoid hgaments were described by Edmund Victor

was further modified by John Burdon Sanderson Haldane

Meyer (1864—1931) ,professor oflaryngology at Berlin in 1901.

(1892-1964) to give half maximum velocity.

509

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MICHELI

M icheli, James Bartholomew (1692-1766) Astronomer,

blood and urine, was invented by G.E. Davis and C. Sheard

physicist and mathematician from Geneva who invented a

o f America in 1927. A photoelectric hemoglobinometer

new form o f thermometer.

was developed by Sheard andA.H. Sanford in 1928.

M icheli, Pier Antonio (1679—1737) Botanist from Florence

M icrocytic A nem ia [Greek: mikros, small + kytos, cell] A

and a founder o f the Society o f Natural History o f Florence.

classification o f anemias based on red cell morphology was

He was director o f the botanical gardens formed by Cosimo

proposed by M axwell M yer Wintrobe (b 1901) in 1930.

de M edici and published an early work on mycology, Nova

He proposed four groups: macrocytic, normocytic, simple

Plantarum genera, in 1729.

microcytic, and chronic microcytic. He also developed the Wintrobe hematocrit to measure the hematocrit

M icheli, John (1724-1793) English geologist from Notting­

and erythrocyte sedimentation rates in a single tube. See

hamshire and professor at Cambridge who founded

microcytosis.

seismology and invented a torsion balance. He published an important treatise on an artificial magnet in 1750.

M icrocytosis [Greek: mikros, small + kytos, cell] Character­

M ichelson, Albert Abraham (1852-1931) American physi­

ized by the presence o f small hemoglobin-containing

cist, born in Poland and came to America at the age o f fo u r.

erythrocytes or microcytes in the blood. Observed by

He studied the velocity o f light in 1878 and replaced the

Constant Vanlair (1839—1914) and Jean Baptiste N icolas

rotating mirror with a prism. He invented the echelon grat­

Voltaire Masius (1836—1912) o f Belgium around 1890. See

ing made o f quartz plates capable o f producing dispersion o f

iron deficiency anemia.

light. He is remembered for the Michelson—M orley experi­ ment to determine ether drift, which paved the way for Einstein s theory o f relativity. He was professor o f physics at Chicago in 1892 and was the first American to win a N obel Prize in 1907.

M icroangiopathic H em o ly tic A nem ia

[Greek: micro,

small + angeion, vessel + pathos, disease] Term coined by William St Claire Symmers (1863-1937) in 1932 to denote the mechanical damage to red blood cells resulting in poikilocytosis or abnormally shaped red cells.

M icrobiology [Greek: micros, small + bios, life + logos, discourse] The earliest recorded attempt to view micro­ scopic organisms was made in 1658 by Athanasius Kircher

Microdissection. Jabez Hogg, Microscope, Its History, Construction, and

(1601—1680), a Jesuit priest. He examined blood in plague

Teaching (1854). The Illustrated London Library, London

victims in his primitive microscope with a magnification o f

M icrodissection First suggested by Johannes E. Purkinje

only 32, and described what he saw as ‘worm s’ o f plague in

(1787—1869) in 1844, and it was performed with the use o f

Scrutium Pestis. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632—1723), a

a mechanically controlled needle by H.D. Schmidt in 1859.

Dutch lens maker described ‘animalcules’, mostly protozoan

Chabrey reintroduced the technique in 1877 ^nd micro­

organisms in 1674. He also identified and described bacteria

manipulation in embryology, cancer and genetics was

from samples o f material taken from his teeth. M odern

pioneered by Wilhelm R o u x (1850—1924), Edmund Beecher

microbiology was established by Louis Pasteur (1822—1895)

Wilson (1856—1939), and Jacques Loeb (1859—1924). The

with his study o f the chemical activities o f microorganisms

pioneers o f instruments were: S.L. Schouten from Holland

in 1 857. The link between microbiology and biochemistry

(1899), C.V.Taylor,Barber and Kyte, from America (1900).

was further strengthened by Russian microbiologist, Sergei

M icron [Greek: mikros, small] It represents one millionth o f

N.Winogradsky around 1900. See bacteriology.

a meter.

M icrochem istry Technique for measuring concentration o f chemicals in small samples o f biological fluids was intro­

M icroscope [Greek: mikros, small + skopein, to view] Term

duced around 1910. The photometer, an instrument which

first used in 1625. Cornelius Jacobson Drebble (1570—1633)

utilized a photocell linked to a sensitive microammeter, for

o f Holland in 1621 and Domenico Fontana (1500—1537)

analysis o f the chemical constituents in small samples o f

from R o m e have been credited w ith its discovery. The

510

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MIDWIFERY

Dutch spectacle maker, Zacharius Jansen and his son appear

Henle tubules o f the kidney.

to have made microscopes before 1590. Athanasius Kircher

M icroscopical S ociety o f London Established in 1839.

(16 0 1—1680) o f Giessen used 32 m agnification to view

See microscope.

blood cells in 1658.The first description o f the compound microscope was given by R o bert Hooke (1635—1703) in

Microsporum audouinii Species o f pathogenic fungus, com­

1667, and Eustachio Divini in 1668. Antoni von Leeuwen­

monly causes puerperal tinea capitis. Named in honor o f

hoek (1632—1723) ground his own lenses and constructed

French physician, Jean-Victor Audouin (1797—1841) from

over 200 microscopes. Phillip Bonnai published an account

the Natural History Museum o f Paris, by David Gruby

o f two compound microscopes in 1698. Le Pere Chérubin,

(1810-1898) in 1843.

a French philosopher was the first to view small objects

M icrotom e [Greek: m//ero5, small + tome, to cut] First devised

w ith both eyes in 1677. Benjam in M artin in England

by Alexander Brandt in 1870 and further developed in 1880

improved the microscope and sold pocket versions in 1740.

by Richard Thom a (1847-1923) professor o f pathology at

H enry Baker o f London improved the microscope in 1763,

Heidelberg.

and recapitulated much o f Leeuwenhoek s work in The

M icrurgy [Greek: mikros, small + ergon, work] Term coined in

Microscope made Easy published in 1743. A diamond micro­ scope was made by Andrew Pritchard in 1824, who also

1920 byTibor Peterfi (b 1891) ofjena in Germany to denote

introduced ‘test objects’ to compare quality The M icro­

the technique o f micromanipulation. See microdissection.

scopical Society o f London was established in 1839.

M iddle A ges Refers to a period that lasted from the coming

Giovanni Battista Amici (1786-1863) o f Florence con­ structed a reflecting microscope

o f Saxons to the accession o f the Tudors. Arab and Jewish

and improved the

doctors o f this era include Avicenna (980-1037), Averroes

achromatic objective in 1812. A binocular microscope was

(112 6 -119 8 ), Maimonides (1135-120 4) and Rhazes (850-

constructed by Riddel in 1851. Other early treatises were

932). Arnold o f Villanova

by:J. Queckett in i848,W B. Carpentier in 1856, and Lionel Smith Beale

(1828-1906)

in

1858. The

Bingen

Micrographie

were notable European doctors. A notable English surgeon

spectrum microscope capable o f detecting one millionth o f

was John o f Ardane (1306—1390) and R o ger Bacon

a grain o f blood was exhibited by H enry C lifton Sorby

(1214—1294) was a naturalist, scientist and physician.

(18 26 -1908 ) in 1865. Ernst A bbe (1840—1905), a partner o f

M iddle Lobe Syndrom e See Brock syndrome.

Carl Zeiss, modernized the microscope by adding the apochromatic objective and the oil immersion lens in 1878.

M iddleton, Peter (d 1781) American physician o f Scottish

Abbe also improved phase-contrast microscopy in 1892.

origin who performed the first dissection on record in

The modern phase-contrast technique was introduced by a

America in 1750, and founded a medical school in N ew

Dutch physicist. Frits Zernike (1888—1966) in 1935. The

York where he served as professor o f physiology from 1767

ultramicroscope, capable ofseeing particles, was invented by Prize

winner,

Richard

A d olf

(d 1315), Henri de

Mondeville (1230—1320) and G uy de Chauliac (1300—1370)

Dictionary was published by Griffith and Henfreys in 1856. A

Nobel

(1234—13 11), Hildegard o f

(1098-1199), Lanfranchi

to 1776. H e became governor o f K ing’s College, N ew York

Zsigmondy

in 1775 and published Historical Inquiries into Ancient and

(1865—1929) in 19 0 3.5 ee electron microscope.

Present State of Medicine in 1769.

M icroscopic A natom y Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), a

M idgley, Thom as (1889—1944) Am erican inventor from

professor at Bologna, discovered capillary circulation in

Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, who was handicapped by child­

1661, and is regarded as the father o f microscopic anatomy.

hood polio. He introduced freon as an agent for domestic

His work was advanced by French physician, M arie

refrigeration and devised the octane rating for petrol.

François Xavier Bichat (177 1—1802), from Thoitette while

M idw ifery Women were the only practitioners amongst

he was at the Hôtel Dieu in Paris.The first textbook in Eng­ lish, The MicroscopicAnatomy of the Human Body, was written

ancient Hebrews and Egyptians. The first known profes­

by Arthur Hill Hassall (1817-1894) in 1846, followed by

sional association was formed at Regensburg, Germany in

Rudolph Albert von KoUicker’s (1817-1905) textbook in

1452. Louise Bourgeois (1563-1636) o f France was the first

1852. Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle (1809-1885), a German

female

midwife

to

publish

a book

on

obstetrics,

histologist who discovered smooth muscle in the middle

Observationes Diverses sur la Sterilite, in 1626, followed by

coat o f smaller arteries, described columnar and ciliated

Jane Sharp (fl 1670) o f England and Justina Dietrich o f

epithelial cells, the external sphincter o f the bladder, and the

Prussia. Male midwives appeared in the Renaissance

51I

MIDWIVES

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

INSTITUTE

period, and William Harvey (1578-1657) is said to have

identified as the cause by American physician from N ew

engaged in obstetric practice in 1603. Elizabeth Cellier (fl

JerseyD anielD rake (1785—1852) in 1840.

1680), a well respected midwife in England, asked King

Milk

James 11 to provide a hospital for mothers and to educate nurses. Other early famous male midwives include: Ambroise

Paré

(1510-1590)

and

François

Mentioned as a medicine as well as food by

Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) who realized that it on occa­ sions caused the formation o f stones in the bladder. He

Rousette

recommended it for convalescence, and dissuaded its use for

(1535-1590) o f France. Male midwives became fashionable in

those who had flatulence and bloody discharge from the

Europe after the French surgeon, Julian Clement, attended

bowels. Galactophagi, a Scythian nation which lived princi­

during the labor o f Madame de laValliere, mistress o f Louis

pally on milk, is mentioned in H om ers Iliad. Aristotle

X IV See accoucheur, Midwives Institute.

(384—322 B C ) considered milk o f the camel,ass,and mare to be o f the same consistency. According to Galen (AD

M idw ives Institute The first attempt in England to establish midwives as a recognized body was made by Mrs Cellier

129—200), the thickest and fattest milk is that o f the cows,

around 1700. She planned a training school and a Royal

and the least fat milk is from the camel. Dioscorides (AD

Hospital but failed to obtain a charter from the king. The

40-90) described it as a laxative and flatulent, but nutritious.

Midwives Institute was founded in 1881 with the object o f

Paul o f Aegina (625-690) recommended it be taken in the

raising the standard o f midwifery and the general status o f

morning and to restrain from hard exercise and food until it

midwives in England. The Central Midwives Board was

was digested.

created following the Midwives Act o f 1902. A state mid­

M ilkm an Fractures Pseudo-fractures seen on X-rays in

wifery service was established through the Midwives Act o f

osteomalacia. Described by American radiologist, Louis

1936, and the Midwives Institute became the R oyal College

Arthur Milkman (1895—1951) o f Pennsylvania in 1930. See

o f Midwives under the patronage o f the Queen in 1947. See

Looser zone.

midwifery.

Millar,John (d 1827) Physician from Glasgow who published

M igraine An accurate clinical description o f this form o f

Observations on Tunnels under Navigable Rivers (1807), and

headache was given by Quaker physician from Yorkshire,

Guide to Botany in 1819. He edited the fourth edition o f

John Fothergill (1712-178 0 ) in i77Ó.Another early descrip­

Britannica.

tion o f headache associated with conditions such as allergy

M illard-G ubler Syndrom e Interference o f the vascular

and asthma was given by Edward Liveing (1832-1919) o f

blood supply to the pons causing abducens and facial nerve

London in 18 7 3 .Ergotamine tartarate was first observed to

paralysis with contralateral hemiplegia. Described by two

provide relief by Tzanck in 1928, and the therapeutic effect

French physicians,Adolphe M . Gubler (18 21—1879) at Paris

o f this drug was explained W G. Lennox o f America in 1934.

in 1856 and re-described by Auguste Louis Jules Millard (1830-1915).

M ikulicz Syndrom e Associated with hypertrophy o f the salivary glands and xerostomia. Described by Johann von M ikulicz-Radecki (1850—1905),a Polish surgeon in 1892.

M iller Fisher Syndrom e External ophthalmoplegia, atax­ ia, and areflexia due to a vascular cause. Described by Canadian neurologist,Miller Fisher (b 1910) in 1956.

M iku licz-R adeck i, Johann von (1850—1905) German-born Polish professor o f surgery at Cracow who was an early

Miller, Jacques Francis Albert Pierre (b 1931) French-

advocator o f antiseptic surgery and one o f the first to use

Australian

gloves and a mask.

immunologist

who

graduated

from

the

University o f Sydney in 1955. He worked on leukemia in mice and found that the thymus gland is an important

M iles O peration Abdominoperineal resection o f the rec­

control in the immune system.

tum for rectal carcinoma. Devised by English surgeon, William Ernest Miles (1869—1947) in 1908.

Miller, James (1818-1853) Graduated from Edinburgh in 1841, and became assistant physician to the London Hospi­

M ilitary M edicine See army medicine and surgery.

tal in 1853. He published Pathology of Kidney in Scarlet Fever

M ilitary Surgery See army medicine and surgery.

in 1850.

M ilk Alkali Syndrom e See Burnett syndrome.

Mills, Charles Karsner (1845-1931) Early professor o f neurol­

Deaths due to ingestion o f cows milk

ogy in America, at the University o f Pennsylvania. He

occurred in certain parts o f America in the early 19th

described unilateral progressive ascending paralysis (Mills

century. White snake root, used to feed the cows, was later

disease) in 1900.

Milk Sickness

512

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MINOT

chemistry and he prepared the first artificial mineral water

Mills D isease Ascending hemiplegia, described by a neurol­ ogist, Charles Karsner Mills (1845-1931) o f Philadelphia.

using carbon dioxide in 1778.

M ilm an, Sir Francis (1742—1821) Physician from Devonshire

M inister o f H ealth The General Board o f Health in Eng­

who practiced in R o m e for a brief period before he returned

land evolved into the Ministry o f Health in 1917. The post

to England as physician to the royal household. He published

o f minister was established through the Ministry o f Health

Animadversiones de Natura Hydropsis ejesue Curatione, and

Act o f England and Wales in 1919. Christopher Addison,

A Treatise on the Source of Scurvy, and Putrid Fever.

Viscount Addison o f Stallingborough, an anatomist at St Bartholom ew’s Hospital, was appointed as the first minister

M ilne-Edwards, Henri (1800—1885) Naturalist who quali­

and he held the office from 1918 to 1921. See Bevan,Aneurin.

fied in medicine from Paris and wrote Corns Elementaire de Zoologie in 1834.

Milroy D isease

M ink E ncephalopathy Form o f spongiform encephalopa­ thy o f animals first observed in America in 1947. It was

Hereditary form o f edema o f the legs

described by Hartsough and Burger in 1965.

described by American professor o f clinical medicine from Omaha, Nebraska, William Forsyth Milroy (1855—1942) in

M inkowski, Oskar (1858—1931) B orn in Lithuania, he stud­

1892. It was named after him by Sir William Osier (1849—

ied medicine at Königsberg and Strasburg, and became a

1919) but had been described by German neurologist. M ax

professor at Breslau in 1909. He established the role o f the

Nonne (1861-1939) in 1891 and H enry M eige (1866—1940)

pancreas in diabetes. See diabetes, acholuricjaundice.

o f France re-described it in 1901.

M innitt Apparatus Apparatus to provide an intermittent M ilton D isease Angioneurotic edema. A classic description

supply o f nitrous oxide and air for obstetric analgesia.

under the name ‘giant urticaria’ was given by London

Devised by English anesthetist, R obert James Minnitt

dermatologist, John

(1889-1974) o f Liverpool in 1934.

Laws

M ilton

(1820—1898).

See

angioneurotic edema.

M inoan C ivilization Investigations on Crete began with M inam ata D isease (Syn: Kyko) Mysterious neurological

Milchhoffer in 1883 who studied objects picked up by

illness which affected Japanese fisherman on the west coast

shepherds. An excavation was initiated by Halbherr in 1886,

o f Kyushu in 1953. It was later identified to be due to conta­

and further studies were done by Sir Arthur Evans (1851—

mination offish by mercurial waste products from a factory.

1941), curator at the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford who

(Syn: miner’s cachexia) An epidemic o f

dated it to around 3500 B C . Excavation at the palace o f

anemia and cachexia occurred in engineers and laborers

Minos at Knossos revealed a system o f water drainage and

who worked in the construction o f St Gothard Tunnel in

sewerage, comparable to m odern systems. T he name

M iner’s A nem ia

Italy.The intestinal parasite Anchylostoma or hook worm was

‘M inoan’ was given due to the legend o f King Minos, son o f

identified as the cause by Italian pathologist Aldo Perroncito

the god Zeus and Europa. Its sudden disappearance around 1400 B C is attributed to eruption o f the volcano on the

(1882-1929) in 1880.

island o f Santorini.

M iner’s D isease See coal miners disease, Caplan syndrome, M inot, Charles Sedgwick (1852—1914) Professor o f compar­

occupational diseases.

M iner’s Lam p

ative anatomy at Harvard who designed a rotary microtome

Sir Humphry Davy invented the miner’s

and also studied the placenta in 1891. His theory o f cyto-

wire gauze lamp in 1816, making it safer to work in mines.

morphosis in aging. The problem of age, growth and death, was

His On the Safety Lampfor Coal Miners w 2ls published in 1818.

published in 1908.

M iner’s N ystagm u s Affected about 6000 coal workers per

M inot, George Richards (1885—1950) American physician,

annum during the 19th century. The etiology, presenting

born in Boston and qualified from Harvard Medical School

with oscillatory movements o f the eye, was not established

where he was later appointed as professor. He demonstrated

and various factors such as exposure to poisonous gases

that some anemias are caused by failure o f bone marrow to

and inadequate illumination were proposed to explain the

produce enough red blood cells, and others are caused when

illness.

blood cells are destroyed too rapidly. During his work with

M ineral Waters First analyzed by Swedish chemist,Torbern

William Parry M urphy (1892-1987) in 1927 he established

O lo f Bergman (1735-1784) who discovered hydrogen

treatment for pernicious anemia with a raw liver diet. M inot

sulfide in mineral springs. H e was a pioneer in analytical

was diabetic and one o f the first to benefit from the

513

MIOCENE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PERIOD

discovery o f insulin. He shared the N obel Prize for Physiol­

M ithridatism

State o f immunity to poisons acquired by

ogy or Medicine in 1934 with M urphy and George Hoyt

taking the poison in small non-lethal doses. Named after

Whipple (1878-1976) for his treatment for pernicious ane­

the Persian king Mithridates (d 63 B C ).

mia.

M ithridate General antidote to poison is supposed to have been prepared by Mithridates, King o f Pontus around

M iocen e P eriod [Greek: meio, less + cene, recent] Geologi­

80 B C .

cal age in Earth’s history, identified and named by British geologist, Charles Lyell (1797-1875) in 1833.

M itochondria [Greek: mitos, thread + chondrion, granule] In

M iquel, Pierre (1850—1922) Physician and naturalist from

1894 Richard Altmann (1852—1900) devised staining meth­

Paris who devoted his life to studying the biology and

ods which revealed granules in the cell which he thought

quality o f air. His doctoral thesis Les Organisemes vivant de

were independent living constituents. Carl Benda (1857— 1933) o f Germany identified these and named them

VAtmosphere was published in 1883.

mitochondria in 1903.The first electron microscopic study

M isericordia Ambulance brotherhood formed by volun­

showing cell structures was done by American cytologist,

teers in Florence in 1244. They were also known as the

Albert Claude (1899—1983) o f Belgian origin, in 1945. He

Masked Brotherhood and played an important role during

also isolated mitochondria by high speed centrifugation

the epidemic o f plague.

and demonstrated that they were the site o f respiration in

M istletoe Parasitic plant, Viscum album, used for centuries as

the cell.

an aperient, antispasmodic and abortifacient. The Druids

M itochondrial A ntibodies Demonstrated in 98% o f the

venerated it and it was considered a panacea for most ill­

patients with primary biliary cirrhosis, 31% with crypto­

nesses by the ancients.The berry was thought to contain a

genic cirrhosis, and 28% with active chronic hepatitis, by

milky life substance o f a powerful deity.

Deborah Doniach (b 1912) in 1966.

M itosis [Greek: mitos, a thread] Process o f nuclear division involving the chromosomes, described and named by German biologist,Walther Flemming (1843-1905) in 1882.

Mitral Stenosis [Latin: mifra,head band] Described by John M ayow (1640-1679) in i674.John Hunter (1728-1793) also gave a classic description from mitral and aortic valves preserved in his museum. The pathological state was also described by French anatomist, Raym ond de Vieussens (16 4 1—1715) in 1705. T he presystolic com ponent o f the mitral murmur was described by Sulpice Antoine Fauvel (1813-1884) in 1843 and Walter HayleWalshe (1812—1892) o f University College London in 1851. A murmur in early diastole that can be heard over the pulmonary artery, due to pulmonary hypertension, was described by Graham Steell (1851—1942), a cardiologist from Manchester Royal Infir­

Silas Weir Mitchell (1830-1914). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

mary in 1888. Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton (1844—1916), a

M itchell, Silas Weir (1830—1914) B orn in Philadelphia, he

physician at St Bartholom ew’s Hospital suggested valvo-

was a leading American neurologist who described a con­

tomy for relief o f symptoms in 1902. Elliot Carr Cutler

dition associated w ith painful feet, erythrom elalgia, in

(1888-1947)

1872.

Cleveland, Ohio performed the first valvotomy through a

The same disease was mentioned by R obert Graves

(1795—1853) in 1 848.The knee jerk reflex was demonstrated

o f the Western

Reserve

University

of

transventricular approach in 1923. In 1925 Sir H enry

by Mitchell in 1886. The psychotic properties o f mescaline

Sessions Souttar (1875—1964) pioneered a valvotomy

were investigated by him in 1896. Mitchell also wrote sever­

procedure by introducing his fingers through the left

al historical novels and poems. His medical publications

atrium and splitting the mitral commisures.

include: Injuries of Nerves (1872), and Fat and Blood (1877).

Mitral Valve Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) compared the left auriculoventricular valves to an episcopal mitre, and

M ite SeeAcarus scabiei.

514

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MONASTIC

William Harvey (1578—1657) used the term ‘mitral’ in

MEDICINE

novel. The Life of Mansie Waunch, and Legend of Genevieve in

relation to valves o f the heart. Current terminology was

1824. M oir also wrote two treatises on cholera and Outlines

established by William Cheselden (1688-1752) in Anatomy

of theAncient History of Medicine in 1 831 .

of Human Body published in 1713. He has stated that ‘ Over

M oissan, Henri (1852-1907) French chemist, born in Paris

the entrance o f auricles in each ventricle are placed valves to

and qualified there as a pharmacist in 1879. He isolated fluo­

hinder the return o f blood when the heart contracts.Those

rine in 1866 and was professor o f toxicology and inorganic

in the right ventricle are termed tricúspides and those in the

chemistry at the University o f Paris. He discovered car­

left, mitrales’ . See mitral stenosis.

borundum and invented a method o f producing artificial diamonds. He received the N obel Prize in 1906.

MitralValve Prolapse See systolic click.

Molars Teeth were first classified into molars, bicuspids, cus­

M itralV alvulotom y See mitral stenosis, valvulotomy

pids and incisors by John Hunter (1728-1793) in ^ Practical

M itscherlich, Eilhard (1794-1863) See isomorphism.

Treatise on the Diseases of theTeeth published in 1778.

Mivart, St George Jackson (1827—1900) Advocate o f an alter­

M olisch Test Test for carbohydrates using a-naphthal and

native theory o f evolution. He became an anatomy lecturer

alcohol. Devised by Czech botanist in Calcutta, Hans

at St M ary’s Paddington in 1862. He was an evolutionist

Molisch (1856-1937).

but he opposed Charles D arwin’s (1809—1882) theory o f the survival o f the fittest, and proposed the concept o f neo­

M oll Glands Ciliary glands described by Jacob Antonius

vitalism in which there was an inherent life force in the

M oll (1832-1914), an ophthalmologist at the Hague,

body which directed development or evolution. He was

Holland, in 1857.

excommunicated by the R om an Catholic church for his

M oloy, Howard Carman (1903—1953) N ew York gynecolo-

views in 1900.

. gist who proposed a valuable classification for the female pelvis with William Edgar Caldwell (1880-1943) in 1933.

M nem onics [Greek: mneme, memory] M ethod to enhance memory, introduced by Simonedes the younger in 477

M olluscum C o n ta g io su m

B C . Mnemónica was published by John Willis in 1638, and

[Latin: molluscus, soft] Skin

disease characterized by red warty lesions leading to a dis­

Memoria Técnica by Grey appeared in 1730.

charge o f caeseous material. Observed by W.G.Tilesius in 1793 and Thomas Bateman (177 8 -18 2 1) o f Whitby, York­

M oebius, Godfrey ( 16 11—1664) Professor o f medicine at Jena who published Physiological Principles of Medicine and several

shire described it in 1813 .William Hendersen (18 10-18 72),

other works. His son was also a physician o f the same name

professor o f pathology at the Edinburgh Medical School

and published Synopsis Medicinae Practicae.

wrote a treatise on it in 1841 in which he described the inclusion bodies. A filterable agent as the cause was shown

M öbius Sign Incomplete convergence o f the eyes in toxic

by M ax Juliusberg (b 1874) in 1905.

goiter. Described by Paul Julius Möbius (1854-1907) o f

M om berg, Fritz August (1870-1939) B orn in Bielefeld,

Leipzig.

German surgeon who devised a belt for compressing the

M oehsen, John Charles William (1722-1795) Physician to

abdominal aorta in cases o f post-partum hemorrhage

Frederick the Great who wrote several treatises on the

in 1908.

history o f medicine.

M onakow B undle Rubro-spinal tract o f the spinal cord,

MofFet, Thomas (1553-1604) See Moufet,Thomas.

described by Konstantin von M onakow (18 53-19 30 ), a

M ohl, Hugo von (1805-1872) German botanist and physi­

Russian neurologist at Zurich in 1885.

cian, born in Stuttgart and studied medicine in Tübingen

M onastic M edicine Ancient Babylonian priests played a

before he became professor o f physiology at Bern in 1832.

key role in curing or attempting to cure diseases.The mod­

He showed that the sarcode or protoplasm in living cells o f

ern monastic medicine was founded by St Benedict who

animals was the same as that in plant cells in 1846. He also

lived in the sixth century. His work was consolidated by

gave a clear description o f cell structure and o f osmosis.

another

M oir, David Macbeth (1798-1851) Physician, poet and nov­ elist from

Musselburgh, Scotland. He

Benedictine

monk

and

Syrian

physician,

Cassidorus (490—585) who established two monasteries and

graduated in

collected

and

translated

Greek

manuscripts.

Saint

medicine from Edinburgh University and obtained his

Augustine, in the fifth century, was one o f the greatest intro­

diploma as a surgeon in 1816. He wrote the humorous

spective psychiatrists, and his Confessions is still considered a

515

MONCKEBERG

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS

classic. St Cosmos and St Damian were famous physicians in

moniliasis or ‘tea taster’s cough’ was described by Aldo

the 5th century who offered their services free. Monastic

Castellani (1877—1971) in Sri Lanka in 1927. See candidosis.

schools taught a limited amount o f medicine and the physicians were named physicus. Constantinius Africanus, a Je w who became a Benedictine monk in the eleventh cen­ tury, was responsible for translating Hippocratic writings into Latin. He also used the term ‘variola’ for smallpox. Pope John who died in 1277 is credited with the authorship o f the most popular medical recipe book Thesaurus Pauperum. There were over 600 monasteries in England during the reign o f King Henry III. Oliver Cromwell persuaded Par­ liament to pass an act which dissolved all the monasteries in Britain. Several important contributors to medicine and science during the past five centuries were men from the clergy. Stephen Hales (16 77-176 1), a clergyman from Teddington, measured blood pressure. French ecclesiastic, Edme Mariotte (1620—1684), investigated and explained plant sap pressure and compared it to circulating blood in animals in 1676. The founder o f genetics, Gregor Mendel Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire Egas Moniz (1874-1955). Courtesy of the

(18 22 - 1884), was anAugustinian monk.

National Library of Medicine

M onckeberg A rteriosclerosis Caused by calcification o f

M on iz, Antonio (Caetano deAbrea Freire) Egas (1874-1955)

the medial layer o f the arteries. Described by German pathologist, Johann

Georg Monckeberg

Portuguese professor o f neurology and a diplomat at

(1877-1925),

Lisbon. He introduced a method o f radiologicaUy visualiz­

professor at Bonn, in 1903.

ing cerebral circulation by injecting radio-opaque sodium

M onday D yspn ea See byssinosis.

iodide into the carotid artery in 1927. He performed the first frontal lobotomy with Portuguese neurosurgeon,

M ondeville, Henri de (1260—1320) French surgeon and

Almeida Lima, on a psychiatric patient in 1935. M oniz was

pupil ofTheodoric o f Cervia (d 1293). He became surgeon to Philip-le-Bel,K ing o f France, and wrote one o f the earli­

also a deputy in the Portuguese parliament (1903) and its

est texts on surgery in Europe. His Chyrurgia was edited by

Foreign Minister in 1918.

Pagel ( Berlin, 1889) and by Nicaise (1883) in Paris.

M on oam ine O xidase Inhibitors

(MAOI) The side-

M ondino, de Luzzi (1276—1328) Professor o f anatomy at

effects due to combination o f M AO Is with certain foods

Bologna, who was the first to dissect human bodies during

was recognized in early 1960s and its well known ‘cheese

the Middle Ages. M ondino published Anatomica Omnium

reaction’ was described by B. Blackwell in 1963. Fatal

humani corporis interiorum membrorum which remained as a

hepatocellular jaundice following M A O I therapy was first

general textbook and dissecting manual for two centuries.

reported by C .M .B . Pare and J.O . Cole in 1964. See antidepressants.

M ondor D isease Superficial thrombophlebitis o f the chest wall and the breast. Described in 1951 by Henri M ondor

M on oclonal A ntibodies [Greek: monos, alone + klon, twig]

(1885—1962), professor o f clinical surgery at the Hospital

Produced by an Argentinian-born immunologist, Cesar

Salpetriere, Paris.

Milstein (b 1927) while he was at the Medical Research Council Laboratory o f Molecular Biology in England in

M on gol See Down syndrome.

1975. His pioneering work was done in conjunction with

Pigmented spots seen on the iris in

Georges Jean Franz Köhler (b 1946) o f Munich and they

D ow n syndrome. D escribed by Thom as Brushfield o f

shared the N obel Prize with Niels Kai Jerne (b 19 11)

England in 1924.

in 1984. The first monoclonal antibody, O K T 3, was

M ongolian Spots

M oniliasis

approved for therapeutic use by the U S Food and D rug

Fungus responsible for thrush, in the family

Administration in 1986.

Monilia, as classified by W. Z o p f o f Breslau in 1890. This led to it being commonly called moniliasis. Pulmonary

M on ocytic Leukem ia [Greek: monos, alone + kytos, cell +

516

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MONTANUS

leukos, white + haima, blood] Described by Hamburg

medicine at the Infirmary in 1913, and served as editor o f the

physician Hassan Reschad andV SchiUng-Torgau in 1913.

Glasgow Medical Journal He published A

Until 1930 only 16 cases were identified in the literature and

Medicine and The Physician as Man of Letters, Science, andAction.

William Dameshek (1900-1969) recorded two cases.A crit­

Manual of

M onro Foram en The foramen intraventriculare o f the

ical review with a complete bibliography was given by Otto

brain described by Alexander Monro, Secundus (1733—

Naegeli (1871-1938) in 1931.

1 817), professor o f anatomy at Edinburgh in 1783.

M onod, Jacques Lucien (1910—1976) French biochemist,

M onroe, John (17 15 -17 9 1) Physician from Greenwich in

born and educated in Paris where he obtained his degree in 1931. He worked at Columbia University on a Rockefeller Fellowship and returned to Paris to work at the Pasteur

Kent who succeeded his father,James Monroe, as physician to the hospitals o f Bridewell and Bethlem.

M onsters

Institute. He was made professor o f molecular biology at

Learned men such as Athanasius K ircher

(1601—1680), the Jesuit priest and scientist; Ambroise Paré

College de France in 1967, and continued to work on genetic mechanisms o f bacteria. He proposed the operon

(1510—1590), French surgeon to H enry III; Albertus

theory o f gene regulation and the concept o f messenger

Magnus, Olaus Magnus o f Uppsala; Aldrovandus, a natural­

R N A with François Jacob (b 1920) in 1963. He shared the

ist o f Bologna; Gesner, a physician and geologist and others

N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with André

believed in superstition and monsters despite their scientific

Michel L w o ff (b 1902) in 1968.

training.

M onro, Alexander, Primus (1697-1767) B orn in London and studied underWilliam Cheselden (1688—1752).He was later a pupil o f Herman Boerhaave (1668—1738) at Leiden, and lectured on anatomy and surgery at Edinburgh in 1717. He was appointed professor o f anatomy there in 17 2 1, and played a key role in founding the Edinburgh R oyal Infir­ mary. His influence lasted for 128 years through three generations o f his descendants who served as anatomy professors at Edinburgh. He published: Osteology, or a Treatise on theAnatomy of Bones {1726), An Account of the success of Inoc­ ulation in Scotland (1765), Essay on Comparative Anatomy (1744), and Observations Anatomical and Physiological (1758).

M onro, Alexander, Secundus (1733—1817) Son o f Alexander Monro, Primus (1697—1767). H e pursued his studies under John Hunter (1728—1793) in London in 1757 and succeeded his father in 1758. He published several treatises: Observations Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762). A.R. Ropes, LadyWortley Montagu (1896). Seeley & Co., London

on the Structure and Function of the Nervous System (1783), The Structure and Physiology of Fishes (1785),H Description of Bursae Mucosa,ThreeTreatises on the Brain, Eye, and Ear (1797),

M ontagu, Lady M ary Wortley (1689—1762) Eldest daughter

Observations on the Crural Hernia, and Outlines of theAnatomy

o f the Duke o f Kingston, born at Thoresby in Notting­

of the Human Body. He was succeeded by his son Alexander

hamshire. She married Edward Wortley Montagu who later

Monro,Tertius (1773—1859) in 1808. The Monros contri­

served as British ambassador to Turkey. She introduced

buted to the development o f Edinburgh University through

inoculation for smallpox into England. In a letter written

three generations over a period o f 128 years.

by her in 1717, she mentioned ‘ingrafting’ in Turkey, and described the procedure. The method was first tried in

M onro, Alexander, Tertius (1773-1859) He succeeded his

England on seven condemned criminals in 17 2 1. Later two

father as professor o f anatomy at Edinburgh in 1808. He

members o f the royal family were inoculated.

published Elements of theAnatomy of the Human Body in 1825.

M ontanus, John Baptist (1488—1551) Physician from Verona

M onro, John See Monroe,John.

who graduated from Padua, and later served as professor in

M onro, Thomas Kirkpatrick (b 1865) Physician to the Glas­

the same university. He published a Latin translation o f

gow Royal Infirmary, who was made the professor o f

Aetius and several other works.

517

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MONTESSORI

M ontessori System o f self-education for children through

A View of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland and

skillfully directed play without formal classes. Founded by

Germany in 1799. He followed this with publications on the

Maria Montessori (1876-1952), the first woman medical

French revolution, Italy, and a novel Zeluco. His only

graduate from R om e. H er work was inspired by Seguin s

medical treatise was Medical Sketches.

Idiocy and its Treatment by Physiological method which she

M oore,

translated into Italian around 1895. She established four

Sir

Norm an

(1847-1922)

Physician

at

St

Bartholomews Hospital and a medical historian. He

pioneer schools between 1907 and 1908.

contributed 469 biographies to The Dictionary of National Biography, and was Harveian librarian from 1910 to 1918.

M ontgom ery, William Fetherston (1797-1859) Obstetri­ cian from Dublin, Ireland, who described the sebaceous

M oore, Stanford (1913-1982) American biochemist, born in

glands o f the areola o f the nipple (Montgomery glands)

Chicago and educated at Vanderbilt University. He joined

in 1837.

the Rockefeller Institute in 1939. He invented a column

M ontpellier The famous medical school was established in

chromatography method for identification and quantifica­

the eighth century. It received the status o f a Faculty o f

tion o f amino acids from the hydrosylates o f proteins and

Medicine from Cardinal Conrad, a representative o f Pope

tissues withWiUiam Howard Stein (1911-1980) in i950.They

Honorius III,in 1180. Guy de Chauliac (1300—1367),father

further developed an automated method for R N A base

o f modern surgery, was a student. He initiated the Order o f

sequence analysis. The amino acid composition o f bovine

the H oly Ghost at Montpellier, a movement for nursing

pancreatic ribonucléase was determined by them between

lepers and others with infectious diseases in France and the

1954 and 1956 and, together with Christian Boehmer

rest o f Europe.

Anfinson (b 1916) who studied the structure o f the molecule, they shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1972.

M ontreal General H ospital The oldest teaching hospital

M oore Fracture Fracture o f the lower end o f the radius

in Canada, established in 18 19 , and it became a part o f

with dislocation o f the head o f the ulna and entrapment o f

M cG ill University in 1829.

the styloid process within the annular ligaments. Described

M oon , R obert Charles (1844-1915) See Laurenc^Moon

by American surgeon, Edward M ott M oore (1814-1902).

-B iedl syndrome.

M oorfields Eye H ospital Established as a special Infirmary M oon M olars First molars in congenital syphilis, described

to the City o f London by John Cunningham Saunders

by a dental surgeon at G uy s Hospital, H enry M oon (1845-

(1773—1810) in 1805. It was later named the Royal London

1892) in 1876.

Ophthalmic Hospital. Teaching started in 18 11, and it became internationally famous.

M oon , William (1818—1894) Inventor from Kent who became partially blind at the age o f four. He was a teacher o f

M ooser, Herman (1891—1971) See murine typhus.

the blind and devised an embossed system o f reading based

Moral P hilosophy Science o f ethics dealing with duties and

on R om an capitals in 1845.

virtues, founded by Socrates (469—399 B C ) in 430 B C .

M oore, Austin Talley (1899—1963) Surgeon at the Moore

Aristotle’s theory o f goodwill as an essential attribute o f

Clinic in Columbia, South Carolina. He designed the

mankind, was accepted by most philosophers until John

Austin M oore prosthesis used as femoral head replacement

Locke (1632—1704) in 16 71

in hip arthroplasty, in 1957.

Concerning Human Understanding. He considered that

questioned it in Essay

morals were not an innate feature o f man and proposed that

M oore, Charles Hewitt (18 21—1870) London surgeon who

they were the outcome o f individual experience. Jeremy

described a method o f treating aneurysm by introducing a

Collier

wire in order to produce coagulation in 1864.

(1650—1726), a

clergyman

from

Cambridge

published Essays Upon Several Moral Subjects in three vol­

M oore, Francis (1648-1717) Physician and astrologer who

umes in 1697, and Thomas Cogan (1545—1607), a physician

practiced at Lambeth. He published Almanac kalendarium

from Northamptonshire, who founded the R oyal Humane

ecclesiasticum in 1699.

Society, The Haven of Health in 1584. John Abercromby, a physician from Aberdeen applied his medical knowledge

M oore, John (1730—1802) Physician, novelist, and political

and experience to mental and moral philosophy and wrote

historian born in Stirling and studied medicine at Glasgow.

Philosophy of Moral Feelings in 1833.

He traveled and practiced in Europe before settling in London in 1777. He published his experiences o f Europe in

Morals See moral philosophy.

518

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MORPHEA

Gram-negative bacterium

M orgagni H ernia Anterior diaphragmatic hernia, des­

described as a cause o f angular conjunctivitis in man by

cribed by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (16 8 2 -1771) in 1761.

Morax—A xenfeld Bacillus

Swiss ophthalmologist in Paris,Victor M orax (1866—1935)

M organ, John (1735—1789) Born in Philadelphia, he was a

in 1896, and German ophthalmologist Theodor Polykarpos

reformer o f medical education in America, and founder o f

Axenfield (1867—1930) in 1897. It was named Moraxella

the School o f Medicine at the University o f Pennsylvania.

lacunata by André Michael Lw off(b 1902) in 1939.

He studied under Alexander Monro

(1733-18 17)

in

Edinburgh, and returned to America as first professor o f

M orbus G allicus See syphilis.

medicine at Philadelphia.

M orenheim Space Infra-clavicular fossa. The boundaries were first described by Joseph Jacob Morenheim (1759—

M organ, Thomas Hunt (1866-1945) Pioneer in modern genetics, born in Lexington, Kentucky and graduated in

1799), professor o f surgery at St Petersburg in 1781.

zoology from the State College, Kentucky in 1886. He obtained his PhD from Johns Hopkins University in 1890, and was appointed professor o f physiology at Columbia University in 1904 and at Caltech in 1928. His first book, Evolution and Adaptation, was published in 19 11. Sex-linked inheritance was established by him while working on the Drosophila fly in 1910, for which he received the N obel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933. His other works include: The Theory of the Gene (1926), Embryology and Genetics (1933), and The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity (with C.B. Bridges) in 1915.

M orin, John Baptiste (1583—1656) B orn in Villefranche, France, he was a physician and professor o f mathematics at the University o f Paris. His Astrologia Gallic, which took thirty years to write, was published after his death.

M orin, Louis (1635-1714) French physician and botanist from Mons, who served as a physician at Hôtel Dieu in Paris. M orison,Jam es Rutherford (1853-1939) Born in Durham,he was surgeon to the Royal Infirmary at Newcastle-uponTyne. He pioneered pelvic surgery for women and published

Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771). Courtesy of the National Library

Abdominal and Pelvic Surgery in 1925. He also pioneered

of Medicine

surgical treatment for gallstones and gastric cancer.

M orgagni, Giovanni Battista (16 82-1771) Founder o f patho­ logical anatomy, born at Porli in Italy and studied medicine

M orison P ouch Hepatorenal pouch, described by James

under Antonio Maria Valsalva (1666-1723) and Ippolito

Rutherford M orison (1853-1939) in the British Medical Journal o f 1894.

Francesco Albertini (1662—1738) in Bologna. He was appointed first professor o f anatomy at Padua in 1715 and

Morley, H enry (1822—1894) Physician from Kings College

served there for 59 years. He discovered several anatomical

London. He gave up medicine and became assistant editor

structures which are named after him. He noted syphilitic

for Dickens Household Words. He was professor o f English at

tumors o f the brain, tuberculosis o f the kidney, and that

London University from 1865 to 1889.

paralysis on one side o f the body was caused by a lesion in the

M oro R eflex A startHng reflex in infants producing an

opposite side o f the brain. His most important work. De

embracing attitude. Described by a pediatrician inVienna,

Sedibus et Causis Morborum perAnatomen Indagatis, prepared

Ernst M oro (1874-1951).

from over 600 postmortems and written in the form o f 70 letters to an anonymous colleague, was published in 1761.

M oron [Greek: moros, stupid] See idiocy.

M orgagni Cartilage Cuneiform cartilage o f the larynx,

M orphea

[Greek: morphe, form] Form o f scleroderma,

described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (16 8 2 -1771)

limited plaques or bands in the skin, observed by C. Hilton

in 1723.

Fagge (1838-1883) in 1868.

519

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MORPHEUS

M orpheus Attendant to the Greek god Somnus, who him­

Bills o f Mortality, started around 1563. It became more

self was god o f sleep. The drug, morphine, was named by its

detailed to include the causes o f death, especially due to

discoverer Friedrich Wilhelm Sertürner (1783—1841), an

plague. A book on the subject was published by London

apothecary’s assistant in Westphalia, in 1806.

haberdasher,John Gaunt (1620-1674) in 1662. He also cal­ culated life expectancy from these tables. They became a

M orphine A derivative o f the opium poppy, Papaver som­ niferum.

regular issue, and christenings were also recorded in the

Friedrich W ilhelm Sertürner (178 3-18 4 1), a

parishes as an indication o f birth rates. In the year 1649 there

German pharmacist, crystallized the extract o f opium and

were 85,338 burials and 50,465 christenings in London. Sir

obtained morphine in 1801. He tried the effects on himself

William Petty observed and studied mortality rates in the

and found that it killed pain and produced deep sleep accompanied by

dreams. He

named

the

17th century and his work on vital statistics and mortality

substance

rates was further advanced by Gregory King (1648—1712).

morphine after the Greek god o f sleep, Morpheus, in 1806.

Life tables for life insurance were first published by Edmund

He announced his discovery in Ludwig Gilbert’s journal

Halley in 1693. See infant mortality rates.

Annalen der Physick in 1806. Sertürner considered it a veg­ etable alkaloid, and gave a full description in 1817. It was

M orton, Samuel George (1799—1851) B orn in Philadelphia

further purified by Pierre Joseph Pelletier (1788—1842) and

and graduated from the University o f Edinburgh. H e was a

Bienaime Caventou (1793—1877). It was first used as a pre­

craniologist and paleontologist who collected over 1000

anesthetic by Lorenzo Bruno o f Turin in 1850 and Claude

skulls and published two important atlases. Crania Americana

Bernard (1813—1878) in 1869. It was synthesized by Gates

(1839) and Crania Aegyptiaca (1844). His Illustrations of

andTscudi in 1952.

Pulmonary Consumption appeared in 1834.

M orph ology [Greek: morphe, form + logos, discourse] Intro­

M orton, Thomas George (1835—1903) B orn in Philadel­

duced into biology in 18 17 by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

phia, he carried out the successful removal o f an inflamed appendix in 1887. He gave a com plete description o f

(1749—1 832),a German writer and scientist.

metatarsalgia (Morton disease) associated with neuralgia o f

M orquio Syndrom e Mucopolysaccharidosis type IV, an

the lateral plantar nerve in 1876.

autosomal recessive disease leading to dwarfism, waddle

M orton, William Thomas Green (1819—1868) He intro­

gait, and deafness but not mental retardation. Described by Uruguayan pediatrician from Montevideo, Luis M orquio

duced ether inhalation as an anesthetic and administered it

(1867-1935) in 1929.

in an operation for a neck tumor carried out by Boston surgeon,J.C.Warren (1778—1856) in 1846 at the Massachu­

M orris, Sir Henry (1844-1926) Born in Petworth, Sussex, he

setts General Hospital. His claim to the discovery o f ether

was surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital in London, and

was contested by one o f his lecturers, Charles T.Jackson, and

president o f the R oyal College o f Surgeons from 1906 to

M orton failed to establish his claim. See anesthesia, ether.

1909. He published A Treatise on Human Anatomy in 1893.

M orvan D isease

M orris, R obert Tuttle (1857—1945) Surgeon in N ew York who was born in Seymour, Connecticut. He described the

Augustin M arie M orvan (1819—1897) from Finesterre.

point o f maximum tenderness (Morris point) in acute

Mosasaur The skuU o f a prehistoric reptile, later named

appendicitis.

mosasaur, was discovered at a stone quarry near the Meuse

M orrison, Charles (d 1756) Scottish surgeon from R enfrew

river in The Netherlands in 1780. It was the first prehistoric

w ho discovered electric telegraphy. H e described his

reptile identified by George Cuvier (1769-1832) in 1795.

method o f transmitting messages through wires in the Scots

M osch cow itz, Eli (1879—1964) Physician in N ew York

Magazinein 1753.

who studied the physiology o f blood circulation and wrote

M orsher, Harris Peyton (1867—1954) Professor o f laryngol­

Hypertension of the Pulmonary Circulation in 1927. He also

ogy at Harvard and chief o f laryngological unit at

pioneered psychosomatic medicine.

Massachusetts General Hospital. The ethmoidal sinus

M osch cow itz O peration Femoral herniotomy through an

beneath the bulla ethmoidalis (Morsher cells) was described

inguinal route, described by N ew York surgeon, Alexis

by him in 1902.

M ortality

Form o f syringomyeHa with trophic

changes in the extremities. Described by French physician,

Victor Moschcowitz (1865-1933).

[Latin: mors, death] The practice o f recording

M oseley, Benjamin (1739—1819) Physician from Essex who

weekly and yearly burials in the London parishes, called

520

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MOUFET

practiced as a surgeon and apothecary at Kingston in

M otor C ortex [Latin: movere, to move] First suggested by

Jamaica before he returned to London in 1785. He served as

R obert Boyle (1627—1691) in 1691 who recorded the case

physician to the Chelsea Hospital and opposed inoculation.

o f a man who developed palsy o f the arm and leg following

Moseley published Observations on the Dysentery of the West

a depressed fracture o f the skull.The surgeon who operated

Indies and On Coffee and Sugar.

found a bone spéculé impinging on the brain, and the patient fully recovered after its removal. N o further study in

Moseley, H arry (1887-1915) English physicist, born in Wey­

the field was made for nearly two hundred years until 1864,

mouth and graduated from Oxford. He worked under

when Hughlings Jackson (1835—19 11) proposed the exis­

Ernest Rutherford at Manchester University and deter­

tence o f certain areas in the cortex which caused specific

mined the atomic number o f elements using X -ray spectra

m ovements.Theodor Fritsch (1838-1891), a military sur­

and crystal diffraction. His work formed the basis for

geon during the Prussian—Danish war in 1867, while caring

nuclear physics.

for soldiers who sustained brain injury, noted that the stim­ ulation o f one side o f the brain caused the opposite side to

M oseley, H enry Nottidge (1844-1891) English naturalist from Wandsworth, London who studied natural science at

twitch. He later joined Julius Eduard Hitzig (1838—1907), a

Oxford and medicine at University College, London. He

brilliant neurologist, in experiments on stimulation o f the

joined a government expedition to Ceylon in 18 71, where

brain in dogs.Their paper, published in 1870, paved the way

he observed a solar eclipse, made spectroscopic measure­

for neurophysiology.The areas o f the motor cortex control­

ments, and brought back a collection o f plants. He was

ling specific motor functions o f the hands and limbs were

appointed Linacre professor o f human and comparative

identified by Sir David Ferrier (1843-1928) in 1873.

anatomy at Exeter College, Oxford in 1881, and founded

M otor N euron

the Marine Biological Association.

[Latin: movere, to move; Greek: neuron,

nerve] Unit o f reflex action, first recognized by Wilhelm

M osquito Transmission o f malaria by mosquitoes was men­

His (1831—1904) in 1889, and German anatomist, Heinrich

tioned by the Brahmin physician, Susruta in A D 500. Patrick

W ilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer (1836—1921) in 1891. He

Manson (1844-1922), author o f Tropical Diseases (1898) iden­

also suggested the term, neuron. Reaction o f a single motor

tified the Anopheles mosquito as a vector for the worm

neuron

which caused filariasis in 1879 and proposed the existence o f

demonstrated by Derek Denny-Brown (1901—1981), N ew

following its activation by

a stimulus was

an extracorporeal life cycle for the parasite in 1894. Its part in

Zealand- born neurologist at Oxford in 1929. See motor unit.

transmission o f yellow fever was mentioned by Walter R eed

M otor U nit [Latin: movere, to move] Sir Charles Scott

(1851—1902) and Carlos Finlay (1833—1905) in 1900 who dis­

Sherrington (1857-1952) used the term in 1925 to denote

covered the vector. Their hypothesis was tested by Jesse

‘an individual motor nerve fiber together with a bunch o f

William Lazear (1866—1900), who allowed himself to be bit­

muscle fibers enervated by it’ . Louis Doyere ( 18 11—1863),

ten while investigating an outbreak o f yellow fever

professor o f physiology and applied zoology in France,

in Havana, and died o f the disease. Sir Ronald Ross (1857-

observed the termination o f motor nerves in muscles o f

1932), an Indian Arm y surgeon, who demonstrated the

insects in 1837. See motor neuron.

presence o f the parasite in birds in 1897, advocated the exter­

M ott, Valentine (1785—1865) American surgeon who treated

mination o f mosquitoes. Adolphe Laveran (1845—1922), a

an aneurysm o f the subclavian artery by tying it within the

French physician, identified the protozoan in malaria and

scleni muscles in 1833. He performed the first successful

G.B. Grassi (1854—1925),from Italy,showed that the mosqui­

amputation at the hip joint in America in 1827. He carried

to was a vector o f malaria. Aedes aegypti was shown to be the

out a successful excision o f osteosarcoma o f the clavicle

vector in transmission o f dengue fever by Thomas Lane

in 1828.

Bancroft (1860—1933) in 1906. In the 1940s the insecticide

M oufet, Thomas (1553—1604) Zoologist, poet and physician

D D T (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) was introduced.

from Cambridge. After traveling in Europe he established

See Aedes aegypti,Anopheles, malaria, yellowfever.

a successful practice in London. He published De Jure et

M osso, Angelo (1846—1910) Italian physiologist who did one

Praestantia Chemicorum Medicamentorum, Epostelae quinqué

o f the earliest studies on the mechanism o f apnoea in 1903.

Medicinales, Nosomantia Hippocratica and several other works.

His laboratory at M onte R osa was an important center for

He completed a valuable work on insects in 1590 which was

the study o f high altitude on health.

published after his death by Sir Theodore Mayerne (157 3-

M other Theresa SeeTheresa of Calcutta.

1675), a medical practitioner in London in 1634.

521

MOUNTAIN

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SICKNESS

found in materials such as silk, blood fibrin, egg white and

M ountain Sickness See altitude sickness.

gelatin. His wrote General Physiological Chemistry, published

M ountcastle, Vernon Benjamin (b 1918) American neuro­

between 1844-1851.

physiologist, born in Shelbyville, Kentucky and educated at R oanoke College and the Johns Hopkins Medical School,

M ule Spinner’s C ancer The spinning machine used in

where he became professor o f physiology in 1959. He

cotton industry and invented by Samuel Crompton o f

demonstrated that the cells o f cerebral cortex in

Bolton, Lancashire in 1779 caused scrotal cancer due to

anesthetized cats were able to respond to specific skin stim­

prolonged contact with lubrication oil in the spindles and

ulation, in the 1 95os. This served as an important tool for

this was recognized by S. R . Wilson o f the R oyal Infirmary

experimental study o f the sensory nervous system.

Manchester in 1906.

M oxibustion Chinese treatment where cauterization was

Mulkowal D isaster Waldemar Mordecai Wolfe Haflkine

performed by applying cone shaped masses o f combustible

(1860—1930) pioneered inoculation against cholera in India

material so as to form a blister.

in 1892 and conducted an antiplague vaccination program using live vaccine in the village o f Mulkowal in India in 1902. Nineteen villagers died o f tetanus and Haffkine was blamed. A subsequent commission revealed that it was due to contamination o f the vaccine following careless handling and Haffkine was cleared o f blame.

Müller, Friedrich M ax (1823—1900) He was born in Desau and educated in Leipzig and Berlin. He studied Sanskrit and published an edition o f the Rig- Veda, the sacred hymns o f the Hindus. He emigrated to England in 1846 and became professor o f comparative philology at Oxford in 1868.The term ‘Aryan’ was used by him in History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature (1859), to denote the origin o f Indo-Iranian

i‘

languages amongst the Indo-Germanic people o f Iran. His

r

popular. Lectures on the Science of Languages, was published

..

from 1861 to 1864.

Baron Berkeley George Andrew Moynihan (1865-1936). Courtesy of the

Müller, Heinrich (1820—1864) Professor o f anatomy at

National Library of Medicine

Würzberg who described several anatomical structures that

M oynihan, Baron Berkeley George Andrew (1865—1936)

have been named after him including a muscle and a fiber.

British surgeon, born in Malta and educated at Leeds. He

Müller, Hermann Joseph (1890—1967) American geneticist,

served at the Leeds Infirmary and did extensive work on

born in N ew York City, and educated at Columbia Univer­

surgical pathology o f gastric and duodenal ulcers. He

sity. He pioneered the study o f mutation. H e studied under

identified chronic gastric ulcer as a precursor o f gastric car­

Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945)

cinoma in 1923 and designed the Monynihan method, a

Columbia Universi­

ty. He was professor o f zoology at the University ofTexas in

modification o f the P 61ya operation, for treatment.

Austin during the 1920s and then moved to St Petersburg to work at the Institute o f Genetics, the Institute o f Animal

M RI See magnetic resonance imaging.

Genetics in Edinburgh and became professor o f zoology at

M udge, John (d 1793) Physician from Plymouth who wrote

Indiana University in 1945. He created gene mutations

On the Catarrhous Cough and improved the reflecting

following exposure to X-rays in 1927, for which he was

telescope.

awarded the N obel Prize in 1946. He campaigned on the

Muir, Sir R obert (1864—1959) Born in Balfron, Stirling,

dangers o f radiation-induced mutations and against nuclear

he was professor o f pathology at the University o f Gla­

bombs. In Out of the Night, published in 1935, he discussed

sgow from 1899 to 1936. He made several important

the possibility o f sperm banks for genetically improving the

contributions to experimental pathology and immunity.

human race.

Mulder, Gerrit Jan (1802-1880) Dutch chemist at Utrecht

Muller, Johan (1436—1476) Scholar from Königsberg who

who coined the term ‘protein’ for complex substances

combined humanism with science. He translated the works

522

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MUNK

ROLL

o f Ptolemy into Latin and founded an observatory at

Jean Martin Charcot (1825—1893) noted the lesions in 1868

Nüremburg in 1471. He wrote the first systematic treatise

and an English description was given by W. M oxon in 1875.

on trigonometry,published in 1533 after his death.

The occurrence o f nystagmus in multiple sclerosis (Uhthoff sign)

Müller, Johannes Peter (1801-1858) German physiologist,

was

described

by

a

German

physician

and

ophthalmologist,Wilhelm U hthoff (1853—1927) o f Breslau.

born in Koblenz and graduated in medicine from Bonn

Retro-bulbar neuritis was shown by William John Adie

University 1822, where he was appointed professor o f phys­

(1886—1935). Internuclear ophthalmoplegia in disseminated

iology in 1826. H e moved to Berlin University as professor

sclerosis (Lhermitte syndrome), was described by French

o f anatomy and physiology in 1833. W hile working with

neurologist,Jean L. Lhermitte (1877-1959) in 1920.

Rudolph KöUiker (18 17-190 5), a Swiss physiologist, in 1855, M üller used a crude but ingenious apparatus made o f

M um m ery, John Howard (1847-1926) Physician and dentist

frog skeletal muscle and connected it to the frog s heart, to

who graduated from University College London. He prac­

show that, with each systole, two contractions o f the skeletal

ticed at Cavendish Square, London and was president o f the

muscle were produced.This was probably the first demon­

British Dental Association and Odontological Society. In

stration o f the electrical nature o f the heart. Another o f his

1891 he described the fibrillar structures o f developing

interests was embryology, and he described the primordial

dentine (fibers o f Mummery).

female genital tract or oviduct (Müller duct) in 1830 and

M um m y [Arabic: mum, wax] Preservation o f the body by

showed that blood from the embryo changed color enter­

embalming, common in Egypt, although the oldest known

ing and leaving so showing that it respired. In 1840 he

mummies are those o f the Chinchorro Indians o f Peru from

proposed the law o f specific nerve energies that states

6000 B C . Powdered mummy was used as a remedy for all

that each sensory system will respond in the same way to a

illness in Europe during the i6th century.The first Egyptian

stimulus regardless o f the nature o f the stimulus.

m ummy was brought to England by Captain W illiam

Müller, Paul Hermann (1899-1965) Swiss chemist and

LethieuUier in 1722, and an essay on the mummy was

inventor o f the insecticide, D D T and other pest control

published by A lex Gorden in 1737. See embalming, embalmer.

compounds. He received the N obel Prize for Physiology or

M um ps Disease known since ancient times but whose cause

Medicine in 1948. See D D T.

was only established in 1914, when M ervyn Henry Gordon

(Syn: Kahler disease, plasmacytoma)

(1872-1953) showed it to be caused by a filterable agent.

The presence o f albuminoid protein in urine o f some

A n accurate clinical description o f mumps associated with

M ultiple M yelom a

patients was described by H enry Bence Jones (1814—1873)

orchitis was given by R obert Hamilton (17 2 1—1793) o f

in 1847, and the disease was described as mollities ossium, a

Edinburgh in 1790. Ernest William Goodpasture (1886—

bone disorder, by William Macintyre in 1850. The first

i960), an Am erican pathologist, and Claud D. Johnson

microscopical study o f bone tissue from Macintyre s patient

transmitted mumps

was done by John Darymple (1804—1852) o f Dublin in

confirmed the viral etiology in 1934.

1 846.The term was first used by O. J. von Rustizky in 1883.

from

monkeys

to

humans

and

M unchausen Syndrom e Dramatization o f symptoms o f an

A full account was given by an Austrian professor o f medi­

imaginary illness, described by R . Asher in The Lancet in

cine at Prague, Otto Kahler (1849-1893), in 1899. Plasma

1951.

cells were detected in the blood by Schridde in 1906. Infil­

It was

named

after Baron

Hieronymus

von

Munchausen (1720—1797) who told wildly exaggerated

tration o f the spleen, liver, bone marrow and lymph glands

stories o f his travels. His experiences were published by

by plasma cells was demonstrated by E .E . Osgood andW.C.

R u d o lf Erich Raspe in 1785.

Hunter in 1934. Anuria due to precipitation o f abnormal proteins in the tubules following contrast injection for

M undinus (12 7 0 -132 6 ) Italian professor o f anatomy at

urography in patients with myeloma was reported by R .L .

Bologna (1306-1325) who commenced dissections o f the

Holman in 1939. See BenceJones proteins.

human body in 1315 and gave anatomical demonstrations.

M ultiple Sclerosis

His Anatomia Mundini or Anathomia, published in 1316,

[Latin: multus, many; Greek: sklerosis,

remained a popular manual for over 200 years (first print

hardness] A description and illustration o f the lesions was

1478) and 39 editions.

given by London pathologist, R o bert Hooper (1773-1835)

M unk R o ll Biographical data on members o f the R oyal

inThe Morbid Anatomy of the Human Brain published in 1828. It was further described in 1840 by Jean C ruveilhier

C ollege o f Physicians from 1518 up to 1825, including

(179 1-1874), professor o f pathological anatomy at Paris.

founder members since the College was established by

523

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MUNROE

King Henry. Compiled by William M unk (1816-1898) in

at Manchester Royal Infirmary in 1888.Two separate mur­

1855. It is continually updated with new members.

murs heard over the femoral or brachial artery, during diastolic and systolic phase o f the heart in cases o f aortic

M unroe, R obert (1835—1920) Physician from Ross-shire

insufriciency were described by French physician, Louis

who graduated from Edinburgh University in 1867.

PaulDuroziez (1826—1897) in i86i.T h e mechanism o f pro­

He changed to archaeology and published Ancient Scottish

duction o f several murmurs was explained by Hermann

lake Dwellings (1882), The Lake Dwellings of Europe (1890),

Ludwig Blumgart (1895-1977) in 1933.

and Prehistoric Scotland and Its Place in European Civilization

Murphy, John Benjamin (1857—1916) Pioneer in vascular

in 1899.

surgery, born in Wisconsin and graduated (1879) from Rush

M unzer, Egmont (1865—1924) Professor o f medicine at

Medical College, Chicago, where he became professor o f

Prague who described the tract from the internal geniculate

surgery. He demonstrated in 1896 that severed arteries and

body to the lateral part o f the pons (Munzer tract) in 1895.

veins could be reunited by end to end anastomosis. H e was

M urchison, Sir R oderick Impey (1792—1871) B orn at

the first surgeon in America to perform artificial pneu­

Tarradale in Ross, he devoted his entire life to geology and

mothorax. He introduced the continuous method o f giving

pioneered the drift theory to explain deposits o f boulder

saline (Murphy drip) through the rectum and designed an

clay. He pubhshed The Silurian System in 1839. He was

ingenious device (Murphy button) for effecting intestinal

knighted in 1846.

anastomosis. {Rickettsia typhi, Syn: flea borne typhus,

Murphy Sign Patient is unable to take a deep breath when

endemic typhus) Howard Taylor Pdcketts (18 71—1910), in

the examiner exerts digital pressure over the gallbladder in

1920, named the causative organism Dermacentroxenus typhi.

the hypochondrium, in cases o f cholecystitis. Described by

R o llo Eugene Dyer (b 1886) and co-workers isolated

Chicago surgeon,John Benjamin M urphy (1857—1916).

M urine Typhus

rickettsia from rat fleas in 1931. In the same year, Hermann

Murphy, William Parry (1892-1987) American physician,

M ooser (18 9 1—19 71) and Hans Zinsser (1878—1940)

born in Wisconsin, who proved with George Richards

obtained the infective agent from rats in M exico, and the

M inot (1885—1950), the effect o f raw liver in the treatment

name murine typhus was proposed by M ooser in 1932.The

o f pernicious anemia in 1925. He was born in Stoughton,

infective agent, a rickettsial organism, was isolated by

Wisconsin and educated at Harvard Medical School. He

M ooser in 1928 from the tunica vaginalis o f guinea pig after

shared the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with

intraperitoneal injection o f blood from patients with

M inot and George Hoyt Whipple (1878—1976) in 1934.

murine typhus.The species was named Rickettsia mooseri, in

Murray, John (d 1820) Scottish physician and chemist at

honor o f Ricketts and Mooser.

Edinburgh who published Elements of Chemistry, Elements of

M urm ur Murmurs and heart sounds were described by

Materia Medica and Pharmacy, A System of Chemistry, and

English physician, James Hope (1801—1841) in 1832. He

A System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy.

described the diastolic murmur o f mitral stenosis which was

Murray, Joseph Edward (b 1919) American surgeon and

later known as the Hope murmur. Walter Hayle Walshe

pioneer in renal transplantation, born in Milford, Massachu­

(1812—1892) ofU niversity College London gave an account

setts and graduated from Harvard Medical School in 1943.

o f the presystohc component o f mitral murmur in mitral

He and his colleagues performed the first renal transplant

stenosis in 1851. William Tennant Gairdner (1824—1907),

between identical twins at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in

regius professor o f medicine at Glasgow University, wrote

Boston in 1954 and non-identical twins in 1961 (using the

an im portant treatise on cardiac murmurs in 18 6 1. An

immunosuppressant drug, azathioprine). M urray shared the

exhaustive account o f presystolic murmurs was given by

Nobel Prize with DonnaUThomas (b 1920) in 1990.

Charles Hilton Fagge (1838—1883) o f G u y’s Hospital in 18 71. Austin Flint murmur, an apical mid-diastolic or

Murrell, Christine (1874—1933) Born in Clapham, London,

presystohc functional murmur originating from the mitral

she was a pioneer o f women in medical pohtics. She studied

valve in patients with aortic stenosis, was first described by

medicine at the Royal Free Hospital and became a general

Austin Fhnt (1812-1886) o f N ew York in 18 62 .A murmur in

practitioner in London. She obtained her M D on mental

early diastole, heard over the pulmonary artery, and caused

diseases and psychology from the University o f London in

by pulmonary hypertension resulting from mitral stenosis,

1905, and published Womanhood and Health in 1923. She was

was described by Graham Steell (1851-1942), a cardiologist

the first woman member to the council o f the B M A (1924),

524

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MYALGIC

ENCEPHALITIS

and the first wom an m em ber o f the General M edical

in Latin on gout and four volumes o f dissertations on

Council (1933).

R om an and British antiquities.

M urrell, William (1853-1912) B orn in Wimbledon, and

M ushroom See poisonousfungi.

graduated in medicine from University College, London in

M usic R em edy employed by Daniel Hack Tuke (1827—

1874. His special interest was therapeutics and he intro­

1895), ä lecturer in mental disease at the Charing Cross

duced nitroglycerin as treatment for angina in 1879. He

Hospital, to cure madness, and described in A Manual of

published Manual of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (1896),

Psychological Medicine, published in 1858. In 1605 Francis

What to do in Cases of Poisoning (iSSi), Massage as a Mode of

Bacon (1561-1626) wrote ‘The poets did well to conjoin

Treatment (1876), and Aids to Forensic Medicine and Toxicology

music and

in 1894. See angina.

medicine in Apollo’ . Richard Browne, an

apothecary from Oakham in Rutland, published the first

Musa Physician to Emperor Augustus around 20 B C . He is

English book on the medicinal value o f music, H Mechanical

supposed to have prescribed cold baths as treatment for

essay on singing, musick and dancing demonstrating the alterations

diseases.

they produce in a human body, in 1727. The powerful effect o f music on George III during his last episode ofiUness was

M uscle A ctio n Direct measurements o f heat evolved dur­

described by Sir Henry Halford (1766-1844) in On the treat­

ing the contraction o f a muscle were first made by British

ment of insanity, particularly the moral treatment, published in

N obel Prize winner, Archibald Vivian Hill (1886—1977) in

1833. According to Etienne Dominique Esquirol (1772—

19 11.A T P (adenosine triphosphate) was shown to be a key

1840) in 1813, music brings peace and composure o f mind

factor in supplying energy for muscle contraction in in vitro

but it does not bring cure.

studies by Hungarian biochemist and N obel Prize winner,

M ussel P o ison in g See shellfish.

Albert von Szent-Györgi (1893—1986) in 1938. He brought the proteins, actin and myosin, together to effect muscle

Mustard Gas Obtained by R ich ie in 1854 by m ixing chlo­

contraction in 1942. He said‘to see actomyosin contract for

ride with ethyl sulfide. The properties were described by

the first time was one o f the most exciting experiences o f

Guthrie in i860,andVictor M eyer (1848-1897) in 1886 and

my scientific career’ .

they found it to be very poisonous. See gas warfare.

M uscle C ontraction See muscle action.

M utation [Latin: mutare, to change] The modern theory o f

M uscle Spindle Stretch afferent is a neuromuscular end

mutation which proposed that new species arise by a single

organ o f the muscle that was studied and named by Wilhelm

mutation was advanced in 1890 by H ugo de Vries

Kühne (1837—1900) in 1862. The sensory nature o f the

(1848—1935), professor

spindle was proposed by Sir Charles Scott Sherrington

The Mutations Theory, published in 1901. Mutation due to

(1857—1952) in 1894, and it was described by Angelo Ruffini

radiation effects was established in Drosophila fly by

o f botany

at Amsterdam

in

(1874-1929) who conducted studies between 1892 to 1898.

Hermann Joseph M üller (1890—1967) o f America in 1927

Three different types o f discharge, CXi, OL2 and ß, from

who received the N obel Prize in 1946. Mutation in mam­

mammalian muscle and tendon spindles were shown by

mals due to X -ray exposure was demonstrated by American

R . Matthews in 1933.

geneticist, Georg Davis SneU (b 1903) o f Massachusetts in 1929. Chemical methods were used by Charlotte Auerbach

M uscular D ystrophies See myopathy.

(b 1899) and J.M . Robson in 1941 .The development o f can­

M useum See Hunterian museum.

cer from a single cell initiated by mutation o f its D N A was shown by Hugh John Foster Cairns (b 1922), a molecular

Musgrave, Samuel, (d 1782) Physician and grandson o f

biologist and professor at Harvard School o f Public Health.

William Musgrave (1657—1721), who practiced at Exeter. In 1763 he became pofitically notorious after charging British

M utual A id S ociety The first such society in Europe was

ministers with taking bribes to make a disadvantageous set­

formed by miners from Goslar in the Harz mountains

tlement with France. He published an edition o f Euripides

(Germany), and it received its charter from Friedrich I in

and two dissertations on Grecian mythology.

1188. Similar societies to help poor workers were common in Europe in the 13 th century.

M usgrave, William (1657—1721) Physician from Charlton in Somerset, educated at Winchester School and N ew College

M yalgie Encephalitis

Oxford, and practiced at Exeter. He wrote several treatises

syndrome.

525

M E syndrome. See chronic fatigue

MYASTHENIA

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

GRAVIS

M yasthenia Gravis [Greek: myos, muscle + astheneia, weak­

in America in the early 20th century with the appointment

ness; Latin: gravis, heavy] Fatigue, muscular exhaustion or

o f the first medical mycologist, Chester Emmons.

atrophy caused by a disorder in neuromuscular function

M ycosis Fungoides The causative organism was discovered

due to presence o f antibodies to acetylcholine receptors.

in Buenos Aires by Alejandro Posadas, a student o f R obert

Also called Erb—Goldflamm disease. The first definite

Wernicke, in 1892.The same organism was independently

account was given by Samuel Wilks (1824—19 11) in 1877,

described by R ixford o f California in 1896, and named

and Wilhelm Heinrich Erb (1840-1921) o f Berlin and

‘coccidioides imitis’ .

Samuel Goldflamm (1852—1932) ofWarsaw described it in 1879. An association between myasthenia and thymus was

M ycosis [Greek: m yte, fungus] Seefungal disease.

noted by German pathologist, Karl Weigert (1845—1904) in

M ydriasis Dilatation o f the pupil. Considered by ancient

19 01, and thymectomy as treatment was performed by Ernst

physicians to be due to congestion in the brain. Aetius o f

Ferdinand Sauerbruch (1875—1951) o f Germany in 1912.

Amida, around A D 600, recommended general and local

The similarity between myasthenia gravis and curare poi­

bleeding, clysters, diet and friction o f the extremities as

soning was noted by Hermann Oppenheim (1858—1919) in

treatment. Avicenna (980-1037) later related it to cephalae

1908. Electromyographic studies were done on patients by

and injuries o f the head. Haly Abbas (d A D 944) described

E .A .B . Pritchard in 1933. Testing the effect o f an antidote

it but thought it was almost incurable.

to curare on myasthenic patients was suggested by M ary

M ydriatics Hyoscyamus and belladona were used to dilate

Broadfoot Walker (1888—1974) in 1934, and she introduced

the pupils by C. Himley (1772-1837). Belladona was also

physostigmine as treatment in the same year. Prostigmin

used by fashionable ladies o f Florence to dilate their pupils

was introduced by Lazar R em en (b 1907) o f Germany in 1934. Clinical evaluation o f the benefits o f thymectomy was done by Alfred Blalock (1899-1964) and colleagues in 1937.

in order to improve their appearance, and the plant derives its name from this practice. See belladonna,Atropa belladona.

A myasthenic reaction associated with small cell carcinoma

M yelin Sheath Observed in nerve tissue by microscopist,

o f the bronchus was described by American neurophysiolo­

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632—1723) in 1677. Myelinated

gists, Edward H. Lambert (b 1915) and Lee M . Eaton

nerve fibers were differentiated from the unsheathed fibers

(1905-1958) (Eaton-Lambert Syndrome) in 1956.

by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795—1876) o f Germany in 1836. Further studies were done by R obert R em ak

M ycobacteria [Greek: mykes, fungus + bakterion, small rod]

(1815-1865) and Wilhelm His (1831-1904). Carl Weigert

The leprosy bacillus (M. /eprae)was the first member o f this

(1845—1904) o f Frankfurt in 1882 developed a stain for it.

group discovered by Norwegian bacteriologist, Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen (18 4 1-19 12 ) in 1874. The mam­

M yecetom a See Actinomyces madurae,fungal disease.

malian tubercle (M. tuberculosis) was discovered by R obert

M yelocyte [Greek: myelos, marrow + kytos, hollow] Earliest

Koch (1843-1910) in 1882, and the avian type o f tubercle

cell line o f white blood cells was observed and described by

bacilli (M. avium-intracellulare) was discovered by several

Charles Austin Doan (b 1896) and co-workers in 1925.

workers including Rivolta, Angelo Maffuci (1847—1903), Roger, and Sibley in 1890. The peculiar property o f acid

M yelofibrosis [Greek: myelos, marrow; Latin: fibra, band]

fastness o f the tuberculous bacillus was noted by Theodor

Disease o f adults, characterized by excessive production o f fibrous tissue in the bone marrow. Found by R .A . Hickfing

Klebs (1834-1913) in 1896. See tubercle bacillus.

in i937,andby E .A . G allin 1938.

M ycology [Greek: mykes, fungus + logos, discourse] Scien­ tific study o f infectious diseases caused by fungi in man and

M yelom a [Greek: myelos, marrow] See multiple myeloma.

higher animals was initiated in the first half o f the 19th cen­

M yeloscopy [Greek: myelos, m m o w + skopein, to view] Pro­

tury. However, the fungal disease, thrush, was described by

cedure for direct visualization o f the spinal canal through

Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) and Madura foot was described

lumbar puncture. Pioneered by M .D. Burman o f America

over 3000 years ago in the Athara-Veda. M ycology as a

in 1931.

branch o f medicine was pioneered by David Gruby

M yenteric R eflex [Greek: myos, muscle + entos, within;

(1810-1898) o f Par is, around i842.Thereafterit was intensi­ fied by several workers including: Johan Lucas Schonlein

Latin: refectare, to bend back] It effects the propulsion o f

(1839), M . J. Berkeley (1836),Tilbury Fox (1863), Charles

food or a foreign body in the intestines. Described by

R o b in (1853), R .J.A . Sabouraud (1890), E. Bodin (1902),

American physiologist, Walter Bradford Cannon (18 71—

CasteUini (1910), and others. It was recognized as a specialty

1945),in 1912.

526

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MYOPATHY

Myleran [Greek: myelos, marrow] Treatment in chronic

Alfred Fiedler (1835—19 21) o f Germ any in 1900. This

myeloid leukemia introduced by D.A.G. Galton and M .T ill

disease (Fiedler myocarditis) is also known as giant cell or

in 1955.

granulomatous myocarditis. One o f the earliest accounts o f

M yoclonus [Greek: myos, muscle + klonus, turmoil] Clonic

coronary thrombosis was given by Peter Mere Latham

spasm o f a muscle group in paroxysms in a rare form o f

(1789-1875), a physician at St Bartholom ews Hospital in

epilepsy, myoclonus

1 846. The occurrence o f myocardial necrosis was described

physician, Heinrich Unverricht (1853-1912).

M yocardial Infarction

epilepsy. Described by

German

by H enrick Pehr Malsten (18 11-18 8 3) andWilhelm Gustav

M yoglobin [Greek: myo5, muscle; Latin,^/of)M5,baU] Crystals

Johann Duben (1822-1892) in 1859. Symptomatology was

o f this muscle protein were isolated in 1932 by Swedish bio­

given by KarlW eigert (1845—1904) o f Germany in 1880.

chemist. Axel Hugo Teodor Theorell (1903—1982), director

Electrocardiographic changes were described by N ew York

o f the N obel Institute o f Biochemistry at Stockholm. He

cardiologist, Harold Ensign Bennett Pardee (1886-1972) in

was awarded the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in

1920. The first study on the value o f anticoagulation was

1955 for his work on cytochrome c, oxidation enzymes, the

done by Irving Sherwood W right (b 1901) and co-workers

sulfur linkage between heme and protein, vitamin B 2, and

in 1948. The syndrome o f pericarditis, pleurisy and fever

myoglobin. The structure was discovered using X -ray

following myocardial infarction or trauma to the heart

crystallography by English molecular biologist. Sir John

(Dressier syndrome) was described by William Dressier

Cowdery Kendrew (b 1917) o f Oxford in 1957. He con­

(1890-1969) o f America in 1955. Elevation o f serum

firmed the alpha-helical structure o f the polypeptide chain

glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) in acute cases

and was jointly awarded the N obel Prize for Chemistry,

was demonstrated by John Samuel LaDue (19 11—1980) and

with M ax Ferdinand Perutz (b 19 14 ),in 1962.

Felix Wroblewski (b 1921) in 1954, and raised levels o f lactic

M yographion [Greek: myos, muscle + graphein, to record]

dehydrogenase enzyme (LDH) were observed by W rob­

Instrument for determining the velocity o f the nerve cur­

lewski in 1956. Electrophoresis was first used to characterize

rent. Invented by Hermann von Helmholtz (18 21—1894) in

serum fractions o f L D H enzymes by Vessel and Bearn in 1957. Elevated C P K

(creatinine phosphokinase)

1850, and improved by Emil Heinrich du Bois-Reym ond

was

(1818-1896).

observed by J.C . Dreyfus in i960. Isoenzymes o f C P K were recognized by S.B. Rosalki (b 1921) in 1965, and following

M yonesin See mephenesin.

his work, the heart muscle was found to contain about 30%

M yopathy [Greek: myos, muscle + pathos, suffering]

o f one form, M B -C P K (M-muscle, B-brain).The rise o f

Guillaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne , (1806-1875)

C K -M B or M B -C K levels in the blood is presently estab­

described a form o f progressive muscular atrophy in

lished as the most specific indicator o f acute myocardial

1849, and François Amilcar Aran (18 17-18 6 1) called it

infarction. The concept o f a coronary care unit, where the

progressive muscular atrophy (PMA) in 1850. Aran’s view

patients are intensively monitored during the early stages o f

that it was a primary disease o f muscle was shared by

myocardial infarction, was introduced by K.W .G. Brown

Duchenne and Nikolaus Friedrich (1825-1882).Jean C ru-

and H .W Day in 1963. See coronary artery disease, coronary

veilhier (1791—1874) detailed it in 1853 and it was known as Cruveilhier disease. Wasting o f ganglion cells in PM A was

artery bypass graft, angina.

described by Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893) who

M yocardial Ischem ia See angina, coronary artery disease,

distinguished it into two types: Aran—Duchenne type, man­

myocardial infarction, coronary artery bypass graft, coronary

ifesting primarily as muscle wasting, and the other with

angioplasty.

degeneration o f the pyramidal tract o f the spinal cord. A peroneal form o f muscular atrophy (Charcot—M arie—Tooth

M yocarditis [Greek: myos, muscle + kardia, heart + itis, Friedrich

disease) was described by Jean Martin Charcot and Pierre

Sobernheim (1803—1846) o f Berlin in 1837. Karl Albert

M arie (1853-1940) in 1866 and Henry Howard Tooth

Ludwig A schoff (1866-1942), a German pathologist,

(1856-1925) later in the same year. Dystrophia myotonica

described the characteristic lesion, called A schoff body, in

was named by Francisque Deleage (b 1862) o f Paris in 1890.

rheumatic carditis in 1904. A syndrome o f fatal myocarditis

An infantile form was described independently by Guido

associated with infiltration o f leukocytes, lymphocytes, and

Werdnig (1844-1919), and Johan Hoffmann (1857-1919) in

multinucleate giant cells, was described by Carl Ludwig

1891. Oppenheim disease, a form o f myopathy in infants.

inflammation]

Term

coined

by

Joseph

527

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MYOPIA

known as amyotonia congenita, was given by Herman Oppenheim (1858—1919) in 1900.

M yopia [Greek: myein, to shut + opsis, sight] The first book, The Anomalies of Refraction and Accommodation, formed the basis for fitting eye glasses for myopia, strabismus, and hypermetropia and was published by Dutch ophthalmologist, Franciscus Cornelius Bonders (1818-1889) in 1864.

M yosin See actomyosin. M yositis O ssificans [Greek: myos, muscle + itis, inflamma­ tion; Latin: osseus, bony] Condition studied experimentally in animals by Spanish orthopedic surgeon, E Martin Lagos in 1945. He published his work. Experimental production of Heterotrophic Bone, in 1946.

M yotonia C ongenita

[Greek: myos, muscle + tonos,

tension; Latin: con, with; Greok:gennao, to produce].

M yotonia D ystrophica

See Curshmann-Batten-Steinert

syndrome.

Myrrh Natural resin extracted from the plant. Commiphora abyssinica, used as medicine by the ancient Greeks. Romans used the substance to treat eye and mouth sores, and Egypt­ ians used it for embalming. It was an ingredient o f holy oil used in Jewish ceremonials. A bitter wine made from it called ‘vinum murratum’ was said to have been offered to Christ on the cross by the soldiers. R ecent research has shown that it contains analgesic substances. Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795—1876), a German naturalist o f Prussian origin and professor at Berlin, who visited Ghizzan in Egypt, brought specimens o f the tree to Europe in 1820.

M yxedem a [Greek: myxii,slime + oidema,sweWing] Five cases o f cretinism in adults were described by Thomas B. Curling (181 1 —1888) o f the London Hospital and Sir William Withey Gull (1816—1890) o f G uy s Hospital in 1873 .The disease was previously described byJ.B.Bram w ell in 1869.The term was coined by William Miller Ord (1834—1902) o f St Thomas’ Hospital in 1877.The term ‘cachexia strumpriva’ was used in 1883 by Swiss surgeon, Theodor Kocher (1841—1917), to denote myxedema after total removal o f the thyroid gland. In the same year. Sir Felix Semon (1848—1921) recognized loss o f thyroid function as a common cause o f cachexia strumpriva, cretinism, and myxedema. It was treated success­ fully with injections o f glycerin extract o f thyroid gland o f sheep by George R . M urray (1865-1939) o f Newcastleupon-Tyne in 1891. See cretinism, thyroid gland.

528

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NAPTHALENE

N ägele Pelvis Distorted pelvis in w hich the conjugate diameter takes an oblique direction. Described by German

N

obstetrician, Franz Karl Nägele (1777—1851).

N ageli, Karl Wilhelm von (18 17-18 9 1) Swiss botanist from Zurich who became professor o f botany at M unich in 1858. He proposed the concept o f cell organelles, and differenti­ ated between vegetative and reproductive cell formation.

N ageotte, Jean (1866—1948) French physician who became professor o f comparative histology at the College o f France

N aboth Follicle Small retention cysts o f the mucous glands

in 1912. He worked on nerve grafting and the myelin

o f the uterine cervix. Described by French surgeon,

sheath. See Babinski—Nageotte syndrome.

Guillaume Desnoues, professor o f anatomy at Genoa of

N ail-P atella Syndrom e Hereditary disease due to a domi­

chemistry at Leipzig in Germany, described the cysts in 1707.

nant trait. Described by K. Österreicher o f Germany in

in

i68i.

Martin

Naboth

(1675—1721),

professor

1929. It is characterized by a small or absent patella,

N aegeli, Otto (1871-1938) Hematologist and professor o f medicine

at Zurich. He

anonychia and Hmitation o f movement in the elbow. It was

described myelomonocytic

described independently by J.W.Turner o f America in 1933.

leukemia, and published Lehrbuch der Blutkrankheiten und

Nakra Fever See nashafever.

Blutdia^nostik in 1931.

Nagana Deaths in cattle in Africa following tsetse fly bites,

N alorphine Antagonist to morphine and related substances.

noted by the explorer David Livingstone (1813—1873) in

Described by M cCawley, Hart, and Marsh in 1940, and

1857.

However, the first mention o f a fly disease o f African

synthesized by Weijlard and Erickson in 1942. It was first used as an antagonist by Eckenhoff in 1951.

horses,‘nagana’ , was made by English naval surgeon, John Atkins (1685-1757) in 1734. An accurate description o f this

N ansen Fibers Ascending and descending branches o f the

disease, known as ‘kondee’ in Africa, was given by English

dorsal spinal nerve roots. D escribed by F rid tjo f Nansen

doctor Thomas Masterman Winterbottom (1765—1859) in

(1861-1930), curator o f the Bergen Museum and Arctic

1804. Sir David Bruce (1855—1931) identified a trypano­

explorer, in 1885.

some, the causative agent o f nagana, in the blood o f diseased

N anukayam i (Syn: Sakushu fever, 7-day fever, akiyami)

animals in 1894. T h e same protozoan flagellates were

Leptospirosis with fever and mild jaundice. Caused by a

demonstrated in men in Algeria by Gustave Nepvue (1841— 1903) in 1890.

spirochete, Leptospira interrogans serogroup

hebdominis,

vectored through the field vole and described by Yutaka Ido (1881—1919),M inor Ito and HidetsuneWani in 1918.

N agel Test Test for color vision performed with a set o f cards printed in concentric circles o f color. Devised by German

Napier, John (1550—1617) Scottish mathematician, inventor

physiologist,Willibald Nagel (1870—19 11).

o f logarithms, born at Merchiston Castle, Edinburgh and educated at St Andrew’s University, before he began exten­ sive travel in Europe. O n his return he was determined to find a shorter and simpler method o f calculation and devised a table o f logarithms. His Miriftci Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (Description o f the Marvelous Canon o f Logarithms) was published in 1614. He devised a calculating machine using a set or rods, Napier bones, in 1617.

7

N apier B on es Simple device to facilitate multiplication, designed by Jo h n N apier (15 5 0 -16 17 ) in 16 17 . He described his method in Rabdologiae published in 1617.

N apthalene Obtained from coal tar by London physician and chemist, John Kidd (1776—1851) in 1819. Used as an antiseptic in diarrhea o f typhoid fever.

Nagele's illustration of an obliquely contracted pelvis (1839)

529

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NARCEINE

N arceine Alkaloid o f opium with narcotic properties, isolat­

other narcotics in his operations. Herbal narcotics were less

ed by French pharmacist, Pierre Joseph Pelletier (1788-

used in the late Renaissance period, and they were banned

1842) in 1832.

in France during this period. Chloral hydrate, one o f the earliest synthetic sedatives, was produced in 1870. Bromides

N arcissism Term to denote a state o f excessive and abnor­

were heavily prescribed as sedatives during the 19th century.

mal self love, derived from the legend o f Narcissus, son o f the Greek river god Cephissus and the nymph Lyriope and

N arcotine [Greek: narke, numbness] Noscapine, an alkaloid

loved by the nymph Echo. His indifference to Echo, who

o f opium with antipyretic properties and without narcotic

adored him, led to her wasting away until she was reduced

eflects. Isolated by Charles Louis Derosne (1780—1846) in

to only her voice. Narcissus was punished for his act by the

1803.

gods who made him fall in love with his own reflection in

N asha Fever Fever involving mucous membrane o f the

the lake. He jum ped into the lake to take hold o f his own

upper respiratory tract with toxic symptoms, occurred in

image and drowned.The gods and goddesses tried to recov­

India, mainly in Bengal. It was described by Fernandez at

er his body and found only a flower, which is now named

the Indian Medical Congress in 1894. It is known as ‘nakra’

after him. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) wrote on narcissism

fever in other states o f India.

in 1914.

N asm yth M em brane Primary cuticle o f dental enamel, described in 1839 by Alexander Nasmyth (d 1847), a

N arcolepsy [Greek: narke, numbness + lepsis, seizure]

Scottish dental surgeon at Hanover Square, London.

Recurrent, uncontrollable episodes o f sleep. Term coined by French neurologist, Jean Baptiste Edouard Gelineau

N asogastric Tube [Latin: nasus, nose; Greek:gaster, stomach]

(1859—1906) ofParis in 1880,and a description o f the condi­ tion

was

given

by

Carl

Friedrich

Avenzoar (1092-1162), an Arab surgeon, used a silver tube in

Otto Westphal

feeding patients with a stricture o f the gullet. Placing food

(1833-1890) in 1877. French physicians, Jean Lhermitte

into the stomach through a tube was called‘gavage’ , and was

(1877—1959) and Auguste Tournay (1878—1969) in 1927,

revived by Georges Maurice Debove (1845—1920) in 1881.

defined it as ‘a morbid manifestation which, common to

A tube was first used by American physician, Martin Emil

the most varied pathological states, has for its fundamental

Rehfuss (1887-1964), in 1914 to study digestion, by with­

element an imperious, irresistible need o f sleep to which

drawal o f a test meal from the stomach. His tube contained

the subject succumbs, however strong may be his determi­

a metal capsule which sometimes caused damage to the

nation not to yield to it’ . William John Adie (1886-1935),

gastric mucosa. It was improved by John Alfred R y le (1889—

Australian-born

English

physician

and

graduate

of

1950) in 1921 who covered the entire tip with rubber with

Edinburgh University, also gave a description.

perforations above the bulb.

N asopharyngeal C arcinom a [Latin: nasus, nose; Greek:

N arcosis [Greek: narkotikos, benumbing] Depression o f the

pharyngx, gullet] See Trotter syndrome.

function o f the C N S marked by stupor and produced by opiod drugs.The lipid theory o f narcosis, proposed by Hans

N asse Law The immunity o f females to hemophilia despite

Horst M eyer (1853—1939) o f Berlin in 1889, explained the

their ability to transmit the disease was proposed by

action o f narcotics through their solubility in lipids. It was

Christian Friedrich Nasse (1778—1851) o f Germany in 1820.

further developed by Charles Ernest Overton (1865—1933)

Nathans, Daniel (b 1928) American microbiologist, born in

in 1901.

Wilmington, Delaware and graduated from the University

Narcotherapy [Greek: narke, numbness + therapeia, treat­

o f Delaware. He pioneered the use o f restriction enzymes to

ment] M ethod developed in the 1940s o f using drugs

fragment D N A and made the first genetic map o f the SV 40

to enable the patient to express his emotions. Barbiturates

viral D N A . He shared the 1978 N obel Prize for Physiology

were one o f the commonest drugs used to treat World War

or Medicine with Werner Arber (b 1928).

II patients who suffered from trauma.

N ational A cadem y o f S ciences (NAS) Founded as a

N arcotics [Greek: narkotikos,benumbing] Opium, mandrake

private organization dedicated to science and given a

and cannabis were known to Egyptians and Greeks,

charter by the American Congress in 1863. It now has

Babylonians and Jew s. M andrake w ine was used to per­

its headquarters in Washington and advises the U S govern­

form surgery by Dioscorides (AD 40—90). It was also the

ment in an official capacity on national matters involving

most popular anesthetic in the Middle Ages. Hua Tu, a

technology and science. The Institute o f Medicine o f the

Chinese surgeon in the second century, used cannabis and

N A S was founded in 1970.

530

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NAVAL

M EDICINE

N ational Foundation for Infantile Paralysis The first

the first volume o f the index catalogue, which was the most

center in the world for research into polio was established

exhaustive bibliography produced at this time.The name o f

in America in 1935. The idea was started in 1932 by the

the library changed to Arm ed Forces Library in 1952, and

American

became the National Library o f Medicine in 1956. It is one

president

Franklin

Delano

Roosevelt

o f the largest medical libraries in the world.

(1882-1945) who himself had suffered from polio which he contracted in 19 21. The kiUed polio virus vaccine was

Natural Philosophy A new system o f philosophy embrac­

discovered at the Institute by Jonas Salk (1914-1995) in 1953.

ing the entire field o f natural science begun by German

N ational H ealth Insurance A ct The first move towards

philosopher and theologian, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von

the British government taking responsibility for the health

Schelling (1775—1854). His work Erster Entwurf eines Systems

o f the nation was made by enactment o f the National Insur­

der Naturphilosopie was published in 1797 portrayed the

ance Act o f i9 ii.T h e Ministry o f Health was set up in 1919.

entire world as the creation o f aU-pervading universal will.

The Act only provided medical care to insured workers, but

Natural S election See evolution theory.

not their families.

N aude, Gabriel (1600—1653) French physician from Paris

N ational H ealth Service Following the Report on Social

who served as librarian to Cardinal Richelieu, and was later

Insurances and Allied Services by WiUiam Henry Beveridge

librarian to Queen Christina in Sweden. He published

(1879-1963) in 1942, the British government produced a

Bibliographica Politica, On Liberal Studies and several other

White Paper in 1944, and the National Health Service Act

works.

was passed in 1946 and enacted in 1948. This channeled money into the hospital system. The Family Doctor

N aunyn, Bernard (1839-1925) Professor o f clinical medicine

Charter o f 1965 provided financial subsidies to general

first at Dorpat (1859) and then at Bern (1872). He succeeded

practitioners .The N H S Act was revised in the 1970s and was

A d olf Kussmaul (1822—1902) as professor at Strasbourg, and

superseded by the National Health Service Act o f 1977. See

devoted his career to study o f metabolism in diabetes and

Bevan,Aneurin.

diseases o f the liver and pancreas. He introduced the con­ cept o f cholangitis and advocated drainage o f bile ducts in

N ational H osp ital for the R e lie f o f Paralysis, Epilepsy and A llied D isorders

1892. Naunyn noted the formation o f acid in diabetic coma

First neurological center in the

in 1906 and named it acidosis. His work on diabetes. Der

world, started at Q ueens Square, London by Louisa

Diabetes Mellitus, was published in 1898. He also founded

Chandler and her sister in 1859, with Jabez S. Ramskill as its

the Archiv für Experimentale Pathologique und Pharmakologie

first physician. He was followed by Charles Edouard

and the interdisciplinary periodical, Mitteilungen aus den

Brown-Sequard (1817-1894) in i860 and John Hughlings

Grenzbebieten der Medizin und Chirurgie in 1896.

Jackson (1834—19 11) in 1862. It is currently known as

Naval M edicine The earliest attempts to provide health

National Hospital for Neurological Disease, Q ueens

care for seamen were made by Sir Francis Drake, Sir John

Square.

Hawkins and Admiral Howard in the i6th century. They

N ational Institute for M edical R esearch (N IM R )

levied a tax o f six pence on seamen and formed a body to

Initially located at Hampstead in 1920 and moved to M ill

provide medical care for them. This was probably the first

HiU, London in 1949. As a research establishment, N IM R

system o f health insurance on record. Henry V III estab­

has made significant contributions in chromatography,

lished a permanent medical service at sea with a list o f

protein synthesis, and carbohydrate metabolism. Notable

surgeons to attend his R oyal Navy. Royal Naval Hospitals

workers at the Institute include: Sir H enry Hallett Dale

were established in England at Portsmouth in 1761 and near

(1875—1968) and Sir Peter Brian Medawar (1915—1987).

Plymouth in 1765. One o f the earliest book on naval medi­

N ational Library o f M edicin e Originally started in 1836

cine was The Surgeons

written in 1617 by John Woodall

by the American Surgeon-General, Lovell. It became the

(1556-1643), a surgeon with the East India Company. He

Surgeon-General’s Library in the latter half o f the 19th cen­

suggested use o f lime juice as a cure for scurvy. Another

tury under the leadership o f John Shaw Billings (1838—

treatise on conditions affecting seamen was written in 1696

1913) o f Indiana who served as an army surgeon during the

by a navy surgeon from London, William Cockburn

Civil War and was a founder o f the Johns Hopkins Hospital.

(1669-1739).James Lind (1716-1794), first senior physician

In 1876 Billing’s published a catalogue o f authors and

at the Portsmouth Royal Naval Hospital, conducted

subjects in an alphabetical order, and in 1880 he produced

controlled trials on the use o f lemons and oranges in

531

NEANDERTHAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

MAN

prevention o f scurvy in 1747. Thomas Trotter (1760-1832),

who made a secret passage to his w ife’s tomb in order to

another prom inent naval physician from the R o yal

have sexual intercourse.

Hospital at Portsmouth and physician to the fleet in 1794,

N eedb am , Joseph (b 1900) English biochemist and histori­

took measures to eradicate scurvy and wrote Medica Nauti-

an, born in London and educated at Cambridge where

ca, or an Essay on the Diseases of Seamen, and a Review of the

he became a demonstrator in biochemistry (1928—1933)

Medical Department of British Navy.

and made a study on differentiation o f the fertilized egg. He

N eanderthal M an Skeletal remains o f a primitive man from

went on to become Master o f Gonville and Caius College

the Paleohthic period, including a skull (Neanderthal

(1966—1976) and worked on organizers in amphibian devel­

skull), were found at a limestone cave at Neanderthal, near

opment. He published Chemical Embryology (1931), The

Düsseldorf

Sceptical biologist (1929), and A History of Embryology in 1934.

in

1858

and

described

by

Hermann

Schaafhausen (1816—1893). Neanderthal man lived 20 to 50

He was head o f a British Scientific Mission in China during

thousand years ago and was followed by Cro-M agnon or

World War 11, and wrote extensively on Chinese science,

Homo sapiens, who had facial and other body features o f

including acupuncture.

modern man.The first complete Neanderthal skeleton was

N eelsen, Friedrich Karl A d olf (1854-1894) Pathologist at

assembled by Marcellin Boule (1861—1942),professor at the

Dresden who developed the acid-fast method o f staining

Natural History Museum in Paris, who published Les

mycobacteria.

Hommes Fossiles in 19 21. See Cro-Magnon.

N eftel D isease Hysterical disease in which the patient is

N eap olitan Fever See Maltafever.

unable to sit, stand or walk without experiencing pain and

N eb uchad nezzar 11 (630—562 B C ) Chaldean king who re­

paresthesia o f the back and head but can perform any move­

built the Assyrian empire and sacked Jerusalem. He is said to

ments while lying down. Described by William Basil Neftel

have suffered from a delusion that he was a w o lf (lycan-

(1830—1 906), an American physician o f Russian origin.

thropy). His palace and a temple were unearthed by Sir

N egative N um bers Found in algebra and arithmetic by

H enry Rawlinson (1810—1895) o f Chadlington, Oxford.

Hindus in the 7th century. T h e H indu mathematician

Nebular H ypothesis [Latin: nebula, mist] Theory that the

Brahmagupta o f Ujjain gave rules and signs for their

universe was formed from a shapeless mass o f nebulae and

operation.

clusters o f stars, proposed by Sir William Herschel (1792— 1871). Pierre Simon Laplace (1749—1827) proposed a similar

ies in the pyramidal cells o f Am m on’s horn, diagnostic for

hypothesis in 1796,suggesting that the solar system originated

rabies. O bserved by Italian pathologist, Adelchi N eg ri

from a nebula, a vast cloud o f high temperature gas.

(1876—1912) in 1903. He initially mistook them for parasitic

Necator americanus A genus o f nematode including the spe­

protozoal organisms. See rabies.

cies, N. americanum, American hookworm, discovered by Allan J. Smith and named by Charles Wardell Stiles (1867— 1941)

N egri B od ies Characteristic acidophilic cell inclusion bod­

o f the U S Public Health Service in i902.The parasite

is thought to have been brought to America with slaves

N eber, Erwin (b 1944) German biophysicist, educated at the Technical University o f M unich and the University o f Wisconsin. Together with Bert Sakmann (b 1942), he recorded electric currents in single channels o f biological

from Africa. See Anchylostoma duodenale.

membranes and developed the ‘patch-clamp’ technique for discrete biophysical measurements. He and Sakmann

N ecrobiosis L ipoidica D iab eticorum [Greek: nekros, deoid + biosis, life] Degenerative disease o f skin in diabetes,

shared the 1991 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.

reported by Austrian dermatologist, Maurice Oppenheim

Neisser, Albert Ludwig Siegmund (1855—1916) German

(1876—1949) in 1929. Eight cases were recorded at the Mayo

bacteriologist who discovered the gonorrhea bacterium

Clinic over the next 7 years. Erich Urbach (1893—1946),

while a 24-year-old assistant in the dermatological clinic o f

Czech-born American dermatologist, described it in 1932.

Oscar Simon at the University o f Breslau, in 1879. He suc­ ceeded Simon as professor o f skin and venereal diseases in

N ecrophilia [Greek: nekros, dead + philos, love] Desire to have sexual intercourse or sexual contact with cadavers.

1900. He was censored for using healthy human subjects in

Richard Krafft-Ebing (1840—1902) described a case in 1849

syphilis research. He also gave a complete review o f hydatid

o f Sergeant Bertrand, who dug up 15 female bodies. In 1924

disease Die Echinococcenkrankheit in 1877. See ethics of human

Magnus Hirsfield (1868—1935) described the case o f a man

experimentation.

532

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NEPHROLOGY

N eo n a to lo g y [Greek: neos, new; Latin: natus, hoTv\\ Oxygen

Neisseria gonorrhoeae Causative bacterium o f gonorrhea, named after its discoverer, Albert Ludwig Neisser (1855—

therapy was suggested in resuscitation o f asphyxiated

1916). See Neisser,Albert.

neonates by François Chaussier in 1780. The Schultzs method for reviving them by inverting and swinging the

Neisseria meningitidis Meningococcus bacteria and caus­

infant was described German gynecologist, Bernhard

ative organism in meningitis. Isolated from cerebrospinal

Sigmund Schultz

fluid o f patients by Anton Weichselbaum (1845—1920) in

igig). SeeApgarscore.

N eop lasm [Greek: neos, new + plasma, molded or formed]

1887. It was later named Neisseria meningitidis after the

See cancer.

German bacteriologist,Albert Ludwig Neisser (1855-1916).

N eop roton sil See ulcerative colitis.

N elaton , Auguste (1807-1873) French surgeon from Paris who graduated in medicine from the University in 1836.

N ep hrectom y [Greek: nephros, kidney + ektome, to cut out]

He used a rubber urethral catheter in i860 and introduced

First performed in 1870 as treatment for urinary tract fistula

electrocautery into surgery. He was professor o f surgery at

by Gustav von Simon (1824-1876), professor o f surgery at

the St Louis Hospital in 1851 and surgeon to Napoleon III

Heidelberg. The first nephrectomy for malignant disease o f

in 1867.

the kidney was done in 1877 by Karl Johann August Langenbuch (1846-1901) ofBerlin.

N elaton Line Line extending from the anterior superior iliac spine to the ischial tubercles in congenital dislocation

N ephritis [Greek: nephros, kidney + itis, inflammation] A

o f the hip. Described by Auguste Nelaton (1807-1873),

classical description o f chronic non-suppurative nephritis

professor o f surgery in Paris in 1844.

(Bright disease) was given by Richard Bright (1789—1858) o f G u y’s Hospital in 1827. The pathological anatomy o f

N em atology [Greek; nema, thread] See helminthology.

Bright disease was provided by KarlWeigert (1845-1904) in

N em butal Sodium pentobarbital. See intravenous anesthetics.

1879. Classification o f nephritis, based on the hemorrhagic

N em esius (AD 400) Greek Christian philosopher and

nature and nephrosclerosis, was proposed by American bio­

Bishop o f Emissa. He wrote De Natura Homonis in which he

chemist, D. D.Van Slyke and colleagues in 1930. American

discussed the role o f bile in digestion, purging o f blood,

physician Thomas Addis (1881-1949) and Henry Astbury

imparting heat to

the -body, and the

doctrine

Christian (1876—1951) gave another classifications in 1934.

of

Arthur Maurice Fishberg (1898-1992), associate in medi­

pre-existence.

cine at M ount Sinai Hospital, N ew York, described focal

N en ck iT est Use o f nitric and nitrous acid to detect indole.

glomerular nephritis and acute interstitial nephritis in 1931.

Test devised by Polish physician, Marcellus von Nencki

Clinical and histological features were given in 1942 by

(1847-1901).

Sir Arthur William M ickle Ellis (1883-1966), a London physician. See embolic nephritis,glomerular nephritis.

N eoarsphenam ine Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) produced neosalvarsan or neoarsphenamine in 19 11, which was found

N ep hrolithotom y [Greek: nephros, kidney + lithos, stone +

to be effective in treatment o f relapsing fever, syphilis and

tome, to cut] One o f the first procedures where the renal

trypanosomiasis.

stone was removed through a lumbar incision was performed by Sir H enry M orris (1844—1926) o f London in

N eolith ic A ge [Greek: neo, new + litho, stone] Name given

1880. See lithotomy.

to the Stone Age by Sir John Lubbock (1834-1913) in 1865. He subdivided it on the basis o f stone artifacts into: rough

N ep hrology [Greek: nephros, kidney + logos, discourse]

stone instruments or Paleolithic period, and polished stone

Dropsy caused by the diseased kidneys was described by

instruments or Neolithic period.

N eo m y cin

Guiliemus da Saliceto (1201—1277) o f Italy. The micro­ scopic anatomy o f the kidney was given by two Italians,

Antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces fradiae

Lorenzo BeUini (1643—1704) and Marcello Malpighi (1628—

by American physicians, Seknan Abraham Waksman

1694). Albumin and blood in urine o f patients with renal

(1888-1973) or Rutgers University and Hubert Arthur

dropsy were observed by William Charles WeUs (1757—

Lechevalier (b 1926) in 1949.

1817), a physician at St Thomas’ Hospital in 1812. Richard

N eo n [Greek: neos, new] Inert gas discovered by Sir William

Bright’s (1789—1858) classic description o f chronic nephritis

Ramsay (1852—1916), and London chemist,Morris WiUiam

in 1827 was one o f the earliest to focus on renal disease.The

Travers (18 72-19 61) in 1898.

artificial kidney was introduced in the 1930s, and renal

533

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NEPHROPEXY

biopsy for detection and management o f renal diseases

Deiters’ work was published two years after his death. See

appeared in the mid-1950s. See artificial kidney, kidney, renal

neuron, axon, myelin sheath.

transplant, nephritis.

N erve C on d u ction The involvement o f electric currents in

N ep hropexy [Greek: nephros, kidney + pexis, fixation]

nervous stimulus was shown by Emil Heinrich du Bois-

O peration to fix a movable kidney was perform ed by

Reym ond (1818-1896) ofB erlin in 1843. In 1846Johannes

Eugen Hahn (1841—1902) in 1881. A French surgeon o f

MüUer (1801—1858) stated that the time taken for transmis­

Cuban origin, Joaquin Dominguez Albarrán (1860—1912)

sion o f sensation from the periphery to the brain was

developed a further method.

infinitely

small

and

unmeasurable.

Hermann

von

Helmholtz (18 21-18 94 ), o f the University o f Bonn,

N ephrosis [Greek: nephros, kidney + osis, disease] Used by

measured the speed o f nerve conduction in experimental

Friedrich von M üller (1858—1941) in 1905 to refer to prim­

animals in 1852. His study on frogs showed that the

ary degenerative forms o f Bright disease and to difierentiate

maximum velocity was 30 meters per second. Joseph

it from diseases o f an inflammatory nature. His classification

Erlanger

was m odified by A m erican physicians, A lbert Arthur

(1874—1965)

and

Herbert

Spencer

Gasser

(1888-1963) received the N obel Prize for their work on

Epstein (18 8 0-19 6 5), F. Volhard (b 19 31) and G. Fahr

functions o f nerve fibers in 1944. Study o f nerve transmis­

(b 1937) to include amyloid kidney and other conditions in

sion

which the renal parenchyma was not primarily involved.

was

refined

by

Lord

Edgar

Douglas Adrian

(1889—1977) and N ew York neurophysiologist, D etlefW ulf

See nephrotic syndrome.

Bronk (1887—1975) around 1932. See neurotransmitters.

N ep hrostom y [Greek: nephros, kidney + tome, cut] An oper­

N erve R egeneration First mentioned by Felice Fontana

ation for treatment o f hydronephrosis in a four-year-old

(1730—1805) in 1767. Experimental studies in animals were

boy was performed by Thomas Hillier (1831-1868) in 1865. It was popularized by Joaquin Dominguez Albarrán (i860— 1912), a genitourinary surgeon from Cuba and a professor in

done by English surgeon, Joseph Swan (179 1—1874), who won the Jacksonian Prize o f the Royal College o f Surgeons for his treatise The Treatment of Local Morbid Affections of

Paris, in 1895.

the Nerves in 1819. Further experimental work was done

N ephrotic Syndrom e The association between edema and

by Edmé Felix Alfred Vulpian (1826-1887) o f Paris in 1861.

coagulable substances in urine was first observed by

The success o f nerve suture was demonstrated by Pierre

Cotunnius or Domenico Cotugno (1736—1822) in 1770

M arie Jean Flourens (1794—1867) o f Paris. Sir James Purves

and in 1827 by Richard Bright (1789-1858). Samuel Wilks

Stewart (1869-1949), a neurologist at the Westminster

(18 24 -19 11) in 1853 showed that a variety o f renal

Hospital, and London neurosurgeon, and Sir Charles Alfred

conditions could give rise to nephrotic syndrome.The term

BaUance (1865—1936) demonstrated partial recovery o f the

was introduced by Friedrich von Müller (1858—1941)

facial nerve after suturing it to an accessory nerve in 1895.

in 1905.

N ep tu n iu m

N ervous System See brain, neurology. Element heavier than uranium obtained by

N essler R eagen t Test for ammonia used in the analysis o f

bombarding uranium with neutrons. Found by two

blood, urea and plasma proteins was prepared by a German

American atomic scientists, Edwin Mattison M cM illan

chemist,Julius Nessler (1827—1905) o f Karlsruhe.

(1907—1991) and Philip HaugeAbelson (b 1913).

N estorian M edicine The Nestorian order was founded by

N ernst T h eory The effect o f an electric current on the

Nestorius, Syrian Bishop o f Constantinople (AD 431) who

tissues causing a change in concentration o f electrolytes in

was excommunicated for suggesting that the Virgin M ary

membranes. Put forward by German physicists, Walther

should not be called the Mother o f God. He established two

Hermann Nernst (1864—1941) and E .H . Riesenfeld in 1902.

hospitals in Edessa in Mesopotamia which developed into a

N erve [Greek: «err'Wi, nerve] The concept o f nerve in neurol­

very successful school o f medicine. His followers later

ogy was proposed by Aristotle (384—322 B C ). Hippocrates

moved to Persia, devoted their time to medicine and

(460—377 B C ) used the term ‘nervus’ to refer to whitish

established the famous medical school at Jundeshapur. See

fibrous structures such as tendons, nerves, and fascial bands.

Jundeshapur.

N erve C ell The structure, including the axis cylinder and

N ettleship D isease Urticaria pigmentosa, a form o f chronic

dendrons was first shown by Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters

skin disease which leaves brown stains. Described by London

(1834-1863), a pupil o f Rudolph Virchow (18 21-19 02).

dermatologist,Edward Nettleship (1845—1913) in 1869.

534

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

N eubauer A rtery

NEUROLOGY

Deep thyroid artery described by

N eurofibrom atosis [Greek: wewrow, nerve; Latin:Jii)ra, fiber] Familial condition characterized by developmental changes

German anatomist,Johann Ernst Neubauer (1742—1777).

in the nervous system, skin and bones with soft tumors and

N euburger, M ax (1868—1955) B orn in Vienna, he was a

areas o f pigm entation. A n early account was given by

medical historian who published: a history o f the physiolo­

R obert William Smith (1807-1873), a surgeon from Trinity

gy o f the nervous system (1897), nutrition (1900), antitoxins

College, Dublin in 1849. His Treatise on Pathology, Diagnosis,

(1900), Austrian and Viennese medicine (1918-1922) and

and Treatment of Neuroma preceded Friedrich Daniel von

an extensive history on medicine (1906—19 11).

Recklinhausen’s (1833-1910) description by 33 years. Smith

N eufeld, Fred (1861—1945) German bacteriologist who

provided life-size illustrations o f two cases. A classic

described bacteriotrophins in 1904. He demonstrated lysis

description was given by von Recklinghausen in 1882, and

o f pneumococci by bile salts.

the disease was named after him. See elephant man.

N euroglia [Greek: neuron, nerve + glia, glue] Supporting

N eu m an , Franz Ernst Christian (1834—1918) Professor o f pathological anatomy at Königsberg, who

structure o f the nerve tissue described by RudolphVirchow

described

the semicalcified layer o f the matrix (Neuman layer)

(18 21—1902) in 1854. It was differentiated into microglia and

surrounding dentine in 1863.

oligodendroglia using silver stain in 1919 by Spanish histologist, Pio del R io Hortega (1882-1945) o f the

N eurasthenia [Greek: neuron, nerve + astheneia, debility]

National Institute for Cancer in Madrid.

Jean Antoine Eugene Bouchut (18 18 -18 9 1) o f Paris recog­

N eurohypnology [Greek: neuron, nerve + hypnos, sleep +

nized a state o f nervous exhaustion and asthenia which he called‘nervosisme’ in i860. George M iller Beard (1839-

logos, discourse] Mesmerism was introduced by Franz

1883) introduced the concept o f neurasthenia and nervous

Anton Mesmer (1734—1815) and renamed‘neurohypnolo­ gy’ and used as anesthesia by a Manchester surgeon, James

exhaustion in 1869. See chronicfatigue syndrome.

Braid (1795—1860). He published Neurohypnology, or the

N eu rilem m a [Greek: neuron, nerve + eilema, covering] Thin

Rationale of Nervous Sleep, Considered in Relation with Animal

membranous outer covering o f the myelin sheath o f the

Magnetism in 1843. Sec hypnotism, animal magnetism.

nerve fiber (sheath o f Schwann) described and named by

N eu rology [Greek: neuron, nerve + logos, discourse] Term

Theodor Schwann (1810-1882), professor o f anatomy and

coined by Thomas Willis (16 21-1675). One o f the earliest

physiology at Liège in 1847.

significant contributions was made by Sir Charles Bell (1774—1842), who differentiated nerves into sensory and m otor components in i 8 ii .T h e first m odern treatise, Lehrbuch der Nerven-Krankheiten, was written by M oritz Heinrich R om berg (1795—1873) ofBerlin in 1840. He gave a clear account o f ataxia. Earlier treatises were written by: R obert Whytt (1714—1766) o f Edinburgh on tuberculous meningitis in 1768, Domenico Cotugno (1736—1822) o f Naples on sciatica in 1770, and James Parkinson (1755— 1824) o f London on paralysis agitans in 1817. Guillaume Benjamin Duchenne (1806—1875) o f Paris described spinal muscular atrophy in 1849, differentiated between various forms o f lead palsy, described spinal pathology o f anterior poliomyelitis and pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy. Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893) ofParis, a physician at the Hospital o f Salpetriere described: localization and functions o f cerebral diseases (1876), cortical motor centers in man Neurilemma. Theodor Schwann's original figure of muscle and nerve tissue.

(1893), lesions in muscular atrophy (1886) and peroneal

William Stirling, Some Apostles of Physiology (1902). Waterlow & Sons, London

muscular atrophy. Sir W illiam R ich ard Gowers (18 4 5 1915), a London professor o f medicine at University

N euroderm atitis [Greek: neuron, nerve + derma, skin + itis,

College, gave the name ‘knee je rk ’ to the tendon reflex o f

inflammation] Chronic lichenoid itching described by Jean

the knee, and in 1879 published an important textbook.

Baptiste EmileVidal (1825-1893) ofParis in 1886.

Diseases of the Nervous System and Pseudo-hypertrophic

535

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NEU RO N

Muscular paralysis (named Gower disease). Cortical areas

shown that it was used to cure conditions such as epilepsy,

responsible for specific isolated movements in the body

head injury, and demonic possession. The first modern

were proposed by John HughHngs Jackson (1835—19 11) in

scientific work on neuroanatomy was written by FelixVicq

1864, he described the unilateral localized form o f epilepsy

d’Azyr (1748-1794) o f Paris in 1786. Surgical treatment o f a

(Jacksonian fits).

cerebral abscess by opening the lateral ventricles was per­ formed by William Detmold (1808—1894) o f America in

N euron [Greek: neuron, nerve] Any o f the conducting cells o f

1850. Surgical removal o f a brain tumor arising from the

the nervous system. Galen (AD 129—200) first used the term

dura mater was performed by Sir William Macewen

in De Motu Musculorum (AD 180) as he beHeved that nerves

(1848—1924), professor o f surgery at the Glasgow Royal

caused the Hmbs to nod. German anatomist, Heinrich

Infirmary in 1879. SirVictor Horsley (1857—1916), founder

Waldeyer (1837—1921), revived the term and used it in the

o f neurosurgery in England, removed a tumor o f the spinal

modern sense in 1891 .The first attempt to classify them in the spinal

and

other

ganglia

Stanislavovich Dogiel

was

made

cord in 1888. Neurosurgery in Europe was advanced by

by Alexander

Fedor Krause (1856-1937) o f Berlin. Harvey Williams

(1852-1922), a neurologist and

Cushing (1869-1939) was a pioneer o f brain surgery in

professor ofhistology at St Petersburg in 1 898. See motor neuron.

America who devised his own technique for removing

N europhysiology [Greek: neuron, nerve + physis, nature +

intracranial tumors in 1932. H History of Neurological Surgery

logos, discourse] Gustav Theodor Fritsch (1838-1897), a

edited by an American neurosurgeon, A .E. Walker (b 1907)

military surgeon during the Prussian-Danish War, noted

ofjohns Hopkins, was published in 1951.

that stimulation o f one side o f the brain caused the opposite

N eurosyphilis [Greek: neuron, nerve] Niccolo Massa (1485—

side to twitch. He later joined with Julius Eduard Hitzig

1569), a professor at Venice, gave an early account in 1539.

(1838—1907) and did experiments on stimulation o f the

The late-stage effects o f syphilis on the brain were

brain in dogs.Their paper, published in 1870, is considered a

described by Thomas Willis (16 21—1675)

classic o f neurophysiology. In England, Lord Edgar Douglas

Pathologiae

cerebri in 1667. John Hunter (1728-1793) experimentally

Adrian (1889—1977) the founder o f British neurophysiology,

inoculated himself with samples taken from a gonorrheal

examined the activity o f the nervous system and paved the

patient

way for development o f the electroencephalogram. See

and

unknowingly

contracted

syphilis,

and

symptoms during his later life were probably due to

electroencephalography, electromyography, motor cortex.

neurosyphilis. Sir Thomas Clouston from Orkney and

N eurosis William CuUen (171Q-1790) used the term in 1769

superintendent at the Royal Morningside Asylum, associat­

in Synopsis Nosologiae Practicae which divided disease into

ed juvenile paresis with congenital syphilis in i877.Various

fevers, neuroses, cachexias and local disorders and classified

infective and toxic agents, including leishmania, malarial

them into four groups in his Nosology. The influence o f

parasites, spirochetes o f relapsing fever and tubercuHn, were

emotions on the viscera was presented by Sir Thomas

used to produce shock as treatment at the turn o f the 19th

Clifibrd AUbutt (1836-1925) in his Goulstonian lectures in

century.The colloidal gold test for diagnosis was introduced

1884, On the neuroses of the Wirera. Alfred Adler (1870—1937)

by Carl Friedrich August Lange (1883—1953) in 1913.

o f Vienna in 1929 suggested that neurosis is a defect or

N eurotransm itters Otto Loewi (1873—1961), a German-

failure in adjustment to the social environment and arises as a defense to defend the ego. Thomas Arthur Ross (1875— 1941), a psychiatrist at Edinburgh, rejected the Freudian

born American pharmacologist at Strasburg demonstrated in 1921 that a substance liberated from the stimulated vagus nerve ending, when perfused on to a second heart, was

hypothesis and psychoanalytic methods and pubHshed

capable o f slowing heart beat. This substance was the first

Common Neuroses in 1935.

neurotransmitter to be isolated and was identified as

N eurosurgery Trepanning is the oldest form o f neuro­

acetylcholine by British physiologist. Sir Henry HaUett

surgery and has been practiced since the Neolithic period.

Dale (1875-1968), in 1929.The role o f acetylcholine in the

Studies by Pierre Paul Broca (1824—1880) in 1876 showed

transmission o f nerve impulses was demonstrated by

evidence o f heafing in such skulls which indicate, not only

Wilhelm Siegmund Feldberg (b 1900) and Sir John Henry

that the procedure must have been performed while they

Gaddum (1900—1965) in 1965 .The mechanism o f its release

were alive, but also that they survived. Skulls from the

by nerve impulses was discovered by Sir Bernard Katz

pre-Incan period with trephine holes were identified by

(b 19 11), a biophysicist at University College, London, in

M uniz in 1894. The practice o f trepanning amongst some

1969. Noradrenaline was shown to be the main transmitter

races from Melanesia and Algeria in the 19th century have

o f sympathetic nerve impulses in 1946 by Swedish

536

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NICKEL

pharmacologist, U lf Svante von Euler (1905—1983), Avho

Philosophiae naturalisprincipia mathematica,w2S edited and pub­

was awarded the N obel Prize in 1970. Selective uptake o f

lished at the expense o f Edmund Halley (1656—1742) in

noradrenaline by sympathetic nerves was demonstrated,

1687. The first book dealt with derivation o f the inverse

with the use o f radioactive tracers, by Julius Axel (b 1912) o f

square law, book two deals with motion in a resisting

the American National Institute o f Health in i960.

medium. Application o f the laws o f gravity to motion o f the planets is in the third book. He was appointed master o f the

N eurotrophic Viruses [Greek: neuron, nerve + trophein, to

mint in 1699, a post which he held until his death. His work

nourish] Polio was the first virus with primary affinity for

was written for mathematicians and was interpreted by

nervous tissue discovered by Louis Pasteur (1822—1895) in

Voltaire (1694-1778) in 1737

1884. Its neurotrophic nature was proved in 1909.

N ew York Cancer H osp ital The first hospital for cancer in

N eutron [Latin; neuter, neither] In 1932 English physicist and

the United States was established in 1884. It was renamed

N obel Prize winner. Sir James Chadwick (1891—1974)

the M emorial Hospital in 1899.

bombarded the element beryllium with alpha particles and obtained a new particle with the same mass as the proton

N ew York H osp ital for the D iseases o f the Skin One o f

but with no charge. He announced his discovery, which he

the first three specialist hospitals (Massachusetts Eye and Ear

named ‘neutron’ , at the Cavendish Laboratory in the same

Infirmary in 1824, Boston Lying-in Hospital in 1832) in

year and published it in Nature on February 27 1932.The life

America was founded in 1836.

o f a neutron was estimated by Austrian-Swiss physicist and

N H S See National Health Service.

N obel Prize winner,Wolfgang Pauli (1900-1958).

N iacin Nicotinic acid (a B vitamin) was called niacin by the

N eutrophil ([Latin: neuter, neither; Greek: philos, love] See

Food and Research Council o f the U S A in 1942 to distin­

leukocytes, leukocyte count.

guish it for the general public who associated the term

N ew England Journal o f M edicine

Started as New

‘nicotine’ with a poisonous substance. See nicotinic acid.

England Journal of Medicine and Surgery in 1812 by two doctors, James Jackson (1777—1868) son o f N ewburyport

N icandros See Nikandros.

merchant, and John Collins Warren (1778—1856), son o f

N ich olls, Frank (1699—1778) London physician who gradu­

John Warren the first professor o f anatomy and surgery

ated from Christchurch, Oxford. He married the daughter

at Harvard Medical School. It merged with the Boston

o f Richard Mead (1673—1754), and succeeded Sir Hans

Medical Intelligencer as the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal

Sloane (1660—1753) as physician to George II. Nicholls

in 1828. Weekly clinical pathological conference proceed­

published DeAnima Medica, De Motu Cordis et Sanguis and

ings were initiated by Richard C. Cabot (1868—1939) o f

several other works.

Massachusetts General Hospital in 1895.

N ich olson , William (1758—1815) Physicist and inventor from N ew lands, John Alexander R eina (1837-1898) London

London who served in India at an early stage o f his career

chemist who arranged the elements in order o f atomic

and later became an agent o f Josiah Wedgwood on the

weight and recognized similarity between every eighth

continent. He invented the Nicholson hydrometer while a

element. His Law o f Octaves proposed in 1864 is regarded

waterworks engineer at Portsmouth. He constructed the

as a forerunner o f the periodic table.

first voltaic pile in England and demonstrated that water

N ew m an , Sir George (1870—1948) Civil servant and physi­

could be dissociated by electricity in 1800. He published

cian from Leominster who was appointed as chief medical

Dictionary of Chemistry, and Introduction to Natural Philosophy.

officer to the British Ministry o f Health in 1919, and

N ickel [Latin: niccolum] Isolated by Swedish metallurgist and

published Hygiene and Public Health (1917), Outline of the

mineralogist. A xel Frederick Cronstedt (172 2 —1765) o f

Practice of Preventive Medicine (1917), and Building of a Nation ’5

Turinge in 17 5 1. N ickel carbonyl, developed by Lu d w ig

Health in 1939.

M ond o f Cheshire in 1888, revolutionized the metal indus­

N ew to n , Sir Isaac (1642—1727) He was educated at

try. Nickel itch or dermatitis in workers who did nickel

Grantham and enteredTrinity College, Cambridge in 1660.

plating was first described by J. Rambousek in 1908. A 150-

He developed his Binomial Theorem at the age o f 24 years

fold increase o f carcinoma o f the ethmoid bone o f the nose

and three years later became a professor at Cambridge. His

in nickel refiners in Great Britain was detected by Sir Austin

work on mechanical principles and the motions o f bodies.

Bradford HiU (b 1897) in 1965.

537

NICOL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PRISM

N ic o l P rism Made from Iceland spar and having double

description and advised liver as treatment, as did Muffet in

refracting properties. Created by a Scottish geologist and

Health's Improvement in 1655. Conjunctival changes due to

physicist,William N icol (1768—1851) ofEdinburgh in 1828.

deficiency in diet was demonstrated in rats by P. Knapp o f

It w^as a valuable tool for studying polarized light.

Germany in 1909. The fat soluble nature o f this factor was shown by American biochemists, Thomas Burr Osborne

N icolle, Charles Jules Henri (1866-1936) French physician

(1859—1929) and Lafayette Benedict Mendel in 1913. Elmer

and pupil o f Emile R o u x (1853—1933) and EHe Metchnikoff

Verner M cCollum (1879—1967) and N. Simmonds named

(1845-1916) at the Pasteur Institute,born in R ou en and edu­

the factor‘fat soluble A ’ in 1917. H. Steenbock (1886-1967)

cated in Paris. He became director o f the Pasteur

made a connection between vitamin A and, carotene,

Institute in Tunis. He identified the body louse as a

a precursor. Carotene from plants was demonstrated as a

transmitter o f typhus fever in 19 11 ,for ^vhich he vv^as awarded

cure by Otto Rosenheim (18 71—1955) and Jack Cecil

the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1928.

Drummond (1891—1952) in 1920. The chemistry, isolation

N icotin am ide A denine D inucleotide (NAD) Coenzyme

and synthesis o f vitamin A was done by Swiss chemist, Paul

and electron carrier being alternatively oxidized and

Karrer (1889-1971) and R . Kuhn (1900-1967) in 1931.

reduced. See Kornberg,Arthur.

N ightshade SeeAtropa belladonna.

N icotin am id e Coenzym e discovered in yeast concentrates.

N ightingale, Florence (1820-1910) British nurse who was

Conrad Arnold Elvihjem (1901—1962) and Dodge William

born in Florence. She trained at the Kaiserswerth Institute,

Frost demonstrated its growth prom oting properties in

founded by Theodor Fliedner (1800—1864), and became

1937-

superintendent o f a hospital for invalid women in London.

N ico tin e The plant Nicotiana tabacum, from which the alka­

She volunteered to serve in the Crimean War and took 38

loid nicotine is obtained, is named after Jean N icot (1530—

nurses to Scutari. H er organization and dedication led to a

1600), French ambassador to Portugal, who brought seeds

drastic reduction in mortality. She returned to England in

to France for medical use around 1560.The first pure form

1856 and organized a fund to establish a training institute for

was prepared by Reim ann and Posselt in 1828. See tobacco.

nurses at St Thomas’ Hospital in i860. She published Notes on Nursing in 1859. See Nightingalefund.

N ico tin ic A cid The B vitamin niacin is found in yeast, milk and liver. Its efficacy in treatment o f pellagra was demon­

N igh tin gale Fund Started in 1855 by Florence Nightingale

strated by an American biochemist, Conrad Arnold

to raise funds to establish a training institute for nurses and

Elvehjem (1901-1962) o f Wisconsin in 1938. The occur­

hospital attendants. The singer Jenny Lind gave a concert at

rence o f encephalopathy in nicotinic acid deficiency was

the Exeter Hall and contributed the proceeds to the fund

described by N.JoUiffe in 1940.

and Queen Victoria gave a valuable jewel. The fund closed in 1857 with a final sum o f 44,000 pounds.

N iem an n —P ick D isease Lipoidosis with anemia, mental retardation, retinal degeneration, hepatosplenomegaly and

N ightm are or Incubus Disorder known as ‘ephialtes’ to the

skin pigmentation caused by a lack o f the enzyme

Greeks. Paul o f Aegina (625—690) described it and

sphingomyelinase and a subsequent accumulation o f

prescribed black hellebore as treatment. Other ancient

sphyngomyelin.

Niemann

physicians, including Aetius o f Amida (AD 502—575),

(1880—1921), a Berlin pediatrician in 1914. It was described

Described

by

Albert

Avicenna (980—1037) and Rhazes (850—932) recommended

in more detail by Ludwig Pick (1868—1944), a German

bleeding and purging as treatment. Caelius Aurelianus,

pathologist, in 1926.

around the fourth century, suggested shaving the head as a cure.

N iem eyer Pill Quinine, digitalis and opium preparation sold by Germ an physician, Felix von N iem eyer (1820—

Nikandros Kolophonois o f Klaros was a physician and poet from Ionia in 200 B C . He described several herbal

1871).

remedies.

N igh t B lindness Nyctalopia was recognized in the Ebers papyrus (1600 B C ) and liver was recommended as treat-

N ineveh

Knowledge o f ancient Babylonian medicine is

ment.The Chinese, around the same time, used liver, honey,

mainly derived from 700 medical tablets out o f the 12,000

flying fox dung and tortoise shell as a cure. Hippocrates

which were found by English archeologist Sir Austen

(460—377 B C ) recommended liver o f ox dipped in honey.

H enry Layard (1817-1894) in 1849 during excavations in

Jacques Guillemeau (1550-1612) in France gave a clear

Nineveh, the capital o f the Assyrian empire. These showed

538

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NITZE

that Babylonian prescriptions included drugs o f vegetable

N itrogen Fixing BacteriaThe fixation o f nitrogen from air

and mineral origin.They specialized in having a doctor for

by some leguminous plants was first observed by German

every different disease. Amulets, chants and incantations

botanist,Hermann Helriegel (1831-1895) in 1886. His obser­ vation was explained by the presence o f nitrogen fixing

were also used to prevent and cure diseases.

Nirvana

bacteria in roots o f certain legumes by Sir Henry Gilbert

Ideal state devoid o f all passion achieved by

(18 17-19 0 1) at Rothamsted in England in 1893.

Gautama Buddha, founder o f Buddhism. It is said to be attained through meditation and is considered by some

N itrogen Mustard Introduced as treatment o f Hodgkin disease by Alfred Gilman (b 1908) and Stanley Frederick

workers as the earliest form o f psychotherapy.

Philips (b 1916) in 1946.

N irenberg, Marshall Warren (b 1927) American biochemist from N ew York who worked at the National Institutes o f

N itrogen [Greek: nitron, niter + gennan, to produce]

Health in Bethesda. He worked out the sequence o f amino

Obtained from air by Daniel Rutherford (1749-1819), a

acid codes needed to synthesize a protein. He shared the

pupil o f Joseph Black (1728-1799) at the University o f

N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1968.

Edinburgh in 1772. In 1784 Henry Cavendish (17 31—1810) demonstrated that it was capable o f combining with oxygen

N isb et Chancre Nodular abscess in the penis following

to form oxides in the presence o f an electric arc. Its

acute lymphangitis o f soft chancre was described by English

compressibility to 430 atmospheres was shown by French

physician,William Nisbet (1859—1882).

physicist,Emile Hilaire Amagat (18 4 1-19 15). Sec air.

Chromophil granules in the cytoplasm o f

N issl B od ies

N itroglycerine Prepared by Italian chemist,Ascanio Sobrero

nerve cells described by Bavarian neurologist, Franz Nissl

(1812-1888) ofTurin, in 1847. Alfred N obel (1833-1896) o f

(1860-1919) in Munich in 1894.

N issl Stain

Sweden used it as an explosive in 1863. It was introduced as

Alcohol-based stain for extranuclear R N A

treatment for angina by William Murrell (1853-1912) in

in nerve cells devised by Franz Nissl (1860—1919), a

1879.

neurologist from Munich in 1894.

Nitrosomonas

Soil bacterium that converts ammonia to

nitrite. Discovered by Russian microbiologist, Sergi N.

N itric A cid [Greek: nitro, soda] Also called aqua fortis, pre­

Winogradsky, in 1890.

pared by an alchemist and medical missionary in Africa, Raym ond Fully (1235—1312) in 1287. Saltpetre was shown

N itrous O xide

to contain nitric acid and potash by R obert Boyle (16 27-

Discovered by British chemist, Joseph

Priestley (1733-1804), in 1776. Sir Humphry Davy (1778-

1691) in 1661. Nitrous acid was discovered by Carl Wilhelm

1829) o f Penzance experimented on the inhalational effects

Scheele (1742-1786) in 1774, and Henry Cavendish ( 17 3 1 -

in 1 796.The induction o f anesthesia by inhalation o f nitrous

1810) demonstrated its nature in 1785. A modern process

oxide was demonstrated by Boston dentist, Horace Wells

o f making it from ammonia was invented by Friedrich

(1815—1848) in 1844 and was introduced on a commercial

W ilhelm Ostwald (18 53-19 32 ), Germ an professor o f

basis by 1868 but involved a cumbersome apparatus to make

chemistry at Feipzig.

the gas.The firms o f Coxeter and son and Barth in Britain overcame this difficulty by devising a method o f liquefying

N itrite Test To detect urinary tract infection, devised by

the gas, and supplied it on a commercial scale.Their method

J. Cruikshank and J. Moyes o f England in 1914.

provided readily available nitrous oxide in smaller cylinders,

N itrite The vasodilator effect o f nitrites in relieving angina

and popularized its use in anesthesia. Its use in dentistry was

was demonstrated by Sir Fauder Brunton (1844-1916) in

revived in 1863 by Gardner Quincy Colton (1814-1894), a

1867. See glyceryl trinitrate.

lecturer in chemistry, who first used the gas with Horace

N itroprusside Discovered by a Scottish chemist. Lord Lyon

Wells at Boston in 1844. It was used to relieve labor pains by

Playfair (1818-1898) around 1845. Sodium nitroprusside

Stanislaw Klikovich (1853—1910) o f Russia in 1880, and a

became the most commonly used vasodilator for cardiac

machine for self-administration in obstetrics was devised by

failure in the 1970s.

Arthur E. Guedel (1883-1956) in 1910.

Nitrofurantoin

N itze, M ax (1848-1906) Berlin pioneer in the field o f

Oral urinary antibacterial compound

developed in 1947 from nitrofuran drugs, introduced by M .

urology

Dodd in 1946.

cystoscope in 1879.

539

who

invented

the

modern

electrically-lit

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NMR

bacteriologist, Hideyo

N M R or nuclear magnetic resonance. See magnetic resonance

Noguchi

(1876-1928), o f the

Rockefeller Institute, N ew York. He also demonstrated the

imaging (M RI).

role o f spirochetes o f syphilis and cultured Treponema

N ob el, Alfred Bernhard (1833—1896) Inventor o f dynamite

pallidum. He died during his studies on yellow fever in

and originator o f the N obel Prize. He v^as born in

West Africa, having shown the viral nature o f the disease.

Stockholm and provided with private tutors by his father, an architect and an inventor. After studying chemistry in Paris, he began investigating nitroglycerine in 1863 and invented a detonator in the same year which revolutionized the explosive and mining industry. He later worked for the Russian Arm y and established factories in 1872 across Europe which manufactured nitroglycerine. N obel led a lonely life in Paris in later life, and left his vast fortune o f 33,000,000 crowns to establish a trust to award Nobel Prizes in chemistry, physics, medicine, literature and peace. The first series o f N obel Prizes were awarded in 1901.

N o b e l P rize See Nobel,Alfred. N ob ili, Leopoldo (1784—1835) Italian physicist, born in Trassilico and became professor o f physics in Florence. He invented a thermopile to measure radiant heat. Hideyo Noguchi (1876-1928). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

N ob le, Daniel (1810—1885) B orn in Preston, practiced medi­ cine at Manchester during a typhus epidemic and in charge o f the arrangements to control it. He published Influence of

NoUet, Jean Antoine (1700—1770) French abbé and physicist

Manufactures upon Health and Life (1843), and The Human

who became the first professor o f physics at the Collège de

Mind in its Relationship with Brain and Nervous System in

Navarre in Paris. In 1748 he gave an explanation o f osmosis

1858.

and he also invented an early electroscope. See osmosis.

N ocard, Edmond Isidore Etienne (1850—1903) French

N om enclature [Latin: nomen, name + calare, call] Scientific

veterinarian w ho did pioneering studies on filterable agents

system o f classification. Founded by Swedish botanist and physician, Carl Linnaeus (1707—1778). One o f the earliest

in animals. He discovered bovine pleuropneumonia and

English anatomy books on the subject A New Anatomical

demonstrated that the tubercle bacillus could be transmitted

Nomenclature was published by a lecturer in anatomy at

to man through milk and meat.

Edinburgh,John Barclay (1758-1826) in 18 03.The single­

N ocardiosis Diseases caused by a genus o f actinomycète,

word nomenclature in the American Pharmacopoeia was

Nocardia, which affect patients with underlying ill health.

introduced by Boston surgeon, H enry Jacob B igelow

Described by John Tindal Cuttino (b 1912) and Anne

(1816-1890) in 1820.

M cCabe o f America in 1949. It was named Nocardia

N o n -D isju n ctio n Abnormality o f the sex chromosome

intercellularis, in honor o f French veterinarian, Edmond

during meiosis was discovered by Colin Blackman Bridges

Isidore Etienne Nocard (1850—1903).

(1889-1938) in 1913.

N o d e ofTawara Atrioventricular node o f the heart discov­

N onsteroidal A nti-inflam m atory D rugs (NSAID) See

ered by Japanese anatomist, Sunao Tawara (1873—1952), a

anti-inflammatory drugs.

pupil o f Ludwig Aschoff (1866-1942) in Germany in 1906.

N o o n a n Syndrom e Congenital heart defect, web neck and

N od es o f Ranvier Interruptions in the meduUary nerve

chest deformity with hypertelorism and mild mental retar­

fiber sheath described by Louis-Antoine Ranvier (1835-

dation. Similar in appearance to Turner syndrome, but with

1922),a neurologist from Paris in 1878.

a normal karyotype. Observed by O. Kobylinski while a

N ogu ch i R eaction Diagnostic skin test, a modification o f

medical student at the Estonian University at Dorpat in

the Wasserman reaction using human instead o f sheep

1883. It is named after Jacqueline A. Noonan (b 1928) who

corpuscles.

described it in 1963.

Devised

by

Japanese-born

American

540

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NUCLEAR

N oord en , Carl Harko von (1858—1944) Viennese co-worker

FISSION

(1710—1790) o f Edinburgh applied it to human diseases in

with Bernard Naunyn (1839—1925) in the study o f diabetes.

Synopsis Nosologiae Methodicae in 1769.

Both laid down the principles o f the antidiabetic diet before

N ostalgia

the insulin era.

[Greek: nostos, return home +

algos, pain]

Inordinate desire to return to ones native land which if

N ordau, M ax Simon (1849—1923) Hungarian physician

ungratified leads to melancholy or madness .William Cullen

who moved to Paris in 1886 and wrote several books on

(1710 -1790) classed it as a disorder o f the mind along with

moral and social issues including, Conventional Lies of Society

bulimia and satyriasis in 1772.Thomas Arnold (1742—1816), a physician from Edinburgh at the Leicester Infirmary, listed

(1883), and Degeneration (1895).

it as pathetic insanity. It was considered essentially a disease

N orepinephrine Studied by George Barger (1878-1939)

o f foreigners in England. R obert Hamilton (1749-1830), an

and Henry Dale (1875—1968) at the National Institute for

English army physician from Ipswich, wrote a treatise on it

Medical Research in 1 9 1 1 . It was discovered to be the main

in 1787.

transmitter o f sympathetic nerve impulses by Swedish

N ostradam us,

pharmacologist and N obel Prize winner, U lf Svante von

Michael

(1503-1566)

Astrologer

and

Euler (1905-1983) in 1946. Release o f norepinephrine was

physician from France who graduated from Montpellier.

demonstrated by W S. Peart in 1949. It was studied in detail

He published his predictions o f the future. Prophetical

by N obel Prize winner Julius Axelrod (b 1912) head o f the

Centuries, based on astrology, in 1555. He was also physician

National Institutes o f Mental Health. See adrenaline, epinephrine.

to Charles IX .

N oth nagel, Carl Herman Wilhelm (1841-1905) German

N orm al D istrib u tion Curve [Latin: norma, rule] Devised by French mathematician, Abraham de M oivre (1667—

physician and professor at Jena (i874),andVienna (1882).He

1754) ofVitry, Champagne in 17 2 1. H e came to England in

described unilateral oculomotor paralysis associated with

1686 and published Doctrine of Chances, based on probability

ipsilateral ataxia, due to lesions o f the superior cerebral

theory in 1718 and a normal distribution curve in 1733. His

peduncle o f the brain.

fundamental law on com plex numbers is know n as de

N o to ch o rd [Greek: noton, back + chorde, cord] See chordata.

M oivre theorem.

N o tt, C. Josiah (1804—1873) B orn in Columbia, South N orth A m erican B lastom ycosis See Gilchrist,Thomas.

Carolina and graduated in medicine from the University o f

N orthnagel Sign State o f paralysis o f facial muscles occur­

Pennsylvania in 1824 before establishing an obstetric

ring in thalamic tumors. Described by German physician,

practice at M obile, Alabama. He was one o f the first to

Herman Northnagel (1845-1905).

suggest the involvement o f the mosquito in yellow fever in 1840.

N orthrop, John Howard (1891-1987) American biochemist born in Yonkers, N ew York and educated at Columbia

N ovocain e Local anesthetic discovered by German chemist,

University, before becoming professor o f bacteriology at

Albert Einhorn (1856-1917), in the early 20th century and

the University o f California, Berkeley in 1949. He crystal­

introduced to medicine by Heinrich Friedrich Wilhelm

lized pepsin and demonstrated it to be a protein in 1930. He

Braun (1862—1934). In 1916 during World War 1, the

also isolated chymotrypsinogen in 1935, and diphtheria

Americans took over the patent and marketed it as

toxin in a crystalline form. He shared the N obel Prize for

procaine. Braun later added adrenaline to the preparation to

Chemistry with James BatcheUer Sumner (1887—1955) and

prolong the effect o f local anesthesia.

WendeU Meredith Stanley (1904—1971) in 1946. Northrop

N S A ID

wrote Crystalline Enzymes,published in 1939.

Abbreviation for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory

drug. Refers to all drugs other than steroids which are capable o f reducing inflammation. See anti-inflammatory drugs

N o se Surgery or rhinoplasty Affixing a new nose is an ancient surgical technique first practiced in India in the

N u ck Canal Tubule o f the peritoneum descending from the

time o f Susruta. Two English surgeons, James Trindlay and

uterus into the inguinal canal in young females. Described

Thomas Cruso saw this operation in 1792 done on a

by Dutch anatomist,Anton N uck (1650-1692),in 1691. He

bullock-cart driver o f the English A rm y in India and later

also published De Vasis Aqosis Oculi, De Ductu Salivali Novo,

described it. See plastic surgery, rhinoplasty.

and Operationes et Experimenta Chirurgica.

N o so lo g y [Greek: nosos, disease + logos, discourse] System o f

N uclear Fission Term used by Austrian-British physicist,

classification o f diseases by symptoms. William Cullen

Otto R o b e rt Frisch (190 4-19 79) who worked on the

541

NUCLEAR

MAGNETIC

RESONANCE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCAN

Atomic Bom b project at Los Alamos. He based his experi­

codons. He was awarded the N obel Prize (with Arthur

ments on the findings o f Lise Meitner (1878—1968) in 1939.

Kornberg,b 1918) in i959.Another N obel Prize was award­

See atomic energy.

ed to Sir Alexander Todd (b 1907) o f England in 1957 for his work on the structure and synthesis o f nucleotides.

N uclear M agnetic R eson an ce Scan See magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

N u cleolu s Discovered by Gabriel Gustav Valentin (18 10 1883),an Italian pathologist and botanist,in 1836.

N uclear M edicine Use o f isotopes to investigate function and diseases o f organs. Georg Charles von Hevesy (1885— 1966), a Hungarian-born professor o f chemistry at

N ucleus [Latin: nucleus, kernel] Described by R obert Brown (1773-1980), a Scottish physician and botanist,in 1831.

Stockholm, initiated the use o f radio isotopes in the study o f

N uel Space

living tissues. In 1935 he demonstrated that body tissues

Between the outer rod o f Corti and the

adjacent row o f hair cells. Described by Jean Pierre Nuel

such as bone existed in a dynamic state giving up and taking

(1847—1920), professor-of otology at Louvain, in Belgium,

in atoms. He was awarded the N obel Prize for Chemistry in

in 1873.

1943. Herman Ludwig Blumgart (1895—1977) and Soma Weiss (1898-1942) introduced radioactive substances in

N uffield Foundation Established for medical, scientific and

evaluation o f cardiac function and velocity o f blood flow in

social research by the motor magnate and philanthropist,

1927. Benedict Cassen (b 1902) and co-workers in the 1950s

William Richard M orris Nuffield (18 77 -19 6 3),in 1943. He

produced clinical images o f an organ (thyroid). Study o f

started with a cycle repair shop and went on to making

pulmonary circulation and lung ventilation using xenon

M orris motor cars at Cowley, Oxford. He acquired a vast

was introduced around 1963.The large crystal scintillation

fortune by mass-producing cars and gave part o f it to hospi­

camera was developed by H .O.Anger in 1958.Technetium-

tals, Oxford University and charities. Nuffield College at

99, a radioisotope with a short half-life, was introduced by

Oxford was established in 1937.

Harper in 1962. Thallium -201 was used for myocardial

N uh n Glands Anterior lingual glands named after German

perfusion imaging by Lebowitz in 1973. See isotopes.

anatomist,Anton N uhn (1814—1889).

N uclear R eactor The first nuclear reactor for controlled chain reactions was built by an Italian, Enrico Fermi (1901—

N ull H ypothesis [Latin: nullus, none] States that there is no

1954) from R om e, at the University o f Chicago in 1942. He

difference between control and test systems under study.

moved to America immediately after receiving his Nobel

Devised and explained by English statistician and geneticist.

Prize for Physics at Stockholm in 1938 and was appointed as

Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher (1890—1962) o f East Finchley,

professor at Columbia University in 1939.

London in The Design of Experiments published in 1942. He also studied the Rhesus factor in blood.

N u cleic A cid [Latin; nucleus, kernel] Johann Friedrich N upercaine

Miescher (1844—1895) in 1868, extracted a previously un­

Trade name for preparations o f dibucaine.

known substance from the nuclei o f pus cells and the heads

Synthesized by Meischer in 1929, and first used as a spinal

o f salmon spermatozoa (1872) and named it ‘nuclein’ . The

anesthetic in England by Howard Jones o f Charing Cross

term was replaced by nucleic acid in 1889. An intensive

Hospital in 1930.

study was done by Swiss-born German chemist, Albrecht

N urem berg C ode See Nuremberg trials.

Kossel (1853—1927). Russian-born American biochemist, Phoebus Aaron Theodor Levene (1869-1940) demonstrat­

N urem berg Trial Established after World War 11 to try Nazi

ed that they contained ribose sugar in 1909, and further

War criminals for unethical treatment and cruel experi­

investigation o f the substance was undertaken by Walter

ments on humans. The first docum ent w hich outlined

Jones (1865—1935) who identified ribonucléase in 1920.

ethical regulations on human experimentation based on

Nucleic acid was isolated from tobacco mosaic virus by

informed consent was set up in 1947 following the trials.

Wendell Meredith Stanley (1904-1971) at the Rockefeller

This Nuremberg Code laid down 10 standards to which

Institute in Princeton in 1935. X -ray diffraction was

physicians were expected to conform when carrying out

applied to the study o f nucleic acids by English X-ray

research on humans. The next most important document

crystallographer, William Thomas Astbury (1889—1961) in

on human experimentation, the Declaration o f Helsinki,

1937. Research on their synthesis was done by a Spanish-

was passed by the World Medical Assembly in Helsinki

born American biochemist, Severo Ochoa (b 1905) who

in 1964. It contained further guidelines on biom edical

solved the genetic code and determined the number o f

research involving human subjects.

542

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NUTRITION

N urses A gen cy A ct To register and regulate agencies that

home for female ex-convicts and later came to include a

supplied nurses,passed in 1957.

hospital, lunatic asylum, orphanage and school. Organized training in England commenced at St John s House in 1848,

N ursin g in A m erica Elizabeth Bayley Seton (1774 -18 21)

under the supervision o f clergymen. Pupil nurses attended

at Emittsburg, Maryland founded the Sisters o f Charity in

K ings College from 1856. The Nursing School at St

1809 to provide nursing care for the poor. The Sisters o f

Thomas’ Hospital was founded by Florence Nightingale in

Charity o f Nazareth was established in 1812 in Louisville.

i860. A rapid expansion o f paid professional nursing staff

The Irish Sisters o f M ercy arrived in America in 1846. Until

occurred after 1866 and the first professional association,

i860 no training existed for nurses in America. Rebecca

the British Nurses Association, was founded by Ethel

Taylor, head nurse at the Massachusetts General Hospital

Gorden Manson (1857—1947), matron at St Bartholom ew’s

for 34 years, was one o f the finest examples o f dedication

Hospital, in 1886. The College o f Nursing was proposed

to nursing before formal training was instituted. The first

in 1916 by Arthur Stanley chairman o f the Joint War

American medical graduate, Elizabeth Blackwell, pioneer­

Committee o f the British R e d Cross Society. The pioneer

ed training in America by sending volunteers to BeUevue

o f nursing in Australia was Elizabeth Kenny (1886-1952)

Hospital around 1859. Dorothea D ix was appointed as

who started nursing in the bush and later established clinics

superintendent during the Civil War. Clara Barton, known

providing physical therapy to polio victims in several parts

as the Angel o f the Battlefield, is considered as an American

o f the world.

Nightingale o f the Civil War. A Polish-German immigrant doctor, Maria Elizabeth Zakrzewska (1829—1902), trained

N ussbaum Cells

Found in the pyloric gastric glands.

nurses at the N ew England Hospital for Women and

Described by M oritz Nussbaum (1850—1915), a professor o f

Children in i860. Her assistant, Susan Dim ock, who visited

biology and histologist at Bonn in 1877.

the Kaiserwerth Institute in Germany, began a one-year

N utrition [Latin: nutrx, nurse] Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25

graded course for the nurses in 1872.The first trained nurse

B C —A D 50) wrote on the role o f food in maintaining

in America was Linda Richards, a graduate o f this program

health. The value o f lem on ju ice in protecting against

and she became the first nurse in charge o f the Boston

scurvy was pointed out by the naval surgeon John Woodall

Training School for Nurses at Massachusetts General Hos­

(1556—1643) in 16 11 .A metabolic treatise on food in relation

pital, in 18 73.The training school at Bellevue preceded the

to body weight and excretion was written by Sanctorio

Boston School by a few months and that at N ew Haven

Sanctorius (1561—1636) in 1614. Controlled trials with lime

Hospital opened later in the same year (1873). The

against scurvy were performed by James Lind (1716—1794),

American Nurses Association was established by incorpo­

a British naval surgeon in 1747. Frederick Accum (1769-

rating the Associated Alumnae o f the nurses o f Bellevue,

1 83 8), a German chemist from Buckeburg raised the issue o f

Illinois and Johns Hopkins, in i9 ii.T h e American Journal of

adulteration o f food in 1820 inTreatise on Adulteration of Food

Nursing was published in 1900 and the first textbook New

and Culinary Poisons. He also wrote Culinary Chemistry, on

Haven Manual of Nursing was published in 1879. The first

the scientific principles o f cooking. Accessory food factors,

training school in a hospital for the mentally ill was

vitamins, were propounded by Sir Frederick Gowland

established at the M cLean Hospital in Boston in 1882.

Hopkins (1861—1947) in 1906. The first o f these, to prevent

N u rsin g [Middle English: norture, nurse] The Irish Sisters o f

beriberi, was discovered by Polish-American biochemist,

Charity, founded by M other M ary Aikenhead from Dublin

Casimir Funk

in 1815, was the first to reorganize hospital nursing in the

Chittenden (1856—1943), an A m erican physiologist from

(1884-1967), in

19 11. Henry Russell

English-speaking countries. During the early 19th century

N ew Haven, Connecticut founded physiological chem­

almost all nurses were recruited from the domestic servant

istry and nutrition in America. He wrote Physiological Econ­

class. Working conditions were appalling and nurses often

omy in Nutrition (1905), and Nutrition of Man (1907) .The role

had to sleep in wards and cook their own meals. Nursing

o f amino acids was studied by William Cum m ing R ose

sisters were from a higher social class and matron s duties

(1887-1984), an American biochemist from Greenville,

were mostly o f an administrative nature. R efo rm o f the

South Carolina. He discovered threonine (1936), and nine

profession began in the latter half o f the 19th century with

essential amino acids, including methionine (1937), and

the introduction o f training. The Institute o f Kaiserswerth

valine (1939). Severe protein malnutrition in children,

near Düsseldorf, where Florence Nightingale spent three

‘kwashikor’ , was described by British pediatrician. Cicely

months in 1851, played an important role in this.The Insti­

Williams (1893-1992) in 1934. Poor nutrition is still the

tute was established in 1833 by Pastor Theodor Fliedner as a

major cause o f death in the world. See vitamins.

543

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

NUTTALL

N uttall, Thomas

(1786—1859)

English-born American

naturalist from Yorkshire who migrated to Philadelphia in 1808. He wrote Genera of North American Plants in 1818. Nuttall served as the curator o f the Botanical Garden at Harvard from 1822 to 1833.

N u x V om ica

Seed from Strychnos Nux-vomica, a plant

indigenous to India and the Malay archipelago, was introduced into medicine by the Arabs.The first description was given by Valerius Cordus (1515—1554) o f Hesse in 1540, and De Nuce Vomica giving an account o f its toxic effects on animals, was published by J. Lossius in 1682. It was used in England in the 17th century as a pest poison.The poisonous action is due to the alkaloids,brucine and strychnine.Brucine was isolated from bark by French pharmacist, Pierre Joseph Pelletier (1788-1842),in 1819.

N yctalopia [Greek: nyx, night + alaos, blind + opia, eye] Night bhndness.WiUiam Briggs (1642—1704) gave an account o f the condition in England in 1684. A classical description was given by William Heberden (1710—1801) in 1768. See night blindness.

NylanderTest Detects dextrose in the urine. Devised by Swedish chemist, Claes GabrielWilhelm Nylander (1835-1907).

N ym p hom an ia [Greek: nympha, bride + mania, madness] A state o f insatiable sexual desire or auto-eroticism in the female. Nympha was used in ancient Greek writings to refer to the clitoris. An early treatise Nymphomania, or a disserta­ tion concerning thefuror uterus, translated from the French by English physician Edward Sloane Wilmot was published in 1785. Seefuror uterinus.

N ystagm us [Greek: nystagmos, drowsiness] The occurrence in multiple sclerosis (U h th off sign) was described by German physician and ophthalmologist, Wilhelm U hthoff (1853—1927) o f Breslau. See Wernicke encephalopathy, mineras nystagmus, Barany chair.

N ystatin Antifungal agent produced from the soil bacteri­ um, Streptomyces noursei,hy Elizabeth Hazen (1885—1975) o f N ew York State Department o f Health in 1950. Specifically effective against Candica albicans. It was developed and marketed by E . R . Squibb and Sons who patented it in 1951.

N ysten, Pierre Hubert (177 1—1818) Physician from Liège in Belgium at the Foundling Hospital in Paris. He wrote Recherches de Physiologie et Chemie Pathologique and several other medical works.

544

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OBSTETRICS

Obstetric Cbair [Latin: obstetrix, midwife] Used during childbirth for thousands o f years until the French obstetri­ cian, François Mauriceau (1637—1709) dispensed with it and

O

started delivering his patients in bed.

O bstetric Forceps [Latin:

midwife] Seeforceps.

O bstetric Ultrasonography [Latin:

midwife] Sonar

or ultrasound was first developed by a French scientist Paul Langevin (1872-1946) in 1915 for ships to detect icebergs. Application for fetal examination in utero was first done by

O A ntigen Somatic antigens were first identified in cases

Ian Donald (1910—1987), professor o f obstetrics at Glasgow

o f Salmonella typhi infection by Polish bacteriologist

University in 1958.

A rthur Felix (1887-1956) in 1924.

O ’B eirne Sphincter Band at the junction o f the colon and the rectum, first described by Irish surgeon,James O ’Beirne (1786-1862).

O at C ell C arcinom a

Cancer o f the mediastinum and

hilum o f the lung. Described by William George Barnard (1892-1956) o f London in 1926. He used the term oat cell, as the tumor consisted o f small oval cells resembling oats.

O berm ayerTest Detects indican in urine, using lead acetate as a reagent. Devised by Austrian physiological chemist, Friedrich Obermayer (1861-1925).

O berm eyer Spirillum (Syn: Borrelia obermeyeri, Borrelia recurrentis) Causative spirochete o f relapsing fever transmit­ ted by the human louse. Discovered by German physician, Otto Hugo Franz Obermeyer (1843-1873) in 1868.

O berst O peration Done for ascites. A flap o f skin is project­ ed into the abdomen to provide drainage o f ascitic fluid. Devised by a German surgeon, M . Oberst (1849—1925).

O berth,

Herman Julius

(1894-1990)

Hungarian-born

physician who gave up medicine for astrophysics. He is considered the founder o f the science o f space rockets. Rocket to Interplanetary Space was published by him in 1923. Illustration from S. Melli (1766), La Comare, showing the position for obese patient (top) and correction of abnormal fetal positions

O besity [Latin: obesus, fat] Overeating was denounced by most o f the ancient philosophers and physicians, including Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) and Aristotle (384-322 B C ). One o f the best work on the subject, by Athelme Brillat-

O bstetrics [Latin: obstetrix, a midwife] Obstetrics was

Savarin (1755—1826) o f France was Physiologie du Gout

practiced during ancient Greek times by female midwives.

published in 1825. He described obesity as that state o f fatty

Physicians such as Galen (AD 129—200), Rufus o f Ephesus

congestion where, ‘without the person being ill, the limbs

(AD 110 -18 0 ), Soranus o f Ephesus (AD 98-138) and

grow little by little in volume and lose their natural shape

Aretaeus the Cappadocian (AD 81—138) were familiar with

and harmony’ . George Cheyne (16 71—1743), an eminent

the problems related to pregnancy, and puerperal fever is

Scottish physician, changed his eating habits on moving to

mentioned in the aphorisms o f Hippocrates (460—377 B C ).

London and gained weight, reaching over 32 stones. He

François Mauriceau

embarked on a diet o f vegetables and regained his normal

obstetrician, dispensed with the obstetrical chair and deliv­

weight and published An Essay on Health and Long Life, an

ered his patients in bed. His Des Maladies des Lemmes Grosses

important practical work on obesity, in 1724.

et Accouchées was translated into English by H ugh

545

(1637—1709), an eminent French

OBSTRUCTIVE

AIRWAY

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

DISEASE

The third nerve o f the brain. Galen o f Pergam on (AD

Chamberlen (1632—1720). Geronimo Scipione Mercurio (1550—1616), professor o f medicine at Bologna and Pisa,

129—200) considered the sixth nerve to be a branch o f it.

wrote a book on obstetrics in 1586 in wbicb be advocated

The eye in relation to the third nerve was studied by Johann

cesarean section in cases o f contracted pelvis. Tbe conta­

Gottfried Zinn (1727-1759) in 1755. Herman David Weber

gious nature o f puerperal fever was noted in 1795 by

(1823-1918) described a syndrome o f hemiplegia with con­

Alexander Gordon (1750-1799), an obstetrician from

tralateral paralysis o f the oculomotor nerve secondary to a

Aberdeen. He advocated disinfection o f tbe clothes o f tbe

lesion in the cerebral peduncle (Weber syndrome),in 1863.

midwife and doctor before tbey attended tbe mother. An

O ccu lt B lo o d Test Advocated as a routine diagnostic test

illustrative book. The Anatomy of the Human Gravid Uterus,

in gastroenterology by German gastroenterologist, Ismar

was written in 1774 by William Hunter (1718 -178 3),

Isidor Boas (1858-1938). He and Anton Ewald (1845-1915)

accoucheur to the Queen.The combined method o f inter­

introduced the test meal for measuring gastric secretion.

nal and external podalic version was described in i860 by John Braxton Hicks (1823—1897) o f R y e in Sussex, an

O ccupational Cancer Cancer o f the scrotum in chimney

obstetric physician at G u y’s Hospital. Chloroform was used

sweeps due to chronic exposure to soot was described by

successfully

Sir Percivall Pott (1714—1788) in 1770.The same disease was

(18 11-18 7 0 ),

in a

1847

by

Scottish

Sir James Young obstetrician.

Simpson

John

described by S. R . Wilson o f the Royal Infirmary

Snow

(1813—1858), the first physician to specialize in anesthesia,

Manchester in

popularized the use o f chloroform in obstetrics by adminis­

prolonged contact with lubrication oil. Adenocarcinoma

1906 in cotton spinners, caused by

tering it to Queen Victoria. The first incision o f a rigid

from chronic chromate exposure was described by D A .

perineum which was likely to tear during delivery

Newman o f Glasgow in 1890. Deaths from aplastic anemia

(episiotomy) was performed by Dublin man-midwife.

after exposure to radium were reported by J. C. Mottram in

Fielding Quid (1710—1789), and the procedure was intro­

19 21.

duced into America by Valentine Taliaferro (1831—1888) in

radiotoxica’ on exposure to radiation. Leukemia from

He also observed a low red cell count in ‘anemia

1851. Operative delivery in obstetrics using a spinal block

radium exposure was observed by P. E. Weil and Antoine

was performed by A. Kreis in 1900, and Achile M ario

Marcelin Lacasagne (b 1884) in 1925. In 1927 20 deaths

Dogliotti (1897—1966) introduced epidural anesthesia in

occurred due to blood dyscrasia caused by radium in

1931.

luminous dial painters in N ew Jersey. Cancer o f the bladder

The application o f ultrasound was first done by Ian

in fuchsin manufacture was described by Ludwig R eh n

Donald (1910—1987), professor o f obstetrics at Glasgow University in 1979. One o f the most comprehensive

(1849—1930) in 1895. Its relation to the dye industry was

historic accounts on the subject is given in the Eternal Eve

demonstrated by Leuenberger o f Basel in 1912. Several

published by H arvey Graham in 1950. See antenatal care,

workers, including Hans Curshmann

labor, cesarean section,forceps,puerperalfever, maternity hospitals.

Germany (1920), R . Oppenheimer (1926) and M.W. o f aniline and related compounds on the bladder. See occupational diseases.

See hypertrophic cardiomy­

opathy.

O ccip ital L obe [Latin:

of

Goldblatt (1949), demonstrated the carcinogenic properties

O bstructive Airway D isease See emphysema, asthma. O bstructive C ardiom yopathy

(1875—1950)

O ccupational D iseases Georgius Agricola (1494—1555), a physician in the mining town o f Joachimsthal in Bohemia,

against + caput,he2id] Lobe o f the

brain in the back part o f the head. The laminar structure o f

established the scientific study o f occupational diseases in

the cerebral cortex was shown in the occipital lobe by

the m id-i6th century. The first monograph on mine and

Francesco Genneri (1750—1797) o f Parma in 1782. Lesions

smelter workers was written by Paracelsus (1493—1541) and

o f the occipital cortex leading to cortical blindness were

published posthumously as Von der Bergsucht und anderen

demonstrated by a veterinary physiologist at Berlin,

Bergkrankheiten in 1567. De Morbis Artificum Diatriba was

Hermann M unk (18 30 -19 12 ),in 1881.

written by Italian, Bernardini Ramazzini (16 33-1714 ) from

O ccipital P uncture

the University o f Padua in 1690. Scrotal cancer in chimney

Puncture o f the cisterna magna to

sweeps was described by Sir Percivall Pott (1714—1788) in

obtain a sample o f cerebrospinal fluid for diagnostic pur­

1770. The same cancer from chronic contact with tar and

poses was first done by American neurologist, James Bourne

mineral oil was observed by S .R . Wilson o f Manchester

Ayer (18 8 2-196 3),in 1920.

Royal Infirmary in 1892. The first book in England was written in 1832 by Charles Turner Thackrah (1795—1833),

O ccu lo m o to r N erve [Latin: oculus, eye + motor, mover]

546

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ODOMETER

a pioneer o f industrial medicine in England and founder

returned to Chicago as chief surgeon to the Augustana

o f the Leeds Medical School. Thomas M . Legge (18 63-

Hospital in 1889. He was professor o f clinical surgery at the

1932) was the first medical inspector o f factories in England

University o f Illinois College o f Medicine in 1900, wrote

in 1898, and was responsible for the decline in lead poison­

a book on appendicitis, and served as president o f the

ing in industry. Compulsory notification o f industrial

American College o f Surgeons from 1923 to 1924.

poisoning and diseases was introduced by the Hom e Office

O chsner Sphincter Found in the duodenum, below the

in England in 1901. See chimney sweeps, coal miner’s disease,

opening o f bile duct. Described by Albert John Ochsner

silicosis, pneumoconiosis, radiation injury, glass blower’s cataract,

(1858—1925), professor o f surgery at the University o f

vibration injury,farmer’s lung.

Illinois in 1906.

O ccupational Therapy First used to treat mental disorders

O ctogenarians [Latin: octageni, 80 each; Greek: okta, eight +

by Seneca (4 B C -A D 65). Galen (AD 129-200) comment­

genos, descent] Lu igi Cornaro (14 6 7-1566 ) from Venice

ed ‘employment is nature s best physician’ in A D 172. Sim­

wrote a book on preserving good health in old age in 1550

ple activities were used successfully in a mental hospital

and proposed rules for maintaining health and prolonging

in Philadelphia by Benjamin R ush (174 5-18 13) in 1798.

life. He again wrote on the rules for maintaining health and

Occupation as a form o f treatment for mental illnesses was

prolonging life when he was 86 years. His third book on the

also proposed by Samuel Tuke (1784-1857) ofYork in 1815

joys o f old age was written at the age o f 95 years and he died

and John Conolly (1794-1866) at the Hanwell Asylum in

in his ninety-ninth year.The British philosopher and scien­

London in 1843. It was introduced into other medical

tist, Herbert Spencer (1820—1903) worked until his death

specialties in the 19th century.

at 83 years. The Prussian scientist, Baron Alexander von

O ceanography Pytheas o f Marseilles (360—290 B C ) was the

Humboldt (1769-1859) completed one o f his important

first Greek to interpret the tide and associate its movements

works at the age o f 89 years. Abraham Jacobi (1830—1919),

with the moon and its phases. The theory o f tides was ex­

the founder o f pediatrics in America and the first president

plained by Johannes Kepler (1571-16 30) in 1598 and Sir

o f the American Medical Association, had an active practice

Isaac N ew ton (1642—1727) in

at the age o f 90 years.

. Physical Geography of the

Sea was published by an American naval officer, Matthew

O culist [Latin: oculus, eye] See eye, ophthalmology.

Fontaine M aury (1806-1873) in 1855. Deep-sea dredging

O ddi Sphincter Bile duct at the entrance to the duodenum.

was introduced by Scottish zoologist, Sir Charles Wyville

Described by Francis Glisson (1597-1667) in 1654. It was

Thompson (1830—1882) in 1868 and revealed life at the

redescribed by Italian physician, Ruggero Oddi (1845-

bottom o f the ocean. Christian Viktor Hensen (1835-1924)

1906) o f the University o f Perugia in 1887.

o f Kiel laid the foundation f o r ‘oceanic bionomics’ or the

Odier, Louis (1748-1815) Physician from Geneva w ho stud­

study o f the economics o f life o f the ocean. He used the word‘plankton’ ( G r e e k : d r i f t i n g ) in 1888 to denote

ied at Edinburgh and Leiden Universities, and introduced

the floating life forms in the ocean.

vaccination. He published A Manual of Practice of Medicine in 1790.

O choa, Severo (b 1905) American geneticist, born in Spain and worked in Heidelberg and Oxford before emigrating

O dling, William (1829—1921) See oxygen.

to the U S A to take up a post at Washington University

O do o f M eune (d 116 1) Medical writer o f Arab influence.

Medical School. He later moved to the N ew York Universi­

He wrote De virtutibus herbarium or Macer Floridus, that

ty School o f Medicine. He isolated two enzymes from the

describes the therapeutics o f some 77 simples and is the

Krebs cycle and polynucleotide phosphorylase, determined

oldest extant Scandinavian medical text.

a number o f genetic codons, studied protein synthesis and

O d om eter (Syn: pedometer, way-measurer, perambulator)

initiating factors in binding o f N-formylmethionine.

Instrument to record the distance traveled. Originally

He was awarded the 1959 N obel Prize for Physiology or

called ‘hodometer’ and described by R om an architect,

Medicine, together with Arthur Kornberg (b 1918). See

Vitruvius around A D lo .T h e ‘odometer’ , to count the steps

nucleic acids.

o f a person while walking, was invented in the 15 th century.

Ochsner, Albert John (1858-1925) American surgeon o f

John Fernel (1497-1558), physician to Catherine o f Medici,

Swiss descent, born in Wisconsin, and obtained his medical

used a similar instrument to measure distances in 1550.

degree from R ush Medical College, Chicago in 1886. After

Another form was devised by Paul Pfinzing o f Nuremberg

postgraduate study in Vienna, Berlin and London he

in 1554.

547

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ODONTOLOGY

O d on tology [Greek: odontos, tooth + logos, discourse] Sci­

O gu ch i Syndrom e Characterized by night blindness and

ence o f teeth. Richard Owen (1804—1892) discovered the

grayish appearance o f the fundus. Observed in Japan by

connection between the vascular and soft parts o f the tooth

ophthalmologist,Chuta Oguchi (1875-1945) in 1912.

tissue and the hard substance in 1839. He published one o f

Ohara D isease Tularemia (named after the county ofTulare

the first illustrated books in 1840, Odontology. See dentistry.

in California where it was first described) is an infectious

O eder, George Christian (1728 -179 1) Botanist and physi­

disease found in rodents and other wildlife but which affects

cian from Anspach, Germany who studied under Albrecht

humans with plague-like symptoms. It is known as Ohara

von Haller (1708—1777) at Gottingen, before becoming

disease in Japan following description o f the condition by

professor o f botany at Copenhagen. He published Flora

Shoichiro Ohara in 1930. See tularemia.

Danica and Elementa Botanica.

O h m , George Simon (1789—1854) German professor o f

O edipus C om p lex Sexual attraction to one’s mother. Des­

physics at Nuremberg (1833-1849). He published his law

cribed by Austrian psychiatrist, Sigmund Freud (1856—1939),

relating to voltage, current, and electrical resistance in 1827. The unit o f resistance in electricity is named after him.

in his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality published in 1905. The term derives its origin from Greek mythology

O il o f W intergreen

Ancient remedy for rheumatism

where Oedipus was raised by foster parents and unwittingly

obtained from Gaultheria procumbens. Its active principle,

killed his real father and married his mother, not knowing

methyl salicylate, is a glucoside and was first isolated in 1819.

that he was her son.

Okazaki, R e iji (1930-1975) Japanese biochemist and profes­

O ehl Layer Stratum lucidum o f the epidermis described by

sor at Nagoya University. He worked with bacteria and

Eusebio Oehl (1827—1903), professor o f histology at Pavia

bacteriophages and identified D N A —R N A

in Italy in 1857.

which are named after him.Together with Arthur Kornberg

fragments

(b 1918), he was the first to show that there was a primer

O ersted, Hans Christian (1777-18 51) Danish professor o f

sequence o f R N A attached to D N A and detached by the

physics at Copenhagen. He discovered the magnetic effect

‘Kornberg enzyme’ . Okasaki was awarded the 1970 Asahi

produced by an electric current on a needle in 1819. He also

Prize for his work. See deoxyribonucleic acid.

isolated aluminum in 1826.

O ken, Lorenz (1779—1851) Naturalist and professor o f medi­ O ert el Treatm ent Use o f natural methods such as massage,

cine at Jena (1807—1816). He founded a controversial

diet, mountain climbing and exercise for treatment o f heart

journal called Isis which led to his resignation. He became a

diseases. Proposed by a M unich physician. M ax J. Oertel

professor at M unich in 1828, and at Zurich in 1832. He

(1835-1897).

O gilvie Synd rom e

proposed that the skuU is a modified form o f the vertebra, which was later disproved.

Functional obstruction o f the large

bowel in elderly patients. Described by London surgeon.

Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus (1758-1840) German

Sir William Heneage O gilvie (b 1887) o f G u y’s Hospital

physician and astronomer w ho discovered seven m inor

in 1948.

planets and calculated the velocity o f falling stars.

O gston , Alexander (1844—1929) Surgeon and regius profes­

O ld A ge The first book on therapeutics in old age. The Cure

sor at Aberdeen who discovered Staphylococcus bacteria in

of Old Age, was written by R o ger Bacon (1214—1292).

1 881.T h e imaginary line (Ogston line) used in surgery that

Another, on preserving good health in old age was written

extends from the tubercle o f the femur to the intercondylar

by a Venetian, Luigi Cornaro(i464/6—1566) in 1550.

notch, was described by him in 1876.

Hieronimus Cardanus, an Italian physician in the i6th cen­ tury, described indicators o f long life: a family history o f

O gston O peration Involves removal o f the inner condyle

long life, a cheerful easy disposition, and the ability to sleep

o f the femur for knock-knee, was described by Scottish

long and sound. Anselmus Aurelius, chief physician to the

surgeon Alexander Ogston (1844—1929).

Duke o f Mantua in the i6th century, published Gerocomice

O gston —Luc O peration Incision at the edge o f the orbit

sive defenum regimine (1606) in which he considered old age

for frontal sinus disease. Devised around 1885 by Scottish

to be the most important stage in life as it excelled in

surgeon Alexander Ogston

prudence and understanding. Another treatise, a gerocomice

(1844—1929)

and French

de senum conservatione, et senilum morborum curatione, was

surgeon Henry Luc (1855—1925).

548

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ONCOLOGY

published by François Ranchin (1560—1641), a professor at

used olives as contraceptives. Palmitic acid was extracted

Montpellier in 1625. Counseling was started in San Francis­

from olive oil by Collett in 1854, and tripalmitin was shown

co by an Am erican

to be the main constituent by Heintz and Kruz in 1857.

psychiatrist, Lilien J. M artin

(18 51—1943) w ho lived to 92 years and wrote Salvaging old

Oliver, George (1841—1915) Pioneer in endocrinology. In

Age (1930) and Handbook for Old Age Counsellors (1944). See

1895, while working with Sir Edward Albert Sharpey-

geriatrics, octogenarians, psychogeriatrics.

O ldham , Richard D ixon

Schafer (1802-1880) in England,he demonstrated the effect

(1858-1936)

Geologist

and

o f injecting extracts o f suprarenal gland. The extract

seismologist born in Dublin, and educated at Rugby. Fie

produced contraction o f arteries and accelerated heart rate,

was director o f the Indian Museum in Calcutta and made an

thereby increasing blood pressure.The active substance was

important report on the Assam earthquake o f 1897. He

named adrenaline in England and epinephrine in America.

described the Earths core using seismographic records

Oliver, Sir Thomas (1853-1942) Pioneer in modern trade

in 1906.

and occupational diseases who wrote The Health of the

O lefin [Latin: oleo,oil +facere,to make] Unsaturated aliphatic

Workers, Occupations as they affect the life of the workers in 1925.

hydrocarbon with one or more double bonds, prepared by

H e was the first medical inspector o f factories in England.

French chemist,M arcellinBerthelot (1827—1907),in 1862.

Oliver Test O lfactory N erve [Latin: olfacere, to smell] Caspar Bartholin

Detects albumin in the urine using sodium

tungstate and citric acid. Devised by English physician,

(1585—1629), the Elder, a physician from Copenhagen in

George Oliver (1841—1915).

Denmark, described the functions o f the olfactory nerve in

Oliver, William Silver (1836-1908) British army physician

16 11. Extensive experiments to locate the olfactory sense

who described the sign o f tracheal tug seen in thoracic

in animals were performed by Conrad Victor Schneider

aortic aneurysm.

(1614—1680) o f Prussia in 1650 and published in 1655. A further description was given by Italian surgeon, Antonio

O llier D isease (Syn: multiple enchondromatosis, dyschon-

Scarpa (1747-18 32),in 1789. Olfactory mucous membranes

droplasia)

and cells (Schultz membrane and cells) were described by

metaphysis and diaphyses o f the long bones. Described

Maximillian Johann

by French surgeon, Léopold Louis Xavier Edouard Ollier

Sigismund

Schultz

(1825—1874),

professor o f anatomy at Fialle and Bonn.

Consists

o f nonossified

cartilage

o f the

(1830—1901), in 1899. The inner osteogenetic layer o f the periostium (Ollier layer) was described by him in 1859.

O lfactory Seizure The brain center for olfactory function was studied by Sir David Ferrier (1843-1928) in 1874. A

O lshausen O peration Uterus is sutured to the anterior

tumor in the right temporosphenoidal area causing

abdominal wall as treatment for retroverted uterus. Devised

olfactory seizures was described by John Fiughlings Jackson

by Berlin obstetrician, R obert von Olshausen (1835-1915).

(18 35-19 11) in 1890.

O ’Meara, Barry Edward (1786-1836) Irish physician who O ligocène [Greek: oligos, few + kainos, recent] Part o f the

was doctor to Napoleon and accompanied him to exile on

Tertiary period in Earth history identified by Ffeinrich

St Helena. He published Napoleon in Exile in 1822.

Ernst Beyrich in 1854.

O nanism See coitus interruptus. O ligodenroglia

[Greek: oligos, little +

demon, tree +

O n co lo g y [Greek: onkos, mass or bulk + logos, discourse]

glia, glue] A group o f neuroglial cells within the central ner­ vous system. First demonstrated and named by Spanish

Study and treatment o f cancer, established as a specialty in

neurologist, Pio del R io FLortega (1882—1945) in 19 21.

America by James Ew ing (1866—1943),professor o f oncolo­ gy at the Cornell University Medical College, N ew York.

Olitsky, Peter Kosciusko (1886—1964) Worked with Albert

His work was internationally recognized and he published

Bruce Sabin (1906-1993) to isolate a pure culture o f the

an important treatise. Neoplastic Diseases, in 1919. Denis

poliomyelitis virus in 1936.

Parsons Burkitt (b 1907) from Enniskillen, Northern

O live O il From fruit o f the tree, Olea europea, was important

Ireland was a pioneer o f chemotherapy in Britain. H e intro­

to the ancient Hebrews and is mentioned in the Bible. In

duced cyclophosphamide and methotrexate in i960 for

ancient times the olive was known as ‘bak’ and was a symbol

treatment o f Burkitt lymphoma. Work on antimetabolite

o f goodness and purity. Rom ans preserved olives in brine,

compounds that inhibit D N A synthesis was pioneered by

Egyptians used the oil for beautification, and the Greeks

American biochemist, George Herbert Hitchings (b 1905)

549

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ONCOGENES

o f Washington and N ew York biochemist, Gertrude Belle Elion (b 1918), in the late 1950s. They prepared the anti­ leukemic drug,6-mercaptopurine,in 1954. Further work led to patents on 18 drugs from purines and pyrimidines. They shared the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Sir James W hyte Black (b 1924) in 1988. See Burkitt lym­ phoma, cancer, cancer therapy. CancerAct, carcinogenesis, P 5 3 gene.

O ncogenes [Greek: onkos, mass or bulk + genesis, production] Play a role in normal growth o f mammalian cells, but can cause cancer through mutation. Discovered by American virologist,John Michael Bishop (b 1936) o f Pennsylvania. He shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Harold Elliot Varmus (b 1939) o f N ew York in i989.Varmus was a medical graduate o f Columbia University and profes­ sor o f microbiology and immunology at the University o f California Medical Center, San Francisco, in 1979.The two

Hindus adoring and feeding serpents. Thomas Maurice, Indian Antiquités

ways by which retroviral transduction activates oncogenes

(1744). W. Richardson, London

was discovered by German-born, American microbiologist, Peter Vogt (b 1932), professor o f microbiology at the

O phthalm ia N eon atoru m [Greek: ophthalmos, eye + neos,

University o f Southern California.

new; Latin: natus,horn] Com m on cause o f blindness in the

O op h orectom y [Greek: oon, egg + pherein, to bear + tome, to

18th and 19th centuries. A survey by the Ophthalmological

cut] See ovariotomy.

Society in England in 1880 showed that 30 to 40% o f blind­ ness in aU ages was due to ophthalmia neonatorum. Carl

O peron [Latin: opera, work; Greek: on] Genetic unit that coordinates expression from D N A to messenger R N A .

Sigmund Franz Crede (1819—1892), professor o f obstetrics

Discovered and named by François Jacob (b 1920), Sydney

and gynecology at Leipzig, wrote on prevention in 1884

Brenner (b 1927), F. Cuzin and Jacques Lucien M onod

using silver nitrate.The incidence declined drastically with

(1910-1976) o f France in 1963.

introduction o f sulfonamides and, by 1944, the percentage o f blindness had dropped to 9.2%.

O phidism [Greek: ophidion, snake] Poisoning by snake venom is common to most tropical countries. In 1898 in

O p hthalm ology [Greek: ophthalmos, eye + logos, discourse]

India 20,000 persons died from snake bites. The Indian

Practiced as a separate branch o f medicine in ancient Egypt.

shrub, {Rauwolfia serpentina) and the American snakeroot

Philoxenus, who lived around 270 B C , was one o f the

(Aristolochia serpentaria) are used as folk remedies and the

most celebrated Alexandrian oculists. Aetius ofAm ida (AD

form er was introduced to Europe by French botanist.

527—565) wrote an extensive treatise on diseases o f the eye

Plum ier, w ho named it after the i6th century Germ an

in the 6th century. Jesu Haly or Isa ibn Haly (AD 850) was

botanist, Leonhard R a u w o lf (1537—1606). Joseph Fayrer

an Arab oculist at Baghdad who wrote Liber memorialis

(1824—1907), a surgeon to the East India Company, wrote

ophthalmicorum in three parts. The first contained anatomy

the first book on poisonous snakes in India in 1884,

and physiology, and parts two and three dealt with external

Thanatophidia in India. Silas Weir Mitchell (1829—1914) o f

diseases. Demosthenes Philalethes from Marseilles wrote a

Jefferson Medical College studied snake venom and

standard work on the subject that remained extant until A D

published. On the Treatment of Rattle Snake Bites with Experi­

1000.The earliest printed book, De Oculis eorumeque egritu-

mental Criticisms upon the Various Remedies now in Use, in

dinibus et curis (1474) was written by Benvenuto Grassi o f

1861. The pioneers o f antiserum therapy were Albert

Salerno. George Bartisch (1535-1606), founder o f modern

Calmette (1863-1933), a French bacteriologist and Thomas

ophthalmic surgery, wrote an illustrated book on eye

Richard Fraser (1841—1919) from England. Antivenene, an

surgery, Ophthalmodouleeia, in 1583 .The first English m ono­

antidote to snake venom, was prepared by Calmette at the

graph, A briefe treatise touching the preservation of the eie sight,

Pasteur Institute in Lisle in 1896. One o f the first institutes

was published by Walter Bayley (1529-1592) in 1586. Anto­

to produce antivenene sera was founded by Vital Brazil

nio Scarpa (1747—1832), father o f Italian ophthalmology,

(1865-1950) at Sao Paulo in 19 11.

published an important book in 1801. Another English

550

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OPTIC

NERVE

book, A Synopsis of the Diseases of the Eye, was published by

alabaster figure o f an Assyrian priest carrying opium

Benjamin Travers (1783-1858), a surgeon at St Thomas’

poppies, dating to 700 B C , is in the Louvre, Paris.The effect

Hospital in 1820.The earliest treatise in America was w rit­

o f the juice o f poppy was mentioned by Nicander around

ten by George Frick (179 3-1873) o f Maryland, and the

100 B C . He also proposed wine and honey as treatment for

study o f the eye was established as a specialty in America

opium poisoning. John Jones (1645—1709) ofW indsor gave

by Elkanah Williams (1822—1888) o f Cincinnati.Friedrich

an accurate description o f symptoms from intoxication and

Albrecht von Graefe (1828—1870) o f Berlin, one o f the

withdrawal o f opium in The Mysteries of Opium Revialed in 1700. It was introduced as Dover Powder into England by

greatest eye surgeons,founded the ArchivfUr Ophthalmologie

Captain Thomas Dover (1662—1742) in 1710. Opium trade

in 1854, introduced iridectomy as treatment for glaucoma

flourished in the early 19th century and nearly 3000 tons o f

and iritis, and cataract operation in 1855. He operated for

poppy juice were imported into China in 1820. Friederich

strabismus in 1857 and introduced the linear method o f

W ilhelm Sertürner (17 8 3 -18 4 1), a Germ an pharmacist,

cataract extraction in 1868.

crystallized the extract o f opium and obtained morphine in 1801. See morphine.

O p hthalm ology in A m erica The first eye infirmary in the United States was opened in N ew London by Elisha North

O p penh eim D isease (Syn: amyotonia congenita) Form

(177 1-18 4 3) o f Goshen, Connecticut in 1800. The earliest treatise, A Treatise on Diseases of the Eye, was published in

o f myopathy accompanied by hypertonicity, weakness, and hyperflexibility. Described by Hermann Oppenheim

1823 by George Frick (1793-1873) o f Maryland, the first

(1858—19 19),a German neurologist,in 1900.

American to specialize in the field. The Baltimore Dispen­

O ppenheim er, Julius R obert (1904-1967) N ew York pio­

sary for the Cure o f Diseases o f the Eye was established in

neer in the field o f nuclear physics who graduated from

the same year.William Gibson (1788—1868) o f Philadelphia

Harvard University in 1925. He joined the atomic bomb

operated for strabismus in 18 18 .The Massachusetts Eye and

project in 1942 and became director o f the Los Alamos

Ear Infirmary was founded by E. Reynolds and J. Jefferies

nuclear laboratory in 1943. He was appointed professor o f physics at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton

(179 6 -18 76 ) in 1827. T h e specialty was established by Henry W. Williams (18 21—1895) with his lectures in 1850.

University, in 1947.

He was appointed as professor o f ophthalmology at Harvard in 18 7 1.His brother, Elkanah Williams (1822—1888), was also

O psonin [Greek: opsonein, to buy food] Any substance that

an eminent professor in the same field at the Miami Medical

binds to particulate antigens and induces phagocytosis.The

CoUege.The ophthalmic clinic at the N ew York CoUege o f

role o f serum in stimulating phagocytosis was demonstrated by Sir William B oog Leishman (1865-1926) in 1902. A

Physicians and Surgeons was established by R e a Agnew

thermolabile substance in the serum which acted on bacte­

(1830-1888) in 1866. He was professor o f ophthalmology in

ria during phagocytosis was demonstrated and named

the same institute in 1869.

‘opsonin’ by Sir Almroth Edward W right (1861—1947) and

O p hthalm oscope [Greek: ophthalmos, eye + skopein, to

Stewart Douglas Rankin (1871-1936) o f England in 1903.

view] Seefunduscopy.

O p tic A trophy [Greek: opsis, sight + a, not + trophein,

O pical R otation See stereochemistry.

nourish] See Leber optic atrophy, Fuchs atrophy.

O pie, Eugene Lindsay (1873—1971) American pathologist

O p tic C hiasm a [Greek: opsis, sight + chiasma, two crossed

from Staunton, Virginia who graduated from the Johns

pancreas in 1903, while professor o f pathology at the Johns

lines] Crossing o f fibers within the optic nerve. First illustration was given by Leonardo Da Vinci (1452—1519). Samuel Thomas Sommering (1755-1830) o f Holland described it in 1786.

Hopkins University in 1897.

suggested the presence o f

an antidiabetic substance in the islets o f Langerhans o f the Hopkins. He was professor o f pathology at Washington

O p tic N erve [Greek: opsis, sight] A lcm aeon, a pupil o f

University (1910—1923), The University o f Pennsylvania

Pythagoras, who dissected animals and studied their brains

(1923—1932) and Cornell University.

around 500 B C , has been credited with the discovery o f optic nerves. They were rediscovered by Constanzo Varóle

O pisthotonos [Greek: opistho, behind + tonos, tension]

(1543—1575),a surgeon o f Bologna in 1 53 8 .The origin o f the

Spasm consisting o f extreme hyperextension o f the body.

optic nerves in the brain was described by Bartholomew

See tetanus.

O p iu m

Eustachio

Extract o f the opium poppy, Papaver somnifera.

(1524—1574)

around

1550. Samuel Thomas

Sommering (1755-1830) o f Holland described the crossing

Known to the ancient Sumerians 5000 years ago. An

o f fibers within it in 1786.

551

OPTICAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

LENSES

O ptical Lenses See spectacles.

Orchitis [Greek: orchios, testis + itis, inflammation] The first accurate clinical description o f orchitis associated with

O ptics [Greek: opsis, sight] The discovery o f a convex lens

mumps was given by R obert Hamilton (17 2 1-17 9 3) o f

made firom rock crystal in the ruins o f Nim rud provided evi­

Edinburgh in 1790.

dence that the ancients had knowledge o f op tics. The oldest convex lens in existence is from the island o f Crete, and dates

O rgan o f C orti Receptor organ o f sound which consists o f

to the Minoan civihzation around looo B C . The Greeks

a complex structure o f basilar membrane, cochlea, hair cells

used burning lens around 424 B C . Early treatises were writ­

and other structures o f the ear. Described by Italian

ten by Euchd (300 B C),Ptolem y (AD 90—i68),andAlhazen

anatomist,Afonso Bonaventura Corti (1822—1888),in 1851.

(AD 965—1040).Alhazens work, Kitab Al-Manazir (Book o f

O rgan Transplantation [Greek: organon] Permanent graft­

Optics), included refraction, reflection, and study o f lenses,

ing o f animal tissue was demonstrated in the hydra by

and formed the basis for the invention o f spectacles, tele­

Swedish biologist,AbrahamTrembley (1710—1784) in 1742.

scopes and microscopes. Magnifying power was described by Seneca (4 B C -A D 65) in A D 50.The study o f optics was

Skin grafting was done by Italian surgeon, Guiseppe

introduced into Europe by Vitello o f Silesia (Poland), who

Baronio (17 5 9 -18 11), around 1800 and he demonstrated the

wrote Opticae Libridecem (Ten books o f Optics) around 1265.

fundamental principle that an autograft from the same ani­

Spectacles are said to have been invented by Savinus

mal w ould take, while an allograft from another animal

Aramatus o f Pisa around i300.The first application o f lenses

was rejected. Experimental physiologist, Karl Friedrich

for magnification was by a Venetian, Daniello Barbaro, in

Wilhelm Ludwig (1816—1895), professor at Zurich, kept

i5ó8.Johannes Kepler (1571—1630) published his Dioptrice in

organs alive by pumping blood through them in 1856.

16 11, and the law o f refraction was discovered by Snellius or

A e x is Carrel (1873—1944), a French-born American biolo­

Willebrod Snell (1580—1626), professor o f mathematics at

gist, is considered father o f modern organ transplantation.

Leiden in 1624. Vision was explained by R éne Descartes

He perfected the method o f end-to-end arterial anastomo­

(1596—1650) in Dioptrique published in 1637. Scottish

sis using triple thread sutures in 1902, and reported the first

physicist Sir David Brewster (1781-1868) invented the

heart transplantation in a dog in 1905. Growth o f nerve

kaleidoscope and lenticular stereoscope.

fibers from cells outside the organism was demonstrated by Ross GranviUe Harrison (1870—1959) in 1907. Pioneering

Oral C ontraceptives [Latin: oralis, mouth + contra, against +

work on rejection reactions during transplantation was

ceptor, receiver] The contraceptive pill was developed fol­

done by British immunologist. Sir Peter Brian Medawar

lowing ovarian studies by an Austrian, Ludwig Haberlandt

(19 15-19 8 7). A nother study on transplantation im m uni­

(1885—193 2), in 19 21. Investigation o f progesterone as a con­

ty was done by Georg Schone o f Berlin in 1912. Work on

traceptive was done by Willard M yron Allen (b 1904) and

histocompatibility commenced a year later by Clarence

George Washington Corner (1889—1981) o f America in

C ook Little (1888-1971) and Ernest Tyzzer (1875—1966).

1929. Further development was by American endocrinolo­

Little s work, using inbred mouse strains, while founder-

gist, Gregory Goodwin Pincus (1903-1967), who was the first to determine the correct amounts o f progesterone to

director (1929—1956) o f the R oscoe B. Jackson M emorial Laboratory at M ount Desert Island, Maine, led to signifi­

be used in the pill. The risk o f blood clots in susceptible

cant advances in transplantation medicine and the study o f

women was noted by several English workers in 1968.

cancer.Jean Baptiste Dausset (b 1916), a French immunolo­

O rchiopexy [Greek: orchios, testis + pexis, fixation] Opera­

gist from Toulouse, developed the procedure o f tissue

tion to mobilize the undescended testis. Performed by

typing in organ transplantation. The immuno-suppressive

Charles Bell R obert Keetly (1848—1909) o f West London

properties o f azothiaprine, a derivative o f 6-mercaptop-

Hospital in 1894. He implanted the testis in the thigh and

urine, was demonstrated by R . Schwartz and WiUiam

this method was adopted and perfected by Franz C. Torek

Dameshek (1900-1969) in 1959, and introduced as an

(1861—1938) o f America in 1908. Another method was

immunosuppressive agent in organ transplantation in 1962.

devised by Arthur Dean Bevan (1861—1943) o f America in

Jean Borel, a researcher at the Sandoz Institute, noted the

1899. Implanting through the septum o f the scrotum was

immunosuppressive property o f cyclosporine, which was

described by C. Walther, a French surgeon, in 1906. Louis

introduced to overcome rejection reactions in 1978. See tooth

Ombredanne (b 1871), a French pediatric surgeon perfect­

transplantation.

ed the Walther procedure and used it on 1000 patients. His method was popularized in England by Philip Turner

O rganic C hem istry [Greek: organon] The term originally

(b 1873) o f Guy s Hospital in the 1920s.

referred to chemistry o f ‘organized’ or living matter.

552

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ORNITHOSIS

Swedish chemist Jons Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848) in 1806

by the Arabian physician, Rhazes (850-932). Oribasius’s

described it as: ‘the part o f physiology which describes the

anatomical writings earned him the name o f ‘The Ape o f

composition o f living bodies, and the chemical processes

Galen’ , but he did describe the salivary glands which had

which occur in them’ in Lectures in Animal Chemistry. This

been overlooked by Galen (AD 129—200).

definition was abandoned following the synthesis o f urea from potassium cyanate and ammonium

O riental Sore [Latin: orientalis, eastern] See Baghdad sore.

sulfate by

O rigin o f Species [Latin: on^o, to rise] See evolution, Darwin,

Friedrich W ohler (1800—1882) in 1828, and o f acetic acid by

Hermann

Kolbe

(1818—1884)

in

Charles.

1845. Wohler

announced,‘I must tell you that I can make urea without the

O rm u zd Ahura Mazda was the Persian god o f goodness and

need o f kidneys or o f any animal whatever’ in a letter to

light who created the world. He delegated the art o f healing

Berzelius. John Baptiste André Dumas (1800-1884), an

to a powerful angel, Thrita, who became the god o f

apothecary from Geneva, determined the nitrogen content

medicine and healing.

in organic compounds and determined vapor density in 1823.

Marcellin Berthelot (1827—1907) o f Paris was first

O rnithodoros [Greek: omis, bird + dorus,hzg] Genus o f tick which causes relapsing fever by transmitting the spirochete,

professor o f organic chemistry at the College de France and

Borrelia recurrentis. Identified independently by two groups:

produced benzene and naphthalene in 1851. H e published

Philip Ross and Milne in Uganda, and Joseph Everett

Organic Chemistry founded on Synthesis in i860. The six-

Dutton (1877-1905) and John LauncelotTodd (1876-1949)

carbon ring structure o f benzene was proposed by August

in the Congo, in 1904.

Kekulé (1829—1896) in 1865. He stated ‘We have come to the conviction that no difference exists between organic

O rnithology [Greek: ornis, bird + logos, discourse] The first

and inorganic compounds. Therefore we define organic

printed monograph, containing a description o f birds

chemistry as the chemistry o f organ compounds’ in his

mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny, was written by English

book on organic chemistry, published between 1859—1860.

naturalist from Cambridge, William Turner (1510-1568) in

Three dimensional structure was illustrated by Jacobus Van’t

1544. Ulysses Aldrovandus (1522—1605), professor o f

H o ff (18 52 -19 11) o f Rotterdam in 1874. A complete cata­

m edicine and philosophy at Bologna, wrote Ornithology

logue o f organic compounds, Handbook of Organic Chemistry,

in 1599. Pierre Belon (1517—1574), a medical graduate from

was pubhshed by German chemist, Friedrich Konrad

Paris, wrote a History of Birds, including comparative anato­

Beilstein (1838—1906) in 1881. Sec biochemistry.

my. John Latham (1740-1837), a physician from Dartford, published General History of Birds (18 21—1828) in eleven

O rganic Free R adicles One o f the first treatises was w rit­

volumes. English ornithologist, John Gould (1804—1881)

ten by French chemist, Auguste Laurent (1807—1853) o f

from Lym e R e g is, published Birds of Europe in five

St Maurice. Their existence was discovered in 1900 by

volumes (1832—1837), Birds of Australia in seven volumes

Russian chemist, Moses Gomberg (1866-1947) from the

(1840-1847), Birds of Great Britain in five volumes

Ukraine who emigrated to America in 1884, while a

(1863-1873), and Birds of Asia (1849-1883). The American

professor at Michigan University.

Ornithology U nion was founded by Barney Charles C ory

O rganotherapy [Greek: organon, instrument + therapio, take

(1857-1921) from Boston. H e published Birds of Bahamas in

care] Treatment with animal organs or extracts has been

1878, and Birds of the Americas in 19 18 .The R idgw ay color

practiced since ancient times. The

Hindu Ayurveda

system for bird identification was invented by an American

describes use o f testicular tissue in treatment o f impotence.

ornithologist, R obert R idgw ay (1850-1929) o f M ount

This practice was revived in the 19th century by Edouard

Carmel, Illinois.

Brown-Sequard (1817—1894) who advocated use o f testicu­

O rnithosis [Greek: ornis, bird + osis] (Syn: parrot fever,

lar extracts for debilitation around 1889. Sir William Osier

psittacosis) The first description o f an outbreak o f psittacosis

(18 4 9 -19 19 ) attempted to treat Addison disease w ith

was by Swiss physician Jacob R itter in 1879. Seven cases

glandular therapy at the Johns Hopkins Medical School,

were reported in a household in Switzerland which kept

Baltimore, in 1891.

parrots and other exotic birds, three o f whom died. In 1891

Oribasius (AD 325-403) R om an physician to Emperor

Edmund Isidore Nocard (1850-1903) isolated a Salmonella

Julian at Constantinople during the Byzantine period. He

which he mistakenly thought was the causative organism

compiled an encyclopedia o f medicine in 70 volumes. One

and named it Bacillus psittacosis (now Nocardia). About 1930,

o f his treatises Medicoe collectiones ad Julianum was translated

Samuel Philips Bedson (1886-1969) and other workers

553

OROYA

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

FEVER

identified a virus as being responsible for the disease.

Orthodontics was developed in America by Edwin Hartley

Thomas M ilton Rivers (1888—1962), an American virolo­

Angle (1855—1930) o f St Louis who published A System of

gist at the Rockefeller Institute, established the basis for

Appliances for correcting Irregularities of the Teeth (1890) and

diagnosing psittacosis by injecting the sputum o f the patient

Treatment of Malocclusion ofTeeth (1907).The American Soci­

into mice in 1938.

ety o f Orthodontics was formed in 1901 and the journal American Ort/zodonifit first appeared in 1907.

O roya Fever (Syn: Carrion disease) Named after the place in

O rth o p ed ics [Greek: orthos, straight + pais, child] The Edwin

Peru where the first cases were noted. Bartonella bacilliformis, the bacteria responsible, were seen in red blood cells by a

Smith papyrus (1500 B C ) describes splints used by the

Peruvian physician, A. L. Barton (1871-1950 ), in 19 15 .The

Egyptians. Hindu Brahmin surgeons treated fractures with

organism was named Bartonella in his honor by Richard

great skill. Paul o f Aegina (625—690) defined a fracture as ‘a

Pearson Strong (1872-1948) and colleagues. Arsphenamine

division o f the bone, or a rupture, or excision o f it, produced

was used in the treatment b y j. Arce in 1918. See Carrion

by external violence’ . Hippocrates (460-377) has dealt with

disease.

fractures and dislocations in de Fracturis. He discussed the anatomy o f the bones and joints, physiology o f movements,

O rp h an H ouses The first house was initiated by the Rom an

classification o f fractures, methods o f reducing fractures,

emperor Trajan (AD 52—117) in 105. Emperor Justinian estab­

immobilizing limbs and various other orthopedic topics.

lished several in Byzantium under his laws. The first in

Galen (129-200) used the term ‘abruptio’ (to take away) to

England was established in 1758 at Hoxton, and it later

denote fracture o f long end o f a bone.The first orthopedic

moved to Haverstock HiU. An asylum for female orphans

hospital was founded in 1790 at Orbe, Switzerland, by Jean-

was established at Lambeth in 1758, and the London

André Venel (1740-1791). Samuel Cooper (1780-1848) in

Orphan Asylum was formed in 1813. The Royal Albert

his Dictionary of Practical Surgery published in 1809, devoted

Orphan Asylum was founded at Bagshot in 1864. See child

over 50 pages to fractures.The term was coined by French

care, Barnardo,Thomas.

surgeon, Nicholas Andry (1658-1747) o f Lyons in 1741. Pott fracture and spinal caries were described by Sir Percivall

O rth , Johannes (1847—1923) German pathologist who

Pott (17 14 -17 8 8 ) in 1779. T h e R o y al N ational O rth o­

described kernicterus in 1875.

paedic Hospital was founded by William John Little (1810— O rth S ta in Lithium and carmine, introduced into histology

1894)

by German pathologist,Johannes Orth (1847-1923).

in 1839.The first book in America was published by

Samuel David Gross (1805-1884) in 1830, and one o f the first surgeons to specialize was John Ball Brown (17841862) o f Boston. Lectures on Orthopedic Surgery was published by Louis Bauer (1814-1898) o f America in 1862. Hugh O wen Thomas (1834-1891) o f Liverpool was the father o f modern orthopedics in England. He came from a family o f bone setters and devised various apparatus for treatment o f deformities and fractures, including the Thomas splint for compound fractures o f the femur. Jacques Mathieu Delpech (1777—1832), professor o f surgery at Montpellier, pioneered orthopedic surgery in France and devised a new method o f treatment o f club foot by subcutaneous section o f the achilles tendon, and pointed out the tubercular nat­ ure o f spinal caries. Gurdon Buck (1807-1877), a leading surgeon from N ew York, established treatment for fractures

Correction of protruding teeth with a vulcanite plate connected to a skull

o f the thigh by applying traction through weights and pul­

cap. E.S. Talbot, Irregularities of the Teeth and their Treatment (1888). H.K.

leys in the m id-19th century. In England it was recognized

Lewis, London

as a specialty in 1898, with the establishment o f the British

O rth o d o n tics [Greek; orthos, straight + odous, tooth] Prac­

Orthopaedic Society. A pioneer in radiology was Etienne

tice o f correcting irregularities o f teeth, started by John

Destot (1864-1918) o f Lyon who used it for diagnosis o f

Hunter (1728-1793) and Pierre Fauchard (i6 78 -i76 i).T h e

bone disease two months after W ilhelm Konrad von

Orthodontical Society o f London was founded in 1856.

Röntgen (1845-1923) discovered X-rays in February 1896.

554

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OSMOSIS

Joseph Listers (1827—1912) aseptic technique was intro­

o f actinomycosis in 1886, effective treatment o f Addison

duced into orthopedic surgery in America by Lewis

disease with fresh hog adrenal extracts in 1896, and heredi­

Atterbury Stimson (1844-1917) o f N ew Jersey who wrote a

tary angioneurotic edema in 1888. He was a reformer o f

treatise on fractures in 1883.The Orthopedic Association in

American medical education, and in 1889 made a strong

America was formed in 1887, and the American Academy

appeal for correction. Five medical schools and the staff o f

o f Orthopedic Surgeons was founded in 1933. The British

the Johns Hopkins Hospital issued a circular in 1890

Orthopaedic Association was established in 1933.

resolving to improve the system. He described familial hemorrhagic

O rthopnea [Greek: orthos, straight + pnoia, breath]. Difficul­

telengiectasis, a condition

o f multiple

telengiectatic lesions o f the face and upper gastrointestinal

ty in breathing except when upright, a symptom in cardiorespiratory disease. Defined by Paul o f A egina (625— 690) as ‘to pant for breath, and from their being obliged

tract associated with bleeding tendency, in 1907. With M cCrae,he reported his clinical experience in 150 patients with gastric cancer in 1900. His most important book. The

to keep the chest erect for fear o f being suffocated, they

Principles and Practice of Medicine, was first published in 1892.

are called orthopnoeic’ . Oxford physiologist,John M ayhow

A biography. The Life of William Osier, was published by the

(1645-1679) explained the symptom and mechanism in 1668.

American surgeon, Harvey Cushing (1869-1939), in 1940.

Ortner Syndrom e Paralysis o f the left vocal cord due to

The Great Physician, A short Life of William Osier was pub­

enlarged left atrium in mitral stenosis. Described by a pro­

lished by Edith Gittings R eid , and A Year with Osier,

fessor o f medicine atVienna,Norbert Ortner (1865—1935).

1896-1897 was written by Joseph Pratt in 1949.

O sier N o d es

O sborne, H enry Fairfield (1857—1935) American paleontol­

Cutaneous nodules found in subacute

ogist from Fairfield, Connecticut who served as professor o f

bacterial endocarditis. Described by Sir William Osier

zoology at Columbia University. He published The Age of

(1849-1919) in 1908.

Mammals (1910), Man of the Old Stone Age (1915), and The

O sler-R endu-W eber Syndrom e (Syn: hereditary hemor­

Origin and Evolution of Life (1917).

rhagic telengiectasis) Independently described by Henri

O sborne, Thomas B urr (1859-1929) B orn in N ew Haven,

R en d u (1844—1902) o f Paris in 1896, Frederick Parkes

Connecticut, he was an eminent biochemist who studied

Weber (1863—1962), professor o f applied therapeutics at

nutrition and demonstrated the importance o f glycine and

Temple University, Philadelphia in 1904, and Sir William

lysine in diet in 19 12 , together w ith Lafayette Benedict

Osier (1849-1919) in 1907.

Mendel (1872—1935) ofYale.

O sm ic A cid

histologist,Vittorio Marchi (18 51-19 0 8 ),in 1891.

O scillograph Oscilloscope for recording variation o f physi­ cal properties over a time period. Invented by a German

O sm iu m

physicist, Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850—1918) in 1897.

O sgood -Schlatter D isease

First used to stain nerve tissue by Italian

Heavy metal discovered by Smithson Tennant

(176 1—1815), a physician and chemist from Selby,Yorkshire in 1804.The name is derived from the G reek,‘osmum’ due

Painful tibial tuberosity in

to its pungent smell.

adolescence. Described independently by an American orthopedic surgeon,Robert Bayley Osgood (1873-1956) o f

O sm olarity [Greek: osmos, impulse] Solute concentrations

Boston, and a Swiss surgeon, Carl Schlatter (1864—1934),

o f urine and blood were first compared to assess renal func­

in 1903.

tions by Heinrich Dreser o f Germany in 1892. Galeotti in 1902 and Claude Bernard (1813—1878) o f Paris used

Osiris Egyptian God who left his kingdom to be managed

freezing point depression to calculate the concentration

by his wife Isis and her faithful minister Hermes. Osiris

o f solutes in urine and blood.

Journal o f the history and philosophy o f science.

O sm osis [Greek: osmos, impulse] Discovered by a French

Founded by George Sarton in 1936. He was professor o f

Abbe,Jean Antoine Nollet (1700-1770), professor o f physics

history o f science at Harvard in 1940.

at the College de Navarre in Paris in 1748. R en é Joachim

Osier, SirWilliam (1849—1919) Regius professor o f medicine

Henri Dutrochet (1776—1847) re-investigated it and show­

at Oxford, born in Devon, Canada. He studied medicine at

ed in 1835 that water from a weaker solution moved into

Montreal and Toronto and was appointed professor o f med­

a stronger solution through a membrane, and named the

icine at M cG ill University,Toronto in 1874, a position he

process osmosis. Diffusion across a membrane was attrib­

held for 10 years. He described one o f the first human cases

uted to osmotic pressure by Thomas Graham (1805—1869)

555

OSTEITIS

FIBROSA

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

CYSTICA

in 1854. T h e sem iperm eability o f the membrane was

O steology [Greek: osteo, bone + logos, discourse] Galen (AD

demonstrated by M oritzTraube (1826-1894), a plant physi­

129—200) wrote on the bones and recommended dissection

ologist, in 1 867. The process was demonstrated using cane

o f apes for their study. Abu M oham m ed A bdul Latif

sugar solution in a vessel with semipermeable walls by

(1162—1231), an Arab scientist in Egypt, was the first to

W ilhelm Friedrich Philipp Pfeifer (1845-1920) o f Ger­

challenge the inaccuracies in Galen’s writings on osteology.

many in 1877. Further work was done in the same year

An early work was byVolcher Goiter (1534—1576), a pupil o f

by Hugo De Vries (1848—1935) o f Holland, and precise

Gabriele Falloppio (1523-1562) and a physician at Nurem ­

measurements was achieved by F N. Morse and Frazer o f

berg in 1575, and included developmental osteology in an

America in 1912. A n outstanding work on osmotic pressure

infant with illustrations o f the centers o f ossification.

o f proteins was done by Soren Peter Sorenson (1868—1939)

Clopton Havers (1650—1702), a London physician and

in 1917.

anatomist, described the spaces in the compact tissue o f the bone (Haversian canals) in Osteologia Nova, or some

O steitis Fibrosa C ystica [Latin: osteo, bone; Greek: itis, hollow] Rarefaction

observations of the Bones and the Parts belonging to them, with the

o f bone due to parathyroid tumors. First observed by

manner of their accretion and nutrition, published in 1691, the

inflammation; Latin:^¿)ra, band +

Gerhard Engel in 1864 and named after Friedrich Daniel

first complete book on osteology. Osteographia orAnatomy of

von

Human

Recklinghausen

(1833-1910)

o f Germany

who

published by William Cheselden (1688—1752)

o f St Thomas’ Hospital in 1733, contained an accurate

described it in detail in 1891. This disorder was recognized by M ax Askanazy (1865—1940) at Tübingen in 1904. The

description o f all the human bones with illustrations. A

first successful treatment by surgical removal o f parathyroid

modern 19th century monograph on osteology in England,

adenoma was performed by a Viennese surgeon, Felix

Human Osteology, comprising a Description of Bones, was pub­

Mandl (18 92-19 57),in 1925.

lished in 1855 by Luther Holden (b 1905), a demonstrator in anatomy at St Bartholomew’s Hospital.

O steoblast [Greek: oiteo, bone + blastos, hud] Cells responsi­

O steom alacia [Greek: osteo, bone + malakia, softness] Jean

ble for bone growth and formation. Described by Carl Gegenbaur (1826—1903), a comparative anatomist at the

Louis Petit (1674-1750), director and surgeon at the

University ofW ürzberg, in 1 885.

Academy de Paris, gave an account o f osteomalacia. The second description. A n Extraordinary Case in Physic, was

O steoclast [Greek: osteo,hone + klan, to break] Cells respon­

given by Thomas Cadwalader (1708—1779), a pupil o f

sible for resorption o f bone. Described by Charles Phillipe

William Cheselden (1688-1752) in 1744. Henry Thomas, a

R o b in (18 21—1885), professor o f histology at the Faculty o f

surgeon at the London Hospital, described it in his treatise,

Medicine in Paris.

A Remarkable Case of Softness of Bones,in 1776. It was shown

O steoclasis [Greek: osteon, bone + klan, to break] An instru­

to be due to lack o f vitamin D by John Preston M axwell

ment used to break the bone in orthopedic surgery was

(18 71—1961) in 1929. Pseudofractures in osteomalacia were

invented by Italian orthopedic surgeon, Francesco Rizzoli

described by Louis Arthur Milkman (1895—1951)

(1808—1880) to fracture a normal femur to compensate for

America in 1930. See vitamin D.

of

shortening.

O steom etry [Greek: osteo, bone + metron, measure] C om ­ O steogenesis Im perfecta [Greek: osteo, bone + gennan, to

parative study o f the measurements o f human and animal

produce] Congenital disease characterized by brittle bones

bones was founded in 1795 by Charles White (1728—1813)

due to defective ossification. Described by Swedish physi­

who studied the relationship o f the humerus to the fore­

cian, O lo f Jacob Ekman (1764—1839), in 1788 and Johann

arm. His work was revived by WiUiam Lawrence (1783—

Friedrich Georg Christian Lobstein (1777—1835), professor

1867) in 1817. Paul Broca (1824—1880) quoted the work o f

o f pathology and clinical medicine at Strasburg, gave anoth­

Lawrence in his own publication on the subject in 1862.

er account in 1833, and the syndrome was named after him.

O steom yelitis [Greek: osteo, bone + myelos, marrow + itis,

It was described independently by Dutch anatomist, WilhelmVrohk (1801—1863),in 1854.British dermatologist,

inflammation] The term spinosa ventosa was first used by

Alfred Eddowes (1850-1946),a graduate from the Universi­

Arab physicians to describe the disease o f the bone which

ty o f Edinburgh in 18 73»g^ve a description and it is known

discharged its contents through the surface o f the skin-

by his name in Britain. He worked at R oyal Salop Hospital

essentially chronic osteomyelitis.The term was first used by

in Shrewsbury and came to London in 1897 and practiced

French surgeon, Auguste N ekton (1807—1873). Samuel

as a dermatologist at several hospitals.

Cooper described it and performed a partial but extensive

556

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OTOSCLEROSIS

resection o f the affected tibia in 1787. Osteomyelitis o f the

O stwald, Friedrich W ilhelm (1853—1932) German professor

tibia was described by a London surgeon, William H ey

o f chemistry at Leipzig who proposed the law o f dilution

(17 36 -18 19 ),in i8 o 3 jo h n Howship (17 8 1-18 4 1), a surgeon

which bears his name. He invented a process to make nitric

to St George s and Charing Cross Hospitals in London, suf­

acid from ammonia, proposed a new theory o f color and

fered from osteomyelitis which motivated him to study

defined the catalyst as an agent which accelerates the rate o f

bone diseases, and publish On the Natural and Diseased state of

a chemical reaction. His Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie,

the Bones in 1820. Another account in America was given by

published in 1885, marked the beginning o f physical chem­

Nathan Smith (1762—1829),a surgeon from Connecticut,in

istry. He received the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1909.

1827. He used trepanning as treatment for bone necrosis.

O tis, Fessenden N ott (1825—1900) American urologist who

The first successful use o f penicillin in osteomyelitis was by

designed

HowardWalter Florey (1898-1968) and co-workers in 1941.

a

method

for

internal

urethrotomy

and

introduced the use o f local anesthesia in urology in 1884.

O tolaryngology or otorhinology [Greek: otos, ear + laryngx, upper part o f wind pipe + logos, discourse] The first m ono­ graph on the diseases o f the larynx was written by Giovanni Batista Codronchi (1547—1622) in 1597, and the first clinical manual on the ear was published by Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) in 1584. The first treatise on the structure, function and diseases o f the ear was w ritten by Joseph Guichard Duverny (1648—1730) o f Paris in 1683. Armand Trousseau (18 0 1—1867), w ith Jules H ippolyte C loquet (178 7-18 4 0),published a classic treatise on laryn­ gology in 1837. A British pioneer in otology was Joseph Toynbee (1815—1866) who published Diseases of the Ear in Osteomyelitis of thigh bone and vertebrae. Sir Charles Bell, A System of

i860 and devised a speculum for examination. Sir MoreU

Operative Surgery 0809). Longman, London

MacKenzie (1853—1925), another eminent English otorhinologist, published Diseases of the Nose and Throat in 1880.

O steopathy [Greek: osteo, bone + pathos, suffering] Practice

See larynx, laryngoscope,

evolved through centuries o f bone setting. It was named

O torh in ology See otolaryngology.

‘osteopathy’ by American physician, Andrew Taylor Still (1828—1917) o f Kansas.The first American school o f osteo­

O tosclerosis [Greek: oto, ear + sklerosis, hard] The first

pathy was established in Kirksville, Missouri in 1892. The

account as a clinical entity was given by A dam Politzer

A m erican Association for Advancem ent o f Osteopathy

(1835-1920) ofVienna in 1895. Fenestration operation was

(later known as the American Osteopathic Association) was

suggested by George John Jenkins o f London in 1913, and

founded in 1897. See bone setters.

successful treatment using his method was conducted by

O steopetrosis [Greek: osieo, bone +peira, stone + osis] C on­

Maurice Joseph Louis SourdiUe (1885—1961) in 1937. Julius

genital condition o f thick and hard bones due to failure o f

Lempert (b 1890) devised another surgical technique in

resorption o f intercellular ground substance. Described by a

1938.

German radiologist, Heinrich Ernst Albers Schonberg, in 1903. It was first known as marble bone disease and later named Albers-Schonberg disease.

O steotom y [Greek: osteo, bone + tomein, cut] The first was performed in the United States for ankylosis o f the hip joint by John R h ea Barton (179 4 -18 71) o f Lancaster in 1826. It was pioneered iii England by Henry Albert Reeves (1814—1914), a surgeon to the Orthopaedic Hospital, Lon­ don, in 1877. He performed 493 osteotomies up to 1885

John Brunton's otoscope. George P. Field, A Manual o f Diseases of the Ear

without a single death.

(1894). Balliere, Tindall & Cox, London

557

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OTOSCOPE

O toscop e [Greek: oto, ear + skopein, to view] Invented by

Ovary [Latin: ovarium, ovary] Site o f egg production in

Anton Friedrich vonTroeltsch (1829—1890) o f Germany in

the hen was identified and named ‘ovarium’ by the Italian

i860. An improved version was devised by John Brunton

anatomist Hieronymus Fabricus ab Aquapendente (1537-

(1836-1899) in 1865.

1619) in 1600.The Graafian follicle, a structure or sac found on the surface o f the ovary, was described by R egnier de

O tt, Isaac (1847—1915) American who did extensive work on

Graaf (16 4 1-16 73) o f Holland in 1672. The first suggestion

nervous regulation o f body temperature for over 30 years.

that the ovary secreted internal substances which had a

His work led to the discovery o f the thermoregulatory

remote and overall effect on the organism was made by

center in the hypothalamus. He demonstrated the lacto­

Théophile de Bordeu (1722—1776), a physician from M ont­

genic property o f the anterior lobe with J.C . Scott in 1 9 1 1 .

pellier, in Recherches sur Glandes, published in 1746. It was

O tto, John Conrad (1774—1844) Born in Philadelphia,he was

the first suggestion o f hormonal function o f the ovary. The

a pioneer in the study o f hemophilia in America. He gradu­

mammalian ovum within the follicle was found by Estonian

ated from the College o f N ew Jersey in 1792 and obtained

anatomist, Karl Ernst von Baer (1792—1876), in 18 2 7 .The

his M D from the University o f Pennsylvania in 1796. His

effect o f the corpus lutea on ovulation was shown by Amer­

observations on bleeders in families were published in 1803.

ican pathologist,Leo Loeb (1869-1959) in ig ii.S e e estrogen, corpus luteum, ovariotomy.

O tto D isease Protrusion o f the acetabulum into the pelvic cavity in some cases o f osteoarthritis. Described by Breslau

O variotom y [Latin: ovarium, ovary; Greek: tome, cut] The

surgeon, Adolph W ilhelm Otto (1786—1845).

first successful operative treatment o f an ovarian tumor

O tto, Friedrich W ilhelm R obert (1837-1907) Chemist and

was performed by R obert Houston o f Glasgow in 170 1. He

toxicologist at Brunswick who described a method o f

made an incision and evacuated the contents from the cyst. A complete ovariotomy was carried out by Ephraim

identifying organic poisons in biological material.

M cDowell (177 1—1830) ofKentucky in 1809.Nathan Smith

O uld, Sir Fielding (1710—1789) B orn in Galway, Ireland, he

(1762—1829) o f Connecticut performed another in 18 21,

was an obstetrician at the Rotunda Hospital in Dublin who

quite unaware o f M cD ow ell’s earlier achievement. The

wrote Treatise on Midwifery in 1742.This includes a descrip­

procedure was greatly advanced in America by Dunlop

tion o f the mechanism o f labor. He also performed an

Atloe and, by 1850, 36 were performed in America with a

incision on a rigid perineum (episiotomy) which was likely

record o f 21 recoveries.Augustus Bozzi Granville attempted

to tear during the delivery o f the child.

the procedure in London in 1826, and Charles Clay (18 0 1-

O valocytosis The only mammal which has oval red corpus­

1893) o f Manchester commenced in 1842. B y 1850 in

cles is the camel. Oval red cells in humans were first shown

England, a record o f 91 ovariotomies had been done but still

by M elvin Dresbach (1874-1946) in 1904, and are inherited

with a high mortality o f 36%. A successful ovariotomy on a

through a dominant Mendelian trait.

woman o f 75 years was reported by E. P. Bennett in 186 1. Sir

Ovarian Tum or [Latin: ovarium, ovary] The Krukenberg

Thomas Spencer Wells (1818—1897) performed a complete

tumor, a bilateral fibrosarcoma o f the ovary, was described

ovariotomy in 1858.Wells became an expert and performed

by Friedrich Ernst Krukenberg (18 71—1946) o f Germany in

over 1000 operations by 1880. Emiline Horton Cleveland

1896. The Brenner tumor, a peculiar benign neoplasm o f

(1829-1878), a graduate o f the Female Medical College

the ovary, was described as ‘oophoroma foUiculare’ by

o f Pennsylvania (1855) and professor o f obstetrics at the

another German, Fritz Brenner (b 1877), in 1907. A similar

Woman’s Hospital, Philadelphia, was the first woman in

neoplasm o f the ovary was described by Ernst Gottlieb

America to perform

Orthmann (1858-1922) in i899.Arrhenoblastoma, a tumor

ovariotomy in 1875.

o f the ovary made o f convoluted tubules resembling the

O verton,

seminiferous tubules o f the testis, was described by E. P. Pick

Charles

major abdominal surgery and

Ernest

(1865—1933)

Botanist

who

investigated osmosis. See narcosis.

o f Berlin in 1905, and G. Schikele described a second case with similar histology in 1906.The term ‘arrhenoblastoma’

O viduct [Latin: ovum, egg + ductus, duct] The primordial

was proposed by R obert Meyer o f Berlin to denote the

female genital tract or oviduct (Müller duct) was described

group o f similar masculinizing tumors in 1930. The pres­

by Johannes Peter Müller (1801-1858) o f Bonn in 1830.

ence o f an ovarian tumor associated with ascites and pleural

The function o f cilia within it in moving the ovum was

effusion (Meigs syndrome) was described by Joe Vincent

described by German physiologist, Gabriel Gustav Valentin

Meigs (1892-1963) ofAm erica in 1937.

(18 10-1909 ),in 1834.

558

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OXIDATION

POTENTIAL

including children. He founded infant schools in Britain

O vulation [Latin: ovum, egg] The first account on an anatomical, physiological and pathological basis was given

and published New View of Human Society in 1814.

by R egnier de Graaf (1641—1673) o f Holland in 1672. Simi­

O w en, Sir Richard (1804-1892) Born in Lancaster, he was a

lar work ofjan Swammerdam (1637—1680) was published in

comparative anatomist and paleontologist, who trained as a

the same year. John Beard (1858-1924) suggested in 1897

physician at Edinburgh University and St Bartholom ew’s

that the corpus luteum may be an inhibitor o f ovulation

Hospital, where he was a pupil o f John Abernethy (1764-

during pregnancy, and this was confirmed by Auguste

1831). He was curator o f the Royal College o f Surgeons

Prenant (1861—1927) in 1898. American pathologist, Leo Loeb (1869-1959) found, in 19 11, that extirpation o f the

before being appointed as the first superintendent o f the

corpora lutea in guinea pigs accelerated the next ovulation,

natural history department o f the British Museum in 1856.

while extirpation o f other parts o f the ovary had no such

He described Trichina spiralis and 1835 and the extinct early

effect. W. L. Williams, in America, found in 1921 that estrus

bird. Archaeopteryx. He founded the R oyal Microscopical

and ovulation could be induced within 48 hours in cows by

Society o f England.

squeezing out the corpus luteum through rectal manipula­

Oxalate Together with citrate solutions were shown to be

tion. Edgar V. Allen (1892-1943) and George Adelbert

effective anticoagulants by French physiologist, Nicolas-

Doisey (1893—1986) o f St Louis did valuable work on

Maurice Arthus (1862-1945) and C. Pages in 1890, and

hormones in ovulation and isolated the active principle o f

confirmed by C. A. Peckelharing in 1892. Sodium oxalate

the ovarian hormone, estrogen, in 1923.

was introduced as an anticoagulant for blood and m ilk

O vu m [Latin: or'wm, egg] Galen (AD 129-200), and Aristotle

by Arthus.

(384-322 B C ) thought that fertilization o f the ovum took

O xenbridge, Daniel (1576-1642) Physician from N orth­

place through a mystic process called‘aura seminalisMt was

amptonshire who practiced in London. In 1630 he wrote

believed that the ovum was complete in itself and was capa­

General observations and prescriptions in the practice of physick

ble o f producing an embryo after a suitable stimulus was

which contained some case histories in psychiatry. His

received.This view, called‘preformation’ , was held until the

work was published posthumously in 1715.

i6th century. One o f William Harvey’s (1578—1657) aphorisms was 'O m ni vivum ex ovo' (every living thing

O xford U niversity The first mention o f an academy at

comes from the egg).The germinal vesicles were shown in

Oxford was made by Pope Martin in 802. King Alfred

the ovum o f birds by Jan Evangelista Purkinje (1787-1869)

founded schools in the city in 879, and a Royal Charter was

in 1825. Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876), an Estonian, des­

granted by Henry III in 1249 which marked the foundation

cribed the structure o f the mammalian ovum in 1827. He

o f the university. He also founded‘an infirmarie for sicke’ in

announced his findings in De Ovi Mammalium et Hominis

1233 .According to Anglica Judaica, a Jewish school o f medi­

Genesi. The segmentation o f the frog ovum was described

cine existed at Oxford in the n th century.The first teacher

by Swiss physician Jean Louis Prévost (1838—1927) in the

o f medicine at Oxford was Stokes in 12 51, who also taught

same year. Martin Barry, an embryologist and surgeon from

at the Jewish medical school. Oxford became known as the

Edinburgh, observed the union o f spermatozoa and ovum

seat o f learning after the siege o f the castle by King Stephen

in the rabbit in 1843 and published his findings in Researches

in 1 4 1 1 . One o f the first degrees in medicine was awarded to

in Embryology in 1849. Carl Gegenbaur (1826—1903),a Ger­

Thomas Edmonds in 1449, and Thomas Bloxam graduated

man comparative anatomist, showed the unicellular nature

in medicine from Oxford in 1455. Oxford school was

in all vertebrates in 1861 .The zona radiata was described by

incorporated into a university by Queen Elizabeth 1in 1571.

Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm Bischoff (1807-1882), professor o f anatomy and embryologist at Heidelberg, in 1884. Edouard

Gérard

Balbiani

(1823-1899), professor

O xid ation Potential Together with reduction potential in

of

a living organism {Escherichia coh), was measured by L. J.

comparative embryology in France, described the yolk

Gillespie in 1920. A m erican chemist W illiam M ansfield

nucleus in 1893.The youngest human embryo, o f 13 days,

Clark (1884—1964) did further studies determining the

was described by Hungarian gynecologist, Peters Hubert

acidity o f milk and developed titration indicators. M icro­

(1859-1939),in 1899.

injection methods to study oxidation were introduced by English biochemist Joseph Needham (b 1900). Further

O w en, R obert (1771-1858) Social reformer from Newtown, Montgomeryshire, who was instrumental in bringing

work

in reforms to improve conditions o f factory workers.

R.Cham bers in 1933.

559

was

done

independently

by

B.

Cohen

and

OXYGEN

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

THERAPY

O x y g e n T h e ra p y First suggested for resuscitation by John

pathway

from

methionine

to

homocysteine,

and

Hunter (1728—1793) in 1775. Chaussier used it to resuscitate

synthesized thiamine (1942) and vasopressin (1953). He was

asphyxiated neonates in 1780. Thomas Beddoes (1760—

awarded the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1955.

1808) experimented with the gas (and nitrous oxide) for

O x y u ris [Greek: oxys, sour + oura, tail] The first differentia­

treating diseases in 1794. O xygen therapy was popularized

tion o f oxyuris from other intestinal parasites was made by

by Scottish physiologist, John Scott Haldane (i860—1936),

Alexander ofTralles (AD 525—605).

during World War LThe occurrence o f arterial anoxemia in lobar pneumonia was shown by Alvin Leroy Barach

O zo n e [Greek: oze, stench] In 1785 van Mareum observed a

(b 1895) and M .N . Woodwell in 1921 and their work

peculiar smell in the air around an electrical machine. This ‘electrified air’ was used by Cavallo to treat fetid ulcers. It

formed the basis for oxygen therapy in pneumonia.

was identified as a form o f oxygen by an Irish physical O x y g e n [Greek: oxys, sour + gennan, to produce] John

chemist from Belfast,Thomas Andrews (b 1813). In 1840

M ayow (1640—1679), an English chemist,reaHzed that when

Christian Friedrich Schonbein (1799—1868), a Germ an

substances burnt in air a chemical union with a constituent

chemist who worked in Basel, inferred that the odor was

o f the atmosphere took place. He called this gas ‘igneo

caused by a new gas and he named it ‘ozone’ . In 1845 Jean

aereum’ o r ‘spiritus nitro-aerius’ . His insight into combus­

Charles de Marignac (d 1894)

tion was not accepted, and the erroneous theory o f German

was an allotropic form o f oxygen. In 1848 Hunt postulated

chemist Georg Ernst Stahl (1660—1734), that when sub­

that it was an oxide o f oxygen, and the presence o f three

stances burnt they used an essence within them called

oxygen atoms was suggested by English chemist WiUiam

De la R ive suggested it

phlogiston, became accepted. Phlogiston theory was held

Odling (1829—1921) in 1861. His theory was later proved

for over a hundred years until Joseph Priestley (1733-1804),

by Soret in 1866 and Brodie in 1872. The ozone layer in

an English chemist, obtained pure oxygen by heating a

the upper atmosphere was discovered in 1913 by a French

metal oxide. He called the gas ‘dephologisticated air’ in

physicist, M arie Paul Auguste Charles Fabry (1867—1945).

1774. O xygen was discovered independently by a Swedish apothecary, Carl W ilhelm Scheele (1742—1786), in the same year. In 1775 Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743—1794) named the substance responsible for combustion ‘acidifying prin­ ciple’ which, in Greek was ‘oxygine principle’ , hence its present name. The atomic weight was calculated at 16 by London

chemist, William

Odling

(1829—1921), who

qualified as a physician from London University in 1851. The

first

commercial preparation

o f oxygen

using

fractional distillation o f air was achieved by Karl von Linde (1842-1934) in 1895. O x y te tra c y c lin e Teramycin antibiotic isolated from Streptomyces rimosus by Alexander Carpenter Finlay (b 1906) and co-workers in 1950. O x y to c in [Greek: oxys, sour + tokos, birth] The action o f extract o f posterior pituitary was demonstrated by British physiologist. Sir H enry Halett Dale (1875—1968), in 1906. William Blair Bell (1871-1936) a Liverpool obstetrician, used crude oxytocin in labor in 1909 .The specific hormone from the posterior lobe o f the pituitary gland which causes contraction o f the uterus was isolated by American bio­ chemist, Oliver Kamm (b 1888) and colleagues in 1928. It was synthesized in pure form by American biochemist, Vincent duVigneaud (1901—1978),in 1952. He was born in Chicago and became professor at Cornell University Medical College in 1938. He also discovered the metabolic

560

PAGET

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

anatomist o f the period, making anatomy a regular part o f the curriculum. Some o f the many distinguished students

P

and teachers include: British founder o f the Royal College o f Physicians, Thomas Linacre (1460-1524); John Caius (1510-1573) who went to study under Montanus (14981552); William Harvey (1578-1657) who was taught by Hieronymus

Fabricus

ab Aquapendente

(1533—1619);

Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682—1771) who showed the relationship between anatomy and disease; Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) who taught mathematics and astronomy; and

P 53 G ene A gene which normally suppresses cancer in man.

James Gregory (1638-1675) a Scottish mathematician.

Identified by the current professor o f cancer research at the University o f Dundee, David Lane (b 1952) from Purley,

Padutin Proteolytic enzyme, now known as serine protease,

Surrey in England. It was observed during research on

which activates plasminogen. In 1926 E. K. Frey (b 1888) and

tumor viruses in cells and was thought to be a contaminant

H. Kraut isolated a substance from urine which, when

until Lane started investigating it in 1978. His work showed

injected intravenously into dogs, caused a drop in blood

that the abnormality o f the gene led to cancer. Lane shared

pressure. They named it ‘kaUikrein’ and later changed it to

the Paul Ehrlich Award at Frankfurt with his co-workers,

‘padutin’. In 1929 Frey observed that the fluid in a large pan­

Arni Levine o f Princeton University, N ew Jersey and Bert

creatic cyst contained the same substance. It has remained

Vogelstein o f Johns Hopkins Oncology Center, Baltimore,

non-specific treatment for many conditions including

in 1998.

thromboangitis obliterans, indigestion and impotence.

P acchioni B od ies Corpuscles forming small prominences

Pagenstecher O in tm ent

o f arachnoid tissue under the dura mater. Described in

Secret remedy consisting o f

yellow oxide o f mercury and prepared by German ophthal­

1692 by Italian professor o f anatomy, Antonio Pacchioni

mologist, Alexander Pagenstecher (1828-1879). He also

(1665—1726) o f R om e. Pacchioni also proposed that the

defined a method o f surface marking the origin o f

dura mater exerted a contractile force on the brain.

attachment o f any movable abdominal tumor.

Pacem aker See cardiac pacing. P achon, M ichel Victor (1867—1938) French physician from Bordeaux who designed a sensitive oscillometer in 1909 to record arterial pulsation o f the extremities.

P achym eningitis

[Greek: pachys, thick + meninx, mem­

brane + itis, inflammation] (Syn. inflammation o f the dura mater) The term ‘pachy-meningite cervicale hypertrophique’ for chronic meningitis o f the spinal dura mater was coined by French neurologist, Jean Martin Charcot (1825— 1893). See dura mater.

Pacini C orpuscle Sensory nerve end organs described by Italian professor o f anatomy at Pisa, Filippo Pacini (1812— Sir James Paget (1814-1899). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

1883) in 1840. Also described in 17 17 by Abraham Vater (16 84-1751), professor o f pathology and therapeutics

Paget, Sir James (1814—1899) Son o f a shipowner and mayor

at Wittenberg, and known as Pacini-Vater corpuscles.

of

Pacini also described the causative organism o f cholera. Vibrio cholerae, in 1854.

Padua

Great Yarmouth.

He

studied

medicine

at

St

Bartholom ew’s Hospital where he discovered the parasite, Trichinella spiralis, while stiU a student. He became a surgeon at the same hospital and attended QueenVictoria. He gave

C ity in northeast Italy whose famous University

was founded in 1222 and rose to prominence during the

an original description o f eczema o f the nipple and mam­

Renaissance.The anatomical theaters were established dur­

mary cancer (Paget disease) in 1874. His Lectures on Surgical

ing the time o f Andreas Vesalius (1514—1564), the greatest

Pathology and Clinical Lectures was published in 1853 •

561

PAGET DISEASE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

Paget D isease Osteitis deformans is a disease o f late life and

Pajot, Charles (1816—1896) Obstetrician in Paris who des­

was described by Sir James Paget (1814—1889) in 1877.

igned a decapitating hook, and described a method o f using obstetric forceps to exert a tangential force giving a resul­

Paget D isease Carcinoma o f the nipple accompanied by

tant force in the direction o f the birth canal during delivery.

eczematous changes and carcinoma o f the lactiferous ducts.

Palade, George Emil (b 1912) Romanian cell biologist who

Described by Sir James Paget (1814-1889) in 1874.

studied in Bucharest, where he became professor o f anato­

Pahvant Valley Fever See tularaemia.

m y He emigrated to the U S A in 1946 and worked at the

Pain [L2itin: poena] Sensation o f discomfort or distress in res­

Rockefeller Institute in N ew York before moving to Yale in

ponse to a stimulus, found in all living organisms. Higher

1972. In 1990 he became professor o f cellular and molecular

animals respond with a natural reaction such as rubbing the

biology at the University o f California at San Diego. He

affected organ or seeking to avoid the painful stimulus. In

developed cell fractionation methods and described mito­

man the physical and emotional consequences o f pain have

chondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes and the Golgi

affected human history. Prehistoric man learned to avoid

apparatus. He showed that protein synthesis occurs on

harmful stimuli thereby improving chances o f survival, and

R N A strands and that these proteins are carried through

attributed it to gods or devils. Babylonian clay tablets reveal

the cell wall in vacuoles. He shared the N obel Prize for

the practice o f exorcisms and incantations to relieve pain.

Physiology or Medicine in 1974. See ribosomes.

The ancient Chinese developed acupuncture and later

P aleobotany [Greek:palaios, old] Seepaleophytology.

anesthesia was used for relief. Egyptian papyri describe

Paleolithic A ge

headaches, toothaches and facial pain and they believed that

[Greek: palaios, old + lithos, stone] Term

the seat o f pain was the heart and not the brain. Narcotic

suggested by British politician and biologist. Sir John

plants such as madragora, Indian hemp, henbane and poppy

Lubbock (1834-1913) in 1865 to divide the Stone Age, on

were used by Greeks, Rom ans and Egyptians to overcome

the basis o f stone artifacts, into the time o f rough stone

pain. Alcmaeon, a pupil o f Pythagorus (580-500 B C ) was

instruments (Paleolithic) and a later stage o f polished stone

the first to postulate that the brain perceived stimuli. His

(Neolithic) instruments .The Paleolithic age was later divid­

theory was forgotten for over 200 years until it was revived

ed into the period o f Neanderthal man and the time o f

by Theoprastus (372—287 B C ).T h e earliest form o f elec­

appearance o f Homo sapiens or modern man.

trotherapy for neuralgia and headache was practiced with

P aleontology [Greek: palaios, old + onto + beings + logos,

the use o f the torpedo fish by Dioscorides (AD 40—90) .The

discourse] Sir Richard Owen (1804—1892) first used the

modern theory o f pain which states that whenever a

term in 1838 and wrote Palaeontology in i860. It is the study

stimulus is applied in excess it causes pain, was suggested by

o f the origin and development o f life on Earth. It started

Erasmus D arw in ( 17 3 1—1802) and developed by W ilhelm

with studies o f fossils by Conrad Gesner (1516—1565) in

Erb

(18 40-1921),

Friedrich

Gustav

Jakob

Henle

1565, and was established as a science by Georges Cuvier

(1809—1895) and others. Since then several other theories

(1769—1832) o f Paris around 1800. The Palaeontographical

have been proposed and research and the struggle to

Society was founded in London in 1843 and published

conquer pain continues.

important treatises on Earth s organic remains.

Painter’s C olic (Syn: lead colic, colica pictonum, French:

P aleopathology [Greek: palaios, old + pathos, suffering +

colique des peintres) Intestinal colic caused by lead

/o^o5, discourse] Study o f ancient diseases through examina­

poisoning and found in house-painters in the 19th century.

tion o f mummies, fossils, osseous remains, Egyptian papyri and Babylonian clay tablets. Coronary atherosclerosis, schis­

Painting Various maladies such as palsy o f the limbs, black

tosomiasis, bone tumors, tuberculous abscesses and many

teeth, cachexia, and loss o f sense o f smell occurred in profes­

other conditions have been found to be thousands o f years

sional painters. In 1700 Bernardino Ramazzini (16 33-1714 )

old through such examination. A pioneer in the field was Sir

described causes in On the Diseases ofTradesmen and attrib­

Mark Armand R u ffer (1859—1917) who studied conditions

uted them to materials such as red and white lead, varnish

such as tuberculosis o f the spine, arteriosclerosis and gall

and various oils used in painting. Jean François Fernel

stones in Egyptian mummies from 3000 B C .

(1497-1558), physician to H enry II o f France, described palsy o f hands and colicky abdominal pains in a painter

P aleophytology [Greek: palaios, old + phyton, plant + logos,

from Anjou in 155 4.These symptoms are now recognized as

discourse] Branch o f paleontology which deals with fossil

typical o f lead toxicity. See lacquer poisoning.

plants. Fossil Botany was written by Solms-Laubach o f the

562

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PANCREAS

University o f Gottingen in 1891, and Studies in Fossil Botany

established his School o f Chiropractic Medicine at Daven­

was published in 1900 by H enry Scott Dunkinfield (1854-

port, Iowa in 1899. His son B J . Palmer (18 8 1-19 61) helped

1934),keeper ofthejodrell Laboratory at Kew. Other books

to promote his system o f medicine.

including: English Wealden Flora (1894), Jurassic Flora

Palm iter, Richard De Forest (b 1942) American molecular

(1900-1903), and Plant Life through the Ages were published

geneticist w ho became professor o f biochem istry at the

by English botanist, Sir Albert Charles Seward (1863—1941)

University o f Washington in 1981. He produced the first

ofLancaster.

transgenic mice by injecting human growth hormone into a mouse embryo. See genetic engineering.

P alm itic A cid Most fats and oils contain it and it was found in margarine by Heintz in 1852 and in olive oil by Collett in i854.Tripalmitin was discovered to be the chief constituent o f olive oil, by Heintz and Krug in 1857.

Palpation

[Latin: palpatio, to touch] Method o f physical

examination by touch has no traceable definite time o f Tuberculosis of the dorsal spine in a New Stone Age skeleton. From Bartels, P. (1970) Arch. Anthrop. 34, 243, with permission

origin. It was practiced by witch doctors and sorcerers. Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) described its application in diagnosis.

P aleozoic P eriod [Greek:palaios, old + zoe,life] Era corre­ Paludism [Latin:

sponding to the lowest stratified layer o f the Earth

marsh] Malaria.The term derives its

containing the remains o f the earliest forms o f life, over 400

origin from the belief that it arises from the noxious gas in

million years ago. It was named by the British geologist,

marshes.

Adam Sedgwick (1785-1873).

Palate [Latin:

Paludrine [Latin:pij/ws, marsh] See antimalarials

palate] Partition dividing the oral and

P am piniform P lexus

[Latin: pampinus, tendril]

The

nasal passages, known to ancient physicians as the‘diaphrag-

spermatic cord derives its name from its resemblance to

ma oris’ . It was differentiated into the hard and soft palate by

vine tendrils.

AndreasVesalius (1514-1564) in 1550.

PA N See polyarteritis nodosa. Pale H ypertension Together with red hypertension, were Panacea [Greek: panakeia, to heal] Daughter o f the Greek

noted by German physician, Franz von Volhard (18 72Frankfurt (1927) in

god o f medicine Aesculapius, and goddess o f health. Her

1931. R e d hypertension is essential hypertension without

name was given to a mythical herb capable o f curing all

renal com plications, and pale hypertension is essential

diseases.

1950), professor at Halle (1897)

hypertension with renal complications and other forms o f

Pancoast, Joseph (1805-1882) N ew Jersey professor o f

secondary hypertension.

anatomy and surgery at Jefferson M edical College. He performed a section o f the trigeminal nerve at the fora­

Palfyn Sinus Space within the crista galli o f the ethmoid communicating with the frontal and ethmoidal. Described

men ovale as treatment for trigeminal neuralgia in 1872. His

by Jean Palfyn (1650—1730), professor o f anatomy at Paris in

A Treatise on Operative Surgery was published in 1844.

1702.

Pancoast Tum or Superior sulcus tumor o f the apex o f the lung, causing pressure on the chest wall, intercostal nerves

Pallas, Peter Simon (1741—18 11) Son o f a German professor o f surgery. He studied medicine at Halle, Leiden and

and brachial plexus, and differs from other lung tumors.

Gottingen, but later devoted his career to natural history in

American radiologist, Henry Khunrath Pancoast (1875-

England and later in Russia. He reclassified worms, sponges

1939) o f Philadelphia, described it in 1932. He came from

and corals and his methods laid the foundations for modern

a Quaker family and was professor o f radiology at the

taxonomy. He published Miscellania Zoologica (1766), Spicelia

University o f Pennsylvania. He described the radiological

Zoologica (1767) and other works. Several species o f birds

features o f an aneurysm o f the thoracic aorta in 1908. See

were named after him.

Horner syndrome.

Palm er, David Daniel (1845—1913) Founder o f chiropractic

Pancreas [Greek: pan, all + kreas, flesh] Dutch physician,

medicine in 1895. He was a storekeeper from Toronto and

R egnier de G raff (1641—1673) collected pancreatic juice

563

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PANCREATIC FUNCTION

through an artificial pancreatic fistula in a dog in 1664.

Pancreatic D u c t Discovered by Bavarian anatomist Johann

Polyuria and thirst in dogs after experimental excision o f

GeorgW irsung (1600—1643) in 16 31. He was assassinated in

the pancreas was demonstrated by Johann Conrad Brunner

a quarrel over the priority o f the discovery. His discovery

(1653-1727) in 16 8 3.The relationship between fibrosis o f

was announced by his pupil J.Vesling (1598—1649) o f Padua

the pancreas and diabetes mellitus was noted by John Bright

in 1641.

in the middle o f the 19th century. The first systematic

P ancreatoduodenectom y

experiments to show that pancreatectomy led to diabetes

Involves the excision o f the

head o f pancreas and duodenum in cases o f pancreatic can­

mellitus were by Jo se f von M erring (1849—1908) and Oskar

cer and was first performed by Chicago surgeon Alexander

Minkowski (1858—1931) in 1889. In 1903 Eugene Lindsay

Brunschwig (1901-1969) in 1937. He described a one-stage

Opie (b 1873) suggested that an antidiabetic substance was

operation in 1943.

present in the islets o f Langerhans. The alpha and beta cells

P andem ic

in the islets o f Langerhans were identified independently by

[Greek: pan, all + demos, people] Widespread

M . A. Lane (1907), and R . R . Bensley (1911), o f America.

epidemic o f contagious disease throughout a continent or

See insulin, islets of Langerhans.

country. Black Death in the Middle Ages was one such.

Pander Cell Nerve cells in the subthalamic nucleus des­ cribed by German embryologist and anatomist, Christian Heinrich Pander (1794—1865) in 1817. He studied medicine in Berlin, Dorpat, Gottingen and Wurzburg and obtained his M D in 1817. He discovered the embryonic layers and coined the term ‘blastoderm’ .

Paneth, Frederick A d olf (1887—1958) Austrian chemist born in Vienna and graduated from Munich. He moved to Britain in 1933 and worked first at Imperial College in London and later at Durham University. After the War he returned to Germany and was director o f the M ax Planck Institute. He developed radioactive tracers (with George Charles von Hevesy, 1885-1966) and used the method to establish the age o f rocks.

Pancreatic fistula induced by de Graaf

Paneth Cells Secretory cells in the mucosa o f the small intestine were described in 1887 by Joseph Paneth (1857—

Pancreatic F un ction In 1902 Sir William Maddock Bayliss

1 890), professor o f physiology at Breslau.

(1860—1924) and H enry Ernest Starling (1866—1927) dis­ covered the hormone secretin which travels via the blood

Panizza Foram en Interventricular foramen o f the heart

stream and causes pancreatic secretion in duodenal mucosa.

normally found in lower vertebrates. Its abnormal presence

The suggestion that the secretions depend on a reflex

in mammals was studied in 1844 by Bartolomeo Panizza

between the duodenal mucosa and vagus was made by Ivan

(1785—1867), Italian comparative anatomist at Pavia.

Petrovitch Pavlov (1849-1936) in 1910. Fecal fat estimation as a function o f pancreatic insufficiency was devised by

P antheon [Greek:

Schmidt o f Berlin in 1910. In the same year, the estimation

o f Augustus. Also used generally to refer to any public

o f diastase in the urine was used as a diagnostic test by Julius

building dedicated to notable people.

Wohlgemuth (1874—1948).

Pancreatic Juice

Shown to breakdown food during

aU + theos, god] Temple in R o m e to

aU the gods was built by Agrippa in 25 B C during the reign

P antothenic A cid A characteristic dermatitis in poultry due to nutritional deficiency was noted by A. T. Ringrose

digestion in 1844 by Gabriel Gustav Valentin (1810—1883) o f

and L. C. Norris in i930.The deficient factor was identified

Germany.

as the same as ‘bios’ previously noted (1901) as necessary for

Pancreatic R esectio n Carcinoma was treated with resec­

reproduction in yeast. It was identified as a B vitamin and

tion o f the head o f the pancreas and the duodenum in 1937

constituent o f coenzyme A by John R o ger Williams (1893—

by Germ an-born Chicago surgeon Alexander Brunschwig

1988) in 1933. T he structure o f pantothenic acid was

(1901-1969).

elucidated by D.W.Woolley in 1940.

564

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PAPYRI

Berengario da Carpi (1470—i53o),orBerengarius,an Italian

Panum , Peter Ludwig (1820—1885) Danish physiologist from Copenhagen who studied the pathology o f embolism

surgeon from Pavia, applied the term to renal papillae.

in 1868, malformations o f the embryo in birds eggs in

Marcello Malpighi (1628—1694) introduced it to describe

i860 and poisonous alkaloids in 1856. D uring an out­

the papillae o f the tongue in 1670.

break o f measles in the Faroe Islands in 1846 he made an epidemiological study o f it.

Papillae See papilla. Papin, Denis (1647-1712) French physician and physicist

Pap Sm ear See George Nicholas Papanicolau, cervical smear.

from Blois who studied medicine at the University o f

P apanicolaou, George Nicholas (1883—1962) American

Angers. He came to England in 1675 and worked for a brief

anatomist and cytologist who was born in Greece and

period with R obert Boyle (1627—1691). He invented the

introduced cytology into diagnosis o f cancer. He investigat­

steam digester with a safety valve in 1681 which he used to

ed normal cyclical changes o f the vaginal epithelium with

dissolve bone and other products under pressure. His

Charles

principle was later applied to the present-day domestic

Rupert

Stockard

(1879-1939)

in

19 17

and

pressure cooker and autoclave..

described the role o f the vaginal smear in cancer in 1928. Papanicolaou and Herbert Frederick Traut (b 1894) pub­

P appenheim er B od ies Iron granules found in erythrocytes

lished The Diagnosis of Uterine Cancer by Vaginal Smear in

in peripheral blood in cases o f hemolytic anemia. Described

1943. He also wrote New Cancer Diagnosis (1928), A New

by N ew York biochemist,Alwin M ax Pappenheimer (18 78 -

procedure for staining Vaginal Smears (1942), and Atlas of

1955). He introduced treatment o f rickets with cod liver oil

Exfoliative Cytology in i954.The smear test used in diagnosis

(vitamin D) in 1920.

o f cervical cancer is popularly known as the ‘Pap smear’ .

Paprika-Splitters’ Lung Paprika or red pepper was intro­ Papataci Fever Seephlebotomusfever.

duced to Europe for medicinal purposes by Turkish invaders during the i6th century. It later became a prominent indus­

Papaverine \L2Ltm:papaver, poppy] A n alkaloid o f opium first isolated by Georg Franz M erck (1825—1873) in 1848 and

try in Yugoslavia and Hungary and women who split this

synthesized by Pictet and Gams in 1909.

fruit to remove the mold, Mucor stolonifera, developed pulmonary disease which manifested as a cough with thick

Papilledem a The mechanism o f swelling o f the optic disc

expectoration from cavities in the lung.

was explained by Viennese neurologist, Ludwig Turck (1810—1868). Its association with headache and brain tumor

Papyri The Egyptians used the papyrus reed to make a form

was noted by Edward Constant Seguin (1843—1898),

o f paper from which a large part o f our knowledge o f their

professor o f neurology at the College o f Physicians and

civilization and medical practices has been obtained. A

Surgeons, Columbia University.

mathematical papyrus from 1650 B C , written by Ahmes, was found by H enry A. R hind (1833—1863) in the 19th

P appenheim , Artur (1870—1916) German professor o f

century and is now at the British M useum.The Ebers papy­

hematology at Berlin who founded the journal Folia

rus (1500 B C ) was bought by Egyptologist George Moritz

Hematologica in i904.The Pappenheim stain is a specific test

Ebers (1837—1898) o f Berlin in 1862. It contains details o f

for plasma cells.

Egyptian medicine dating back to 3300 B C and was the first papyrus containing descriptions o f medical practices, herbal

Paper C hrom atography See chromatography.

medicines, demonology and mineral medicines. Another

Paper Said to have been invented in China around 170 B C

medical treatise from 1600 B C was found near Luxor in

although the Egyptians used the papyrus reed to make a

1862 by Edwin Smith (1822—1906). It relates to early Egypt­

paper-like material several thousand years previously. In

ian surgery from 2500 B C and contains descriptions o f 48

Europe it was made from cotton rags in i300.The first paper

diseases, plasters, splints for broken bones, suturing, cauteri­

mill was established at Dartford,England in 1494, and coarse

zation and other ancient but advanced methods o f surgical

white paper was produced by an Englishman o f German

and medical practice. The therapeutic Papyrus o f Thebes,

origin. Sir John Speilman at Dartford in 1590. Continuous

which is 65 feet long and dates from 1552 B C , deals with

paper o f indefinite length was produced in 1807, the longest

medicine and gives specific remedies for diseases. One

roll being 13,800 feet.

chapter is devoted to diseases o f children and another to

[Latin: papillae, pimple] Term first used by the

diseases o f women. The Hearst papyrus (1500 B C ) was

Romans to refer to the nipple o f the breast. Jacopo

discovered at Der-el-Balias in 1899 and is now at the

Papilla

565

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PAQUELIN

University o f California. The Brugsch papyrus or the

discouraged by several physicians including Caelius Aure-

Greater Berlin papyrus, dates from the time o f first Egyptian

lianus in the 5 th century, but Paul o f Aegina (625—690)

dynasty, and was found near the pyramids o f Sakarah at

revived it. In 1850 H enry Ingersoll Bowditch (1808-1892)

Memphis. It describes the heart, veins and other organs.

and MorriU Wyman (1812-19 03) o f the Massachusetts General Hospital were the first in America to remove fluid

Paquelin, Claude Andre (1836-1905) Physician from Paris

from the chest through a puncture with a trocar into the

who, in 1876, introduced a cautery made o f platinum

chest wall. The suction pump for the procedure was

heated by passage o f a volatile hydrocarbon.

designed by Wyman.

P ara-A m inob en zoic A cid The significance o f the struc­ tural resemblance between the antibacterial substance sulfanilamide, and para-aminobenzoic acid, a bacterial

s s | bb =::s9 «

antagonist, was shown independently by British microbiol­ ogists, Donald DevereuxWoods (1912—1964), and Paul Fildes (1882—1971) in 1940. T h e Woods—Fildes hypothesis, that para-aminobenzoic acid is an essential metabolite o f bacte­ ria and sulfanilamides,by virtue o f their structural similarity in blocking bacterial metabolism, form ed the basis for

Instruments used forthorcic paracentesis

research on sulfanilamides as effective antibiotics.

Paragonimus westermani Lung fluke causing endemic hem­

P ara-A m inosalicylic A cid (PAS) Benzoates and salicylates

optysis mainly in the Far East and China, described by

increase respiration in bacteria and this observation led to

Kerbert in 1878.The ova were described in a paper IJeher

the search for competitive inhibitors for use as antibacterial

parasitäre Hamaptoe or Gangrenosis pulmonum by Erw in Otto

agents. Jogen Lehman (b 1898) introduced PAS (4-amino-

Edouard von Baelz (1849—1913) in 1880.The life cycle was

salicylic acid) in 1946, and it became a first-line drug in

elucidated by three Japanese parasitologists, K. Nakagawa

treatment o f tuberculosis.

(b i9i9),H .Kobayashi (b 1920) and S.Yokogawa (b 1919).

Paracelsus (1493-154 1) Also known as Theoprastus Bom Rapid acting sedative introduced into

Paraldehyde

bastus von Hohenheim, was a physician, alchemist, philosopher and astrologer from Switzerland. His name

medicine as a narcotic by Vincenzo CerviUo (1854—1919) o f

means beyond (para) Celsus, after Aulus Cornelius Celsus

Palermo in 1884. It was used in obstetrics by Rosenfield and

(25 B C —A D 50) a celebrated physician. Paracelsus was one

Leo M ax D avidoff (1898—1975) in 1932.

o f the first to discard the ideas o f Galen (AD 129—200) and

Paralysis A gitans

[Greek: para, side by side + lyein, to

publicly burned the Canon o f Avicenna (980—1037). He was

loosen; Latin: agitans, putting in motion] Shaking palsy was

the founder o f chemical therapeutics and introduced

described

mercurials as treatment for syphilis. He also described

(1755—1824) in 1817 and later named in his honor.

by

London

physician,

James

Parkinson

miners disease. He advocated teaching in vernacular

Parangi

language (German) instead o f Latin, and wrote on a variety

Peculiar affection o f the skin accompanied by

ulceration and general debility amongst the people o f

o f subjects including cosmology, anthropology, sorcery,

Ceylon, who believed it to be venereal. Described by Loos

astrology, philosophy and medicine.

in 1868 and later by Dunforth as Vanni’ plague (Vanni: a vil­

Paracentesis A bd om inis [Latin:

side by side + kente-

lage in Ceylon) in 1873. A study o f the causes was made by

sis, to puncture] Used as treatment for ascites and dropsy by

W.E.Kynsey,the principal Civil Medical Officer o f Ceylon.

Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) and revived by Paul o f Aegina (625—690). Southey tubes with trocar and cannula for

Paranoia [Greek: para, beside + nous, mind] Term used by

paracentesis abdominis were designed in 1879 by Reginald

Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) in his classification o f mental

Southey (18 35-18 9 9 ), a physician at St B arth olom ew ’s

diseases to refer to a primary form o f insanity. Emil

Hospital. See ascites.

Kraepelin (1856-1926) o f Germany adopted the term to modern psychiatry in 1886 to denote a state o f extreme

ParacentesisT horacis [Lztin:para, side by side + kentesis,to

suspicion.

puncture] Thoracentesis was suggested by Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) who recommended making an incision in

Paraplegia [Greek: para, beside + plege, stroke] Paralysis o f

the chest.This method was later considered dangerous and

the body transversely affecting both sides. Sir William Gull

566

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PARAVERTEBRAL SOMATIC BLOCK

(1816—1890) o f G u y’s Hospital made postmortem studies

Parasym pathetic N ervous System [Greek: pizra, beside + sympatheticos, feeling] Term introduced in 1905 by John

o f cases in 1856.

Parasitology

N ew port Langley (1852-1925), a neurophysiologist from

[Greek: parásitos, one who eats at another’s

Newbury,

expense + logos, discourse] Intestinal worms were the first

Berkshire.

He

also

coined

‘preganglionic’ and ‘postganglionic’ while

parasites to be identified by ancient physicians as a cause o f

the

terms

he was a

professor at Cambridge. See autonomic nervous system.

disease. Examination o f tissues from 3000-year-old Egypt­ ian mummies showed the presence o f Trichinella spiralis and

Parathorm one See parathyroid.

Schistosoma hematobium. Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) studied

Parathyroid [Greek: para, beside + thyreos, shield] Glands

parasites

and

divided

intestinal

worms

into

round

described in the Indian rhinoceros by Sir Richard Owen

lumbricae {Ascaris), and broad lumbrici (Taenia). Intestinal

(1804—1892) in 1850, and later in man by Rudolph Virchow

worms resembling earthworms were described by Paul o f

(1821—1902) in 1863. Following removal o f the thyroid,

Aegina (625-690): The first protozoan parasite identified

patients were observed to develop agonizing muscular cramps

was

Leeuwenhoek

leading to death within a few days.The cause was not identi­

(16 32-1723) who noted it in his stools in 1681. The first

Giardia

lamblia, by Antoni

van

fied although the existence o f parathyroid glands had been

anatomical description o f Ascaris lumbricoides was given by

known since 1850.The four small bodies, beside the thyroid

Edward Tyson (1650-1708) in 1683.The egg and the repro­

glands, were described as accessory thyroid tissues by Swedish

ductive process o f the roundworm were described in 1684

anatomist, IvarV ictor Sandstrom (1852-1889) in 1879. In

by Francesco R e d i (1626—1698) o f Italy, regarded as the first

1891 French physiologist M arcel Eugène Em ile G ley

parasitologist. Echinococcus was used for the vesicular hydatid

(1857—1930) removed the parathyroid glands while keeping

by Karl Asmund Rudolphi (177 1-18 32 ) in 1808. Experi­

the thyroid intact and demonstrated a fatal tetany. He then

mental methods started in 1850 when Ernst Friedrich

removed the thyroid gland while preserving the parathyroids

Herbst (1803—1893) succeeded in transmitting Trichina by

without any serious ill efiects thus demonstrating the impor­

feeding infected meat to animals. Carl Theodor Ernest von

tance o f the parathyroid in preserving life. Parathyroid extract

Siebold demonstrated that dogs could be experimentally

was obtained by A dolf Melancthon Hanson (1888—1959) in

infected with Echinococcus in 1854 and its complete life his­

1923, and its active principle was isolated by Canadian bio­

tory and morphology was given by Rudolph George

chemist Bertram James CoUip (1892—1965) in 1925. A year

Leuckart (1822-1898)

in i860. Theodor Maximillian

later Viennese surgeon, FeHx Mandl (1892—1957), explored

Bilharz (1825—1862), professor in zoology at Cairo, in 1851

the neck o f a patient with osteitis fibrosa cystica and removed a parathyroid tumor which caused an improvement. The

discovered Schistosoma hematobium in the blood vessels o f patients. Thomas

Spencer

Cobbold

(1828—1886)

association between renal calculi and hyperparathyroidism

of

was noted by Fuller Albright (1900-1969) in 1934, although

London, a leading helminthologist and a friend o f Sir

the association with bone disease had been noted much earli­

Patrick Manson (1844—1922), named Filaría bancrofti and

er by Courtial in 1700. S.W. Stanbury performed the first

Bilharzia hematobia. David Gruby (1810—1898) o f Hungary

subtotal parathyroidectomy for hyperparathyroidism sec­

proposed the genus Trypanosome after his discovery o f the

ondary to uremia and renal failure in i960. Parathyroid

protozoan in blood o f frogs in 1844. He also showed trans­

hormone was isolated in pure form by an American, Gerald

mission o f microfilaria infection through blood transfusion.

D.Aurbach (1927—1991) o f the National Institute o f Health,

Dracunculus oculi, a filarial worm which causes loa loa, was

in

described by E.G . Guyot in 1778, and the larval forms o f the

1959. The

association

between

peptic

ulceration

and hyperparathyroidism was described by L. Pyrah,

parasite in the eye was studied by Patrick Mason in 1891. Sir

A. Hodgkinson and C.K.Anderson in 1966.

Joseph Bancroft (1836—1894) discovered Wuchereria bancrofti, cause o f filariasis in Brisbane, Australia in 1876.The proto­

Paratyphoid Term coined by Emile Charles Achard (1860-

zoan, Plasmodium, that causes malaria was discovered in

1944) o f Paris who isolated the Salmonella bacillus in 1896.

1880 by Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845—1922), a

Paravertebral S om atic B lo ck Injection o f local anesthetic

French parasitologist, while professor o f pathological

close to the vertebral column where the nerve roots emerge

anatomy at the University o f R om e. Laveran received the

from the intervertebral foramina. Introduced by Hugo

Nobel Prize for his work on malariology in 1907. M

Sellheim in 1909. Lawen named it ‘paravertebral conduc­

Clifford Dobell (1886—1949), an eminent protozoologist,

tion anesthesia’ in 19 11. Paravertebral block o f the eleventh

published the classic works Amoeba living in Man (1919),and

and twelfth thoracic vertebrae in labor was first practiced by

Intestinal Protozoa of Man (1921).

J.G.P. Cleland o f Oregon in 1933.

567

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PARDEE

Pardee, Arthur B eck (b 1921) American biochemist born in

by Italian psychiatrist, Leonardo Bianchi (1848—1927).

Chicago and trained at the University o f California, Berke­

Joseph Jules Dejerine (1849—1917) also described it in 1914.

ley. He was appointed professor o f pharmacology at

Parieties [Latin: parietalis, pertaining to walls] Old term for

Harvard in 1975. He worked with Linus PauHng (b 1901) on

walls o f the abdomen and thorax.

tumor metabohsm and antibody reactions, and with Jacques Lucien M onod (1910-1976) on the lac operon o£ Escherichia

Paris, John Ayrton (1785—1856) Cornish physician fi*om

coli. He discovered feedback control o f amino acid synthesis

Penzance who proposed that arsenical fumes from industry

and did important work on D N A repair and synthesis.

caused scrotal cancer. His theory was later disproved.

Pardee, Harold Ensign Bennett (1886—1972) American

Paris N o m in a A natom ica [Latin: «ome«,name; Greek: ana,

cardiologist who described the downward deflection o f the

through + tome, cut] Term inology in anatomy (PN A)

T wave in E C G o f coronary disease. He was born in N ew

adopted at the 6th International Congress o f Anatomists

York and graduated from Columbia University. See

in Paris in 1955.

myocardial infarction.

Parish Areas in England established by the archbishop o f Paré, Ambroise (1510—1590) One o f the greatest figures o f

Canterbury, Honorius in A D 636. B y the 15th century over

the Renaissance and undoubtedly it s greatest surgeon. He

10,000

was born at Bourg-Hersent in France. He was initially

helped in the study o f vital statistics o f that period were

opposed by the French Faculties as he was from a simple

parishes existed and the Parish Registers which later

established in 1538.

background and could not read Latin. He overcame this and became the most famous French surgeon o f all times. He

Park, M ungo (1771-18 06 ) Edinburgh physician and early

introduced anatomical discipline into surgery and his con­

explorer o f Africa. His first expedition to N iger lasted from

tributions include: discovery that gunshot wounds are not

1794 to 1797 and on his return he published Travels in the

poisonous, apphcation o f simple dressings to such wounds

Interior Districts of Africa in 1799. He was killed in Boussa

instead o f hot oil, Hgature for bleeding after amputation,

during his second trip to Africa.

podalic version o f the fetus in útero, artificial limbs, many

Park A neurysm Arteriovenous aneurysm which commu­

surgical instruments and implantation o f teeth. He held the

nicates with two veins. Described by English surgeon,

first judicial postmortem and was surgeon to Francois I,

H enry Park (1744-1831).

H enry II, Charles IX , H enri III, Henri IV and other mem­

Parker Arch Part o f the developing skull which completes

bers o f the French royalty. His work was translated

the occipital portion o f the primitive cranium in the lower

into Latin, German and many other languages.

animals. Described in 1870 by Kitchen William Parker

Parenchym a [Greek: piira, beside + chuma, juice] Used in

(1823-1890), a general practitioner in London and assistant

anatomy in 300 B C by Erasistratus to refer to a gland-like

to Todd at K ing’s College, London.

substance o f the liver, spleen, kidneys and lungs. It derives from the belief that blood poured like juice into the

Parker Incision Incision parallel with the Poupart ligament

adjacent (para) organ and became converted into the

over the area o f maximum dullness due to appendicular

substance o f that organ.

abscess. Described by N ew York surgeon, Willard Parker

Paresis

(1800—1884) who was the first to operate on a case o f

[Greek: paresis, relaxation] Condition o f slight or

appendicitis in America.

incomplete paralysis. See general paralysis of the insane.

Parkes, A. Edmund (1819—1876) English sanitary reformer

Parietal C ell [Latin: parietalis, pertaining to walls] Cells o f the gastric glands described by Prussian professor o f physi­

in the 19th century. His name is enshrined in the Parkes

ology and histology, R u d o lf Peter Heinrich Heidenhaim

Museum o f Hygiene instituted in 1876 at University

(1834-1897) o f the University o f Breslau in 1888. Gastric

College, London.

parietal cell antibodies occur in nearly 80% o f patients with

Parkes, Sir Alan Sterfing (1900—1990) English physiologist,

pernicious anemia, as shown by K. B.Taylor and co-workers

born in Purley, Surrey and educated at the University o f

in 1962.

Cambridge where he became professor o f reproductive

Parietal L obe S yndrom e [Latin: parietalis, pertaining to

physiology in 1961. His main area o f research was

walls] Sensory aphasic syndrome accompanied by apraxia

reproductive endocrinology, and he published The Internal

and alexia, seen in lesions o f the left parietal lobe. Described

Secretions of the Ovary (1929) and other books on the subject.

568

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PARTHENOGENESIS

Parkinson, James (1755—1824) London physician and stud­

Paroxysm al H em oglobin uria [Greek: paroxysmos, excite­

ent o f Joh n Hunter (1728-1793). He described perforated

ment + haima, blood + ouren, urine; Latin: globus, ball] A

appendix, but is famous for his description o f paralysis

description was given by Johannis Actuarius, court physi­

agitans given in 1817. He also recognized ruptured

cian at Constantinople in the 13 th century. His De minis

appendix as a cause o f death. See Parkinson disease.

was translated by Ambrosio Leoni Nolono in 1529. George Harley (1829—1896) o f Haddington in Scotland described

Parkinson, Sir John (1885-1976) See Wolf-Parkinson-White

two cases in 1865. Suggested to be an autoimmune disease

syndrome.

by Julius Donath (1870—1950) and N obel Prize winner,

Parkinson, Joh n (1567—1650) Nottingham apothecary who

Karl Landsteiner (1868—1943), in 1903. The similarities

practiced in London. He published a comprehensive

between cold urticaria and paroxysmal hemoglobinuria

English book on plants in 1640, Theatrum Botanicum, that

were noted by Thomas Fraser o f Edinburgh in 1905. A

contains descriptions o f over 3,800 plants.

detailed description o f paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobin­

Parkinson D isease

uria (Marchiafava-Micheli syndrome) was given by Italian

(Syn: paralysis agitans, shaking palsy)

physician Ettore Marchiafava (1847-1935) in 19 11. The

Characterized by mask-like facies, tremor and slowness o f movements. Described

by

London

Ham test showing hemolysis o f red cells after incubation

physician, James

with acidified serum was devised by American physician

Parkinson (1755—1824) in 1817. Stereotaxic surgery was

Thomas Hale Ham (b 1905) and H. M . Horack in 1941.

used as treatment to produce discrete lesions in the basal ganglia by Ernest A d olf Spiegel (1895—1985), H.T. Wycis,

Paroxysm al N octurnal H em oglobin uria [Greek: parox­

M . Marks and A J . Lee o f N ew York in 1947.Their method

ysmos, excitement + haima, blood + ouren, urine; Latin: nox,

was improved by R . Hassler andT. Reichart in 1954, and I.

night + globus, baU] Marchiafava-Micheli syndrome. See

S. Copper and G .J. Bravo in 1958. Implanting o f cells from

paroxysmal hemoglobinuria.

the adrenal gland into the brain as treatment was first

Parrot Fever See psittacosis.

proposed by Ignacio Navarro in 1987.

Parrot N o d es Nodules on the parietal and frontal bones o f

Parham Bands Circular wires used for internal fixation o f

the skull in infants with congenital syphilis. Described by

fractured long bones. Devised by an American surgeon

French physician Jules M arie Parrot (1829-1883) in 1879.

from N ew Orleans, Frederick William Parham (1856— 1927),in 1913.

Parrot Sign Dilatation o f the pupils induced by pinching the skin o f the neck o f patients with meningitis. Described

Parotid Gland [Greek:para, besides + ous, ear] Term used by

by French physician,Jules M arie Parrot (1829—1883).

Galen (AD 129—200) to denote an inflammatory mass or abscess near the ear.‘Parotis’ was first applied by Jean Riolan

Parry D isease Exophthalmic goiter described by English

(1577—1657), a professor o f anatomy at Paris in 1640. The

physician, Caleb Hillier Parry (1775-1822) o f Bath in 1786.

excretory duct (Stensen duct) o f the gland and its function

He later published eight more cases and the disease was

were discovered by Niels Stensen (1638—1688),professor o f

named after him. Parry also wrote a monograph on arterial

anatomy at Copenhagen, in 1682. The first excision was

pulse.

carried out in 1823 by PierreAugustinBéclard (1785—1825), professor o f anatomy at Paris. Auguste Bérard (1802—1846)

Parsons, Sir John Herbert (1868—1957) Ophthalmic surgeon at University College Hospital, and curator and pathologist

o f Paris published the first monograph on parotid tumors in

at the Royal London Moorfields Hospital. He published

1841.

The Pathology of the Eye (1904—1908) and other books on

Parotitis [Greek:para, besides + ous, ear + itis, inflammation]

ophthalmology.

See mumps.

Parthenogenesis [Greek:parthenos, virgin -i- genesis,produc­

Paroxysm al Atrial Tachycardia [Greek: paroxysmos, excite­

tion] Asexual reproduction or development o f an egg

ment; Latin: atria, chamber + tachys, quick] Described by

without fertilization. Discovered by German zoologist,

Léon Bouveret (1850—1929) o f Paris in 1889 and named

Karl Theodor Ernest Siebold (1804—1865).The phenome­

‘atrial tachycardia’ . E C G changes were recognized by Sir

non was demonstrated experimentally and named by

Thomas Lewis (1881—1945) in 1909, and described in more

Jacques Loeb

detail by P. S. Barker and colleagues in 1943 .The occurrence

Strasbourg, in 1884 and further shown in the frog by

in digitalis toxicity was noted by G .R . Herrmann in 1944.

Eugene Bataillon in 1910.

569

(1859-1924), a medical graduate from

PARTIAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

GASTRECTOMY

Partial G astrectom y See gastrectomy, Billroth operation.

without producing disease. He used the Latin word,‘vacca’ meaning cow, and administered rabies vaccine in 1885. He

Parturition [L2Ltin:parturio,hrmgforth] See labor, obstetrics.

was the first director o f the Pasteur Institute in Paris which

PAS See para-aminosalicylic acid.

was founded with a public donation o f 2.5 million francs

Pascal, Blaise (1623—1662) French mathematician from

in 1888.

Clermont-Ferrand and contemporary o f Pierre de Fermat

Pasteurella pestis The first member o f the genus was isolated

(1601—1665). He completed 23 propositions o f Euclid at the

during an epidemic affecting wild hogs and deer by Kitt in

age II and published an essay on cornices at 16. He made a

i878.The plague hdiCiMus, Pasteurella pestis (or Yersinia pestis),

calculating machine in 1617.

was isolated from humans independently by Swiss bacteri­ ologist Alexander Emile Jean Yersin (1863—1943), and

Passavant Bar R id ge on the posterior wall o f the pharynx, produced by contraction o f the palatopharyngeus muscle.

Shibasaburo Kitasato (1852—1931) in 1894. The genus was

Described in 1869 by German surgeon, Philip Gustav

named Pasteurella in honor o f Louis Pasteur (1822—1895).

Passavant (1815—1893) o f Frankfurt.

Pasteurization a method o f partial heat sterilization at 55 to

Passavant C ushion R idge projecting from the posterior

6o°C to prevent fermentation by microorganisms or

and lateral walls o f the nasopharynx at the level o f the free

vinegar formation in wine. Devised by Louis Pasteur

margin o f the soft palate in cases o f atrophic rhinitis.

(18 22 - 1895) in 1868.

Described by German Surgeon, Philip Gustav Passavant

Patau Syndrom e Trisomy 13 syndrome was described by

(18 15-18 9 3).

German-born American geneticist, Klaus Patau in i960.

Passive H ypersensitivity Demonstrated to be transferable

Patellar Tendon R eflex

by Richard Otto (1872-1952) o f Berlin in 1906.

[Latin: patella, shallow dish]

See kneejerk.

Pasteur Institute See Pasteur, Louis.

Patent D u ctu s A rteriosus (PDA) [Latin: patens, open + ducere,to lead] In 1888 John Cummings Munro (1858- 1910) demonstrated in an infant cadaver that PDA could be ligat­ ed, and suggested obliteration in 1907. The characteristic continuous murmur was described by George Alexander Gibson (1854—1913) o f Scotland in 1898 and it is known as Gibson murmur. An attempt to close it was made by John W. Strieder in 1937, but closure was incomplete and the patient died. The first successful surgical closure was performed on a 7-year-old girl in 1938 by R obert Edward Gross (1905-1988). Sec cardiac surgery.

Paterson, Donald Ross (1863-1939) See Plummer—Vinson syndrome.

Paterson Forceps Bronchoscopic forceps for removal o f foreign bodies or biopsy. Designed by British otorhinolo-

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

gist, Donald Ross Paterson (1863—1939) o f Cardiff. He also described Kelly—Paterson syndrome in 1919.

Pasteur, Louis (1822-1895) French chemist from Dole and

Patheticus O culorum

father o f modern bacteriology and pasteurization. He

[Greek: pathetikos, suffering] The

showed the presence o f living cells in fermentation around

fourth nerve, named by Thomas Willis (16 21-1675) in 1650

1864. His findings were opposed by several prom inent

due to its action o f causing downward and outward

advocates o f the spontaneous generation theory. He was

movements o f the eye, giving an appearance o f suffering to

appointed professor o f chemistry at the Sorbonne in 1867

the face.

where his work on tartaric acid led to the discovery o f the

P ath ogn om on ic [Greek: pathos, suffering + gnomonikos, to

existence o f crystals in two mirror image forms. He postu­

give judgment] Characteristic sign or symptom o f a disease.

lated the ‘germ th eory’ o f disease and showed that the anthrax bacillus could be m odified to confer im m unity

P athological A natom y See pathology.

570

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PAVLOV

P athology [Greek: pathos, suffering + logos, discourse] The

Paul, Theodor (1862—1928) See antiseptics.

four cardinal signs o f inflammation, heat, pain, redness,

Paul Sign A feeble apex beat with forcible impulse over the

and swelling were described by Aulus Cornelius Celsus

rest o f the heart in cases o f pericardial adhesions. Described

(25 B C -A D 50 ), a R om an physician. Galen (AD 129—200)

by French physician, Constantin Charles Theodore Paul

devoted six o f his books to pathology. Antonio Benivieni

(1833-1896).

(1443—1502), an Italian surgeon from Florence, was one o f the first to do autopsies, which earned him the title o f the

Paul Tube Employed to temporarily drain fecal matter after

founder o f pathological anatomy.The term was introduced

colostomy in cases o f obstruction o f the large bowel.

in a modern sense by Jean François Fernel (1497—1558),

Introduced by Frank Thomas Paul (1851—1941), a graduate

physician to Henry II o f France in i554.The first illustrated

o f G u ys Hospital (1871) and surgeon to the Liverpool

book o f surgical pathology was published by Marcus

R oyal Infirmary, in 1 892.

Aurelius Severinus (1580-1656) in 1632. One o f the greatest

Paul—BunnelT est Detects heterophilic antibodies. Devised

pathologists was professor o f anatomy at Padua, Giovanni

by American epidemiologist, John Rodm an Paul (1893—

Battista Morgagni (16 8 2 -1771). He gave the first descrip­

1971) and American physician from N ew Haven, Walls

tions o f calcification o f coronary arteries, coarctation,

Willard Bunnel (1902—1979) in 1932. It was made specific

endocarditis and carcinoma o f the lung. He also correlated

for glandular fever by the introduction o f a differential

clinical findings with autopsy results. An epoch-making

method by P.H.Walker (1935) and I. Davidsohn in 1938.

study on inflammation, fundamental to pathology, was done by British surgeon John Hunter (1728-1793), and his book

Paulesco, Nicholas Constantin (1869—1931) Rumanian

A Treatise on blood, inflammation and gun-shot wounds was pub­

physician and pioneer in the study o f diabetes. He qualified

lished in i794.The first American treatise was published by

in medicine from Paris and returned to Bucharest as

William Edmonds Horner (1793-1853) in 1829. Cellular

professor o f physiology in 1904. He pointed out the causal

pathology was inaugurated by Rudolph Virchow (18 21—

relationship between diabetes and lesions o f the pancreas.

1902), professor o f pathology at Berlin. The role o f leuko­

Pauling, Linus Carl (1900-1994) Eminent American bio­

cytes in inflammation was studied and explained by William

chemist, born in Portland, Oregon. He was educated at

Addison (1802—1881) in 1843. His work on the subject was

Oregon State College and Caltech and did postdoctoral

advanced

Friedrich

work in Munich, Zurich and Copenhagen. He wrote

Cohnheim (1839-1884) in 1873, and French zoologist and

Introduction to Quantum Mechanics and The Nature o f the

by

German

pathologist

Julius

N obel Prize winner Elie M etchnikoff (1845—1916) in 1892.

Chemical Bond. He determined the helical structure o f large

P a th o lo g ic a l S o c ie ty o f G reat B r ita in and Ireland

protein molecules in 1951, and was one o f the first to study

Founded in 1906 at a meeting at the University o f M an­

D N A in detail. Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize

chester. Its founder members were James Lorrain Smith

Chemistry for his work on chemical bonding and molecu­

(18 6 1-19 31), professor o f pathology at Manchester, James

lar structure in 1954, and the N obel Peace Prize in 1962 for

Ritchie, professor o f bacteriology at Edinburgh and R obert

his opposition to atmospheric nuclear weapons testing.

Muir, professor o f pathology at Glasgow.

Paulus A egineta See Paul o f Aegina.

Patin, Guy (1601—1672) French physician and professor o f

Pavlik Harness See congenital dislocation o f the hip.

medicine at the College de France who founded the Ecole

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovitch (1849—1936) Experimental physiolo­

de Médecin at Paris. He opposed William H arveys theory

gist born in Ryazan, a small town in central Russia. He was

o f blood circulation.

first attracted to the study o f science through reading a

Paul o f A egina (AD 625—690) Greek surgeon and a physi­

Russian translation o f George Henry Lewes’ Practical

cian. His monumental work Epitomoe medicoe lihri septem in

Physiology at the age o f 15. He entered the seminary at

seven volumes was first printed atVenice in 1528. In his sixth

Ryazan but he left in 1870 to study at the University o f St

book on surgery he gave original descriptions o f lithotomy,

Petersburg. He passed the state examination in 1879 and

bronchotomy,

other

became an approved physician although his doctoral thesis

(AD

in medicine was not completed until 1883.The secretory

tonsillectomy,

mastectomy

and

procedures. He also freely copied from Galen

129—200), Oribasius (AD 325—403), and Aetius. His com­

nerves o f the pancreas were discovered by him in 1888, and

plete works were translated into English by Francis Adams

he was elected professor o f physiology^ at the Military

(1796-1861) in 1847.

Medical Academy o f St Petersburg in 1890. He became

571

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PAVY

director o f the Institute o f Experimental Medicine in 1913.

Montpellier in 1652. He discovered the receptaculum

He worked on the circulatory system, digestive glands and

chyli or the thoracic duct while a student at Montpellier in

higher nervous activity, and he received the Nobel Prize in

1647. His Expérimenta NovaAnatomica was published in 1641.

1904. He lectured and worked on conditioned reflexes caused by the involvement o f the cerebral cortex in

Pediatric C ardiology [Greek: pais, child + kardia, heart + logos, discourse] The passage o f blood through the foramen

modifying innate reflexes until 1926.

into the left ventricle in the fetus was first noted by William

Pavy, Frederick William (1829—1911) English worker on

Harvey (1578—1657), and Jean Baptiste Senac (1693-1770)

carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes. He correlated

in 1745 recognized the persistence o f the foramen ovale in

hyperglycemia and glycosuria and published Treahse on Food

adult life. The first English monograph on congenital dis­

and Dietetics in 1874. He described cyclic or recurrent

eases o f the heart was written by London physician,

albuminuria (Pavy disease) in 1885, a condition noted in

John Richard Farre (1775-1862) in 1814. An account o f the

some apparently normal individuals, where albumin is

different types o f atrial septal defects was given by Karl

absent in early morning urine samples but appears later in

Freiherr von Rokitansky (1804—1878) in 1875. Clinical

the day He also described the involvement o f joints in

accounts o f atrial septal defect were given by: R ené

typhoid, and introduced ammonia instead o f caustic potash

Lutembacher (1884-1968) in 1916, Maude Elizabeth Abbot

in the preparation o f Fehling solution.

(1869—1940) in 1926, and Helen B. Taussig (1898—1986) in 1938. Taussig o f Johns Hopkins University was also a

Pavy D isease See Pavy, Frederick William.

pioneer in the surgical intervention o f congenital heart

Paw'lik Triangle Area in the anterior wall o f the vagina in

diseases.The Blalock-Taussig shunt, the first surgical opera­

contact with the base o f the bladder and free o f vaginal rugae.

Described

by

Karel

PawUk

(1849—1914),

tion for Fallot tetralogy, was performed by Alfred Blalock

a

(1899—1964) and Helen Taussig in 1945. In England, James

gynecologist at Prague in 1887.

William Brown (1897—1958), a member o f the editorial

P axton D isease Involves the hairs o f the axilla due to Tinea.

board o f the British Heart Journal, in 1920 joined with D. C.

Described by Francis Valentine Paxton (d 1924) in 1869.

M uir to establish heart clinics for school children. Brown

Payr M em brane Fold o f the peritoneum over the splenic

later became a consultant to Grimsby and neighboring

flexure o f the colon. Described in 1910 by Erwin Payr

hospitals in 1938. His book. Congenital Heart Diseases, first

(18 71—1947), professor o f surgery at Leipzig.

published in 1939, was o f great importance in establishing cardiac surgery in England. See atrial septal defect, congenital

PD A See patent ductus arteriosus.

heart disease, Fallot tetralogy.

Peacock, Thomas BeviU (1812—1882) Physician at StThomas’

Pediatric U rology [Greek:pais, child + ouron,urme + logos,

Hospital who wrote a treatise on malformation o f the heart

discourse] Specialty developed in the 1930s. The first

ini858 . c a r d i a c aneurysm, dissecting aneurysm, Fallot tetralogy.

monograph was written by Meredith Campbell o f America

Pean, Jules Emile (1830—1898) French surgeon who (unsuc­

in 1938. The Association o f Pediatric Urology o f America

cessfully) resected the stomach in carcinoma o f the stomach

was formed in 1951, and the first European Congress o f

in 1879. He also designed clamp forceps for hemostasis.

Pediatric Urology was held in 1961.

Pearson, Karl (1857—1936) British statistician. See statistics.

Pediatrics [Greek: pais, child] Diseases o f children have been

Pechlin, Johannes Nicolaus (1644—1706) Medical graduate

a specialty since ancient times.The Therapeutic Papyrus o f

from Leiden and professor o f surgery at Kiel and

Thebes (1552 B C ), which is 65 feet long, has over 100 pages

Stockholm. He gave original descriptions o f several

o f hieractic script and a chapter devoted to diseases o f

structures o f the alimentary canal.

children. An early treatise is attributed to the R om an physi­ cian, Galen (AD 129—200). However this short manuscript

Peckelharing, Cornelius Adrianus (1848—1922) Physiologist

Liber de Passionibus puero um Galen was probably written in

from Utrecht who suggested the existence o f accessory

the 6th century. The first modern treatise was written by

food substances (1905), later known as vitamins. He also

Arabian physician Rhazes (850-932). The first printed

proposed the blood coagulation theory where calcium is

book, Libellus de aegritudinibus infantum (Little B ook o f the

released from thrombin to form fibrin from fibrinogen.

Diseases o f Children), based on the works o f Avicenna (980— 1037) and Rhazes was written by Paulus BegeUardus

Pecquet, Jean (1622—1674) French anatomist and physician, born

in

Dieppe

and

graduated in

medicine

or Bagellaro o f Italy in 1472. The first book in England,

from

572

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PELTIER

wrote On a form o f chronic joint disease in Children while a

Boke o f Children, was written by English physician Thomas Phayer (1510-1560) in 1545; another, Help for the Poor, was

registrar. The concept o f inborn errors o f metabolism was

published nearly 100 years later by R obert Pemel (d 1653), ^

proposed

physician from Cranbrook, Kent in 1653 ; a systematic trea­

(1857-1936), o f St Bartholom ews Hospital and the Hospital

tise was written by Nils Rosen von Rosentein (1706—1773)

for Sick Children. See child psychiatry, pediatric cardiology. Act

in 1752; and a treatise on care and feeding was published by

for Parish Poor Infants, child care, infant mortality rates.

William Cadogan ( 17 11—1797) in 1748. M odern pediatrics

in

1902

by

Archibald

Edward

Garrod

Pedophilia [Greek:pais, child + philos, love] Term applied to

in England was established by Michael Underwood (17 37 -

sexual offenses against children. Swiss psychiatrist Auguste

1820) who in 1793 described a form o f childhood paralysis

Henri Forel (1848—1931) called it ‘pedrosis’ and Richard

following a b rief illness (probably the first scientific account

von Kraft-Ebbing (1840—1902), German forensic psychia­

o f poliomyelitis), and his book A Treatise on the Diseases of

trist and expert on sexual pathology, called it ‘pedophilia

Children remained a standard work for 50 years.The French

erotica’ .A notorious pedophile was French army Marshall,

established the Hôpital des Enfants Malades in 1802. French

Rais R etz (b 1404) who was tried for his crimes, convicted

leaders in pediatrics were A .C .E . Barthez (18 11—1891) and E

and was burnt. At the end o f the 19th century there was an

Filliet (18 14 -18 6 1) and Henri R o ger (1809-1891) gave the

unfounded belief that gonorrhea could be cured by having

first lectures. The first American textbook, A Treatise on

sex with a young virgin.

Physical and Medical Treatment o f Children, was written by

Pel-Ebstein Fever Characteristic pattern o f fever in Hodgkin

William Potts Dewees (1768-1848) ofPhiladelphia in 1825.

disease.

The first American childrens hospital was opened in

Described

independently

by

two

German

physicians from Berlin: Pieter Klazes Pel (1852—1919) in

Philadelphia in 1855, and a pediatric clinic was established at

1885 andWilhelm Ebstein (1836-1912) in 1887.

N ew York by Abraham Jacobi (1830-1919) in 1862. J.L . Smith (1827—1897) o f Stafford, N ew York wrote Treatise on

[Italian: pelle, skin; Greek, agra, rough] First des­

Pellagra

the Diseases of Infancy and Childhood. An early American

cribed as mal de rosa in the district o f Asturia in 1730 by

journal. Archives o f Pediatrics, was founded in 1884, and the

Spanish physiologist, Gaspar Casai (1679—1759) and François

first meeting o f the American Pediatric Society was held in

Thiérry (b 1719) published an account in 1755.The present

1889.Thomas Coram, a philanthropist from Lyme R egis in

name was given by Francisco FrapoUi (d 1772) o f Italy in

Dorset, established the first Foundling Hospital in England

177 1. The first description in North America was in

a

1864, although it was previously known to be widespread.

dispensary for the poor in London in 1769 where he treated

Casimir Funk (1884—1967) proposed that it was a deficiency

in

1739.

George Armstrong

(1720-1789)

opened

thousands o f poor children at his own expense. This led to

disease

similar clinics being set up in other parts o f Europe.

biochemist from Wisconsin, demonstrated the effect o f

Armstrong also published A n Essay on the diseases mostfatal to

nicotinic acid in preventing it in 193 8, and it was treated with

Infants in 1767.The Great Orm ond Street Hospital for Sick

niacin by English physician,Tom D. Spiers, in the same year.

Children was founded in 1852 at the former premises o f Sir

in

1914.

Conrad

Elvejhem

(1901-1962),

a

Pelletier, Pierre Joseph (1788-1842) French chemist and pio­

Richard Mead (16 73-1754 ),by a London physician,Charles

neer in extraction o f alkaloids from plants. He was born in

West (1816-1898).The first person to devote time to men­

Paris and qualified as a pharmacist in 1810. He isolated eme­

tally deficient children was Edouard Séguin (1812—1880) o f

tine while working with François Magendie (1783—1855) and

the Bicêtre Hospital in Paris, who wrote Traitment Moral,

Joseph Bienaimé Caventou (1793—1877) in 1817. Pelletier

Hygiene et Education des Idiots et des Autre Enfants Arriers in

and Caventou obtained the alkaloid quinine from the

1846. Guido Fanconi (1892—1979), Swiss pediatrician at the

cinchona

University o f Zurich, described renal tubular dysfunction

nux-vomica, and narceine, an alkaloid o f opium with narcotic

(Fanconi syndrome) leading to aminoaciduria and cystic

properties, in 1832. A new alkaloid from pomegranate,

fibrosis o f the pancreas. Samuel Jones Gee (1839—19 11), a

discovered later was named‘peUetierine’ in his honor in 1877.

physician at the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Orm ond

Pellucida

Street, described celiac disease in children in 1888. Edouard Heinrich Henoch Schonlein

and a pioneer in

in

1820,

strychnine

from

Strychnos

[Latin: per, through + /weere, to shine] See zona

pellucida.

(1820-1910), a pupil o f Johannes

(1793—1864)

bark

Germany,

Peltier, Jean Charles Athanase (1785-1845) French physicist

described Henoch-Schonlein purpura in 1837. George

from Hain, Somme who developed the thermoelectric

Frederick Still (1868-1898) o f Great Orm ond Street Hos­

method o f reduction o f temperature, now known as Peltier

pital was a founder o f pediatrics in England and in 1896

effect.

573

.,,

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PELVIC PERITONITIS

Pelvic Peritonitis or pelvic cellulitis [Greek: pyelos, oblong

University. In 1928 he moved to McGiU University in

basin + peri, round + itis, inflammation] The first study was

Montreal and later became the director o f the Montreal

made in the m id-19th century by Nonat who described

Neurological Institute. His research increased understand­

it as ‘peri-uterine phlegmon’ and the term ‘pelvic

ing o f the higher functions o f the brain and causes o f

peritonitis’

diseases such as epilepsy.

was

introduced

Gustav

Louis

Richard

Bernutz (1819—1887), around the same time. Rudolph

Pengelly, William (1812-1894) Geologist from Looe in

Virchow (18 21-19 0 2) called i t ‘parametritis’ , to signify the

Cornwall. His explorations o f the Devonian deposits

involvement o f other adjacent cellular tissues.

provided proof for the existence o f early forms o f man and

Pelvim etry [Greek: pyelos, oblong basin + metron, measure]

animals. He has published several papers on the antiquity o f

Study o f measurement o f the pelvis o f the mother in

man and related subjects.

relation to childbirth. H enrick van Deventer (16 51-1724 ), a surgeon from Amsterdam, applied orthopedic principles to obstetrics around 1690. He wrote Operationes Chirugicae Novem Lumen Exibentes Obstricantibus published in 170 1, and an EngHsh translation The A rt o f Midwifery Improved appeared later. He described the bony structure o f the pelvis and its deformities in relation to labor. Used by British obstetrician William Smellie (1697—1763) in 1752 and Jean Louis Baudelocque (1746-1810) o f Paris in 178 1. The external conjugate diameter, a measurement often used, is known as Baudelocque diameter. Karl Gustav Carus (178918 69), professor o f anatomy and obstetrician at Montpellier, did further studies in 1820 and defined the ‘circle o f Cam s’ , with its center at the pubis symphysis and the pelvic outlet

A hand atomiser and mask for penicillin inhalation, used in the treatment of

as its perimeter or periphery.

lung conditions. Sir Alexander Fleming, Penicillin, it's Practical Application (1946). Butterworth, London

P em phigus [Greek:pemp/iix,blister] (Syn:pompholyx) Skin condition with blebs or bullae which occurs in a variety o f

[Latin: pénicillium, brush] M old as treatment for

Penicillin

dermatological conditions. First large-scale study, involving

wounds was used by the ancients. Mycophenolic acid, which

thousands o f patients, was by a dermatologist from Vienna,

inhibited the growth o f anthrax bacilli, was obtained in a

Ferdinand von Hebra (1818—1880) in 1845.

crystalline state from the Pénicillium mold by an ItaHan physi­ cian from R om e, Bartolomeo Gosio, in 1896. Another

Pendred S yndrom e Inherited disease due to a recessive trait, leading to a defect in binding o f iodine by the thyroid

Frenchman, Vaudremer, also experimented with Aspergillus

gland. Described by Vaughan Pendred (1869—1946) in

fumigatus in 1913 and showed its antagonism to other micro­

The Lancet in 1896. It is also associated with thyroid goiter

organisms. A crude preparation was used by Joseph Lister (1827—1912) in Edinburgh to treat an infected wound.When

and deaf-mutism.

Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) was studying bacterial vari­

P endulum

[Latin: pendere, to hang] Galileo Galilei (1564—

1642) o f Pisa is credited with the invention in 1639. He first

ation

of

Staphylococci

bacteriolytic

observed the principle from the oscillations o f a suspended

effect

of

in

1929,

Pénicillium

he

observed notatum

the

which

accidentally contaminated his culture. Its development as an

lamp in the cathedral at Pisa in 1583. His observation that

antibiotic is mainly due to the work o f HowardWalter Florey

the oscillations were equal in time whatever their range led

(1896-1968) and co-workers at the Sir WiUiam Dunn

to its use for measuring time. The principle was employed

School o f Pathology at Oxford in 1939 and Ernest Boris

by Sanctorio Sanctorius (1561—1636) to develop a pulse

Chain (1906-1979) and colleagues in 1940, and clinical trials

watch.

by Edward Penley Abraham and co-workers in 1941. It was (1891—1976) American-born

used in treatment o f syphiHs in 1943 by John Friend

Canadian neurosurgeon, born in Spokane,Washington. He

Mahoney (1889-1957) and colleagues o f the U S PubHc

studied at Princeton and Oxford (as a Rhodes scholar) and

Health Service. It was produced commercially by Glaxo

finished his studies, after war service, at the Johns Hopkins

during

Penfield,

W ilder

Graves

574

World

War

11,

following

the

research

of

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PEPTIC

ULCER

English biochemist, Ernest Lester Smith (1904-1992) o f

Pentosuria [Greek: pente, five + oureon, urine] Condition

Teddington, Middlesex. Intrathecal administration in treat­

described by Ernst Leopold Salkowski (1844—1923) o f

ment o f pneumococcal meningitis was introduced by Sir

Berlin in 1895. Further work was done by H. Aron in

Hugh Cairns (1896-1952) and colleagues in i944.The mole­

1913. The Bial test for pentose sugars in urine, using

cular structure was elucidated in 1949 by Dorothy Crowfoot

hydrochloric acid as one o f the reagents, was devised by

Hodgkin (b 1910) an English biochemist who received the

German physician, Manfred Bial (1870—1908).

Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1964. See antibiotics.

P entothal S odiu m Thiopentone was synthesized by Ernest

Penicillinase Enzyme produced by Pénicillium and observed

HenryVolwiler and DonaleeTabern in 1932, and used as an

by Edward Penley Abraham (b 1913) and Ernest Boris

intravenous anesthetic by John Silas Lundy (1894-1973) at

Chain (1906-1979) in 1940. The crystallized form was

the Mayo Clinic in 1934. Its rectal use for producing basal

obtained from Bacillus cereus by M .R . Pollock and

narcosis was described by M.L.Weinstein in 1939.

co-workers in 1956.

Pepperm int The plant Mentha piperata, the source o f pep­ permint oil used as a therapeutic agent, an antispasmodic,

Penis [Latin: pcm‘5, tail] Peyronie disease or plastic induration

dyspepsic and carminative was noted by Pliny and the

o f the penis was described by French surgeon, François de la

ancient Egyptians and is mentioned in Icelandic pharma­

Peyronie (1678—1747) in 1743.The erector mechanism was

copoeias from the 13th century. John R a y (1627-1705)

described by Conrad Eckhard (18 22-1915) in 1863. See

described it in his Synopsis Stirpium Britannicarum in 1696. It

phallic phase, phallica.

is used as treatment for abdominal cramps, nausea, and as a

Penrose D rain R ubber tube with a gauze w ick used in surgery. Devised by American

stimulant and was included in the London Pharmacopoeia

gynecologist, Charles

as Mentha Piperitis Sapore in 17 2 1. It is the most extensively

Bingham Penrose (1862—1925) ofPennsylvania in 1890.

used volatile oil.

Started in 1850 as the

Pennsylvania M edical C ollege

Pepsin [Greek: pepsis, digestion] General name for several

Female Medical College o f Pennsylvania. It changed its

enzymes in the gastric juice which catalyze hydrolysis

name to the Medical College ofPennsylvania in 1969. See

o f proteins. Found by German physiologists, Eberle and

Female Medical College o f Pennsylvania.

Theodor Schwann (1810—1882) who named it pepsin in 1836. It was crystallized from extract o f swine stomach

Penrose, Lionel Sharpies (1898—1972) English geneticist,born in

London

and

educated

at

St

Johns

by American biochemist, John Howard Northrop (18 9 1-

College,

1987) in 1930. The first X -ray diffraction photograph o f

Cambridge. He qualified in medicine in 1925, and did

pepsin was made by Irish crystallographer,John Desmond

postgraduate work in Vienna, and his M D thesis was on

Bernal (19 0 1-19 7 1) in 1934.

schizophrenia. In the 1930s he did a major survey o f causes o f mental illness and in 1945 he was appointed Galton Professor

P eptic U lcer [Greek: peptikos, to digest] William Brinton

o f Eugenics at London University. The increased maternal

(1823-1867) o f St Thomas’ Hospital described it in detail in

age as a cause o f mongolism or D own syndrome was noted

1857 with over 7000 postmortem findings. William Prout

by him in 1938, and he wrote The Biology of Mental Defect in

(1785-1850), a chemical physiologist at Edinburgh, showed the presence o f free hydrochloric acid in the stomach. The

1949 2ind A n Outline o f Human Genetics in i960.

first operation for a perforated peptic ulcer was performed

P ension A ct Established to provide financial help in old age

by Johannes von M ikulicz-Radecki (1850-1905) in 1880.

and passed in 1908.The National Assistance Act enacted in

Antacid therapy with frequent milk feeds and compounds

1948 required councils to provide accommodation for the

such as magnesium hydroxide was popularized by Am eri­

aged in need o f attention.

can physician, Bertram Welton Sippy (1866-1924) in 1915. Vagotomy was introduced by Lester R eynold Dragstedt

P en tolinium Tartrate Ganglion-blocking drug, similar to

(1893—1975) o f N ew York in 1943. The association o f pep­

hexaméthonium but more potent. Synthesized by Libman

tic ulcer with hypothalamic lesions was noted by British

in 1952 and used in anesthesia by G.H . Enderby in 1954.

physician, Harvey Williams Cushing (1869-1939), in 1932.

P entose Phosphate Pathway Alternative pathway for car­

Recurrent peptic ulceration associated with non-insulin

bohydrate metabolism, studied by F. Dickens o f England in

secreting islet cell tumors o f the pancreas was observed by

1953. Further information on it came from by B.L. Horecker

American surgeons, R obert M ilton Zollinger (b 1903) and

(1954),B.Axelrod and others.

Edwin Homer Ellison (1918-1970) in 1955. See duodenal ulcer.

57 5

PEPTIDE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

BOND

Peptide B on d The theory o f amide linkage or peptide link

current term was proposed by C. Dickson in 1908. Hyper­

in a protein, between the a-am in o group o f one amino acid

sensitivity as a cause was identified by Arnold R ic e R ich

and a-carboxyl group o f another, formed by elimination o f

(1893—1968) in 1942.

one molecule o f water was developed German chemists

Pericardiocentesis [Greek: peri, around + kardia, heart +

Emil Fischer (1852-1919) and Franz Hofmeister in 1902.

centesis,pierce] Performed successfully by Francisco Rom ero o f Barcelona in 1815 and later by Thomas Jowett o f

Peptide Small compound yielding two or more amino acids

Nottingham in 1827. See tamponade.

on hydrolysis. Studied by German chemist, Emil Fischer (1852—1919) in 1899. *See amino acids,peptide bond.

P ep ton ized F ood

Pericardial Effusion [Greek: peri, around + kardia, heart] Mentioned by Galen (AD 129—200) after finding it during

Term used in the 19th century for

dissection o f a monkey. Dullness to percussion over the

artificially digested food.

right 5th intercostal space was described by Boston physi­

Percival, Thomas (1740—1804) Medical practitioner from

cian, Thomas Morgan R otch (1849—1914). The sign o f

Manchester who devoted his career to the improvement

pulmonary collapse at the left base was described by

o f poor working conditions. He was appointed to an

William

inquiry on this and formed the Manchester Board o f

Ewart

(1848-1929)

from

the

Hospital

for

Consumption and Diseases o f the Chest, England in 1896.

Health which supervised medical aspects for workers. He

See pericardiocentesis, tamponade.

wrote Medical Ethics and MedicalJurisprudence.

P ericardiectom y [Greek: pen, around + kardia, h e M + ek,

Percussion [Latin: percM55io, beat] Striking the surface o f the

out + tomnein, cut] Performed by Paul Hallopeau (1876—

body as a method o f physical examination was introduced

1924) o f Paris in 19 21. Complete excision was performed by

in 1751 by Joseph Leopold Auenbrugger (1722-1809), a

Franz Volhard (1872-1950) and Viktor Schmieden (1874-

Viennese physician. He was the son o f an innkeeper and is

1945) o f Germany in 1923.

supposed to have developed percussion while striking bar­

Pericarditis [Greek: peri, around + kardia, heart + itis, in­

rels to detect the level o f the wine. His method was ignored by his contemporaries until it was revived by Jean Nicolas

flammation] Described by Avenzoar (1092—1162), a Jewish

Corvisart (1755—1821) in 1^0^. Seepleximeter.

physician in Spain.The first autopsy findings were given by Antonio Benivieni (1443—1502) o f Italy. Clinical signs were

Percutaneous Transhepatic C holangiography [Latin:per,

first described by Sir William Broadbent (1835-1907) in

through + cutis, skin + trans, across; Greek: hepar, liver +

1 898, including: diastolic fixation o f apex, diastolic shock on

chole, bile, graphein + to write] Introduced in 1952 but

palpation, and systolic retraction o f the chest wall. Uremic

only used frequently after its value was demonstrated

pericarditis in cases o f renal failure was observed by

by S. Shaldon, K. M . Barber andW. B.Young in 1962.

Heinrich von Bamberger (1822-1888) o f Germany in 1857,

P ercutaneous Translum inal A ngioplasty See angioplasty.

and later by Ludwig von Buhl o f Stuttgart in 1878. Clinical and Pathological Notes on Pericarditis was published by Sir Ten­

Pereira, Jonathan (1804—1853) B orn in Shoreditch, he was a

nant William Gairdner (1824—1907), professor o f medicine

physician and professor o f chemistry at the London

at Glasgow in i860. M ore recent studies were done by

Hospital. He wrote Selecta e prescriptis which ran into 18

Barach o f America in 1922.

editions and compiled Elements o f Materia Medica between 1839-1840.

P eriod ic Law See Medeleeff table.

P ergam on Birthplace o f Galen (AD 129-200) and capital

P eriod ic Paralysis (Syn:Westphal syndrome) Rare form o f

o f an ancient kingdom o f Asia Minor. One o f the most

familial intermittent paralysis occurring in early childhood

celebrated libraries, a rival to the Alexandrian library, was

or adolescence, associated with a low serum potassium.

founded at Pergamon by Eumenes in 190 B C

Described by Karl Friedrich Otto Westphal (1833—1890) o f Berlin in 1885.

Periarteritis N o d o sa or polyarteritis nodosa [Greek: peri, around + arteria, artery + itis, inflammation + nodus, knob]

P eriod ic Table [Greek: periodos, circuit] The similarity o f

The first description was given by Czech physician, Karl

elements and the constant proportion o f each element in

Freiherr von

1852. An

different compounds was noted by Joseph Louis Proust

account was given by A d o lf Kussmaul (1822—1902) and

(1754—1826) in 1799. His Law o f Definite Proportions was

R u d o lf Maier (1824-1888) o f Germany in 1886. The

explained by John Dalton (1766-1844) in 1800 and

Rokitansky

(1804-1878), in

576

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PERSIAN

MEDICINE

century. The observation that raw or lightly cooked liver

calculation o f atomic weights o f different elements was done by Swedish chemist Jons Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848)

could be used for treatment was made by George Hoyt

in 1 828. Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1780—1849), profes­

Whipple (1878-1976) and Frieda Saur Robschet-Robbins

sor o f chemistry at Jena, published an account o f similarity

(b 1893) ill 1925, although probably known to the ancients

o f elements in groups o f three, or triads.This was developed

whose writings show raw liver as treatment for various

into the Law o f Octaves by an Englishman, John Alexander

maladies. George Richards Minot (1885-1950) and William

Reina Newlands (1837-1898) in 1863. Dimitri M endeleef

Parry M urphy (1892-1987) established the raw liver diet

(1834-1907) proposed the periodic table in 1869 which

and, together with Whipple, were awarded the Nobel Prize

accurately predicted the subsequent discovery o f several

in i934.The anti-pernicious factor, vitamin B 12, was identi­

elements. See Mendeleef table.

fied and isolated in 1948. American physician, William Bosworth Castle (b 1899) o f Cambridge, Massachusetts

Periosteum [Greek: peri, around + osteon, bone] Its role in

described the association between achylia gastrica and per­

growth and nutrition o f the bone was demonstrated by

nicious anemia in 1929, and introduced use o f intravenous

Joseph Guichard Duverney (1648—1730), professor o f

liver extract. The structure o f vitamin B 12 was worked out

anatomy at Paris.

by Nobel Prize winner, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (b 1910) o f Oxford University, using X-ray crystallography, in

Peristalsis [Greek:pen, around + stalsis, contraction] Wave­

1956. Injections o f vitamin B 12 were used by Karl August

like movement in the walls o f the alimentary canal to propel food along. Described by Jean François Fernel (1506—1558)

Folkers (b 1906) and M ary Shaw Shorb (b 1907) o f America

from M ont Didier in France in 1542. Experimental studies

in i947.The biosynthesis o f vitamin B 12 was worked out by an English biochemist from Leigh, Sir Alan Rushton Bat-

were done by F. Martin o f Giessen in 1859.

tersby (b 1925), and it was synthesized by American organic

Peritoneal.-Dialysis [Greek:pen, around + tenein, to stretch

chemist, R obert Burns Woodward (1917—1979) who won

+ dia, through + lysis, loosen] Investigated by Dutch physi­

the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1965, and Swiss-born

ologist Hartog Jakob Hamburger (1859—1924) in 1895

American chemist Albert Eschenmoser (b 1925) in 1976. See

and German pathologist Friedrich R u d o lf Georg Wegner

intrinsicfactor antibodies,gastric parietal cell antibodies.

(1843—1917) in 1877. A specific study was commenced in

Peroneal M uscular A trophy [Greek: perone, fibula + myos,

1923 by G. Ganter. H. Heusser (1927), E. Haam (1932) and

muscle +

J. Fine (1946) used it as treatment for uremia, and it was later

without + trophein, nourish] See Charcot-Marie-

Tooth-Hoffmann syndrome.

used for reaction to incompatible blood transfusion (1947)

Peroxidase Crystalline form o f the enzyme was obtained

and poisoning. In 1950 it was used to treat intractable edema

from horseradish by H.Theorell in 1942.

o f nephritic syndrome by E. Benhamou and colleagues. It was employed to treat methyl alcohol intoxication by B. J.

Perrin, Jean Baptiste (1870-1942) Lillie physician and profes­

Stinebaugh in i960. A plastic conduit for repeated lavage

sor

during dialysis was invented by John Putnam M errill in

equilibrium o f sedimentation for which he was awarded the

1962 and improved by Henderson in 1963. See pleural dialysis.

Nobel Prize in Physics in 1926.

Peritonitis [Greek: peri, around + teinein, to stretch + itis,

o f physical

chemistry

at Paris. He

discovered

Perroncito, Aldo (1882—1929) See miner’s anemia.

inflammation] Described by Johann Gottlieb Walter (1734 -

Persian M edicine Developed during the reign o f Darius

1818) o f Berlin in 1785. The Clark sign, or obliteration o f

the Great. Zendevesta, an ancient book o f Persian philoso­

liver dullness due to distension in peritonitis, was described

phy devoted several volumes to medicine, one o f which is

by a N ew York physician, Alonzo Clark (1807—1887). See

Venidad, which states that there are nearly 100,000 diseases

pelvic peritonitis.

affecting mankind. Ahura, or Ormuzd, a mythical god o f

Perityphilitis [Greek: peri, around + typhlon, cecum + itis,

goodness around 1000 B C , delegated the art o f healing to

inflammation] Old term for inflammation seen around the

a powerful angel, Thrita, who became the god o f medi­

cecum in cases o f appendicitis.

cine and healing. Angra mayanu or Ahriman represented evil and darkness to the Persians around 2000 B C and

Perkin, SirWilliam Henry Sr (1838-1907) See aniline.

was

opposed by Ormuzd. Persian medicine played

[Latin: perniciosus, destructive] Des­

an important role during the Mohammedan era and

cribed by James Scarth Combe (1796-1883) in 1824, but its

some o f its eminent physicians were Rhazes (850-932),

cause and treatment remained unresolved for nearly a

HalyAbbas (d 994) andAvicenna (980—1037).

P ernicious A nem ia

577

PERSONALITY

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

DISORDERS

[Latin: persona, person] Aretaeus

and Paris. He proposed revolutionary ideas such as, that the

(81-138) described prepsychotic personality. The writer

brain was the source o f nerves, and the heart was the source

Personality D isorders

William Shakespeare explored and described human

o f blood vessels, which raised the suspicions o f the Church.

personalities long before modern psychiatrists and por­

He was tried on 55 counts and acquitted. He wrote

trayed a compulsive neurotic personality in Hamlet and an

Conciliator differentiarum philosophorum et praecipe medicorum

insight into jealousy in Othello. French psychiatrist,

which was printed for the first time at Mantua in 1472.

J. Moreau de Tours (1804—1884) pointed out personality as

Peter the W ild B oy In 1725 King George I, while hunting

an underlying cause o f mental or psychiatric symptoms.

in the forest o f Hertswold in Hannover, came across a boy o f

Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) first work on the general theory o f personality,

around 12 years who lived there. His main sources o f food

and the Id, was published in 1923.

were leaves and berries and the only clue to his previous

P ersoon, Christiaan Hendrik (1761-1836) South African

contact with the outside world was the remains o f a shirt

botanist who studied medicine at Leiden and Göttingen,

collar around his neck. He was brought to England in 1726

and obtained his PhD from Erlangen in 1799, before he

by the order o f Queen Caroline, and was given into the care

moved to Paris in 1802. He was a pioneer in mycology and

o f D r Arbuthnot. He failed to talk or write and was given a

wrote Synopsis Fungorum in 1801.

pension and handed over to the care o f one o f the Queen’s

Perthe D isease described by

maids. He later moved to a farmhouse in Hertford and died

Osteochondritis deformis juvenilis was German

at the age o f 72 years.

surgeon at Tübingen, Georg

Clemens Perthes (1869-1927). He also used deep X-ray

Peter, Charles Felix M ichel (1825-1882) French physician in

therapy in cancer treatment in 1903.

Paris who described atheroma o f blood vessels in his treatise on the heart and blood vessels in 1883.

Pertussis [Latin: per, intensive + tussis, cough] See whooping cough.

Peter, Luther Crouse (1869—1942) Philadelphia ophthalmol­

Perutz, M ax Ferdinand (b 1914) Austrian biochemist, born

ogist who designed an operation for oculomotor paralysis

in Vienna who emigrated to London in 1936, where he

which involved the transplantation o f the tendon o f the

became director o f the Medical Research Council for

superior oblique muscle.

Molecular Biology in 1947. He determined the amino acids

Peters, Sir R u d o lf A b e rt (1899—1982) English biochemist,

in hemoglobin, and the alpha helical structure o f myoglobin

born in London and obtained his medical degree from St

in 1964, for which he shared the N obel Prize for Chemistry

Bartholomew’s Hospital,before being appointed asWhitely

with Sir John Cowdrey Kendrew (b 1917) in 1962.

professor o f biochemistry at Oxford in 1923. He showed the participation o f vitamins (thiamin) in the carboxylase cycle,

Peruvian Bark See cinchona bark.

and discovered 2-3-dimercaptopropanol (British Anti­

Pessary [L2itin: pessarium, to soften] Ancient physicians used

lewisite), an effective antidote for the war gas, lewisite. He

pessaries made o f silk, linen, cotton and wool to deliver

demonstrated that fluoride combined organically in bone

medicinal substances. These were soaked in medicine and

in 1964.

attached to a thread by which they could be withdrawn.

St Petersburg A cadem y In Russia, was founded by Peter

They were later made o f gums, resins and wax.Towards the

the Great in 1724.

latter half o f the i8th century they were restricted to treating prolapse o f the uterus.

Peterson, Jacob Julius (1840 —1912) Danish medical historian who published a history o f therapeutics in 1877.

Pestilence [Latin: pestis, plague] Term for epidemic diseases which have always plagued mankind. The plague o f Athens

Pethidine Synthesized by O. Eisleb and O. Schaumann o f

occurred five centuries before Christ, followed by others in

Germany in 1939. It was first known as Demerol in Canada

the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Malaria periodically plagued

and America, and Dolantin in South America and Europe.

R om e and Emperor Constantine moved his capital to Byzantium in A D 330 partly for this reason. A bubonic plague

Petit, Alexis Therese (179 1—1820) French physician from

occurred during the reign o f Justinian in A D 542 and struck

Vesoul. The Dulong and Petit Law which states that the

periodically until the end o f the Middle Ages. See epidemics.

product o f specific heat and atomic weight is constant for all elements, was proposed by Petit and Pierre Louis Dulong

Peter ofA b an o (1250-1318) A s o known as Pietro d’Abano,

(1785-1838) in 1818.

was born at Abano, a spa near Padua. He studied medicine

Petit, François Pourfour du (1664—1741) Pupil o f Joseph

and philosophy at Padua and practiced at Constantinople

578

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PFEFFER

Guichard Duverney (1648—1730) at Montpellier who served

Petty, William (1623—1687) Hampshire pioneer in statistics

as an army surgeon and later became a skillful eye surgeon

who applied statistics to the economy and proposed the first

at Paris. He wrote several treatises on comparative anatomy

statistical department to record deaths, births, marriages, age,

o f the eye.

sex, as well as economy, trade and education. He was appoint­ ed physician to the army in Ireland in 1652 and took the first

PetitjJean Louis (1674-1750) Became a surgeon at the age o f

census there. He published several books on statistics

16 at the Charité Hospital, Paris and performed the first

including Essays on Political Arithmetic (1687), and Political

mastoidectomy. He defined the inferior lumbar triangle

Arithmetik (1683) which are basic works on modern

(Petit triangle) bounded by external oblique and lattisimus

economics.

dorsi muscles and the iliac crest.

Petty, William (1673—1783) M ember ofthe Barber—Surgeons

P etit Canal Encircles the periphery o f the lens and was

guild in 1739 and elected surgeon-extraordinary to the

described by French surgeon, François Pourfour du Petit

London Hospital in 1743.

(1664-1741)

Peutz-Jeghers Syndrom e Familial disease due an autoso­

P etit Mai M inor form o f epilepsy described by Jean Etienne

mal dominant trait manifesting as multiple polyps in the

Dominique Esquirol (1772—1840) ofParis in 1815.

gastrointestinal tract associated with pigmentation o f the

Petit Syndrom e Mydriasis, exophthalmos and changes in

skin and mucosa. Described by John Law Augustine Peutz

the orbit o f the eye, due to irritation o f the sympathetic ner­

(1886—1957) ofH ollandin i92i.Pigm entation was noted by

vous system. Described by French surgeon, François

Sir Jonathan Hutchison (1828—1913) in 1896 and EWeber in

Pourfour du Petit (1664-1741) in 1727.

1919.

A more complete description was given by Harold

Jeghers (b 1904) ofAm erica in 1949.

P etit Triangle Lumbar hernia, bounded by the crest o f the ileum, the margins o f the external oblique, and latissimus dorsi muscles. Described by Jean Louis Petit (1674-1750), a surgeon in Paris in 1705. He also invented the screw tourniquet and was the first to operate with success on a case o f mastoiditis.

Petri D ish Shallow glass dish for use in culturing bacteria, designed by German bacteriologist, Richard Julius Petri (18 52-19 21).

Pettenkofer, M ax Joseph von (18 18 -19 0 1) German bio­ Original figure of Peyer patch by John Conrad Peyer. William Sterling,

chemist was born in Neuberg and studied medical

Some Apostles o f Physiology (^ 902). Waterlow & Sons, London

chemistry under Justus von Liebig (1803—1873) at Giessen, before he was appointed professor o f medical chemistry at Munich in 1745. He was a pioneer in public health and

Peyer Patch Nodular lymphatic aggregations in the small

hygiene and was responsible for purifying the water supply

intestines. Described by Swiss anatomist, Johan Conrad

to Munich. He was director o f the first Institute o f Hygiene

Peyer (1653—1712) o f Schafihausen. He studied under Joseph Guichard Duverney (1648—1730) in Paris and served as

in the world, in 1879. See Pettenkofer test.

Pettenkofer Test by

German

professor o f logic and medicine in his hometown.

For detection o f bile, was devised

chemist

M ax Joseph

von

Pettenkofer

Peyronie D isease

Fibrosis and deformity o f the penis.

(18 18 -19 0 1) in 1844. Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) devised

Described by French surgeon, François de la Peyronie

further such tests in 1883.

(1678-1747) at Montpellier in 1743.

Pettigrew, James Bell (1834-1908) Edinburgh curator o f the

Pfeffer, Wilhelm Friedrich Philip (1845-1920) German

Hunterian Museum in London and the museum o f the

pharmacist and botanist, born near Cassel and was professor

Royal College o f Surgeons in Edinburgh, before being

o f botany at Bonn, Basel, Tübingen, and Leipzig. He dem­

appointed as Chandos professor o f medicine at St Andrew s

onstrated osmosis using cane sugar solution in a vessel with

in 1875. He was a pioneer in the study o f locomotion in

semipermeable walls in 1877.

animals including flight in birds.

Pflanzen Physiologie in 1881.

579

published his Handbuch der

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PFEIFFER

Pfeiffer, Richard Friedrich Johannes (1858—1945) Polish

Phalanges

1 892.Between 1893 and 1895 he demonstrated bacteriolysis

Phallic Phase [Greek: phallos, penis] Stage in development

which provided the first scientific evidence for the

o f the mind during childhood. Proposed and described by

presence o f antibodies. His work led to the discovery o f

Sigmund Freud (1856—1939). It refers to a period o f infantile

complement by Jules Jean Baptiste Bordet (1870—1961).

Pfeiffer D isease

[Greek: phalangx, band o f soldiers] Applied to

the bones o f fingers by Aristotle (384-322 B C ) in 350 B C .

bacteriologist who discovered Haemophilus influenzae in

sexual curiosity, usually lasting from three to six years.

Emil Pfeiffer (1846-1921) o f Germany

Pfannesteil Incision

A curved suprapubic incision.

gave a classic description o f infectious mononucleosis under

Described by gynecologist, Hermann Johannes Pfannesteil

the nam e‘drusenfieber’ in 1889. See glandularfever.

(1862-1909) in 1900.

Pflüger Cords Linear arrangement o f sex cells during the

P harm aceutical Industry See Allen and Hanbury's, Abbot

development o f the ovary. Described by Eduard Friedrich

Laboratories, pharmacy, American Pharmaceutical Association.

Wilhelm Pflüger (1829—1910), professor o f physiology at

Pharm aceutics See pharmacy.

Bonn in 1863.

P harm acognosy [Greek: pharmacon, drug + gnosis, knowl­

pH Negative logarithm o f hydrogen ion concentration, used

edge] Used by Seydler in 1815 to refer to the science dealing

to measure acidity and alkalinity. Devised by Danish

with investigation o f crude drugs and other raw materials o f

physicist, Soren Peter Lauritz Sorensen (1868—1939) o f

vegetable and animal origin.

Copenhagen in 1909. An accurate pH meter was developed

P harm acology [Greek: pharmacon, drug + logos, discourse]

by Arnold O. Beckman in 1934. About 80 papers were

The Greek poet Hom er and the philosopher Plato (428—

contributed by BerHn-born American chemist, Leonor

348 B C ) used the term to denote poisons and remedies.

Michaehs (1875-1945). See acidity, buffer.

Claudius Galen (AD 129—200) described over 347 herbal

Phaenarete M other o f the Greek philosopher Socrates and

remedies which earned him a place as the father o f pharma­

a midwife.

cology. Dioscorides (AD 40—90) used the term materia

P h eoch rom ocytom a [Greek:

medica to denote a compilation and description o f medical

dusky + chroma, color

+ kytos, cell] Described by Felix Frankel o f Germany in

substances. M odern pharmacology studies the nature and

1886 and named by Ludwig Pick (1868-1935) in 19 12.The

physiological action o f drugs, and became a specialty only

next description was given by Jacob Pal (1863—1936) in

in the m id-19th century.The first laboratory was established

1905.

Ernest Marcel Labbe (1870—1939) described associa­

at Dorpat by Karl Binz (18 32-1912), a pupil o f Rudolph

tion with paroxysmal hypertension in 1922. A total o f 53

Virchow

patients were identified by A .A . Eisenberg and H.

(1838—1921). Binz founded the Pharmacological Institute

(18 21—1902)

and

Oswald

Schmiedeberg

Wallerstein in 1932. The histamine test was devised by

o f the University o f Bonn in 1869 and published a book on

Grace R o th and Walter Kvale (b 1907) o f America in 1945.

history o f anesthesia (1896) and another on materia medica

A. Engel and U lf Svante von Euler (1905—1983) o f Switzer­

in 1866. The first laboratory in America was founded in

land found increased catecholamine levels in two patients

Michigan in 1893 and University CoUege in London established one in England in

with the tumor in i950.The tumor was shown on operation

1905, under Arthur

Robertson Cushny (1866—1926), who had been professor

by R en é Leriche (1875—1955) o f Lyon. M . D. Armstrong,

o f pharmacology at the University o f Michigan before

M cM illan and Shaw observed an increase in levels o f

returning to London in 1904. He wrote Pharmacology and

vanilmandelic acid (VM A ),a metabolite o f catecholamine,

Therapeutics in 1899. See therapeutics.

in urine o f these patients in 1956. Both tests are still in use for diagnosis.

P harm acopoeia [Greek: pharmakon, drug] The first Euro­ pean pharmacopoeia, Ricettario Florentino, was published in

Phage See bacteriophage.

Florence in 1489.The German pharmacopoeia was written

[Greek: phagein, to eat + kytos, cell] Elie

by German physician, O rtolef von Bayrlant in 1477 and was

M etchnikoff (i845-i9i6),the founder o f cellular immunity,

followed by another by Valerius Cordus (1515—1544) at

discovered the process, and demonstrated leukocytic

Nuremberg

function o f white cells as scavengers during his research at

Pharmacopoeia Qermanica was published in 1872. The term

the Pasteur Institute in Paris in 1901.

came into use in 1560, and Ametius Foesius (1528—1595), a

P hagocytosis

580

in

1535

and the first

German

official

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PHENYLKETONURIA

physician at Metz, used it in 1561. The first edition o f the

P henform in

Hypoglycemic drug used in treatment o f

Pharmacopoeia Londinensis was published by the Royal C o l­

diabetes meUitus. Introduced by Georges Ungar (b 1906)

lege o f Physicians in 1618 and continued into 10 editions

and co-workers in 1957.

until 1851 and the second and third editions were published

P henol Sulfonaphthalein Test

in 1650 and 1677.These contained strange remedies such as

estimate renal functions and devised by Leonard George

scorpion, spiderwebs, snakeskin, and woodlice.The first offi­ cial

VS

Pharmacopoeia was published in

Rowntree (1883—1959), director o f Philadelphia Medical

18 21. The

Institute, and another American John Timothy Geraghty

Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia was published in 1699 followed by

(1876-1924) in 1910.

Dublin Pharmacopoeia in 1793 and these were combined in the British Pharmacopoeia published in 1864. The British Pharmaceutical

Codex

(BPC)

was

published

as

Used extensively to

P henol The antiseptic and disinfectant properties o f coal

a

tar were recognized in France in 1817, and phenol was

complementary volume to the British Pharmacopoeia in 1907.

obtained from it by German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand R unge (1795-1867) in 1834. It was used to preserve cadavers

P harm acy [Greek: pharmakeus, druggist] Art o f preparing

in England in 1851. Carbolic acid derived from it was used at

and preserving medicines, practiced since the advent o f

the sewage works in Carlisle and it inspired Joseph Lister

medicine. It originally involved crude preparations o f plants, excreta, urine, and organs o f animals and later includ­

(1827—1912) to use it as an antiseptic in 1866. Phenol

ed metals such as mercury and bromine.The pepperers and

poisoning in workers who operated the phenol hand spray

Spicers in England dominated the practice during the M id­

in operating theaters was described by Sir J. Rickm an

dle Ages and dealt in crude drugs, spices and commodities

Godlee (1849-1925) in 1924.

such as sugar, dried fruits, salt and oils.The Pepperer s Guild

Phenolphthalein Synthetic purgative prepared in America

was founded in the 12th century and became the Grocer’s

in 1871.

Company, to include the apothecaries in 1373 .The apothe­ caries separated themselves in 16 17 and dealt specifically

P henotype [Greek: phainenin, to appear] Visible expression

with medicines. The Society o f Apothecaries, to manufac­

o f genes first proposed by a Danish professor o f genetics at

ture drugs on a large scale in England, was established in

Copenhagen, Wilhelm Ludwig Johanssen (1857-1927), in

1617. The Pharmaceutical Society o f Great Britain was

1902. He also proposed the term genotype.

founded in 1841.

Phenylalanine Amino acid isolated from lupin seedlings by

Pharynx [Greek: pharyngx, throat] The Greeks believed that

Schulz in 1879. It was shown to be essential to growth o f

secretions o f the brain poured directly into the pharynx.

rats by American biochemist William Cum m ing R ose

The R ath ke pouch, a small diverticulum o f the early

(1887-1984).

embryonic pharynx giving rise to the anterior lobe o f pitu­

Phenylalaninuria

itary gland, was described by a professor at Dorpat, Martin

phenylketonuria.

Phenylpyruvic

oligophrenia.

See

Heinrich Rathke (1793-1860) in i838.The Seessel’s pocket,

Phenylbutazone Introduced as treatment for rheumatoid

a diverticulum o f the embryonic pharynx found anterior to

arthritis by J. P. Currie, R . A. Brown and G.WiU in 1953.

the cranial attachment o f the buccopharyngeal membrane, was described by Albert Seessel (1850—1910), an embryolo­

Phenylketonuria Inherited biochemical disorder observed

gist and neurologist from Yale. The Waldeyer ring o f

by Norwegian biochemist and physician, Ivar Asbjorn

lymphoid tissue in the pharynx was discovered by German

Foiling in 1934. He investigated the cause o f mental

anatomist, Heinrich Waldeyer (1837—1921). The Passavant

retardation in two children in a family, and found a change

bridge, a ridge on the posterior wall o f the pharynx

in the color o f their urine when treated with ferric

produced by contraction o f palatopharyngeus muscle, was

chloride. He postulated that the disease was due to an

described by a surgeon, Philip Gustav Passavant (1815— 1893) o f Frankfurt in 1869.

inherited error o f metabolism and this was proved by G .A . Jervis and R . J. Block who demonstrated in 1940 that it was

P henacetin Antipyretic and analgesic synthesized at the

due to a block in conversion o f phenylalanine to tyrosine.

Friedrich Bayer Dye Company o f Germany under the

Elevation o f phenylalanine in the blood with its excretion

direction o f Carl Duisburg in 1886. It was introduced as a

in the urine amounting to 30 times more than normal was

medicine by Oscar Heinrich Daniel Hinsberg (1857-1939)

demonstrated by M . Dann in 1943. A simple blood test

and Alfred Kast (1856-1903) in 1887.

devised by R obert Guthrie (b 1916) in 1961 that detected

581

PHENYLPYRUVIC

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OLIGOPHRENIA

the disease in the first few days o f life, and screening

Philtrum [Greek: philtron, love portion] Vertical furrow on

o f newborns was made mandatory in Massachusetts state

the upper lip said to have been named due to the association

in 1963.

o f the mouth with love.

P him osis

Phenylpyruvic O ligophrenia See phenylketonuria.

[Greek: phimosis, muzzling] An operative treat­

ment o f the condition by rupturing the mucous membrane

Phenytoin Anticonvulsant, also known as hydrantoin was

o f the prepuce was described by American surgeon,

introduced as treatment for epilepsy by Hiram M errit

Joseph Pancoast (1805-1939) in 1862.

(1902—1979) and Frederick Ward Putnam (1839—1915) in

P hleb otom us Fever

1938.

[Greek: phlebo, vein + tomos, cut]

(Syn: Pappataci fever, sandfly fever) First probable descrip­

Philadelphia C h rom osom e Abnormality in patients with

tion was given by Alois Pick (1859—1945) in 1886. In 1903,

chronic myeloid leukemia was observed by P C . Nowell and

Sir R obert M cCarrison (1878-1960) described the three

D.A. Hungerford in i960.

day Chitral fever o f the Blue Mountains o f N ilgri in India

Philip, Sir R obert William (1857-1939) From Edinburgh

which he thought to be the same. He also suggested that the

Royal Infirmary, was a pioneer in the study and control o f

sand fly {Phlebotomus papatasi) was the transmitter o f the

tuberculosis. He established the first tuberculosis dispensary

disease and his theory was confirmed by R obert Doerr

in the world at Edinburgh in 1888, and another in London

(18 71-1952) in 1908.

at Paddington in 1909.

P hleb otom y [Greek: phlebos, vein + tome, to cut] See blood letting, cupping.

Phillipe, Claudien (1866-1903) Director o f the Pathological Anatomy Laboratory at the Salpetriere who described the

P hlegm asia Alba D olen s [Greek:p/z/e^mo«e, inflammation;

septomarginal tract in the sacral region o f the cord in 1901.

Latin: alba, white] Sw elling o f the low er extremities in pregnant women was thought to be due to destruction o f

P hilosop her’s S ton e The fundamental aim o f alchemy was to obtain the ‘essence’ which would change base metals in

the maternal lymphatics by Manchester surgeon, Charles

to gold and cure all diseases. The guardian or possessor o f

White (1728 -18 13) in 1784, one o f the founders o f

this mythical essence was said to be the mythical Hermes

Manchester

Trismegistus who probably represented Thot, the Egyptian

(1778 -18 4 1), physician-accoucher to the Queen, was the

god o f wisdom. According to alchemy traditions, he

first to attribute the condition to inflammation o f the veins

inscribed the essential secrets o f alchemy on an emerald and

in 1823.

presented it to Sarah, the wife o f Abraham.

R oyal

Infirmary.

David

Daniel

Davis

P hlegm one [Greek: phlegmone, inflammation] Term used by

P hilosophical Transactions o f the R oyal S ociety Jou r­

Galen (AD 129—200) to describe general inflammation or a

nal o f the Royal Society, first published in 1665. One o f

red resisting painful tumor. It was defined as the ‘most violent

its epoch-making treatise. Principia by Sir Isaac N ewton

kind o f inflammation’ by John Abernethy (1764—1831).

(1642—1727), was published in 1687. See Royal Society.

P h logiston T h eory [Greek: phlogistos, set on fire] As a cause o f burning and rusting was proposed by Georg Ernst Stahl

P hilosophy [Greek: philosophia,lover o f wisdom] Thales who lived around 600 B C is considered the father o f philosophy.

(1660—1734) o f Germany in 1697 and upheld for nearly a

The term was adopted by Pythagorus who called himself a

century until disproved by Joseph Priestley (1733—1804) in

philosopher around 528 B C . Aristotle (384—322 B C ) and

1774. See oxygen.

Plato (428—348 B C ) are two o f the best known natural

P h ocom elia [Greek: phoke, seal + melos, limb] Congenital

philosophers.The first moral philosopher from the east was

abnormality where all four limbs fail to develop in infants

Gautama Siddartha Buddha (568-488 B C ),a Hindu prince.

born to mothers who took the drug thalidomide before

He proposed the concept o f nirvana which is a complete

1 960.The drug was introduced as a hypnotic and a sedative

withdrawal o f interest from the external world to innerself

in Germany in 1958 and was in extensive use for three years

in order to attain a tranquil state devoid o f passion. During

until its withdrawal

the 17th century philosophy was classified into: moral or

P h olcod ein Derivative o f morphine and sodium ethoxide

ethical, intellectual and natural or physical. Some eminent

introduced as an antitussive agent in France in 1950.

British philosophers include Sir Francis Bacon,John Locke,

P honocardiography [Greek:p/iowe, sound + kardia,he2i.rt +

and Herbert Spencer. See logic, ethics.

582

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PHOTOGRAPHY

Aerial Notiluca published in 1680.The first book on its use in

graphein, to write] M ethod o f recording heart sounds introduced by Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven

medicine, De Phosphorhosis: Ohservationes Quatour, Berolini

(1860-1927) and M . A. J. Geluk o f Germany in 1890.

was published by J. S. Elsholz in 1680. The phosphoric acid

Einthoven published details o f his galvanometer in 1907.

content o f bone was shown by two Swedish chemists,Johan

D e Forest invented a triode amplifier in 1906. Huerthle

Gottlieb Gahn (1745—1818) and Carl W ilhelm Schleele

used the microphone to record heart sounds in 1895.

(1742—1786). The effects o f phosphorus on animals were

Sir Thomas Lewis (1881-1945) did further studies and

studied by Georg Frederick Wegner (b 1843) in 1872 and it

wrote The Mechanism and Graphic Registration o f the Heart

was used as a remedy for osteomalacia by W. Busch o f Berlin

Beat in 1925.

in 1881. M ax Kassowitz (1842-1913) prescribed it for rickets in children in 1883. See red phosphorus,phossy jaw.

P hon odeik Apparatus for making photographic recordings o f sound waves. Invented by American physicist, Dayton

Phosphorylase Enzyme isolated by American couple, Carl

Clarence M iller (1866-1941) o f Strongsville, Ohio in 1908.

Ferdinand C ori (1896—1984) andTheresa Gerti C ori (18961957) who were originally from Czechoslovakia. They

P hosgen e Highly toxic colorless gas prepared by mixing

shared the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1947.

chlorine and carbon monoxide in the presence o f sunlight

Phosphorylation First step in fermentation, discovered by

by John Davy in 1812. It was used in chemical warfare by

English physical chemist. Sir Arthur Harden (1865-1940) o f

Germans in December i^i$.Seegas warfare.

Manchester in 1905.

Phosphatase Hydrolytic enzyme.That found in serum was

Phossy Jaw Necrosis o f the jaw secondary to white phospho­

estimated by H. D. Kay in 1930 and the method was perfect­

rus exposure in industry, first observed in match factories

ed by American biochemist o f Russian origin, A. Bodansky

near Vienna in 1844. It was described by Karl Thiersch

(1896-1941) in 1933. See diagnosticenzymology.

P hosphate

(1822-1895), professor o f surgery at Erlangen in 1867. Fin­

[Latin: phosphas, light] A method to estimate

land abohshed the use o f white phosphorous in the match

inorganic phosphate in blood was devised by R . D. Bell and

industry in 1872, and it was prohibited in England in 1910.

American biochemist and N obel Prize winner Edward

P h otelom eter Photocell linked to a sensitive microamme-

Adelbert Doisy (1893-1986) in 1920 and it was improved by

ter for analysis o f chemical constituents in small samples o f

Alfred Poyner Briggs (b 1888) in 1922. Stanley Rossiter

blood and urine. Invented by G.E. Davis and C. Sheard o f

Benedict (1884—1936) modified the method in 1924. A rise

America in 1927. A photoelectric hemoglobinometer based

in phosphate in the blood in renal failure was observed by

on the same principle was developed by Sheard and

Isidor Greenwald (b 1887) o f N ew York in 1915.

A .H . Sanford in 1928.

Phosphocreatine Substance in muscle contraction discov­

P h otoelectric C ell Invented by German physicist, Johann

ered independently by two groups o f workers: Philip and

Philipp Ludwig Julius Elster (1854—1920)

Grace Eggleton o f London and Cyrus H artwell Fiske

Friedrich Geitel (1855-1923) in 1896. It consists o f an

and Hans

(1890-1978) and Yella-Pragada Subbarow (1896-1948) o f

electronic tube with a cathode which is sensitive to light so

Boston in 1927. Its role in muscle contraction was studied

that it emits electrons.The current generated is proportion­

byA .Szent-G yorgi (1893—1986).

al to the intensity o f light used. The modern cell was developed by Chapin, Fuller and Peterson o f the B ell

Phospholipids The pioneer studies were performed by

Telephone Company in 1954.

John Lewis William Thudichum (1829—1901), a German physician who practiced in London. He published his work,

P hotography [Greek: phos, light + graphein, to write] The

A Treatise on the Chemical Constitution o f the Brain, in 1884.

action o f light on chloride o f silver was studied by a Swedish

Phosphorus [Greek: phos, light + pherein, to carry] N on-

apothecary, Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742-1786) in 1777.

metallic element discovered by Anton Laurent Lavoisier

In 1839, Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre (1789—1851) o f

(1743—1794) in 177 7, w h ich produces lum inescence in

Cormeilles, France and William Henry Fox Talbot (18 00-

the dark. It was isolated from urine by a Swedish chemist,

1877) from Wiltshire introduced a method o f using sodium

Georg Brandt (1694—1768). Dresden chemist, Kraft sug­

thiosulfate solution to remove unchanged silver iodide

gested that it was present in the human body. R obert Boyle

in photographic development. In the following year Fox

(1627-1691) discovered a way o f making it outlined in

Talbot discovered a negative from which unlimited

583

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PHOTOMETER

positives could be made. A carbon process o f photographic

Phrenitis [Greek: phren, mind + itis, inflammation] Ancient

printing was invented by English chemist, Sir Joseph Wilson

Greek term for disease o f the mind.

Swan (1828-1914) o f Sunderland in 1864. He also invented

P hrenology [Greek: phren, mind, logos, discourse] External

the dry plate in 1871 and bromide paper in 1879.

study o f the skull as an indicator o f mental powers and

See photomicrography.

moral qualities. Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) believed that

P h otom eter Invented by German physicists Julius Elster

the shape o f the body revealed the personality, and Aristotle

(1854-1920) and Hans Friedrich Geitel (1855-1923).

(384-322 B C ) studied the nose, limbs, hair and other parts

[Greek: phos, light + mikros, small +

o f the body to characterize people. The concept was

graphein, to write] David Gruby (1810—1898), a mycologist

proposed by Franz Joseph Gall (1758—1828), a German

from Hungary, developed photomicrography to illustrate his

physician, in 1758. He published a treatise with another Ger­

Photom icrography

work. Some o f the earliest were published in 1856

man physician, Casper Johan Spurzheim (1776-1832),

by John William Draper (18 11-18 82), a physiologist from

Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, and of the Brain

Liverpool who later emigrated to America. Joseph Edwin

in Particular, in 1800. A popular English treatise. System of

Barnard (1870—1949) applied it to the study o f bacteria and

Phrenology,w2LS published by George Combe in 1819.

viruses in England in 1925. An American pioneer was

Phthisis [Greek:phthisis, to decay] See tuberculosis.

George Miller Sternberg (1838—1915) who published a man­ ual. An early modern work, H^^dbook of Photomicrography, w 2ls

Phylogeny [Greek:phylon, tribe +

pubhshed by Lloyd Hind and Brough Randles in 1913.

generation) Study

o f developmental history o f a race or a group o f animals.

P h oton Small packets o f energy consisting o f light particles

Physick

and proposed by Albert Einstein (1879-1955).

[Greek: physikos, natural] Study and practice o f

medicine. Many o f the physicians from the Middle Ages called themselves doctors o f physick.

P hotosynthesis [Greek: phos, light + synthesis, putting to­ gether] Joseph Priestley (1733—1804) observed that plants

Physical C hem istry Jacobus Henricus van’t H o ff (1852—

use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and replace it with

19 11) studied chemical kinetics and Svante August

oxygen. Carbon-14 was used to investigate the metabolic

Arrhenius (1859—1927) studied electrolytic dissociation.

processes by American chemist o f Russian origin, M elvin

The application o f physics to chemistry was pioneered

Calvin (b 19 11) and he was awarded the N obel Prize for

by Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (1853—1932), German pro­

his work in 1961.

fessor o f chemistry at Leipzig in the 1880s. In his

Phototherapy [Greek: phos, light + therapeia, service to the

Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie published in 1885 he

sick] Mentioned by English physician, Gilbertus Anglicus

proposed the law o f dilution which bears his name. He also

in the 13 th century when he advocated use o f red light to

discovered and defined the catalyst as an agent which

treat smallpox. Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1780—1849)

accelerated the rate o f a chemical reaction.

used light therapy on a scientific basis in 1816. Sir Arthur

Physick Garden [Greek:physikos, natural] Botanical garden

Henry Downes (1851—1938) and Thomas Porter Blunt in

where

1877 showed that ultraviolet light killed bacteria. A Danish

medicinal

herbs

are

cultivated. An

English

garden was established by John Gerard (1545—1612), a

physician Niels R yb erg Finson (1860—1904) developed a

London surgeon in 1567, and the Oxford physick garden was

method o f treating lupus vulgaris with ultraviolet light

founded by the Earl o f Danby in 1652.The Chelsea Physick

in 1890. Infrared light was used as treatment for arthritis, strains and sprains. Phototherapy was introduced as

garden was founded by Sir Hans Sloane (1660—1753) and

treatment for hyperbilirubinemia by Cremer and his

handed to the Apothecaries Company in 1721.

colleagues in 1958.

Physick, Philip Syng (1768—1837) Father o f American sur­

Phrenic N erve Palsy [Greek:phren, diagram or mind] Sign

gery who spent four years with John Hunter (1728—1793) in

o f thoracic aortic aneurysm described by Scottish surgeon

England, before he returned to America to become profes­

and cardiologist Allan Burns (17 8 1-18 13) in Observations of

sor o f surgery at the University o f Pennsylvania in 1805. He

some of the most Important and frequent Diseases of the Heart

introduced many operative techniques and introduced

published in 1809.

absorbable sutures.

584

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PICA

irritability o f living tissues in Primae Lineae Physiologiae published in 1747. Experim ental physiology was estab­ lished by Claude Bernard (1813-1878) o f Paris. Some notable contributors include: Edward Sharpey-Schaffer (18 50 -19 35),

H enry

Ernest

Starling

(1866-1927),

Sir William Maddock Bayliss (1860-1924), Sir Thomas Lewis (1881-1945), Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952), Lord Edgar Adrian (1889-1977), Sir Joseph Barcroft (1872—1947) and John Scott Haldane (1860—1936).

R espiratory P hysiology See respiratory physiology, aviation medicine.

Physiotherapy [Greek:

nature + i/zerap/o, take care] A

pioneer in the application o f physical medicine to diseases ofthejoints and bones was French surgeon,Amédée Bonnet

Philip Syng Physick (1768-1837). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

(1802—1858). He was professor o f surgery at l’Hôtel Dieu in Lyon and published Traite des Maladies des Articulations

P hysicotheology [Greek:physis, nature + theos,god + logos,

(1845) in two volumes, followed by Traites des Thérapeutique

discourse] An attempt to relate nature and god was made by English philosopher and clergyman,WiUiam Durham (1657—

des Maladies des Articulations in 1853. Heinrich S. Frenkel (1860-1931), medical superintendent at the

1735) o f Stowton near Worcester in Physico-Theology

Freihoff

Sanatorium at Switzerland, advocated the use o f extensive

published in 1713. He was chaplain to George 1 and Canon

physiotherapy for neurological disease and introduced

ofWindsor.

systematic

P hysiognom y [Greek:physis, nature + gnomon,judge] Art o f

exercises for tabetic

ataxia in

1890. See

occupational therapy.

determining character and disposition by studying facial

P hysostigm ine

features. Adamantius o f Alexandria (AD 500), a Greek

Poisonous alkaloid in the Calabar bean

{Physostigma venenosum) was identified and named by

physician wrote one o f the earliest works on physiognomy,

C.Jobst and Hesse in 1863. Hesse also ascertained its struc­

dedicated to the Emperor Constantine. Giovanni Batista

ture in 1867. It was introduced as a treatment o f myasthenia

della Porta (1536—1615) o f Naples, the father o f physiogno­

gravis by M ary Broadfoot Walker (1888-1974) o f England

my, wrote De Humana Physiognomia in 1586.Johann Gasper

in 1934.

Lavetor (174 1-18 0 1) from Zurich published Treatise on physiogmony in 1772.

Pia Mater [Latin: pius, tender + mater, mother] Innermost o f the three membranes o f the brain derives its name from the

Physiography See Salisbury, Rollin

belief that it protected and nourished the brain like a mother.

P hysiology [Greek: physis, nature + logos, discourse] Study o f mechanisms o f nature, commenced by Aristotle (384— 322 B C ), and his De Motu Animalium contains some basic

Piaget, Jean (1896—1980) Born in Neufchatel, Switzerland, he was a pioneer in child psychology and professor o f psy­ chology at Geneva University from 1929 to 1954. His

facts o f modern physiology. The term ‘physiologia’ was first

publications include The Child's Conception o f the World

used by a physician, Jean François Fernel (1497—1558) o f

(1936), The Origin o f Intelligence in Children (1936), and Early

Paris in 1542. R en é Descartes (1596—1650) o f France

Growth o f Logic in the Child (1958).

published the first physiology book in Europe, De Homine fguris et latinitate donatus a Florentio Schuyl in 1622. In Eng­

P ica [Latin: magpie] The term used to describe an abnormal

land William Harvey (1578—1657) provided experimental

appetite for a variety o f non-nutritive substances, such as

proof for circulation o f blood in 1628 which was funda­

earth and coal. Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) described it in

mental to physiology. Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777), a

pregnancy, stating that ‘when a pregnant woman longs to

Swiss physician and first professor o f physiology at Gottin­

eat coal and earth, the likeness o f these things appear in

gen was one o f the greatest physiologists o f the i8th

the head o f the child’ . Galen (AD 129-200) gave a detailed

century, and introduced the concept o f impulse and

description.

585

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PICARD

Picard, Jean (1620—1682) French astronomer from Anjou

Piedra

Black piedra. Fungal disease o f the skin noted

who estimated the radius o f the Earth by measuring the

in Columbia and studied by Nicalou Ozorio in 1876.

degree o f the meridian in 1660.

The causative fungus was named Trichosporon hortae by

Pick, Ludwig (1868—1935)

Joseph Emile Brumpt (18 77-19 51) in 1913. White piedra

Pediatrician and professor o f

in Europe, due to Trichosporon cutaneum, was described

pathological anatomy at Berlin. He described a disorder

by German physician, Hermann Beigel (1830—1879) in

o f sphingomyelin known as Niemann—Pick disease in 1926.

1865.

P ick Cirrhosis Disease o f the liver with ascites secondary to

Pietro d ’A bano See Peter o f Abano.

constrictive pericarditis. Described by Friedel Pick (18671926) o f Germany in 1896.

P ig One o f the earliest treatise on the anatomy o f the pig was written by Copho o f Salerno in the early 12th century and

P ick D isease Form o f dementia due to cerebral atrophy o f

another, Anatomia, was written by Ricardus around the

the frontal and temporal lobes. Described as ‘circumscribed

same time.

cortical atrophy’ by Arnold Pick (1851—1924), a Czech psychiatrist at the University o f Prague in 1892. He studied

P ig A ortic Valve G. A. Kaiser and colleagues used it to

medicine at Vienna and Berlin and was director o f the

replace a diseased human aortic valve and published their

Dobrzau Asylum in 1880 and professor o f psychiatry at the

findings in 1969.

German University o f Prague in 1886.

Piles [Latin:

P ickering, Sir George White (1904—1980) B orn in N orth­

a ball o f any substance] See hemorrhoids.

P ilocarpine Alkaloid obtained from the plant Pilocarpus

umberland and trained at St Thomas’ Hospital. He did

which is native to Paraguay and Southern Brazil. It was cul­

clinical research with Sir Thomas Lewis (1881—1945) at

tivated in greenhouses in Europe since 1847 and its leaves

University College Hospital for eight years. He was regius

were introduced as medicine by physician Coutinho from

professor o f medicine at Oxford from 1956, and did pio­

Pernambuco in 1874.

neering work on essential hypertension. He noted the

P iltdow n Man The greatest scientific fraud so far in history.

protein nature o f renin and its role in hypertension, and his Nature of Hypertension was published in i960. He also

In 1 9 1 1 , while walking at Piltdown in Sussex, Charles D aw­

reported a case o f internal carotid artery reconstructive

son (1864—1916), a solicitor from Sussex, found a fragment

surgery in a patient with intermittent hemiplegia or

o f a skull. He presented it to Arthur Smith Woodward (1864—1944), keeper o f the geological department o f the

transient ischemic attacks in 1954.

Natural History Museum in London, who declared the

Pickles, William Doctor from Aysgarth in Yorkshire around

fragment o f the skull to be that o f the earliest known

1913. He wrote Epidemiology o f a Country Practice and was

ancestor o f man and it was hailed as the missing link

a founder member o f the R oyal College o f General

between man and ape. However, further tests in 1952 by

Practitioners.

Kenneth P. Oakley proved that the skull was that o f a mod­

Pickw ickian Syndrom e Characterized by obesity, breath­

ern man and the jaw belonged to an orangutan. Many

lessness and cyanosis accom panied by hypoventilation.

eminent paleontologists were suspected to be the perpetra­

From a fictional character in The Pickwick Papers written by

tors o f the hoax. A trunk belonging to Martin Alister

Charles Dickens in 1837. It was introduced into medicine

Campbell Hinton, former curator o f the zoology section o f

by Sir William Osier (1849-1919).

the museum who died in 1961, was found in the roof o f the Natural

P icrotoxin [ G r e e k : b i t t e r ] Active principle oiA nam ir-

History

Museum

and

contained

bones

of

animals stained with iron and manganese, in the same

ta cocculus, a plant native to the Malayan Islands, Ceylon

proportion as that found at Piltdown, to make them look

and neighboring countries. Known as a poison to Arab

old.

physicians including Avicenna (980-1037) and used as a poison in England in 1597 to destroy vermin and fish.

Pincus, Gregory Goodwin (1903—1967) American physiolo­

It was introduced into medicine by Italian physician

gist who developed the contraceptive pill. B orn in

Battista Condrochi who wrote De Baccis Orientalihus in

Woodbine, N ew Jersey and graduated in science from

the

i6th century. The

substance responsible for its

Cornell University in 1924, and undertook postgraduate

poisonous properties was isolated by BouUay in 1812 and

studies

named.

Cambridge. He was a pioneer in the study o f steroid

586

at Harvard, before

working

in Berlin

and

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PITCAIRN

hormones and began his work on developing a contracep­

and muscular hypotonia o f unknown etiology, affecting

tive pill in 1951. He demonstrated the efficacy and

infants. Described by Em il Feer (1864—1955) o f Erlangen in

determined the correct amounts o f progesterone to be used

19 21. The name ‘pink disease’ was given due to the

in 1954.

occurrence o f erythematous rash on the buttocks and cheeks.

P inkam , E. Lydia (1819-1883) Massachusetts woman who marketed Pinkam’sVegetable Compound for cure o f female weakness in 1872. It was considered the greatest remedy in the world and she became America’s first millionairess.

Pinta Tropical dermatitis caused by Treponema carateum accom­ panied by depigmentation. Appeared in M exico from southern parts o f America in 1775. Described by Jean Louis Alibert (1768-1837) in i829,byBurkehart in M exico in 1837 and byj. Gastambadie in his history Mai Pintado in 1881.

Pirie, George Alexander (1890—1929) Worked at the R oyal Gregory Pincus (1903-1967). Courtesy of the IPPF

Pineal B o d y

Infirmary, Dundee and was a pioneer in the use o f X-rays in medicine. He suffered from radiation injuries from his work

[Latin: pinea, pine cone] Part o f the brain

and had to give up his career in 1926.

observed by Galen (AD 129—200) and François Magendie (1783—1855), but its purpose or function was not fully

Pirogoflf, Nicolai Ivanovich (18 10 -18 8 1) Professor o f sur­

understood. A n English account o f a pineal tum or was

gery at Moscow who defined the Pirogoff triangle bounded

given

by the intermediate tendon o f the digastric muscle, posterior

by

Humphrey

R idley

(1653—1708)

in

1695.

Successful removal o f a pineal tumor was performed by

border o f the mylohyoid muscle and the hypoglossal. He was

Hermann Oppenheim (1858—1919) and Fedor Krause

also one o f the first to use plaster o f Paris and rectal anesthe­

(1856-1937) in 1913.

sia in clinical surgery. He made a major contribution to military surgery and, following his service in the Crimean

Pinel, PhiUipe (1745-1825) Neuropsychiatrist from Langue­

War, he published Principles o f General Military Surgery.

doc in France who graduated in medicine fromToulouse and worked at Montpellier before becoming head o f the Bicêtre

Pirquet, Clemens Freiherr von (1874—1929) Austrian pedia­

in 1793. He identified insanity as an illness and unchained

trician and immunologist who coined the term ‘allergy’ in

mental patients. He also recognized intellectual deterioration

1904. The Pirquet test for diagnosis o f tuberculosis, where

as a separate entity - dementia. His Traite medico-philosophie

old tuberculin was applied through a needle scratch on the

sur Valienation mentale was pubfished in 1801.

skin, was devised by him in 1907.

Pirquet Test See Mantoux test, Pirquet, Clemens Freiherr von. Pitcairn, Archibald (1652—1713) Scottish physician from Edinburgh and professor at Leiden for a year before return­ ing to Edinburgh in 1693. He was a founder o f the Medical Faculty at Edinburgh. His Dissertationes Medicae was published in 1701.

Pitcairn, David (1749-1809) Physician at St Bartholom ew’s Hospital who noted lesions in the heart valves following rheumatic fever. He introduced the term ‘rheumatic’ in the description o f heart disease in 1788. He was a founder o f the Medical School at St Bartholom ew’s Hospital.

Pinel unchaining the mentally ill. Lucien Mass, Curiosités Médico-artistiques (1907). Albin Michel, Paris

Pitcairn, William (17 11-17 9 1) Descendant o f physician Archibald Pitcairn (16 52-1713), founder o f the mechanical

P ink D isease Infantile acrodynia, consisting o f agitation

sect o f medicine. He studied at Leiden, graduated from

587

PITHECANTHROPUS

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ERECTUS

relationship between acromegaly and pituitary tumor was

Rheim s and received his doctorate from Oxford in 1749. H e was a physician to St Bartholomew s Hospital until 1780

demonstrated by Oskar Minkowski (1858—1931) in 1887. A

and president o f the Royal College o f Physicians, London

rise in blood pressure following injection o f pituitary

from 1775 to 1785, and holder o f its esteemed Gold-headed

extract was demonstrated by George Oliver (1841—1915)

cane.

and Sir Edward Sharpey-Schafer (1850—1935) in 1895. Neural connections between the hypothalamus and the

Pithecanthropus erectus [Greek: pithecos, ape + oeides, similar;

pituitary were demonstrated by American neuroanatomist,

Latin: erigere, to raise up] The teeth, calvarium and femur o f a

Stephen Walter Ranson (1880—1942) o f R ush Medical

primitive man were discovered in Java by Eugene Marie

College around 1920. See acromegaly.

Dubois, a Dutch physician and paleontologist from Eijsden. He was stationed in Java as surgeon to the Dutch East Indi­

Pituitary H yp oth alam ic Axis American endocrinologist,

an Arm y in 1893. His finding gave rise to speculation that

Philip Edward Smith (1884—1970), noted that Simmond

Java or Eastern Asia was the place where man evolved and

disease, or panhypopituitarism, could be produced in rats by

not Africa, as suggested by Darwin. His finding was

hypophysectomy. He showed the presence o f a gonad-

acclaimed as the missing link, and the primitive man was

stimulating hormone in the anterior pituitary in 1926, and

named Pithecanthropus erectus.

established that the thyroid depended on the stimulating

Pitres, Jean Albert (1848—1927) Bordeaux physician and con­

action o f the anterior pituitary, in 1927. See pituitary.

temporary ofjean Martin Charcot (1825-1893) in Paris. He

Pituitary Tum or See acromegaly, acromegalic gigantism.

defined several specific areas in the prefrontal cortex known

Pityriasis R osea [Greek: pityron, bran + iasis] Skin disease

as the Pitres areas.

described as a clinical entity by Camille M elchoir Gibert

Pituitary A blation [Latin: piiw/iiz, phlegm] Ablation or sur­

(1797-1866) ofParis in i860.

gical removal as treatment for carcinoma was pioneered by

Pityriasis Versicolor

R o lf Luft and Herbert Olivecrona (1891-1980) in 1952.

[Greek: pityron, bran + iasis] Skin

This procedure, also performed for other conditions, was

disease described by Carl Ferdinand Eichsted (1816-1892)

traumatic before the advent o f radioablation. In 1955,

in 1846 and byT. Sluyter in 1847.

A .P M . Forrest and D.A. Peebles B row n developed a

Placenta Previa [Latin: placentas, flat cake] The practice o f

method o f destruction by passing a small cannula into the

puncturing the amniotic sac to stop hemorrhage in placen­

pituitary fossa through the nose and sphenoidal sinus.The

ta previa was introduced by German midwife, Justine

second stage o f the procedure involved a radon implant

Sigemundin in 1690. An early treatise on uterine hemor­

through the cannula which imparted a radiation dose and

rhage was written by Edward R igb y (174 7-18 21) o f

damaged or ablated the pituitary. In 1957 radiation damage

London in 1775.The history and treatment were published

to the adjacent structures led to the replacement o f radon by

by R ead in 1861, and a paper. Clinical Lecture on theTreatment

yttrium. K. H. Baur and E. Klar improved the access to the

o f Placenta Praevia was published in the same year by

pituitary using a transethmoidal route in 1958. A screw to

R obert Barnes (1817-1907) in The Lancet.

deliver yttrium to the pituitary fossa was devised by Forrest

Placenta

and co-workers in 1958.

[Latin: placentas, flat cake] The ancient Chinese

used the placenta o f humans and animals as a medicine, as

Pituitary [ L a t i n : p h l e g m ] Named hypophysis [Greek:

did Chinese physician, Chu Chen H eng in the 15th centu­

hypo, below + physis, growth] as it was situated directly

ry. The term was introduced by Gabriele Falloppio (1523—

under the brain and ancient Greek physicians called it

1562) in 15 6 1,andGuilio CesareAranzi (1530—1589) calledit

‘pituita’ in the belief that the mucous secretions o f the nose

the ‘uterine liver’ in 1564. The normal mechanisms o f

came from it.The pocket o f sphenoid bone on which it rests

placental separation and expulsion were explained by

was named ‘sella turcica’ as it resembled a Turkish saddle. Richard Lower (16 31-16 9 1)

Bernhard Sigismund Schultz (1827—1919) o f Freiburg in

suggested the endocrine

1865, and the structure and function were explained by

nature o f the gland, saying ‘fluids from it are poured again

Charles

into the blood and mixed with it’ . Martin Heinrich Rathke

Sedgwick M inot

(1852-1914)

in

1891. The

endocrine nature was recognized in 1904 by Viennese

(1793—1860) gave an accurate account o f the embryological

surgeon,JosefHalban (1870—1937).

development and an anatomical description o f the gland in 1838. Changes in the pituitary following thyroidectomy

P lague [Greek: plaga, strike] The earliest account is found in

were demonstrated by N. Rogowitsch in 1889, and the

the works o f Oribasius (AD 325-400), physician to

588

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PLATELETS

Emperor Julian. He refers to an earlier description by Rufus

Manson (1844—1922) proposed the extracorporeal life cycle

o f Ephesus (AD 98—117). The first recorded plague in

for the parasite in the mosquito in 1894. His theory was

Europe occurred during the period o f Justinian in A D 550.

proved by Sir Ronald Ross (1857—1932), who demonstrated

See bubonic plague, pestilence, epidemics.

its presence in the Anopheles mosquito in 1897.

Planck, M ax Karl Ernst Ludwig (1858—1947) German physi­

Plaster o f Paris Gypsum or sulfate o f lime was found at

cist, born in Kiel and studied at the University o f Munich.

Montmartre, near Paris, and hence its name. Its use for

He introduced the Boltzmann constant into the formula to

molds was discovered by Andrea delVerrochio in 1466.A

calculate radiation o f heat. In 1900 he proposed the idea that

starch bandage was used in 1835 by Louis Joseph Seutin

energy is discontinuous and occurs in discrete packets or

(1793-1862), a surgeon at Brussels. Plaster o f Paris was intro­

quanta. He was awarded the N obel Prize for Physics in

duced as a bandage by Danish military surgeon, Anthonius

1918.

Mathijsen (1805-1878) in 1852,and in treatment o f scoliosis and Pott disease by N ew York orthopedic surgeon,

Plankton [Greek: planketon, drifting] Term used in 1888 by

Lewis Albert Sayre (1820—1900) o f America in 1877.

ChristianViktor Hensen (1835—1924) o f Kiel to denote the

Plastic Surgery [Greek: plastikos, to shape] One o f the

microscopic floating life forms in the ocean.

earliest applications was to the nose and face. The work o f

Plantar R eflex See Babinski reflex.

Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D 50 ) includes a descrip­ tion o f plastic surgery to the face and skin grafting. The art

Plasm a Proteins [Greek: plasm, form + protos, first] M eth­ ods o f fractionation o f proteins in human blood plasma

o f rhinoplasty was known to the ancient Hindus. Gaspare

were developed by Edw in J. Cohn (1892-1953) and

Tagliacozzi (1546—1599) o f Bologna pioneered rhinoplasty

colleagues in 1950. See albumin,globulin.

in Europe, but his work was opposed by Ambroise Paré (1510-1590)

P lasm acytom a [Greek: plasma, thing molded or formed +

and Gabriele

Falloppio

(1523-1562)

on

religious grounds. Carl von Graefe (1828-1870) o f Berlin

cytos,ce\\] See multiple myeloma.

was the founder, with his work on rhinoplasty, blapharo-

Plasm aphaeresis M ethod by which blood is removed from

plasty and repair o f cleft palate. Frank Hastings Hamilton

the body, followed by separation into cells and plasma,

(1813-1886) treated ulcers by skin grafting in 1854. Trans­

before returning the cells to the body. Demonstrated in

plantation o f free skin instead o f pedunculated flaps was

animals by American

introduced by Swiss surgeon, Jacques Louis Reverdin

biochemist, John Jacob Abel

(1842—1929) in 1869. Contracture following burns was

(1857—1938) and co-workers in 1914.

treated with

P lasm id

Term coined by American geneticist, Joshua

skin grafts by

George

David

Pollock

(1817—1897) in 18 71. Sir William Macewen (1848—1924),

Lederberg (b 1925) o f N ew York in 1952. First used to

professor o f surgery at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, whose

transfer genetic markers from one bacterium to another by

main interest was study o f bones, initiated bone grafts. Skin

William Hayes in 1953. Its role in bacterial resistance to

grafts o f intermediate thickness was performed by Louis

chemicals and toxic metals was demonstrated by Australian-

Xavier Eduard Leopold Ollier (1830-1900) o f Paris in 1872,

born, British biochemist. Sir M ark Henry Richm ond

and full thickness skin grafts were advocated by Fedor

(b 1931), and Eric Johnston in 1964.

Victor Krause (1857—1937) in 1893. U S army surgeon, Fred

P lasm inogen A ctivators Currently used in thrombolytic

Houdlett Albee (1876—1945), employed living bone tissue

therapy. Their fibrinolytic effect was demonstrated by

grafts for internal splints and transplanted the tibia into a

S. Sherry, R .I. Lindermeyer and A.P. Fletcher in 1958.

diseased spine o f patients with Pott Disease in i9i5.Vitray

A purified form was obtained from pig heart by Fedor

Papin

Bachmann in 1964.

(1899—1971) introduced split skin grafts in 1929. Bone grafts

Blair

(1871—1955)

and James

Barrett Brown

were also used for non-union o f a fractured femur neck by

P lasm odium [Greek: plasma, a thing molded or formed +

M elvin Anderson and co-workers at the Mayo Clinic in

eidos, resemblance] A protozoan parasite which caused

1940S. See rhinoplasty, nose surgery.

malaria was discovered by Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran

P latelet A ntibodies See thrombocytopenic purpura.

(1845—1922), a French parasitologist, while professor o f pathological anatomy at the University o f R o m e in 1880.

Platelets [Greek: platys, flat] Discovered in blood by A fred

Ettore Marchifava (1847—1935) described malaria parasites

Donné (1801—1878) o f Paris in 1842. An early description

in red blood cells as ‘hemocytozoa’ in 1885. Sir Patrick

was given by Sir W illiam O sier (18 4 9 -19 19 ) in 1873.

5 89

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PLATINUM

Georges Hayem (1841—1920), professor o f clinical medicine

first scientist in Britain to hold several important public

at the University o f Paris, gave an accurate account in 1878.

offices. B orn in Chuñar, India to Scottish parents and

The theory that they arise from megakaryocytes in bone

studied medicine at Glasgow and Edinburgh Universities.

marrow was proposed by James HomerW right (1870-1928)

He was a Mem ber o f Parliament in 1868, and Deputy

in 1906.Their part in preventing hemorrhage was investigat­

Speaker from 1880 to 1883. He helped organize the Great

ed by American professor o f experimental medicine,

Exhibition in 1851 and was instrumental in establishing the

WiUiamW.Duke (1883—1945) at Missouri around 1914.

Platinum

Royal College o f Science, South Kensington Science Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum.

In 1557 Scaliger referred to a metal found in

Colom bia which could not be melted in a furnace. In 1735

Plegia [Greek:plege, stroke] See apoplexy.

Don Antonio de UUoa, a Spanish naval officer, found the

P leistocen e Period [Greek:p/eo, more + cene, recent] G eo­

same mineral in Peru and in 1741 Charles Wood, an Engfish

logical period in Earth’s history identified and named by

metallurgist, sent Brownrigg to Cartagena, Colombia to

British geologist. Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875) in 1839.

investigate this metal, known to Spaniards as Platina de Pinto.

Pleural D ialysis [Greek: pleura, side + dia, through + lysis,

Brownrigg presented his report to the Royal Society in 1750

loosening] Treatment for uremia introduced by :V. Gorlitzer,

and described it as a previously undescribed

semi—metal. Around 1748 it had no commercial value and

B. DeMorais

the Spanish mined it in Peru to adulterate gold. It was

pleural lavage in uremia was reported by Lindholm in 1959.

known as ‘frog gold’ to the British. South American mines

Pleural Effusion See thoracentesis.

were later closed and trade was revived when Russia started exporting it in

and J. Hamburger in 1958. Continuous

Pleural Pressure

1824. The catalytic properties were

The importance o f the elastic recoil

demonstrated by Bavarian chemist, Johann Wolfgang

property o f the lung in respiration, and the effect o f venous

Dobereiner (1780—1849). It was produced in commercial

return o f blood to the heart upon producing a negative

quantities

pleural pressure, was studied by James Carson (1772—1843)

by

H enri

Etienne

Saint-Claire

Deville

in 1820. See lungfunctions.

(18 18 -18 8 1), a French chemist o f West Indian origin, in 1855. Its heat resistance made it useful in chemistry,

Pleurisy [Greek:p/cwra, the side or rib] Paul ofAegina (625-

microbiology and industry in the late 19th century.

690) described it as ‘an inflammation o f the membrane

Plato (428—348 B C ) Athenian philosopher who proposed

which lines the ribs, and is attended with difficulty in

the Doctrine o f Ideas. His original name was Aristocles and

breathing, cough, continual fever and pain shooting to the

he was called Plato because o f his large shoulders. He met

clavicle

Socrates at the age o f 20 and remained his pupil for eight

venesection, purging, clyster, linctus o f pine nuts and bitter

and

hypochondrium’ .

He

recommended

years. Following Socrates’ execution in 399 B C Plato

almonds as remedies. Venesection was recommended by

traveled extensively before he retired (387 B C ) near Athens

earlier physicians. Avicenna (980-1037) advocated use o f

and established his school.

syrup o f poppy in protracted cases. London physician Charles Badham (1780—1845) distinguished acute and

Platter, Felix (1536—1614) B orn at Basel and graduated in

chronic bronchitis from pleuropneumony and pleurisy.The

medicine from the University (1556) where he was

site and nature o f pleurisy was established by Dutch

professor o f medicine from 1571 until his death. He was the

physician,Herman Boerhaave (1668—1738) around 1709.

city physician and director o f public health, and displayed

Pleurodynia [Greek: p/ewroi, side or a rib + odyne,p2im] Old

great courage in treating plague in 1563. See cretinism, eye,

term for myalgia o f the chest wall. Currently used as a

symptomology.

synonym for Bornholm disease, an epidemic febrile infec­

Platysm a Thin plate-like muscle, named and described by

tious viral disease that occurred on the Danish island o f

Galen (AD 129—200).

Bornholm. It was described by Norwegian physician, Ejnar O lu f Sorenson Sylvest (1880—1931) in 1930.

Playfair, John (1748-1819) Scottish mathematician and physicist from Benvie, near Dundee. He was professor o f

P lexim eter

philosophy at the University o f Edinburgh in 1805 and a

[Greek: plexis, stroke + meter, measure] Flat

instrument applied to the surface o f the body to mediate

supporter o f the Huttonian theory o f geology. His

percussion. Invented by a French physician Adolphe

Illustrations o f Huttonian Theory, published in 1802, was a

Pierre Piorry (1794-1879) who wrote Traite sur la percussion

landmark in geology.

mediate describing its use in 1828. His atlas o f plexim etry was published in 1851.

Playfair, Lyon, 1st Baron Playfair (1819-1898) Chemist and

590

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PNEUMONECTOMY

Pliny, Gaius Plinius,The Elder (AD 23—79) R om an naturalist

P neum atic M edicine [Greek: pneuma, air] Science which

and prolific writer who wrote an encyclopedia on natural

treats disease with gases. Established by Thomas Beddoes

history, Historia Naturalis, comprising 160 books, o f which

(1760-1808) in 1798. Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829) was a

only 37 have survived. His work covered Greek and R om an

pioneer in the field and joined Beddoess Medical

authors and scientists and provides a valuable insight into

Pneumatic Institution in 1799 and experimented on him­

culture and science in R om an and earlier Greek times. He

self and nearly lost his life. He later demonstrated the

was a prefect at the time o f the eruption ofVesuvius which

effect o f inhalation o f gases which formed the basis o f

destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum, and he lost his life by

inhalational anesthesia.

trying to get close to the mountain to observe and assist

P n eu m o co cca l Vaccine

the refugees. The first translation o f his work into Latin

[Greek: pneuma, air + kokkos,

berry; Latin: vacca, cow] The antiserum was prepared by

appeared in Venice in 1469, and an English translation was

Georg Klemperer (1865-1946) in 1891 and active immu­

published in 1601.

nization was introduced independently byJ.W.Washbourne

Pliny, the Younger N ephew o f Pliny the Elder. The first

o f England and Pane o f Naples in 1896. Polysaccharide anti­

account o f the volcanic eruption ofVesuvius was given by

gens were separated by Michael Heidelberger (b 1888) and Oswald Theodore Avery (1877—1955) in 1924, and a vaccine

him in A D 79.

was prepared by Alexandre Besredka (1870-1940) o f Paris in

P lu m b ism See lead poisoning.

1926. The serum was used extensively until J. M . Anders

P lu m m er-V in son Syndrom e (Syn: Kelly-Paterson syn­

reviewed the literature in 1904 and concluded that it was

drome) Henry Stanley Plummer (1874—1936), professor at

ineffective. M ore purified vaccine was introduced in the

the Mayo Clinic in America, described spasm o f the upper

m id-20th century for use in immune compromised

esophagus and differentiated it from carcinoma in 1912.

patients, such as those who have had spleenectomy.

American physician from Rochester, Minnesota, Porter

Pneumococcus [Greek:pneuma, 2iiv +

berry] The infec­

Paisley Vinson (1890-1959), in 1919 further described a syn­

tious nature o f lobar pneumonia was described by Theodor

drome consisting o f glossitis, anemia, and dysphagia, but

von Jiirgensen (1840—1907) in 1874, cocci were noted by

credited Plummer with the first description. Donald Ross

Karl Joseph Eberth (18 35-19 26 ) in 1880, and pairs by

Paterson (1863—1939) o f Cardiff and Adam Brown Kelly

C. Talmon in 1882. It was isolated independently by

(1863-1939) o f Scotland further described it in the same year.

German physician, Albert Frankel (1848—1916) o f Berlin in

Plutarch (AD 46-120) Greek historian and philosopher

1886 and American bacteriologist, George M iller Sternberg

from Chaeroneia in Boeotia who was educated at Athens.

(1838-1915). Swelling o f the bacterial capsule when treated

He mentioned hydrophobia and wrote on the medicinal

with antiserum, ‘quellung reaction", was observed by

advantages o f wine. He also composed a dialogue on

Fred Neufield (1861-19 45), a colleague o f R obert Koch

preservation o f health.

(1843—1910) at Berlin in 1902.

P n eu m ocon iosis [Greek: pneuma, air + konis, dust + osis,

P lutonium Radioactive element first obtained by Glenn

condition] M iners lung. Georgius Agricola (1494—1555) in

Theodore Seaborg (b 1912) o f the University o f California

his sixth book, De R e Metallica, described diseases related

at Berkeley in 1940. It was employed in the atomic bomb

to mining. Paracelsus (1493—1541) wrote a monograph on

project which devastated Nagasaki on 9th August 1945.

m ining and smelting diseases. Bernardino Ram azzini

P neum a [Greek: pneumatos, air] According to Erasistratus

(1633—1714), father o f occupational medicine, described

(280 B C ), it is taken in by the lungs and passes through the

miners lung in his book on occupational diseases in 1700.

heart where it is transformed into vital spirit before it is

Thomas Bevill Peacock (1812—1882), a physician at St

distributed to other parts o f the body, including the brain.

Thom as’ Hospital, estabhshed miner’s disease as a separate

This concept was developed by Galen (AD 129-200) and

entity and distinguished it from tuberculosis between i860

prevailed for over a thousand years.

to 1866. E. H. Greenhow o f Middlesex Hospital carried out a large study o f occupational diseases due to mining and

Pneum atic D rill Uses compressed air to release bursts o f

manufacture in 18 6 1.The term was coined by FA . Zenker

impact for drilling earth and concrete. Invented by French

(1825-1882) in 1866.5 ee silicosis.

engineer, Germain Sommeiller in 1861. D. Hunter, A .LG . McLaughlin and K .M . A. Perry found that workers who used

P n eu m o n ecto m y [Greek: pneumon, lung + ektome, exci­

it suffer from a vascular disease similar to Raynaud syndrome.

sion] First performed in tuberculosis by David Lowson

591

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PNEUMONIA

(1850—1907) ofEnglandin 1893 .Total pneumonectomy was

PodalicV ersion [Greek:pow5,foot] Manual method o f turn­

done by Evarts Ambrose Graham (1883—1957), professor o f

ing the unborn child which presents with an abnormal

surgery at Washington University, St Louis and by Howard

position, practiced by the ancient Hindus. It was revived by

Lilienthal (1861-1946) in 1933.

French surgeon, Ambroise Paré (1510—1590) during the Renaissance.

P neum on ia [Greek: pneumon, lung] Differentiation bet­ ween pulmonary collapse and post-operative pneumonia

Podalirius Son o f the Greek god o f medicine, Aesculapius.

was given by William Gairdner (1824-1907), Regius

Podiatry [Greek:pow5,foot + wirew, healing] See chiropody.

professor o f medicine at Glasgow University in 1854. See atypical pneumonia, lobar pneumonia.

PoggendoriF, Johann Christian (1796-1877] See aldehyde.

P n eu m on ic P lague ArnoldisVinarius mentioned cough as

Poikilocytosis [Greek: poikilos, spotted + kytos, hollow +

a symptom in Black Death in the 17th century. Form o f

osis, condition] Term coined in 1877 by Heinrich Irenaeus

plague accompanied by signs o f pneumonia and toxic

Quincke (1842-1922) to denote changes in the shape and

symptoms and described in detail by L. F. Childe in 1897.

size o f red blood cells in some cases o f anemia.

P neum oren See retroperitonealpneumatography.

Poirier, Paul Julius (1853—1907) French surgeon who described the lymphatic gland situated on the uterine

P neum othorax R en é Laënnec (178 1—1826) o f Paris clini­

artery where it crosses the urethra (Poirier gland).

cally recognized and classified it into three categories: simple, due to exhalation from the pleura with no commu­

P oiseuille Law States that the speed o f current or flow in a

nication with the lung; associated with effusion; and with a

capillary tube is proportional to the square o f the diameter

fistulous opening to the lung associated with effusion. It was

o f the tube. Proposed by French physiologist Jean Leonard

also described by SigismondJaccoud (1830—1913) ofParis in

Marie Poisseulle (1797-1869) o f Par is.

1864. Displacement o f the heart was observed as an

P oison in g Greek philosopher, Zenophon, in 400 B C states

important physical sign by M . Gaide in 1828. See artificial

that the practice was so common that it became customary

pneumothorax.

for cup bearers to taste wine before it was offered to the king. Poisons were employed for official executions and Socrates (470—400 B C ) was condemned to drink hemlock. King Mithridates o f Pontius, who lived around 100 B C , studied the effects on an experimental basis. He tried to immunize himself by taking small quantities o f poison and attempted to prepare a universal antidote. Official taste-bearers were appointed during the Middle Ages as poisoning food became very common. During the reign o f Henry V III punishment was death by boiling. Some common poisons used during modern times include arsenic, aconitine and strychnine and murders were even committed by doctors. See Pritchard, Edward; Palmer, William; Crippen, Harvey and Lamson, George.

P oison ous Fungi Ancient Greeks and Rom ans were aware o f these and the poet Euripedes lost his wife, daughter and two sons who mistakenly ate some in 480 B C . Nicander mentioned them in his Alexipharmaca written around 200 B C . Dioscorides (AD 40—90) divided fungi into edible and poisonous groups. Cultivation o f mushrooms began in France in 1707. Paulet studied the incidence o f mushroom Forlanini's apparatus for artificial pneumothorax. Courtesy of the Wellcome

poisoning in Paris and suburbs and noted that at least 100

Institute Library, London

Podagra [Greek:pode5, feet +

deaths occurred from 1749 to 1788. Guillaud recorded at seizing] See gout.

least 100 deaths per annum in the south o f France around

592

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

POLYARTERITIS NODOSA

P oliom yelitis [Greek: polios, gray + myelos, marrow + ids,

1888. The first systematic study was done by French

inflammation] See acute anterior poliomyelitis, polio virus.

mycologist BuUiard in 179 1, and James Sowerby compiled an illustrated work on edible fungi in 18 23.Twenty-two vari­

Politzer, Adam (1835—1920) Hungarian-born professor o f

eties o f poisonous fungi were described by C ook in Edible

otology atVienna who gave the first account o f otosclerosis

and Poisonous Fungi published in i894.The Board ofAgricul-

in 1895. Politzer cone o f light, a luminous triangle on the

ture in England published an excellent illustrated handbook,

tymphanic membrane, was described by him in 1889.

Edible and Poisonous Fungi in 1910. An historic account was

He also designed the Politzer bag to inflate the middle

given by William Webber Ford ofAmerica in 1909.

ear for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. He wrote Manual of Diseases of the Ear in 1878.

Poisson Fossa Infraduodenal peritoneal recess described by French anatomist, Francis Poisson (b 1871) o f Calais in 1895.

Pollen [Latin:po//m,fine flour] John EUiotson (1791-1868), a

P oitou C olic See Devonshire colic.

professor o f medicine at University College London des­

Polanyl, Michael (1891-1976) Hungarian-born British

precipitating cause in 1831. Skin reaction to grass pollen in

cribed hay fever and asthma and suggested pollen as a physical chemist, born in Budapest and obtained his med­

hay fever patients was demonstrated by Manchester

ical degree from his home university in 1917, and he moved

physician, Charles Harrison Blackley (1820-1900) in 1873.

to Manchester as professor o f physical chemistry in 1933.

He also showed that the hay fever can be produced by

He wrote Science, Faith and Society (1946), and other books

applying pollen to the eyes. An attempt to produce desensi­

on philosophy and sociology

tization by injecting an extract o f pollen was made by

Polar B od ies [Greek: po/o5, pivot] Expelled products o f the

Leonard N oon (1878—1913) in 19 11. A disorder o f acute

ripe ovum. Shown to be a result o f cell division by Otto

hemolytic anemia mostly in Mediterranean races following

Biitschli (1848-1920) in 1875.

ingestion o f Vida faba bean or inhalation o f its pollen was noted by L. Preti o f Germany in 1927. Baghdad spring ane­

Polarim eter

[Greek: polos, pivot + metron, measure] See

mia, an acute form o f hemolytic anemia due to inhalation

stereochemistry.

o f pollen by atopic individuals, was described by R . Lederer

P olarization o f Light

in 1 941.Botanical studies were done by Swedish paleontol­

[Greek: polos, pivot] Related to

reflection o f light from transparent surfaces and described

ogist, Otta Gunner Elias (1897-1973) who published

by

A n Introduction to Pollen Analysis in 1943.

French

mathematician

Etienne

Louis

Malus

(17 7 5 -18 12 ) in 1805.

Pollination

[Latin: pollen, fine flour] Experimental work

using animal pollinators was done by Joseph Gottlieb Kol-

P olio Vaccine The current widely used live attenuated oral vaccine was developed by Albert Bruce Sabin (1906—1993),

reuter (1733-1803) in 1763. A study o f fertilization in plants

an American microbiologist o f Polish origin, around 1959.

by insects and wind was done by German botanist, Christian

It is safe and effective and widely used. The Salk vaccine,

Conrad Sprengel (1750—1816) ofBrandenberg in 1793.

made from dead virus, was developed by Jonas Edward Salk

Pollonium Highly radioactive element discovered by French

(b 1914), a physician and virologist from N ew York

scientists, Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852—1908) and Marie

University College o f Medicine in 1952.

Curie (1867—1934) in 1893. She named the metal polonium.

P olio Virus Scientific evidence for communicability was

P ollu tion See air pollution, water pollution.

provided by Otto Ivar Wickman (1872—1914) during an

Polya O peration

epidemic in Sweden in 1905. It was isolated by Karl

(Syn. Polya gastrectomy) Operation in

which a portion o f the stomach is removed and a retrocolic

Landsteiner (1868—1943) in 1908, and a pure culture was

gastrojejunostomy is constructed in an end-to-side fashion

obtained by Olitsky Peter Kosciusko during his work with

to the entire cut end o f the stomach. A modification o f

Albert Bruce Sabin (1906—1993) in 1936. Culture o f the

Billroth II operation devised by Hungarian surgeon, Jeno

virus in human tissues was done by American biologist,

Alexander

John Franklin Enders (1897—1985) o f West Hartford,

Polya

(1876-1944)

involved

gastrectomy

combined with side-to-side anastomosis o f the gastric

Connecticut, Frederick Chapman Robbins (b 1916),

remnant and the duodenum.

professor o f pediatrics at Cleveland, and Thomas Huckle Weller (b 1915).Their work contributed to development o f

Polyarteritis N odosa [Greek: poly, many + ids, inflamma­

vaccine and they were awarded the N obel Prize in

tion; Latin: arteria, artery + nodus, knob] Described by Karl

Physiology or Medicine in 1954.

Freiherr von Rokitansky (1804-1878) in 1852, as periarteritis

593

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

POLYBUS

and

inflammation] Rudolph Virchow (18 21—1902) described it

R u d o lf M aier (1824-1888) o f Germany in 1886. The

nodosa

by

A d olf

Kussmaul

(1822—1902)

as specific to leprosy. Polyneuritis due to lead poisoning was

current term was advocated by C. Dickson in 1908. Its simi­

described by R obert Todd (1809—1860) in 1854. Its

larity to other immunological conditions, such as SLE and

occurrence in other cases with no identifiable or specific

dermatomyositosis, was observed and described by B. M .

cause was shown by Dumenil o f R o u en in 1864. See acute

Banks in 1941.

infective polyneuritis, alcoholic polyneuritis.

Polybus Disciple and son-in-law o f Hippocrates (460—377

Polyps A monograph on intestinal polyps was written by

B C ) who lived around 410 B C . According to Galen

Theodor Billroth (1829—1894), professor o f surgery atVien-

(AD 129-200), one o f the Hippocratic treatises concerning

na, who also suggested that they were related to malignancy and should be surgically removed. See Cronkhite—Canada

wholesome d/ei was written by Polybus.

P olycystic K idney

syndrome. Gardener syndrome, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome.

[Greek: polys, many + kytos, hollow]

Erythrocytosis in polycystic kidneys was described by C.W.

Pom egranate Tree indigenous to the Mediterranean, and

Gurney in i960. A marker was located on chromosome 16

used as medicine for a variety o f conditions. The rind was

in 1985.

used as remedy for intestinal worms .Vaginal pessaries were made from it as contraceptives by Aetius o f Amida (AD

P olycystic Ovary See Stein-Leventhal syndrome.

527—165) and other physicians. It was introduced to Italy by the Greeks in 300 B C .

P olycyth em ia Vera Reported by French physician Henri Louis Vaquez (1860-1936) ofParis in 1892. Sir William Osier

P om p e D isease R are disease due to excessive deposition

(1849—1919) made it more generally known with his papers

o f glycogen in all tissues. Described by Dutch pathologist,

in 1903. A case in a child o f six years was recorded by I.

Joannus C. Pompe (1901—1945) in 1932 and further studied

Halbertsma in 1933. Enlargement o f the spleen was

by M . R . Nihill and his colleagues in 1970.

observed by F. Parkes-Weber (1863-1962) in 1929.

P om p eii Ancient city in southern Italy buried by an earth­ Polygraph [Greek: po/y, many + graphein, to write] A record

quake in A D 63. It was rebuilt but was destroyed again

o f arrhythmia on paper was achieved by Sir James

during the eruption ofVesuvius accompanied by an earth­

MacKenzie (1853—1925) with his polygraph. He developed

quake in A D 79. Pliny the Elder perished in the eruption.

his own form which simultaneously recorded arterial and

The remains were discovered in the 17th century, and the

venous pulsations in 1897.

first part was cleared in 1750.

P olym erase Chain R eaction Technique which allows tiny

P om p h olyx [Greek: pomp/zo5, bubble] See pemphigus.

quantities o f D N A to be copied several million times.

P om p o n a zzi (1462-1525) Physician from Padua who wrote

Developed by American biochemist, Kary Banks Mullis

De immortalité animi which brought a controversy between

(b 1944) o f Lenoir, North Carolina in the early 1980s. His

catholic physicians and Averroists.

method has been applied to fields including testing for HIV, forensic medicine and analysis o f genetic material in fossils.

Pons [Latin: pons, bridge] Part o f the mid-brain described by Costanzo Varoli (1543—1575), an Italian anatomist from

P olym orp hon uclear C ount [Greek: po/y, many + morphe,

Bologna in 1573 and named pons varoli in his honor.

form] SeeArneth count, agranulocytosis.

P olym yalgia R heum atica

Pontecorvo, Guido (b 1907) Italian-British geneticist, born

[Greek: poly, many + myos,

in Pisa where he studied agriculture. He moved first to

muscle + algos, pain]Described as senile rheumatic gout by

Edinburgh and then to the University o f Glasgow and

W. Bruce in the British Medical Journal in 1888. Kersley

became professor o f genetics in 1956. He described the

described it in 1951, and it was named by H.S. Barker in 1957. An accurate description was given by J. Forestier and A. Certonciny in 1953.

P olym yxin

unit o f function in genetics.

Pope, Sir William Jackson (1870-1939) London chemist,

Generic name for antibiotics obtained from

educated at Central Technical College, South Kensington,

Bacillus polymyxa in 1947 by Phillip Gerald Stansly and

and appointed professor o f organic chemistry at Cambridge

co-workers, Benedict and Langlykke and Geoffrey Clough

in 1908. He was a pioneer in the study o f optical

Ainsworth and colleagues.

Polyneuritis

parasexual cycle in fungi and proposed that the gene is the

properties o f compounds, mustard gas and organometallic

[Greek: poly, many + neuron, nerve + itis.

compounds.

594

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

POSITRON MICROSCOPE

P opulation Survey The census became a regular feature

Portal, Antoine (1742-1832) Professor o f anatomy at the

during the Rom an Empire. In England,William I issued a

Jardin du R o i, Paris who gave original descriptions o f

Royal Commission in 1085 to make a survey o f the whole

several anatomical structures. Bleeding due to esophageal

o f the country except for four northern counties. His sur­

varices was observed by him in 1803. He published

vey recorded land ownership for the purposes o f taxation.

an important work on epilepsy and a history o f anatomy

The resulting Doomsday Book in 1086 suggests that there

and surgery.

were about two million people in England at that time.The

Portal H ypertension Jean Cruveilhier (1791-1874) pub­

first census in Ireland was taken by Sir William Petty (1623— 1687) from Hampshire who published a book on statistics,

lished his observations on the flow o f blood from the dilated portal space at the origin o f the left branch o f the portal vein

Essays on Political A rithmetic, in 1687. Th e population o f

within the liver to the anterior abdominal waU in cases o f

England and Wales in 1700 was under 6 million and the

cirrhosis due to portal hypertension in 1835.Bleeding from

entire population o f Great Britain in 1801 was just under ii

esophageal varices was observed by Antoine Portal (1742—

million.The entire world population in 1863 was estimated

1832) in 1803, and

to be a quarter o f a billion.

esophageal veins in portal hypertension was given by Karl

P opulation

account o f hemorrhage from dilated

Freiherr von Rokitansky (1804—1878) ofVienna in 1840.

One o f the earliest treatises was written by

English clergyman Thomas R obert Malthus (1766—1834).

Occlusion o f hepatic veins leading to cirrhosis and portal

In his An Essay on the Principle of Population or A View of its

hypertension was observed by Rokitansky in 1842, and the condition was further described by George Budd (1808—

Past and Present Effects published in 1803 he argued that the

1882) o f England in 1845. It was also described by Hans

limits to expansion o f population were space and food.

Chiari (18 51-1916 ) o f Austria in 1898. Portal venography

See population survey.

for

Porphyria See acute intermittent porphyria.

diagnosis

was

introduced

by

S. Abeatici

and

L.C am pi in 1951.

Porphyrin [Greek: porphyria, purple] A systematic study o f

Porter, R odney R obert (1917—1985) English biochemist

iron-containing hemoglobins or metaUoporphyrins was

who studied with Frederick Sanger (b 1918) in Cambridge

done by German physiological chemist Felix Immanuel

and developed a method o f determining the N-terminus o f

H oppe-Seyler (1825—1895) in 1862. T h e structure was

a protein. He discovered the protease, papain, which cleaves

largely elucidated by Küster and Hans Fischer between

the Y-shaped immunoglobulin and this opened the way

1910—1940. Formation o f hemoglobin from porphyrin and

for detailed structural studies. He was joint winner o f

precursors in red cells o f bone marrow was shown by B. R .

the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1972.

Burmester o f Leipzig in 1936. The role o f iron was studied

See immunoglobulins.

by

Martin

David

Kamen

(b

1913), Canadian-born

Porter Fascia

American biochemist, in 1948.

[Latin: fascia, band] Pretracheal fascia was

described by William Henry Porter (179 0-186 1), professor o f surgery at Trinity College, Dublin in 1826. He succeeded

Porphyry See vegetarian diet.

Abraham Colles (1773-1843) to the chair o f anatomy in

Porta, Giovanni Batista della (1535—1615) Italian natural

1836.

philosopher, born in Naples. He wrote on natural magic,

Porter Sign Tracheal tug as a physical sign o f thoracic

occult sciences, crystallography and physiognomy. He demonstrated the camera obscura and was a member o f the

aneurysm (Porter sign) was described by William H enry

Academia dei Lincei in R o m e 1610. He is also considered

Porter (1790—1861), professor o f surgery at Trinity College,

the father o f physiognomy, because o f his De Humana

Dublin in 1826.

Physiognomia o f 1586. He wrote

a botanical work,

Posadas-W ernicke D isease

Phytognomonica in 1583.

Coccidiomycosis, described

by Argentine pathologist, Alejandro Posadas (1870—1920) o f Buenos

Portacaval A nastom osis Between inferior venacava and

Aires

in

1892.

R obert

Johann

Wernicke

(1854- 1922) also described it in the same year..

the portal vein were done experimentally in dogs by the Russian Nikolai Vladimirovich Eck (1847—1908) in 1877.

Positron M icroscope

The first image using positrons

Rosenstein performed the procedure successfully in human

instead o f electrons was published by James Van House and

portal hypertension in 1912. See portal hypertension.

Arthur R ich in 1987. See positron.

595

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

POSITRON

Positron Positively charged particle v^ith same mass as the

Posterior C olum ns

[Latin: posterior after] Charles Fred­

electron was discovered by N ew York physicist, Carl David

erick Burdach (1776—1847), professor o f medicine at

Anderson (b 1905) while working on cosmic rays in a

Dorpat described the posterior column o f the spinal cord in

cloud chamber in 1930. His work was advanced by

1819. A treatise was written by Edward Stanley (1793—1862)

Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (1902-1984) in 1931. See cosmic

in 1839. Friedrich GoU (1829—1903), a neuroanatomist

rays,positron microscope.

from Z u rich and contem porary o f R u d olp h Virchow (18 21-19 0 2), described the fasciculus gracilis in 1868.

P ost-C oital Test For motility o f sperm, was devised by a urologist at M ount Sinai Hospital N ew York, M ax Hühner

Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery Syndrom e Ipsilat-

(1873—1947), who was born in Berlin, Germany. He wrote

eral loss o f sensation to pain and temperature o f the face with

Sterility in the Male and Female and its Treatment (1913) and

the same signs on the contralateral side o f the trunk due to

A Practical Treatise on Disorders of the Sexual Function in the

vascular occlusion o f inferior cerebellar artery. Described by

Male (1916). He studied male sterility due to azoospermia

AdolfWallenberg (1862-1949) ofBerlin in 1895.

using testicular aspiration.

Potain, Pierre Carl Eduard (1825-1901) French cardiologist, Post-V accinal E ncephalom yelitis Leading to hemiplegia

born and educated in Paris where he was a contemporary o f

and recorded by Jacob von Heine (1800—1879) o f Germany

Jean Martin Charcot (1825—1893) during his internship. He

in i86o,Richardiere in 1870, and Sir William Osier (1849— 1919) in 1880. A pathological study was done by H. M .

1866, the mechanism o f the gallop rhythm in 1875 and the

Turnbull in 1912. In the next 20 years 197 cases o f

opening snap o f mitral stenosis (Potain sign). He was a

encephalitis following vaccination were recorded in

pioneer in aspirating pleural effusions and introduced the

England.

Potain aspirator for this purpose in 1869.

P ost-C ardiotom y Syndrom e [Latin:po5i, after; Greek: kar-

Potassium Channel

dia, heart + tome, cut] Also known as Dressier syndrome. A syndrome o f pericarditis, pleurisy and fever following

in heart tissue by William Henry Howell (1860—1945), professor o f physiology atjohns Hopkins University in 1905.

heart was first described by William Dressier (1890—1969) o f America in 1955.

Potassium Metallic element discovered by Humphry Davy (1778—1829) in 1807. Potassium chlorate was introduced as a

P ostm ortem [Latin:po5i, after + mors, death] A judicial post­ mortem was held by French surgeon, Ambroise Paré (1510— around

Nerve impulses o f the heart were

shown to be dependent on diffusible potassium compounds

pericardiotomy, myocardial infarction, or trauma to the

1590)

explained the mechanism and physiology o f heart sounds in

1565.

Giovanni

Battista

remedy for profuse salivation o f the mouth and ulcerative lesions o f the mouth by Bockh o f Griefenhagen in 1840

Morgagni

until Abraham Jacobi (1830—1919) pointed out its tendency

(1682—1771), the founder o f morbid anatomy, performed over 600 postmortems and wrote De sedibus et causis morbo-

to produce hemorrhagic nephritis in i860. American

rum per anatomen

physician E. J. Fountain experimented on himself by taking

indagatis published

in

176 1. The

postmortem changes in human organs were studied by

15 grammes o f potassium chlorate and died after seven days.

M aria Francis Xavier Bichat (177 1-18 0 2 ), a physician at

An autopsy showed extensive inflammation o f the stomach,

Hôtel Dieu in Paris in 1799. He was a founder o f micro­

intestines, bladder and kidneys. Potassium permanganate

scopic anatomy or histology. Autopsy examinations have

was introduced as a disinfectant by A .W Hoffmann in 1859.

shown: emphysema by Matthew Baillie (176 1—1823) in

Microchemical measurement o f small quantities in the

1793,

blood was devised by a Baltimore physician, Benjamin

calcific

aortic

stenosis

by

Théophile

Bonet

Kramer (b 1887) and F. F.Tisdall in 1920.

(1620—1689) in 1679, gastric carcinoma by Morgagni in 176 1, hydronephrosis in pregnancy by Jean Cruveilhier

Potential Energy [Latin: potens, powerful] Term suggested

(179 1—1874) in 1842, acute liver atrophy by Karl Freiherr

by Scottish scientist from Edinburgh, William John

von Rokitansky (1804-1878), and nephritis by Richard

Macquorn Rankine (1820—1872). He applied it to anything

Bright (1789—1858). An extensive treatise o f nearly 3000

which was not in fact energy (kinetic energy) but could be

postmortems was published by Bonet in 1679. William

converted into it.

Brinton (1823—1867) o f St Thomas’ Hospital described the

Potential

pathology o f peptic ulcer disease with over 7000 post­

See

oxidation potential.

mortem findings in 1857. See autopsy.

596

membrane

potential,

injury

potential,

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PREFRONTAL

LEUCOTOMY

city ofTroyes by King Henry II in 1533, where it was used to

Pott, Percivall (1714—1788) Surgeon at St Bartholomews

check the value o f coins.

Hospital in London. He described paralysis caused by caries (tuberculosis) o f the spine in 1779. He also described the

Poupart L igam ent [Latin: ligamentum, bandage] Ligamen-

fracture (Pott fracture) involving the lower end o f the tibia

tum inguinale was described by Gabriele Falloppio

and fibula which he himself sustained through a fall in 1769.

(1523—1562) and redescribed in 1705 by François Poupart

He was an authority on head injuries and described

(i6 i6 -i70 8 ),a naturalist and surgeon at Hôtel Dieu.

occupational cancer. He gave classical descriptions o f

Power, Sir D ’Arcy (1855—1941) Surgeon at St Bartholo­

hydrocoel, hernia and several other surgical conditions.

m ew s Hospital and a medical historian. His works on the history o f medicine from 1877 to 1930 were compiled by his friends and presented to him in 1930.

Poynting,John H enry (1852—1914) English physicist,born in Monton, Lancashire and professor o f physics at Birm ing­ ham in 1880. He proposed the ‘Poynting factor’ in electromagnetic energy following his deduction o f James Clerk M axwell’s (1831-1879) hypothesis in 1884. He wrote q/'P/zyi/rs with Joseph John Thomson (1856—1940) in 1899.

Pratensis, Jason (1486—1558) Born in Zealand, he was a physician who described vertigo as a symptom o f brain disease in 1549. He published De tuendafanitate in 1538.

Prausnitz-K iistner R eaction The presence o f antibodies Percivall Pott (1714-1788). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

in the blood o f atopic or allergic individuals was shown by Otto Carl W illy Prausnitz (1876—1973), a British immunol­

P ott D isease Tuberculosis o f the spine has been known

ogist o f German origin, and German gynecologist, Heinz

for over 3000 years. The mummy o f an Egyptian priest o f

Küstner (1897—1963) in 19 21. Prausnitz transferred fish

Amon dating from 1000 B C shows evidence o f it. Percivall

hypersensitivity experienced by his partner Küstner to

Pott (1714—1788) described the deformity and sequelae due

his own skin by sensitizing himself.This hypersensitive skin

to spinal caries (Pott disease) in 1779, but was probably not

reaction

aware o f its tuberculous nature. Hippocrates (460—377 B C)

hypersensitivity.

described it as did Jacques Mathieu Delpech (1777—1832)

was

used

clinically

to

diagnose

atopic

Precipitin R eaction Method o f qualitative estimation o f

o f France in 1828.

antigens and antibodies introduced by R u d o lf Kraus

Pott Fracture Fracture o f the lower segment o f fibula and

(1868—1932) in 1897. It was adapted to quantitatively measure

malleolus o f tibia with rupture o f the internal lateral

antigen and antibody reactions by Michael Heidelberger

ligament o f the ankle was described by Percivall Pott

(b 1888) and Forrest Kendall (1898-1975) in 1929.

(1714—1788) in 1769.

P reform ation T heory [Latin: prae, before + forma, shape]

P ottenger Sign Spasm and rigidity o f intercostal muscles

Galen (AD 129-200) and Aristotle (384—322 B C ) thought

due to inflammation o f the pleura or lung. Described by an

that fertilization o f the ovum took place through a mystic

American from St Louis, Francis M arion Pottenger

power or process called‘aura seminalis’ .This view was held

(1869-1961) in 1912.

up to the 16th century and was revived on a scientific and philosophical basis by Charles Bonnet (1720—1793) o f

P ouch o f D ou glas [Old French: powr/ic, bag] Rectouterine

Geneva in 1762. It was first disproved by Caspar Friedrich

peritoneal pouch described by a Scottish physician, James

W olff (1738—1794) o f Berlin in Theorica Generationis, a book

Douglas (1675—1742) who practiced midwifery in London

which opened the field o f embryology in 1759.

in 1730.

Prefrontal L eu cotom y

P oultice See cataplasm.

[Latin: prae, before + frons, fore­

head; Greek: leukos, white + tome, to cut] Trepanning was

Unit o f mass in Britain since Saxon times. A

performed during prehistoric times to extract evil forces.

standard avoirdupois pound was named after the French

It also probably served as a primitive form o f leucotomy.

Pound

597

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PREGI

Experimental work on primates by Sir Victor Alexander

the year by Nobecourt. Hemorrhage and sepsis leading to

Horsley (1857-1916) and John Farquhar Fulton (1899-

shock were recognized as a cause around the 1930s.

1960) provided the background for introduction o f frontal

Presenile D em en tia [Latin:prae, before + senescere, to grow

leucotomy which was first performed by Antonio Egaz

old + de + mens, mind] Deterioration o f mental processes

Moniz (1874-1955) in 1935.The procedure was introduced

from adolescence in certain individuals was observed by

into America by Walter Freeman (1895-1972) and James

French psychiatrist, Augustin Bentoit M orel (1809-1873)

Winston Watts (b 1904) in 1936. A modern technique o f

who named it ‘demence precoce’ in 1850. See dementia.

using an open skull flap was used on a series o f patients at the combined neurosurgical unit o f K ing’s College, G u y’s

Pressure Sores See bed sores.

Hospital and Maudsley Hospital in 1968.A minimally inva­

P riapism Paul o f Aegina (625-690) defined it as ‘a perma­

sive method known as bilateral stereotactic tractotomy was

nent enlargement o f the penis, which is swelled both in

devised by G. C. Knight and F. Post in 1969. See lobotomy.

length and circularly, and there is no venereal appetite

Pregl, Fritz (1869—1930) Austrian physician and chemist,

attending it’ . Caelius Aurefinus (r A D 400) distinguished

born in Laibach and studied medicine at Graz University.

between satyriasis and priapism, the former is acute and the

He pioneered microassay and devised a balance capable o f

latter chronic. Galen (AD 129-200) and Paul o f Aegina

accurately weighing 0.001 milligrams. He was awarded the

recommended antiaphrodisiacal medicines as treatment.

N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1923.

See priapus.

Pregnancy Signs The secondary areola o f the breast was

Priapus Greek god o f procreation symbolized by a phallus.

observed by William Fetherston M ontgomery (1797—1859)

P rickley H eat

o f London in 183 7. The color change in vulvovaginal muc­

Skin condition commonly found in the

tropics. Explained on the basis o f retention cysts caused

osa is named after Boston gynecologist, James R ead

by blocking o f the sweat glands, by Sigmund PoUitzer

Chadwick (1844—1905) who described it in 1887. Contrac­

(1859-1937) in 1893.

tions o f the uterus and their value in diagnosis were noted by John Braxton Hicks (1823—1897) in 18 71. Softening o f

Priestley, Joseph (1733-1804) Clergyman and chemist from

the uterus in the lower region o f the lower segment result­

Fieldhead, Leeds. He established the chemistry o f gases as a

ing in an increased mobility between the cervix and the

science in England. He disproved the phlogiston theory by

corpus was described by Alfred Hegar (1820-1914) and

obtaining pure oxygen,‘dephologisticated air’ , by heating a

published by his assistant, C. R ein l in 1884. Increased hair

metal oxide in 1774. He found the composition o f ammonia

growth in pregnancy (Halban sign) was described by a

in 1774 and muriatic acid in 1772. He invented the eudio­

Viennese obstetrician,Josef Halban (1870—1903).

meter to measure the purity or quantity o f oxygen in air in 1772. His dissident views led him to emigrate to America in

Pregnancy Tests In ancient Egyptian times a woman with a

1794 and he died in Northumberland, Pennsylvania.

suspected pregnancy was made to urinate over a mixture o f wheat, barley, dates and sand. Sprouting confirmed pregnan­

Priestly, John Gillies (1879-1941) B orn in Yorkshire, he

cy, wheat indicated a boy and barley a girl. Estrogens in urine

worked with John Scott Haldane (1860—1936) as a

were observed by two German gynecologists, Bernhard

respiratory

Zondek

Bartholomew’s Hospital and did most o f his work on

(1891—1966)

in

1927

and Selmar Aschheim

(1878—1965) who developed the Aschheim -Zondek test

physiologist.

He

qualified

from

St

respiration and ventilation at Oxford.

in 1930.

P rim aquin An 8-aminoquinolone compound introduced Pregnancy [Latin: praegnans, with child] See labor, obstetrics.

as treatment for malaria by Harold John Edgcomb (b 1924)

Prem enstrual Tension [Latin: prae, before + mensis, month

and co-workers in 1950. In 1952 R . S. Hockwald,J. Arnold,

+ sturere, to flow] Term coined by R . T. Frank in 1931 to

J. d aym an and A. S. Alving noted that 5 to 10% o f the

describe a group o f psychological and physical symptoms in

healthy African-American troops developed hemolytic

women from the second week o f the menstrual cycle until

anemia after treatment. Subsequent studies by P. E. Carson, C. L. Flanagan, C. E. Ickes and Alving in 1956 revealed that

onset o f menstruation.

the hemolysis was due to a genetically linked deficiency

Prerenal U rem ia Azotemia produced by an extrarenal cause

in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in red blood cells.

such as cholera. Observed by George Froin (1874-1932)

Prim ary Biliary Cirrhosis The presence o f mitochondrial

and Pierre M arie (1853-1940) o f Paris in 1912 and later in

598

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PROCAINE

antibodies in 98% o f patients with primary biliary cirrhosis

was invented by Friedrich König (1774—1833), a German

was demonstrated by D. Doniach in 1966.

printer from Eisleben in 1810. Stereotyped plates in

P rim ates

printing

[Latin: primus, first] Term coined in 1735 by

were

put

forward

by

Alexander

Tilloch

(1759-1829) o f Glasgow.

Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) to represent the three families o f

Unstable angina characterized by

P rinzm etal A ngina

the animal kingdom including: man or Homo, ape or Simia

transient ischemic changes in the E C G due to spasm o f the

and sloth or Bradypus. A comprehensive history was given

coronary arteries. Described by American cardiologist,

by Sir William Edward Clark {189 5-19 71) in 1949.

Myron Prinzmetal (b 1908) from Buffalo and who graduated

P rin ceton U niversity Fourth oldest university in the U nit­

from the University o f California, San Francisco in 1933.

ed States, founded at Elizabeth, N ew Jersey in 1746. It later

P rion A n infectious agent consisting o f protein and devoid

moved to Newark and then Princeton in 1756. It was renamed Princeton University in 1896 and its Graduate

o f functional nucleic acid, which resists inactivation by

School was established in 1901. It became coeducational

procedures that modify nucleic acids. It causes spongiform

in 1969.

degeneration o f the brain in various mammalian species. Its transmissibility to

P ringle D isease See PringleJames John.

mice, rats and

hamsters was

demonstrated by S.B. Prusiner o f San Francisco around 1992. See prion disease.

Pringle, James John (1855-1922) English dermatologist who described sebaceous adenoma in 1890 (type Pringle) and

P rion

granularis rubra nasi in 1894. He also edited the color atlas

D isease

(Syn:

spongiform

encephalopathy)

Disorders o f protein conformation that produce neurode­

o f dermatology, Dermachromes, which was produced by

generation in humans and animals. Scrapie has been known

Abraham Jacobi (1830-1919).

in sheep for over 200 years. Creutzfeld-Jakob disease was

Pringle, Sir John (1707—1782) Founder o f military medicine

described by Hans Gerhard Creutzfeld (1885-1964) in 1920

in Britain, was born in Scotland, and studied medicine in

and Alfons Maria Jakob (1884-1931) in 19 21. Kuru was

St Andrews and Edinburgh and graduated from Leiden.

first observed by an American virologist, Daniel Carleton

He proposed that military hospitals on both the English

Gajdusek (b 1923) andV. Zigas in 1957. Kuru, scrapie and

and French side should observe neutrality in care for the

Creutzfeld-Jakob disease were recognized to be infectious

wounded and that neutrality should extend to prisoners

in the 1960s. Spongiform bovine encephalopathy o f cattle

and those injured in the war.This formed the basis for rules

(BSE) was recognized in England in 1986 and is the result o f

o f the Geneva Convention. H e used the word ‘antiseptic’

feeding cattle with meat and bonemeal from sheep infected

in his essay Experiments upon Septic and Antiseptic Substances

with scrapie. Such feeding o f ruminant-derived proteins to

published in 1750.

ruminants was banned in England in 1988. After a peak in the B SE epidemic in 1993 the incidence has fallen, consis­

P ringle B and Peritoneal band extending from the meso­

tent with an incubation period o f 5 years. Other diseases in

colon to the duodenojejunal flexure. Described by Seton

the

Sydney Pringle (1879—1955), a surgeon in DubHn in 1913.

syndrome and fatal familial insomnia were described

group,

such

as

Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker

between 1990—1995.

Printer A sthm a Caused by sensitivity to gum Arabic used in the printing industry. Described by C. B. Bohner o f

Pritchard, EdwardWiUiam (1825—1864) Surgeon from Filey,

America in 1941.

Yorkshire, who became a member o f the Royal College o f

P rinting A method using a seal and a rotating cylinder was

Surgeons in 1846. He systematically poisoned his wife with

known to the ancient Rom ans and Greeks. Movable type

antimony in 1864, but was detected and charged with her

was known to the Chinese long before its introduction to

murder. He was found guilty and hanged.

Europe in the 15th century.The Chinese introduced multi­

Pritchard, Urban (1845—1925) London otorhinologist who

colored printed paper money in 1107. The method o f

was the first chair o f aural surgery in England at K ing’s

printing prior to this time in Europe was mainly on wood­

College in i886.The intercellular membrane in the ampulla

en blocks. The propagator o f the movable type printing in

o f the semicircular canals was described by him in 1876.

Europe,Johann Gutenberg (1397-1468) from Mainz, print­

Private A natom y and M edical S chools

ed the famous Latin Bible in 1456. The first printer in

See anatomy,

private schools.

England was WiUiam Caxton (1422—1491) from Kent who published a History of Troy. The steam printing press

P rocaine

599

Synthesized as novocaine by Alfred Einhorn

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PROCHASKA

(1856-1917) o f Germany in iSpp.The Americans took over

physician Rhazes (850-932), it is a bad symptom when a

the patent from the Germans during World War 1.

patient loses his modesty and exposes the parts o f his body that should be covered. Other ancient physicians including

Prochaska, Georgius (1749—1820) Moravian professor o f

Galen (AD 129—20o),Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C - A D

anatomy at Prague. He demonstrated the integrated

50), Oribasius (AD

functions o f the brain in producing movements o f the body in 1779. He also v^rote on the heart and blood

502-575),

favorable and unfavorable signs o f disease.

circulation in 1778.

Progressive Bulbar Paralysis (Syn: chronic bulbar para­

Proctalgia Fugax [Greek: proktos, anus; Lztin: fugax, s’wift]

lysis, labio-glosso-pharyngeal paralysis) Described by Louis

Paroxysmal intense pain in the region o f the anus and the

Dumenil in 1859 and by Guillaume Benjamin Duchenne

internal sphincter o f unknown etiology Described in 1917

(18 06 -18 75) in i860. T he current name was given by

by Alexander MacLennan, a lecturer in surgery at Glasgow

Wachsmuth in 1864.

University It was named after Danish physician,Thornwald

Progressive

Einar Hess Thaysen (1883-1936) who referred to it as

M uscular A trophy

Wasting palsy. See

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

‘proctalgia fugax’ in 1935.

Progressive M ultifocal L eukoencephalopathy

[Greek: proktos, anus + lo^os, discourse] An

P roctology

325-400), Aetius (AD

Averrhoes (1126 -119 8 ) and Avicenna (980-1037) wrote on

(PML)

Egyptian doctor had his tomb inscribed as ‘Keeper o f the

Form o f demyelinating viral disease in man described by

K ing’s rectum’ in 2500 B C . During the Middle Ages, British

Astrom, Mancall and Richardson in 1958. The causative

surgeon John ofArdane (1307-1390) practiced as a specialist

organism is a human polymavirus found by Z u R h ein and

in rectal disorders in London and wrote an early illustrated

Chou in 1965, and nam edJC virus by Padgett who isolated

treatise. Sir Charles Bent Ball (18 51-1916 ), a surgeon

it in 1971.

and proctologist in Dublin, described the rectal valves

Proguanil See antimalarials.

(Ball valves), which were previously described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (16 8 2 -1771), in The Rectum and Anus,

Prolactin [Greek: pro, before; Latin: lac, milk] A hormone

their diseases and treatment published in 1887. Elston Charles

from the anterior pituitary which induces enlargement

Blanchard

(b

1868)

wrote

The Romance of Proctology

including

and increased functioning o f mammary glands. Isolated by

Epitome of Ambulant Proctol-

Am erican endocrinologists, Oscar R id d le (1877—1968),

several books

R .W Bates and S.W Dykshorn, who named it.

ogy (1924), Textbook of Ambulant Proctology (1928) and Ambulant Proctology Clinics (1925).

Prolan See A P T Hormone.

Profeta, Giuseppe (1840—19 11) Sicilian physician in Genoa

Proline Amino acid isolated from cesin by Emil Fischer

who proposed the law (Profeta law) that an apparent

(1852-1919) in 1901.

healthy infant will not be infected by its syphilitic mother.

P roprioceptor

[Greek: pro, before + prios, early; Latin:

[Greek: pro, before; Latin: gestare, to bear]

ceptare, to receive] Highly specialized somatic sensory end

Obtained from corpus luteum tissue o f sow’s ovaries by

organs o f muscles, tendons and joints. Described by

A d o lf Friedrich Butenandt (b 1903) in 1934. See estrogens.

Sir Charles Sherrington (1857—1952) in 1906.

P rogesterone

[Greek: prognosis, foreknowledge] Hippocrates

Prostaglandin The contractile effect o f fresh semen on

(460—377 B C ) was a master o f prognostics, whose entire sys­

uterine muscle in vitro was demonstrated by two N ew York

tem o f medicine was based on the observation o f favorable

gynecologists, Raphael Kurzrok (b 1895) and Charles Lieb

P rognosis

and unfavorable symptoms and signs in disease. In his

in 1930. The molecules were detected in human seminal

Prognostics he stated ‘It appears to me a most excellent thing

plasma in the same year. Specific activity in contracting

for the physician to cultivate prognosis, for by foreseeing

the uterus was shown in 1934 by U lf Svante von Euler

and foretelling, in the presence o f the sick, the present, past,

(1905—1983) who named them ‘prostaglandins’ in the belief

and the future, and explaining the orrdssions which the

that they came from the prostate whereas they come from

patients have been guilty of, he will be more readily

the seminal vesicle.They were isolated in i960, and inhibi­

believed to be acquainted with the circumstances o f

tion o f prostaglandin formation by aspirin-like drugs

the sick’ . Several signs, such as fixed eyes, profuse sweat­

was demonstrated by Sir John R obert Vane (b 1927) and

ing, opened mouth, involuntary discharge from the bowels,

co-workers in 1970. The purified form was obtained by

are described as unfavorable. According to the Arabian

Swedish biochemists, Sune Karl Bergstrom (b 1916) and

600

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PROTEINS

H .A. Harris in 1956. See acid phosphatase,prostatectomy.

Bengt Ingemar Samuelsson (b 1934) o f Stockholm in the late 1960s, who were awarded the N obel Prize in 1982,

ProstheticValves [Greek:prosthetos,2idded] See artificial valves.

together w ith Vane. Throm boxane was discovered by

P rostigm ine [Greek: pro, before + stigma, mark] Neostig­

M . Hamberg and co-workers in 1975.

mine, introduced as treatment for myasthenia gravis by

Prostate [Greek: pro, before + histanai, to stand] The term

Lazar R em en (b 1907) o f Germany in 1934.

‘prostatei chirsoides’ was used by Aristotle (384—322 B C ) to denote the seminal vesicles. Herophilus in 300 B C referred

Prostitution [Lâtin:prostratus, thrown down] Practiced since

to it as ‘prostati adenoeides’ . Galen (AD 129—200) used the

the advent o f civilization. Germany was one o f the first to

term in A D 180 to describe the prostate, seminal vesicles

enforce periodical medical examinations in 1700. A system

and associated structures.

was introduced to register them in Paris in 1802, in England, the Contagious Diseases Prevention Act o f 1864

P rostatectom y [Greek: pro, before + histanai, to stand + ek,

enforced medical examination and in America a system

out + tomnein, to cut] The Bottini operation where a chan­

to examine them every ten days was started in Nashville

nel was made through the prostate with galvanocautery for

in 1863.

the treatment o f enlarged prostate was designed by Italian surgeon,Enrico Bottini (1837—1903),in 1874. Castration for

Protam ine Insulin Following the discovery o f insulin it was

hypertrophy o f the prostate was introduced by Philadelphia

realized that diabetic patients need frequent insuHn injections

surgeon,}. William White (1850—1916). Sir William Blizard

to maintain normal blood glucose, and attempts were made

(1743—1835) o f London treated prostatism transurethrally

to prepare a long-acting insulin. An insulin combined with

via perineal urethrotomy in 1806. George James Guthrie

protamine protein from salmon roe was prepared by Hans

(1785—1856) described a transurethral instrument for incis-

Christian Hagedorn (1888—1971) at the Steno Memorial

; ing inflammatory contracture o f the bladder neck in .1834.

Hospital in Copenhagen in 1935 .A single daily injection was

The technique o f removing the prostate thorough the per­

achieved by D A . Scott o f Toronto and Albert Fisher who

ineum preceded the suprapubic route and was performed

added zinc to form a relatively insoluble protamine zinc

by George Goodfellow (1856-1910) andWishard (1902) in

insulin in 1936. A neutral protamine insuHn,isophane insulin,

America, and by Nicholl (1894) in England. Suprapubic prostatectomy

was

performed

independently

containing less protamine, and unmodified zinc insulin was

by:

introduced by Hagedorn in 1945.

William Thomas Belfield (1856-1929) and Eugene Fuller

Protam ine [Greek:

(1894) in America, and M acGill and Sir Peter Johnston Freyer

(18 51-19 2 1)

in England. American

Friedrich Miescher (1844-1895) in 1871.

Hugh Hampton Young (1870—1945) modified the method and used an extraurethral approach for ennucleation in

P rotein Allergy The fatal effects o f injecting albumin into

1 911. C. H. Chetwood used galvanocautery though the

rabbits sensitized to the protein by previous injections was

perineum, and Young devised an endoscopic tube for

demonstrated by François Magendie (1783—1855) in 1839.

perurethral excision in 1909.

Prostatic C arcinom a

first + ammniakon, resinous gum]

Class o f proteins discovered in sperm cells o f fish by

urologist,

This was the first recorded experiment in anaphylaxis.The second was performed by Simon Flexner (1863-1946) in

N ew York surgeons, Benjamin

Stockwell Barringer (b 1878) and H.O.Woodward, in 1938

1894 who showed the fatal effect o f a second dose o f serum

showed that the metastatic lesions o f prostate cancer caused

in animals which had previously received a dose o f the same

elevation o f serum levels o f acid phosphatase. In 1941

serum.

Charles Brenton Huggins (b 1901), a Canadian-born

P rotein Losing Enteropathy Hypoprotenemia due to loss

American urologist from Nova Scotia, noted that serum

o f proteins through the gastrointestinal mucosa following

levels o f acid phosphatase could be further elevated by

a variety o f diseases was reported by R obert S. Gordon in

administering androgens and could be diminished by

The Lancet in 1959.

giving estrogenic substances. Estrogens were shown to be effective in treatment by Huggins and C.V. Hodges in 1941.

P rotein M alnutrition See kwashikor.

Acid phosphatase became a diagnostic marker and indicator

P rotein Shock Therapy See auto-hemotherapy.

o f therapeutic response. The effect o f stilboestrol and

Proteins [Greek:protos, first] Term coined by Dutch chemist,

orchidectomy was demonstrated on an experimental basis by Huggins in 1941 .An initial attempt to localize metastatic

G erritjan Mulder (1801-1880) o f Utrecht around 1830. He

lesions using radioisotopes was made by J. P. Hummel and

studied nitrogen-containing materials such as silk, blood.

6 01

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PROTEUS

egg white and gelatin, and named the complex substance

was estabhshed by Leonard Colebrook (1883-1967) and

protein. A method o f isolating proteins from plant and

Meave Kenny in 1936. See sulfonamides.

animal tissues was developed by Heinrich Ritthausen

Protoplasm [Greek: proto, first + plasma, plasm] Discovered

(1826—1912) and Thomas Burr Osborne (1859-1929).

by French zoologist Felix Dujardin (1801—1860) fromTours

Albrecht Kossel (1853-1927), professor o f physiology at

in 1835 who named it ‘sarcode’ . In 1839 a Czech

Hamburg, postulated in 1898 that they were made o f

physiologist, Johannes Purkinje (1787-1869), observed the

polypeptides which consisted o f amino acids. Otto Knut

living substance in cells o f embryos and renamed it

O lo f Folin (1867-1934), a Swedish born biochemist and

‘protoplasm’ . The German botanist, Hugo von M ohl

professor at Harvard University, demonstrated the impor­

(1805—1872) from Stuttgart, a professor at Bern, showed that

tance o f amino acids to human digestion and metabolism in 1906.

The first amino acid was discovered by Sir

Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861-1947) in 1901. X -ray

the sarcode or protoplasm o f living cells was the same in plants and animals in 1846.

P rotozoa [Greek:proio, first + zoon, animal] The first proto­

diffraction photography o f a protein, pepsin, was taken by 1934. Paper

zoan parasite, Qiardia lamblia, was identified by Antoni van

chromatography for separating amino acids was developed

Leeuwenhoek (1632—1723) in his own stools in 1681.

in 1942 by London biochem ist. Archer John Porter Martin

David Gruby (1810-1893) o f Hungary proposed the genus

(b 1910) and Richard Laurence Millington Synge (b 1914), a

Trypanosoma after his discovery o f it in the blood o f frogs in

biochemist from Chester, who shared the N obel Prize for

1844. Plasmodium which causes malaria was discovered in

John

Desmond Bernal

(19 0 1-19 71)

in

Chemistry in 1952.The number o f amino acid residues in a

1880 by Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845—1922), a

protein molecule was devised in the late 1960s by an

French parasitologist and professor o f pathological anatomy

American biochemist and N obel Prize winner, William

at the University o f Rom e. Clifford Dobell (1886-1949), an

Howard Stein (19 11—1980) at the Rockefeller Institute. See

eminent protozoologist, published the classic works. Amoeba

albumin, amino acids,globulin,plasma proteins.

living in Man (1919),and Intestinal Protozoa of Man (1921).

Proteus

Proust Law The Law o f Constant Proportions was proposed

He was king o f the island o f Pharos in Greek

by French chemist, Joseph Louis Proust (1754—1826) o f

mythology who could change his appearance as will.

Angers. He also isolated and identified grape sugar.

Proteus vulgaris Gram-negative bacilli which causes urinary

Prout, William (1785-1850) Chemical physiologist, born in

tract infections. Isolated by Gustav Hauser (1856—1935) o f

Horton, Gloucestershire and graduated in medicine from

Germany in 1885.

P rothrom bin T im e

Edinburgh in 1 8 1 1 . He settled in London and established his

[Greek: pro, before + thrombus, clot]

own laboratory in 1812. He demonstrated the presence o f

The earliest case o f bleeding in jaundice was reported by

free hydrochloric acid in the stomach in 1823. He analyzed

Wedelius in 1683. Armand James Quick (1894-1978) and

the contents o f urine, and isolated urea in 1818. He

colleagues in 1933 suggested that the bleeding was due

proposed the law which states that relative atomic weights

to deficiency o f a factor and was identified as prothombin.

o f all elements are multiples o f relative atomic weight o f

The two-stage method for determining it was designed by

hydrogen.

American pathologist, Em ory Dean Warner (b 1905), K .M .

Prow azek, Stanislaus Joseph Mathias von (1876—1915) Ger­

Brinkhous and H.P. Smith in 1934. A one-stage method for detecting bleeding diathesis was developed by Quick in

man microbiologist who, in 1907, found cell inclusion

1935. See vitamin K.

bodies in conjunctival cells in trachoma and postulated that

Protonsil Sulfonamide synthesized by Paul Gelmo (1879— 1961) in 1908.The bacteristatic properties were recognized

they were collections o f virus enveloped by material deposited from the infected cell. The causative organism o f typhus, Rickettsia prowazeki, found in lice taken from

by German biochemist Gerhard Domagk (1895—1964), who

patients with typhus fever by da R och a Lima in 1916, was

published his findings in 1935 and received the Nobel Prize

named in honor o f the two workers, Howard Taylor

for Chemistry in 1939. He is said to have used it on his daugh­

Ricketts (18 71—1910), and von Prowazek who contracted

ter to prevent her death from a streptococcal infection. It was

the disease and died during their research on it.

identified as an efiective antibacterial component by Swissborn Italian biochemist,Daniele Bovet (1907—1992) in 1936,

Pruritis [Latin: prurire, to itch] Hippocrates (460-377 B C)

and he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or

stated that it is common in old age. Galen (AD 129—200)

Medicine in 1957. Its value in treatment o f puerperal sepsis

ascribed it to external causes such as nettles, lack o f

602

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PSYCHOANALYSIS

Psora [Greek: psora, rub to relieve an itch] SeeAcarus scabiei.

cleanliness and sometimes indigestion. Paul o f Aegina (625-690)

recommended

venesection,

baths

and

Psychiatry

application o f substances such as barley-meal, lupin and a

[Greek: psyche, breath + iatreia, healing] The

word psyche was adapted to represent the mind or the soul.

detergent ointment called peponaton, as treatment.

Cicero (106-43 B C ), the R om an philosopher and orator,

P seudoxanthom a E lasticum (SyniDarier disease) Heredi­

suggested that body ailments could result from emotional

tary skin disease with lax or stretched skin associated with

factors and proposed several ideas which are still fundamen­

cardiovascular

tal to psychiatry and psychotherapy. He disputed the idea o f

and

gastrointestinal

abnormalities.

Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) that black bile caused melan­

Described by Jean Ferdinand Dar ier (1856-1938) in 1896.

cholia, and attributed the condition to psychological

Pseudofractures [Greek: pseudes, false] Simulated fractures

difficulties. Areteaus the Cappadocian (AD 88-138) was a

in osteomalacia were described by Louis Arthur Milkman

pioneer in establishing psychiatry as a branch o f medicine

(1895-1951) ofAm erica in 1930.

and wrote on melancholia and madness, differentiating

Pseudohypertrophic Muscular D ystrophy [Greek:pseudes,

senile dementia from mania. St Augustine wrote on intro­

false + hyper, above + trophein, to nourish] See Duchenne

spective psychiatry in Confessions in A D 386. In England a

muscular dystrophy.

book on psychiatry, A Treatise on Melancholy was published by Tim othy B righ t ( 15 5 1-16 15 ) in 1586. This inspired

Pseudohypoparathyroidism [G re e k : pseudes,{2Lhe + hypo,

R o b e rt Burtons (1577—1640) popular book, Anatomy of

below + para, beside + thyreon, shield] Characterized by

Melancholy published in 16 2 1.A license to practice psychia­

chemical changes o f hypoparathyroidism but not respond­

try in England was granted to John Freeman in 1600. A

ing to parathyroid extract. Observed by FuUer Albright

book on clinical psychiatry, Treatise on Madness, was pub­

(1900-1969) in 1942.

lished by William Battie (1703-1776) in 1758. Benjamin

Pseudomonas pyocyanea [ G r e e k : f a l s e + monos, alone]

R u sh

(1745—1813), the first psychiatrist in America,

(Syn: P. aeruginosa) A blue pigment was obtained from

published Diseases of the Mind and used occupational thera­

organic material, and named ‘pyocyanine’ by M . Fordos o f

py in treatment o f mental disease. M odern theories and

France in i860. The bacterial source o f the pigment was

practice o f psychiatry were developed in Vienna, Austria

discovered by French physician. Carle Gessard (b 1850),

and Germany at the end o f the 19th century. Eugen Bleuler

in i882.The bacillus was first called‘le microbe pyocynique’

(1857-1939), professor o f psychiatry at the Burgholzli Hos­

by Gessard. The term ‘aeroginosa’ was first used by

pital in Vienna where Carl Gustav Jung (1875-196 1) was a

J. Schroeter in 1875.

student, coined the term ‘schizophrenia’ in 19 11 to include dementia praecox, and the terms autism and ambivalence.

P seudotuberculom a S ilicoticu m Foreign body granulo­

Psychoanalysis

ma o f the skin simulating tuberculosis, due to accidental

was

introduced

by

Sigmund

Freud

(1856-1939) in 18 93.Henry Maudsley (18 35-19 18 ),an Eng­

implantation o f silica material. Described by Samuel

lish psychiatrist from Yorkshire advocated the idea that

George Shattuck (1852—1924) in 1916.

insanity is fundamentally a disease o f the body. His The

Psittacosis or parrot fever [Greek: psittakos, parrot + osis]

Pathology and Physiology of the Mind published in 1867, is a

First described by Jacob R itter in 1879 in Switzerland. A

classic in English psychiatry.Two English neurologists, Sir

larger outbreak occurred in Paris in 1892 and the source

Jo h n Charles B u cknill (18 17 —1897) and Daniel HackTuke

o f infection was traced to a consignment o f 500 parrots

(1827—1895) advocated removal o f physical restraints from

from Buenos Aires. A n outbreak in England in 1929 was also

institutionalized mental patients. Jean Etienne Dominique

due to import o f diseased parrots from Brazil.The causative

Esquirol (1772-1840), a French physician from Toulouse,

organism was identified by Sir Samuel Philip Bedson o f

was one o f the first lecturers in psychiatry at Salpêtrière in

London Hospital in 1930. See ornithosis.

Psoas Abscess

18 11. Philippe Pinel (1745-1826), a neuropsychiatrist in Paris, identified insanity as an illness and treated patients on

[Greek: psoa, loins] Grafton Elliot Smith

a scientific and humane basis around 1800.

(1871-1937) and Sir Mark Armand Ruffer (1859-1917) described it following tuberculosis o f the spine in an Egyptian

Psychoanalysis Josef Breuer (1842-1925), a contemporary

mummy fiom 1000 B C . Drained through an incision in the

o f Sigmund Freud (1856—1939), used hypnosis and called

loin by Sir Frederick Treves (1853-1923), a London surgeon

this method the ‘talking cure’ .They published their findings

in 1883. Lord Joseph Lister (1827—1912) treated it with an

on this new method o f treatment in On the Psychic Mecha­

antiseptic incision followed by insertion o f a drainage tube.

nisms of Hysterical Phenomena in 1893. The practice was

603

PSYCHOANALYTIC

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SOCIETY

the University o f Pennsylvania, and James M cKeen Cottall

introduced into England and America by Ernest Jones (1879—1958) o f Glamorgan who qualified as a physician

(1860—1944)

from London and was director o f the first psychoanalytic

Philosophische Studien was founded by Wilhelm Wundt in

appointed

in

1888. The

journal,

1881, and in America, The American Journal of Psychology

clinic in London.

was started by Granville Stanley Hall (1846-1924) in

P sychoanalytic S ociety Organized in Vienna in 1902 by

1887. William M cDougall (1871-1938) from Manchester

Carl Gustav Jung (1875—1961), Karl Abraham (1877-1925)

established a new tradition o f psychology at O xford, and

and led by Sigmund Freud (1856—1939). The N ew York

published

Society was formed under the chairmanship o f Abraham

1908. A d o lf Bastian

parative psychology and studied different races, proposing

founded in the same year, with James Putnam (1846—1918)

the theory that folk cultures can be traced to geographical

as first president.The British Society was founded by Ernest

influence. William James (1842-1910) from N ew York,

Jones (1879-1958) from Glamorgan.

professor o f psychology at Harvard University, proposed the

Psychoasthenia SeeJanet Pierre, chronicfatigue syndrome.

theory o f emotion in 1884 and wrote Principles of Psychology, published in 1890 and Textbook of Psychology, published in

P sychogeriatrics M ichel Eugene Chevereul (1786—1889)

1892. The school o f analytical psychology in Vienna was

studied the psychiatric effects o f old age. Tom W ilson

founded by Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) at the public

founded the first psychogeriatric unit at Cornwall in 1948

mental hospital in Zurich in

and showed that the elderly mentally infirm could be main­ practitioners,

geriatricians

1913. See experimental

psychology, sexual psychology.

tained in the community. He initiated the collaboration general

Social Psychology in

(1826—1905), an ethnologist from Bremen, founded com­

Brill (1874—1928) in 19 11 and the American Society was

between

was

and

Psychology, F em inine The Psychology of Women, A Psycho­

psychiatrists. Daycare was introduced at the Langthorne

analytic Interpretation w 2ls published by H elene Deutsch

Hospital in London by Lionel Cosin in 1948.

(1884—1992) from the Vienna School o f Medicine in 1944.

P sycholinguistics Developed by Russian psychologist. Lev

P sych osom atic D isease [Greek:psyche, soul + soma,hody]

Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896—1934) who studied social

Plato (428—347 B C ) said that body and soul were different

sciences at M oscow University and took up psychology in

entities, but Aristotle (384-322 B C ) taught that they were

1924. His Thought and Language published in 1934,became a

one. Cicero (106-43 B C) suggested that body ailments could

classic text.

result from emotional factors. Aretaeus (81-138) mentioned disorders o f the mind and emotion as causes o f paralysis.

P sych ology [Greek: psyche, soul + logos, discourse] Thomas

R o b e rt W hytte (17 14 -17 6 6 ) o f Edinburgh, stated that

Hobbes (1588—1679), a philosopher from Westport near

‘excess fear, grief,joy, and shame have been followed some­

Malmesbury, wrote Human Nature in 1650 and distin­ guished

between

cognition

and

motive. The

times by death’ .J. G. Langerman (1768-1832) suggested that

term

physical diseases were o f psychological origin and stressed

‘psychology’ was used in the modern sense by C. W olff in

the need for psychotherapy in 1797. Benjamin R ush (1745—

Rational Psychology published in 1734, and David Hartley

1813)

(1704—1757), a physician from Halifax, in Observations on Man, His Frame, His Duty and His Expectations published in

Christian

1749. Frederick Eduard Beneke (1824—1825), a founder o f

psychology

als

Naturwissenschaft

in

1832.

Heinroth

that

1786.

some

German

(1773—1843)

diseases

may

be

psychiatrist, Johan coined

the

term

proposed the concept o f psychosomatic disease. The influ­ ence o f emotions on the viscera was presented by Sir

(1778—1820) from Kirkmabreck, who published Lectures on

Clifford Allibut (1836—1925) in his Goulstonian lectures

Philosophy of Human Mind in 1820. William Benjamin

on the neuroses of the viscera in 1884. A graduate o f Yale

Carpenter (1813—1885) from Exeter, proposed the concept mind. Alexander Bain

in

professor o f anatomy and an obstetrician at Montpellier,

Systematic

in Britain was founded by Thomas Brown

o f subconscious

suggested

‘psychosomatic’ in 1818. Carl Gustav Carus (1789-1868),

systematic psychology in Europe, published Lehrbuch der Psychologic

also

psychosomatic

Medical School, H. Flanders Dunbar (1902-1959), pio­

(1808—1903),

neered psychosomatic medicine in America, and described

professor o f logic at Aberdeen, published Senses and the

the

Intellect (1855) and Emotions and the Will in 1859. Principles of

accident-prone

personality.

She

founded

and

edited the journal. Psychosomatic Medicine in 1938.

Psychology (1855) was published by Herbert Spencer (1820—1903) and it classified psychology as a biological

Psychosurgery Treatment for mental diseases proposed

science.The first professorship in psychology was created at

by Antonio Egaz Moniz (1874—1955) in early 1930s. He

604

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PUERPERAL

FEVER

believed that morbid ideas stimulated the neurons and

burial methods and other matters.The state o f public health

maintained a vicious cycle and any alteration o f frontal

deteriorated during the Middle Ages leading to epidemics

lobes could interrupt this. His theory v^as supported by the

o f plague and other pestilence. The first sanitary legislation

experiments on frontal lobes o f monkeys by John Farquhar

in England prescribing a penalty o f 20 pounds for casting

Fulton (1899-1960) and C.FJacobsen fromYale who noted

animal filth into rivers and ditches in urban areas was in

that monkeys became more manageable after section o f

effect in 1388. Sewers to drain water from marshes and low

their prefrontal lobes. Frontal lobotomy was performed by

lying areas were constructed during the reign o f King

M oniz and a Portuguese surgeon Almeida Lima in 1935.

H enry V III in 1532 and opened into the river Thames, which became a cesspool and led to appalling sanitary

Psychotherapy [Greek: psyche, soul + therapio, take care of|

conditions in London by 1840. The earliest design for a

The first modern systematic treatise was published by a German physician, Johann

Christian R e il

in

mechanical water closet was made by Sir John Harington

1803.

(156 1-16 12 ) in 1596.A system o f ventilation to provide fresh

Mesmerism was proposed by Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-18 15)

in

1799

and

renamed

air to hospitals, mines, and other crowded places was

‘hypnotism’ by

devised by the British scientist and clergyman Stephen

James Braid (1795—1860), a Manchester surgeon in 1843.

Hales

The technique was used by Augustine H enry Forel in 1889.

(1677—1761)

in

1743.

Sir

Edw in

Chadwick

(1801—1890), the great sanitary reformer o f England, wrote

Treatment o f neurotic diseases with persuasive therapy or

Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population

psychotherapy was pioneered by Paul Charles Dubois

in 1842 that led to the City Sewage Act and the first medical

(1848—1918), professor o f neuropathology at Bern around

officer in 1848. The Public Health Act was passed in

1888. See group therapy.

England in 1875 and contained a vast code o f sanitary laws

Pterodactyl [Greek: pteron, wing] The fossil o f a flying lizard

in 300 sections. A pioneer in public health in Europe was

was found by the paleontologist, Georges Leopold Cuvier

Peter Johann Frank (1745—1821) o f Rotalben who used the

(1769-1832) ofParis.

term ‘medical police’ to refer to all preventive aspects. The American Public Health Association was founded in 1872

P terygopalatine Syndrom e Neuralgia o f the lower half

through the efforts o f Lemuel Shattuck (1793-1859) o f

o f the face, nasal congestion and rhinorrhoea secondary

Boston who presented Report of the Sanitary conditions of

to a lesion in the pterygopalatine ganglion. Described by

Massachusetts in 1850. A modern public health campaign in

Greenfield Slender (1865-1925) o f N ew York in 1908.

A m erica

was

launched

by

Charles Value

Chapin

Ptolem y, Claudius (AD 90—168) Astronomer and geograph­

(1856—1941), superintendent o f health at Providence and

er from Alexandria who wrote Tetrabihlos Syntaxis, an

president o f the American Public Health Association in

advanced mathematical work on construction o f tables.

1927. William Thompson

Sedgwick

(1855-1921)

of

Massachusetts advocated pasteurization o f milk and the

P tom ain e Poisonous substance noted in decaying fish by

treatment o f drinking water with chlorine.

Burrows in 1814. It was shown to consist o f putrefactive alkaloids which caused food poisoning by Francesco Selmi

Puerperal Fever [Latin: puer, child + parere, bring forth]

who named the group o f substances ‘ptomaines’ in 1872.

Childbed fever was mentioned in the aphorisms o f H ip­

An Italian chemist Nencki isolated them in 1876.

pocrates (460—377 B C ). Epidemics became common

P ublic H ealth Laboratory Service

during 17th, i8th and 19th centuries, and 200 outbreaks

Established in

occurred in Europe between 1652 and 1862. Alexander

England by the Ministry o f Health in 1946. See public health.

Gordon (1752—1799), an obstetrician at Aberdeen, proposed

Public H ealth The importance o f hygiene in relation to

a contagious nature and advocated disinfection o f the

health o f the society has been known for millennia. Excava­

clothes o f the midwife and doctor in 1795. A n Account of

tions at Mohanjadaro and Harappa in the Indus Valley by

Puerperal fever as it appeared in Derbyshire in 1782 was

English archeologist Sir John Hubert Marshall (1876—1958)

published by William Butter (1726—1805), a physician from

o f Chester in the 1920s revealed a sophisticated system o f

Derbyshire who practiced in London.The initiator o f asep­

sanitation and hygiene existed 5000 years ago. The first

sis

subterranean sewers called ‘cloacae’ were built in R o m e

(1818-1865) o f Vienna who demonstrated in 1847 that

around 600 B C . The Aediles, a group o f public health

mortality could be reduced from 18% to less than 2% if

officials in R o m e around A D 70, looked after cleanliness o f

hands were washed before examining patients. Oliver

public roads, suitability o f food items for consumption,

Wendell Holmes (1809-1894) preceded Semmelweis in

605

in

prevention

was

Ignaz

Philipp

Semmelweiss

PULMONARY

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ANEURYSM

proposing the contagious nature in On the Contagiousness of

Pulm onary Stenosis An early account was given by James

Puerperal fever presented to the Boston Medical Society in

Hope (1809-1841) in his Treatise on the Disease of the Heart in

1842. Despite opposition to his work he reiterated his views

i839.Valvotomy was performed in 1948 by Sir Russell Brock

in Puerperal Fever as a Private Pestilence in 1855.

(1903-1980) ofWimbledon, a surgeon at G u y’s Hospital.

P ulm onary A neurysm Rupture o f an aneurysm into the

(a) Pulse tracing of a patient with aortic regurgitation and angina pectoris; (b) Same pulse during temporary relief of pain by amyl nitrite; (c) Tracing of

lung. The first case was published by Fearn in The Lancet in 1841. Further cases were described by Carl von Rokitansky

same pulse during severe angina. Thomas Lauder Brunton, Lectures on the

(1804-1878) in 1 86 8. The first case o f an aneurysm eroding

Actions of Medicines (1897). Macmillan & Co., London

through the wall o f the bronchus was presented by Douglas

(a)

Powell ofBrom pton Hospital in 1878.

P ulm onary Atresia In association with an intact ventricu­ lar septum is an uncommon congenital anomaly Described by William Hunter (1718—1783) in three patients. Its occur­

(b)

rence together with dextroposition o f the aorta was described by Thomas Bevill Peacock (1812—1882) o f London in 1858. Surgery was performed by Alfred Blalock (1899—1964) and Helen Taussig (1898-1986) o f Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1945.

P ulm onary C irculation

(c)

Recognized by Al-Nafis, a

surgeon from Damascus in the 13 th century. Michael Servitus (15 11—1553), a native ofAragon in Spain, described it in detail. He also recognized the difference between venous and arterial blood and described his findings in

Pulse [Latin: pulsus, stroke] Pien C h ’iao o f China wrote a

Restitutio Christianismi in i553.M atteo R eald o C olom bo

treatise on the pulse in 600 B C and the Egyptian physician

(1516 -156 9), a pupil o f Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564),

Imhotep wrote another in 2950 B C . Pulsation o f the heart

mentioned it in de R e Anatomica published in 1559 but he

o f chick embryo was observed by Aristotle (384—322 B C ).

failed to realize the significance o f his discovery. William

Erasistratus (325—250 B C ) described it as a wave,but this was

Harvey (1578-1657) called the pulmonary artery ‘vena

disputed by Galen (AD 129—200). Hippocrates (460—377

arteriosa’ (a vein similar to artery) and the pulmonary vein

B C ) mentioned it and Herophilus (335-250 B C ) studied

‘arteria venosa’ .

rhythmic tides produced in arteries by the beating heart

P ulm onary E m b olus

around 300 B C . Pliny (AD 23-79) said ‘to detect its exact

M igratory clots from peripheral

harmony in relation to age and disease, one needs to be

veins.Mentioned by Armand Trousseau (1801—1867) and

a musician and even a mathematician to understand

DumontpeUier o f Paris in their paper in i860. A n attempt at pulmonary

embolectomy

was

made

by

the pulse according to Herophilus’. Paul o f Aegina

Friedrich

(625—690) described it as ‘the movement o f the heart and

Trendelenburg (1844—1924) in 1908. The procedure was

arteries taking place by a diastole and systole’ . Aretaeus

successfully carried out 16 years later by Martin Kirschner

(81—138) gave a detailed account o f the pulse in A D 100.

(1879-1942) in 1924.

Galen wrote several treatises including: Liebellus de Pulsibus ad Tirones, Pulsuum Compendium and Libri Quatuor de Pulsum

P ulm onary E osinophilia See Löffler syndrome.

Differentis. He recommended the radial pulse for study as

P ulm onary Functions See lungfunctions.

it had little flesh over it, is visible, and did not involve

Clubbing o f the fingers

taking o ff the clothes. He divided the pulse into four

and toes associated with arthritis and periostitis o f the distal

phases: systole, diastole, presystole and prediastole. The

P ulm onary O steoarthropathy

end o f the long bones, from secondary anoxemia caused by

earliest instrument to measure it was designed by Italian

chronic pulmonary disease or carcinoma o f the lungs, was

physiologist,

Sanctorio

Sanctorius

(1561—1636)

and

described by Pierre M arie (1853-1940) o f Paris in i890.The

consisted o f a lead weight attached to a long thread,

condition was re-described by Heinrich von Bamberger

the length o f which could be adjusted according to the

(1822-1888) in 1891.

frequency.William Harvey (1578—1657) noted the synchro­

606

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PYELITIS

nous nature o f it in all arteries in 1628. Counting pulse rate

Purpura [Latin:pwrpwm,purple] Avicenna (980—1037) gave a

in health and disease was introduced by Sir John Floyer

brief description o f a chronic form. A modern description

(1649-1734) with his pulse watch in 1707. Slow pulse rate

o f purpura hemorrhagica (Werlhof disease) was given by

was observed by Marcus Gerbezius (1658—1718) in 1691,

German physician, Paul Gottlieb W erlhof (1699—1767) o f

Giovanni Battista M orgagni (1682—1771) in 1761 and

Helmstedt in Opera Omnia in 1775. See thrombocytopenic

Thomas Spens o f Edinburgh in 1793. Allan B urn o f

purpura, Henoch—Schonlein purpura.

Edinburgh suggested that fits were secondary to a very

Purves-Stewart, James (1869-1949) Neurologist to West­

slow pulse in 1809, and his findings were confirmed

minster Hospital and the R oyal National Orthopaedic

by a Scottish physician at St Thom as’ Hospital, R obert

Hospital in London. He wrote an important textbook o f

R eid , in 1824. A n important monograph was written by

neurology. The Diagnosis of Nervous Diseases, which reached

an English physician, Caleb Hillier Parry (1755—1822)

its tenth edition after 41 years and was translated into

o f Bath. The sphygmograph, to obtain tracings o f the

German, French,Arabic, and Spanish.

pulse, was used by Karl Vierordt (1818-1884) in 1854. See dicrotic pulse.

P utnam , Frederick Ward (1839-1915) Father o f archeology in America. He was professor o f archeology at Harvard in

Pulsus Alterans [ L a t i n : s t r o k e ] Described and differ­

1887

entiated from pulsus bigeminus by Ludwig Traube

and

studied

archeological

remains

o f Native

Americans. He published over 400 articles.

(181 8 -18 76), professor o f pathology at Berlin, in 1872.

Putnam , James Jackson (1846—1918) American neurologist,

Pulsus B igem inu s [L2itm:pulsus, stroke] A clear description

born in Boston and graduated in medicine from Harvard in

o f the condition was given by Ludwig Traube (1818—1876)

1866. He was a founder o f American Neurology Association

o f Berlin in 1872.

and was professor o f diseases o f the nervous system at

Pulse D eficit [L2itm: pulsus, stroke] Difference between the

Harvard in 1893. See subacute combined degeneration of the cord.

apex heart rate and the radial pulse seen in cases o f atrial

Putnam D isease See subacute combined degeneration of the cord,

fibrillation. Described by Boston physician, James Jackson,

Putnam,JamesJackson.

jr (1810-1834).

Putrefaction [Latin:

Pulsus Paradoxus [Latin: pulsus, stroke; Greek: para, beside

rotten -\-facere, to make] Investi­

gations were commenced in 1836 by F. Schulz, andTheodor

+ doxa, belief or opinion] Decrease in pulse volume during inspiration. Introduced and described as an important

Schwann’s (1810—1882) work followed a year later. Schwann

physical sign by A d olf Kussmaul (1822—1902) in 1873.

said that it was caused by mold and infusoria at the expense o f organic substances.This was confirmed by Louis Pasteur’s

Pupillary R eaction R obertW hytt (1714 -176 6), a neurolo­

(1822-1895) work on fermentation in 1857.

gist from Edinburgh, established that it was a reflex reaction in Essay on Vital and Other Involuntary Motions of Animals

Putrid Fever Old term for typhoid fever.

published in 1751, and the reflex (Whytt reflex) is named

Putti, Vitorrio (1881-1940) Professor o f orthopedic surgery

after him. He described the mechanism and its dilation in

and medical historian in Bologna. He designed an

death. The effect o f spinal injury was described by Douglas

operation for dislocation o f the shoulder.

M oray C o op er Lamb A rgyll R o bertson (18 37-1909 ) in

Pyelitis [Greek: pyelos, pelvis + itis, inflammation] Pyelone­

1869. See Argyll Robertson pupil

phritis is an inflammation o f the kidney and was described

Purgatives See laxatives, aperients.

in pregnant women by Pierre François Olive Rayer (1793—

Purkinje, Johannes EvangeHsta (1787—1869) Bohemian pro­

1867) o f Paris in 1841. Sir William Roberts (1830-1899) o f

fessor o f physiology at Breslau, who observed the Hving sub­

Manchester Royal Infirmary observed the presence o f

stance in eggs and embryos and named it‘protoplasm’in 1839.

rod-shaped bacteria in the urine associated with cystitis

He also found that deaf mutes can hear through the bones o f

following catheterization in 1881. Ernest Leberecht Wagner

the skull in 18 21, and this contributed to the study o f deafness

(1829—1888) o f Germany described pyelonephritic kidney

in mutes. He classified fingerprints in 1832, and the germinal

and the importance o f chronic pyelonephritis in i882.John

vesicles in the ovum o f birds in 1825. Microdissection was

Alberton Sampson (1873-1946) ofjohns Hopkins Hospital

suggested by him in 1844, and the reticulated subendocardial

noted that acute pyelonephritis could result from ureteric

fibers o f the heart (Purkinje fibers) bear his name.

obstruction or systemic infection in 1903.

607

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PYELOGRAPHY

Pyelography [Greek:pye/o5,pelvis

graphein, write] R ad io­

o f the stomach. He compared the structure to a gatekeeper

logical method o f visualization o f the renal tract introduced

or janitor, hence its present name.

by Alexander von Lichtenberg (1880—1949) o f Germany

Pyocyanine See Pseudomonas pyocyanea.

in 1906.

P yelolithotom y

Pyorrhoea Alveolar is Chronic suppurative peridontitis.The

[Greek: pyelos, pelvis + lithos, stone +

study o f the jaws o f Egyptian mummies dating back to 2800

temnein, to cut] First performed by Vincenz Czerny

B C has shown that the disease was present in ancient times.

(1842-1916) in 1880. [Greek: pyelos, pelvis + nephros, kidney]

Pyelonephritis See pyelitis.

P yem ia [Greek: pyon, pus + haima, blood] An account on bacterial endocarditis was given as ‘arterial pyaemia’ by Sir SamuelWilkes (18 24 -19 11) in 1870.

P ygm ies [Greek:

fist] Aristotle (384—322 B C ) refer­

red to a race o f tiny men the size o f a fist. The earliest study was by a French naturalist and ethnologist Jean Louis Armand Quatrefages (1810—1892), professor at the Natural History Museum in 1862, who published studies from the interior o f Africa and southmost parts ofAsia.J. KoUmann o f Basel in his Pigmaen in Europe published in 1894, produced evidence for the existence o f a European pigmy race in Neolithic times. See dwarfs. [Greek: pyknos, frequent + lepsy, I seize]

Pyknoepilepsy Recurrent

attacks

resembling

petit

mal

but

Pyramidal tract system. Jean Martin Charcot, Lectures on Localisation of

not

Cerebral and Spinal Diseases (1883). New Sydenham Society, London

epileptiform in nature. Described by M ax Friedmann (1858—1925) o f Germany in 1906.

P ylorectom y

Pyram idal Tract Part o f the nervous system identified and

[Greek: pylorus, gatekeeper -I- ektomnein, to

named by Paul Emil Flechsig (1847—1929) o f Leipzig in

cut out] Done experimentally on animals by Daniel Carl

1876.

Theodore M errem (1790—1859) in 18 10 .Theodor Billroth

Pyrexia [Greek:pyre55cw, feverish] See thermometry.

(1829—1894) performed a resection o f the pylorus for cancer in 1881.

P yridoxine

(Syn: adermin, antidermatitis factor) Vitamin

[Greek: pylorus, gatekeeper] Caused by

Bó. Deficiency causes dermatitis or acrodynia in rats and

congenital hypertrophy and described by Patrick Blair

was observed by Paul Gyorgy (1893—1976) in 1934. It

(1666—1728), a surgeon from Dundee in 1717. It was also

was named vitamin Bó and synthesized by Staton Avery

described by George Armstrong (1719—1789) o f London in

Harris (b 1902) and Karl Folkers o f America in 1939. It was

P yloric Stenosis

1777 and by Jean Cruveilhier (1791-1874) o f Paris in 1829.

given the name ‘adermin’ by German chemist and N obel

An account o f the disease in infants in America was given by

Prize winner, Richard Kuhn

Hezekiah Beardsley (1748-1799) in 1788. German surgeon,

and received its present name ‘pyridoxine’ from Gyorgy and

Conrad Ramstedt (1867-1963), described an operation for

R .E .E ckh ard t in 1940.

relief o f congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. Chronic

by Albrecht Kossel (1888-1956), professor o f physiology at Hamburg in 1885. In 1910 he received the N obel Prize for

Pyloroplasty [Greek: pylorus, gatekeeper + plasmein, to Performed

by

Italian

surgeon

Pietro

1938,

P yrim idine Base in D N A isolated from extract o f pancreas

pyloric ulcer has recently been identified as a further cause.

mold]

(1900—1967), in

Physiology or Medicine.

Loreta

(1831-1899) in 1882.

Pyruvate Kinase D eficien cy Causes hemolytic anemia

Pylorus [Greek: pylorus, gatekeeper] Galen (AD 129—200)

and was described by W. N.Valentine, K.Tanaka and S. M iwa

used the term ‘stenotis’ to denote the pylorus or narrow part

in 1961.

608

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PYURIA

Pythagorus (600 B C ) Greek philosopher and mathemati­ cian, born in Samos around 530 B C and settled in the Greek colony o f Crotona in southern Italy. He taught the doctrine o f transmigration o f souls from one body to another. He founded the study o f geology with his observation on the physical changes in the land and its volcanic eruptions. He established the modern system o f astronomy, improved geometry and invented the multiplication tables.

Pyuria, Abacterial [Greek:pyon, pus + ouron, urine] Presence o f pus in the urine without growth o f bacteria on laboratory culture. It was attributed to renal tuberculosis in 1900.T. Moore in 1943 proposed that it was due to a virus. N. Cooke attributed the condition (as Amicrobic pyuria) to excretion o f a toxin in 1944.0 . Peters in 1946 proposed that pus in sterile urine was caused by a spirochetal organism. Following his work, intravenous neoarsphenamine was used as a standard empirical treatment during the mid-1940s. Further work reconfirmed that the most common cause o f the condition was renal tuberculosis. See bacteriuria.

609

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

QUANTUM

THEORY

form o f secret remedies for tuberculosis. These include: Tuberculozyme from Derk PYonkerman Company Ltd o f America,

the Brompton Consumption mixture (no

relation to the Brompton Consumption Hospital), and Stevens Consumption Cure was claimed by ‘D r’ Stevens to contain a herbal medicine from Africa called‘umckaloaba’ .

Q uadriceps [Latin: quadri, four + ceps, head] Muscle and name given to the God Janus who had four heads.

Q uain, Jones (1785-1851) Lecturer at the Medical School in Originally named ‘Q ’ to denote query as the

Aldersgate, and later professor at the new University o f

causative agent was unknown. Observed by Edward

London. He wrote an important textbook on anatomy.

Holbrook D errick (1898—1976) in 1937 in Queensland,

Elements of Anatomy, in 1828 which continued into ii

Australia, in an outbreak o f febrile illness amongst meat and

editions up to 1929.

Q Fever

cattle workers in Brisbane. The causative rickettsial organ­ ism, Coxiella burnetti,w2LS identified by Sir Frank Macfarlane

Q uain, Sir Richard (1816-1898) B orn in County Cork,

Burnet (1899—1985). He was one o f Australia’s greatest

Ireland, he was a physician at the Brompton Chest

scientists who also developed the clonal theory o f antibody

Hospital in London. A form o f fatty degeneration o f the

production which earned him the N obel Prize in i96o.The

heart (Quain fatty degeneration) was described by him. He

same strain o f Coxiella was recovered from ticks during an

compiled A Dictionary of Medicine (1882) in 2 volumes which

outbreak in Montana by Herald R e a C o x (b 1907) and G .E.

became one o f the most quoted dictionaries o f his time.

Davis in 1938.The organism was named for its discoverers,

Quaker

C ox and Burnet.

The Religious Society o f Friends was started in

England in 1646 by George Fox (1624—1691) o f Leicester­ shire. They were named ‘Quakers’ by Justice Bennet o f

Q uack M edicines See quackery.

Derby in 1650 because they were said to quake at the Word

Quackery Derived from‘quacksalver’ , a corruption o f quick­

o f God. Some eminent Quaker physicians were: Thomas

silver’ or mercury which was used extensively by quacks.

Young (17 7 3-18 2 9 ) o f M ilverton, England, one o f the

They were present in R om an times, and Char mis, one such

greatest scientists o f all times with work on hemodynamics,

physician during the time o f Nero, is said to have charged

Egyptology and his undulatory theory o f light; R obert

extravagant fees. M any were found in the 15th century,

Willan (1757—1812) who wrote a monograph On Cutaneous

when the practice o f medicine began to be regulated by the

Diseases in 1796; and John Fothergill (1712—1780) who gave

state and the medical profession. Paracelsus (14 93-154 1) in

an original description o f diphtheric sore throat in 1748.

his fifth book wrote on banishing them from medicine.

Quakers also excelled in pharmacy and Allen and

Some notable past quacks in England include: Simon

Hanburys, one o f the earliest Quaker pharmaceutical

Forman (1552—16 11) ofWiltshire who practiced in London

establishments, was founded by a Quaker, Sylvanus Bevan,

in 1583 selling love portions and other remedies, William

grandson ofWilliam Bevan, a merchant from Swansea.

Brodum, one o f the most successful quacks o f the i8th century in London, James Graham (1745—1794) from

Q uantitative Analysis [Latin: quantus, as much as] Arabian alchemist, Geber, in the 8th century, recognized that a

Edinburgh who used alternative therapies such as mud

certain quantity o f acid was required to neutralize a given

baths, and William R eed , a tailor, set himself up as a mender

amount o f base, and in 1699, Wilhelm Homberg o f

o f eyes and was knighted by Queen Anne. Joshua Ward

Germany and later Torbern O lo f Bergman (1735-1784) o f

(1685—17 6 1),known as ‘spot’ due to the birthm ark on his

Sweden and Richard Kirwan (1733—1812) o f Dublin in

face, was exempted from the Apothecaries Act o f 1748 by

1775 attempted to quantify this, but the crude experi­

the King and developed a pill, known as ‘drop and pill’ that

mental methods available hindered their success. Methods

contained antimony. M any remedies for amenorrhea were

for study o f inorganic compounds were established around

on offer and some abortifacients were camouflaged as treat­

1810 by Jons Jacob Berzelius (1779—1848), a Swedish

ment for amenorrhea. These included: Dumas Paris pills.

physician and a chemist at Uppsala.

Nurse Powell corrective pills. Nurse M ann’s remedy. D r John H ooper female pills. D r Davis female mixture,

Q uantum T heory The first suggestion o f ‘wave’ theory o f

Jefferson Dodd corrective, Martin apiol, and Monaid

light or energy fundamental to quantum theory was made

tablets. Consumption cures were also commonly sold in the

in 1817 by English physician Thomas Young (1773-1829).

611

QUARANTINE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

As a result o f experiments on thermodynamics by Gustav

‘average man’ . He investigated the development o f intellec­

R obert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) in 1859, Jo se f Stefan (1835-

tual and physical qualities o f man between 1835 and 1846

1893) and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906), the concept

and established that the data conformed to the theory

that radiation emissions came in packets o f quanta was first

o f probability.

proposed by the German physicist M ax Karl Ernst Ludwig

U Anthropométrie (1871).

Planck (1858—1947) o f Kiel in 1900. Planck quantum theory

He

wrote

Sur

Vhomme

(1835)

and

Quatrefages de Breau,Jean Louis Armand de (1810-1892)

formed the basis for Albert Einsteins (1879—1955) work on

French naturalist and ethnologist, and professor at the

theory o f light in 1905 which led to his theory o f relativity.

Natural History Museum in Paris in 1855. Some works

It was applied to subatomic physics by Danish physicist,

include

Niels Hendrik David Bohr (1885-1962) in 1913. Wave

Unite Uespice Humane (1861), Crania Ethnica

(1875—1882), and Darwin et ses precursieurs Francis (1892).

mechanics were proposed by an Austrian physicist, Erwin

The English translation. Metamorphoses of Man and Lower

Schrôdinger (1887—1961) in 1930. The N obel Prize for

Animals, was published by Henry Lawson, professor o f

Physics was won by Planck in 1918, Einstein in 19 21, Bohr

physiology

in 1922, Schrödinger in 1933, and Werner Karl Heisenberg

at Birmingham

in

1864. The

angle

of

Quatrefages or the parietal angle used in craniometry was

(1901—1976) o f Germany in 1932. American theoretical

defined by him, and he invented a ‘goniometer’ for

physicist, David Joseph Bohm (1917—1992) wrote an

measuring it in 1858.

excellent book on the subject. Quantum Theory, in 1951.

Q uebec M edical S ociety Canadian society inaugurated in

Q uarantine [Latin: quadraginta, forty] Started in Venice in 112 7, where all merchants from the Levant were obliged to

1826 with Joseph M orrin (b 1794), a graduate o f Edinburgh

remain at the House o f St Lazarus for 40 days before being

who was born in Dumfries, as its first president.

admitted to the city. During plague epidemics in England

Q ueckenstedt Test A block in the flow o f cerebrospinal

all persons com ing from affected areas were confined.

fluid found during lumbar puncture by applying pressure

Quarantine Acts in England were passed in 1753 and in 1825.

on the jugular vein. Shown by German physician, Hans

Q uarin, Joseph (1773—1814) Viennese physician to Emperor

Heinrich Georg Queckenstedt (1876—1918) o f Hamburg in 1916.

Joseph II who served as the rector o f the university on six occasions. He was made a count in 1747.

Q ueen C harlotte’s H ospital The first lying-in hospital in London was founded by Sir Richard Manningham

Quartan Fever [Latin: quartanus, fourth] Periodic fevers were classified into quotidian, tertian, subtertian and

(d 1759) adjoining his house at Jerm yn Street, in 1739. His

quartan according to their periodicity by Hippocrates

unit started with 24 beds and became the General Lying-in

(460—377 B C ).T h e term was used because it occurred every

Hospital in 1752. Queen Charlotte was patron in 1791 and it

fourth day.

was renamed Queen Charlotte’s Hospital in 1813.

Q uastel, Juda Hirsch (1899—1987) British biochemist from

Q ueen [Anglo-Saxon: cwen] Semiramis, queen o f Assyria in

Sheffield, who was a pioneer in biochemical aspects o f brain

2017 B C , was the first woman to hold sovereign authority.

disease. He obtained his PhD on bacterial metaboHsm while

She is said to have encouraged men and women to study

working with Frederick Gowland Hopkins at Cambridge.

medicine.

He was staffbiochemist at the Cardiff City Mental Hospital

Q uellung R eaction Swelling o f the pneumococcal bacter­

where he began his work on mental disease and developed

ial capsule when treated with its antiserum. Observed by

liver function tests for schizophrenia, investigated the effects

Fred Neufield (1861—1945), a colleague o f R obert Koch

o f amphetamines and synthesis o f acetylcholine. During the

(1843-1910) at Berlin in 1902.

War he worked at Rothamsted Experimental Station on

Q uenu H em orrh oid al Plexus

soil fertility and produced a selective herbicide. He

A series o f lymphatic

was appointed to the chair o f biochemistry at M cGill

plexuses in the mucous membrane and skin o f the anus.

University in Canada in 1947, and after his retirement in

Described in 1893 by professor o f surgical pathology at

1964, he joined the Kinsman Laboratories at Vancouver

Paris,EdouardAndréVictor Alfred Quenu (1852—1933).

where he worked on the role o f glutamic acid in

Q uenuthoracoplasty Operation to divide the ribs in order

metabolism o f the brain.

to promote the retraction o f chest wall in empyema. Devised by a professor o f surgical pathology at Paris,

Q uételet, Lambert Adolphe (1796—1874) Belgian astron­ omer and statistician who proposed the concept o f an

Edouard AndréVictor Alfred Quenu (1852-1933).

6 12

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

QUOTIDIAN

Q uevain D isease See de Quervain disease.

Q uinidine

FEVER

Isomer o f quinine used by Karel Frederick

Wenckebach (1864—1940) for treatment o f atrial fibrillation

Q uervain Thyroiditis See de Quervain thyroiditis.

in 1918. Its effectiveness in auricular fibrillation was concl­

Quesnay, Francis (1694—1774) Physician and political writer

usively shown by Walter Frey (b 1884) o f Germany 1918.

from M ontfort I’Amaury, France. Fie moved to Paris and

Q uinine

became physician to Louis XV. Fie was first permanent sec­

Alkaloid o f cinchona, which suppresses the

retary to the Academy o f Surgery in Paris. He wrote A

malarial parasite. The tree bark was brought to Europe by

Philosophical Essay on the Animal Economy in 3 volumes. He

Jesuit missionaries in the 17th century. Used for ‘rebellious

suggested an arterial cause for gangrene in his Traite de la

palpitation’ o f the heart by French physician, Jean Baptiste

Gangrene, published in 1739.

Senac (1693—1770) in 1749. It was prepared by Antoine

Q uevenne Iron Finely powdered form o f reduced metallic

François de Fourcroy (1755—1809) in a crude state from

iron introduced as a general remedy by French physician,

‘quinaquina’ or cinchona from Peru in 1792.The pure alka­

Theodore Auguste Quevenne (1805—1855).

loid

Q uick, Armand James (1894—1977) American physician and

extracted

by Joseph

Bienaimé

Caventou

1820 who named it ‘quinine’ . See cinchona.

physiologist who graduated from the University o f Illinois and later was professor o f biochemistry at the University o f

Quinism Toxic state due to the use o f quinine or cinchona,

Milwaukee. He devised the hippuric acid synthesis test for liver function in

was

(1793-1877) and Pierre Joseph Pelletier (1788—1842) in

recognized in the i8th century. Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton

■ See prothrombin time, Quick test.

(1844—1916) o f St Bartholomew’s Hospital described the

Q uicksilver Liquid state o f the poisonous element, mercury.

symptoms ofdeafiiess, tinnitus,headache, delirium and pyrexia.

When mixed with fats and various other substances was

Q uinquina See quinine, cinchona.

used as a remedy for skin diseases and a remedy for syphilis. Gabriele FaUoppio (1523—1562) opposed its use and wrote

Q uinsy [Greek: kynache, sore throat] According to Paul o f

Tractatus de Morbo Qallico discussing its action.

Aegina (625—690), ‘when the parts within the throat are

Q uick Test Devised by Armand James Quick (1894—1977),

inflamed the condition is called,‘synanche’ , and when the

M ary Stanley-Brown and F. W. Bancroft in 1935. Used to

parts within the windpipe were inflamed the disease was

measure blood clotting time and monitor anticoagulants,

term ed,‘cynanche’ . He described acute symptoms accom­

detect severe liver disease and vitamin K deficiency. Studied by

American

physiologist

WiUiam

Henry

panied by suffocation in quincy and recommended opening

Howell

(1860—1945) in 1910 and modified into two stages by Em ory

o f the vein below the tongue as an emergency measure or

Dean Warner

application o f dog’s dung or the dung o f wild swallows

(b

1905)

and

co-workers

in

1936.

dried and powdered in honey or throat gargle, application

See prothrombin time.

o f leeches to the chin and neck, and cupping. I f the cond

Quim by, Phineas Parkhurst (1802—1866) Watchmaker from

tion led to suspended animation with foam in the mouth,he

Maine in America who attained national fame for his powers o f mesmerism using his medium and student, Lucius

stated, no further action was to be taken, which in modern

Burkmar. Quimby later practiced faith healing or ‘mind

term means ‘not for resuscitation’ . Similar methods were also described by Hippocrates (460—377 BC ).

Q uincke, Heinrich Iranaeus (1842—1922) German professor

Q uintessence Aristotle (384—322 B C ), in addition to the

o f medicine at Bern in Switzerland, who gave (1882) an

four elements o f life, earth, water, fire and air, proposed by

account o f angioneurotic edema. He also distinguished

Empedocles {c 450 B C ), introduced a fifth substance called

between Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba ro//.Therapeu-

‘essence’ . He thought that individuals o f the same species

tic lumbar puncture performed by Walter Essex Wynter

consisted o f the same essence but differed in matter. His

(1860—1945) in 1889, and introduced independently by

theory predated the present concept o f phenotypic and

Quincke in 1891.

genotypic characteristics.

Q uincy, John (d 1723) London physician in the i8th century whose Lexicon Physico-medicorum served as the basis for D r

Q u otidian Fever [Latin: quotidianus, daily] Term for ague or

H oopers Medical Dictionary. He also wrote several other

malaria in which fever or paroxysms occur at the same hour

medical treatises and translations.

every day.

613

RADIATION

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

INJURY

the creation o f the first chair o f anesthesia by Lord William Richard M orris Nuffield (1877-1963) in 1922.

R

RadclifFe, John (1650-1714) Physician from Wakefield who graduated from Oxford and moved to London in 1684, where he established a prosperous practice. H e was the first holder o f the prestigious gold-headed cane as president o f the Royal College o f Physicians. He was physician to King William III and Queen M ary and elected a member o f parliament in 1713. During the last iUness o f Queen Ann he

Test to detect albumin in urine using

sent a message ‘her distemper was nothing but the vapors’

trichloroacetic acid. Devised by German physician, Gustav

without visiting her, and for this he was dismissed as

Raabe around 1905.

physician to the queen. He bequeathed most o f the wealth

R aabe Test

acquired through his practice in London to R ad cliffe

R abbit W om an See Blondel,James Augustus.

Observatory and library. Trustees o f his wiU voted to establish the Radcliffe Infirmary with part o f the proceeds

R abelais, François (1494—1553) French humanist, Franciscan

o f his estate. See Radcliffe Library, Radcliffe Observatory.

and later Benedictine m onk w ho studied m edicine at Montpellier in 1530 and was a physician and lecturer at the

R adcliffe Library Founded at Oxford under the will o f

Lyons Municipal Hospital in 1532. His most famous work,

John Radcliffe (1650-1714) who left 40,000 pounds to the

published in 1532, was Pantagruel, 2l mixture o f theology, law

University o f O xford.The first stone was laid in 1737 and it

and medicine as satirical and popular tales. It was declared

opened in 1749.

obscene and he was threatened with prosecution.

R adcliffe O bservatory Named after the physician John R abiesV accine See antirabies vaccine.

Radcliffe (1650—1714) and founded by the Savillian profes­

Rabies [Latin: rahere, to rage] George Gottfried Zinke o f

sor o f astronomy, Hornsby in 177 1. Its publications were

Jena proposed that the saliva o f the rabid dog was infectious

started by one ofits directors, Manuel J.Johnson in 1842.

in 1804. This remained unproved until 1879, when Victor

R adial Pulse The radial artery was recommended for study

Galtier (1846-1908) o f Paris managed to produce a paralytic

o f the pulse by Galen (AD 129—200) as it had little flesh over

form o f rabies in rabbits by inoculating them with infective

it, was visible, and did not involve taking o ff the clothes.

material. Curare was used to relax the muscles in patients

R adiant H eat [Greek: radians, to emit] An early work was

with rabies in 1838. Changes in the central nervous system

that o f Count Benjamin Thompson Rum ford (1753—1814)

were reported by Louis Pasteur (1822—1895) and colleagues

who proved that its transfer was independent o f air or any

in 1881, and the first inoculation with antirabies vaccine was

other medium. His findings were confirmed by Humphry

performed by him on Ju ly 6 1885. N egri bodies, characteris­

Davy (1778-1829).

tic cell inclusions, were observed by Italian microbiologist,

R adiation Injury Three months after W ilhelm Konrad von

Adelchi N egri (1867-1912) in 1903,but he mistook them for

Röntgen (1845—1923) discovered X-rays in 1895, T. J.

parasitic protozoal organisms. See hydrophobia.

Edison and William James M orton (1848—1920), a N ew

R ace [French: race, family] See eugenics, ethnology.

York physician w ho introduced dental radiography,

R achitis [Greek: rachis, spine + itis, inflammation] Old

suffered radiation conjunctivitis while working with them.

term for rickets that takes its origin from the belief that it

Gastrointestinal symptoms due to X-ray exposure were

arose from spinal marrow.

described by D. Walsh in 1897. Ernest Am ory Codman

Rad

(1869—1940) collected 171 cases o fX -ra y burns in 19 02,and

Unit o f X -ray radiation defined by the British

Committee

on

Radiological

Units

under

the occurrence o f cancer following radiation was described

the

by August Franz Albert Frieben in the same year. The first

chairmanship on Louis Harold Gray (1905—1965) in 1928.

report o f cataract due to exposure to X-rays was made by

RadclifFe Infirm ary Opened in Oxford in 1770 with funds

James M cDowall Patón in 1909 and the first death occurred

from a part o f Jo h n R a d cliffe ’s (16 5 0 -17 14 ) estate. The

in 1914 in a radiologist from Bergamo, Emilio Tiraboschi.

orthopedic department was established in

1918, and

(18 59-1 906),and M arie Curie (1867-1934) suffered injuries

anesthesia was fully recognized as a specialty in England by

during work with radioactive substances three years after

6 15

RADIATION

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OF H E A T

the discovery o f radium, in 1900. N obel Prize \vinner, Irène

similar to X-rays in 1895. The phenomenon was named

Joliot-C urie (1897—1956), died from leukemia due to

radioactivity by Pierre (1859—1906) and M arie Curie

prolonged

radiation during her work.

(1867—1934) and these three shared the N obel Prize in

Mutation o f genes from radiation was established in

1903 .The hypothesis o f atomic disintegration which stated

Drosophila by N obel Prize winner, H erm ann Joseph

that radioactive elements made o f complex particles under­

exposure

to

M üller (1890—1967) o f America in 1927. George Alexan­

go spontaneous changes or disintegration and discharge

der Pirie o f the Royal Infirmary in Dundee was a pioneer in

high velocity negatively charged electrons or beta rays

use o f X-rays in medicine until injured by radiation in 1926.

and positively charged particles or alpha rays was proposed

An attempt to safeguard those exposed to X-rays was made

by Lord Ernest Rutherford (18 71—1937) and Frederick

with the appointment o f the Adrian Committee by the

Soddy (1877—1965) in i902.The presence o f radioactivity in

Secretary o f the State for Scotland and Minister o f Health in

rocks, springs and air was noted by Johann Phillipp Ludwig

1956. Its report. The Radiological Hazards to the Patients, was

Elster (1854—1920) o f Germany and his colleague, Hans

published in i960. Deaths from aplastic anemia following

Friedrich Geital (18 55-1923),in 1901.

exposure to radium were reported b yj. C. Mottram in 1921.

R adioim m unoassay

He observed a low red cell count in ‘anemia radiotoxica’ .

[Latin: radius, ray + immunize, free]

The technique was introduced by S. A. Berson and

Leukemia due to radium exposure was also observed by

colleagues in 1956 and refined by American biophysicist,

Prosper Emile Weil (b 1873) and Antoine Marcellin

R osalynYalow (b 1921) o f N ew York, for which she was

Lacasagne (b 1884) in 1925. In 1927 twenty deaths occurred

awarded the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine

in luminous dial painters in a company based at N ew Jersey

in 1977.

due to blood dyscrasia caused by radium.The director o f the

R adioiodine Used in the study o f thyroid disease by M . P.

company and a research chemist, S. A. von Sochoky, also

Kelsey and co-workers in 1949 and as treatment for

succumbed a year later. See radium.

thyrotoxicosis by G.W. Blom field and co-workers in 1951. Measurement o f heat loss using a

It was introduced as treatment for leukemia by Am e­

platinum wire was made by Irish physicist, John Tyndall

rican hematologist, John Lawrence, o f the University o f

(1820-1893). His work was advanced by a Viennese

California at Berkeley, in 1936.

R adiation o f H eat

physicist, Jo sef Stefan (1835—1893) who proposed that the

R adiology

amount o f energy radiated per second from a black body

[Latin: radius, ray; Greek: logos, discourse]

Heinrich Daniel R u h m korff (1803—1877), a German

is proportional to the fourth power o f the absolute

mechanic from Hannover who lived in Paris, built an

temperature.

induction coil in 1855 that formed the basis for the develop­

R adical [Latin: radicalis] Group o f atoms which enter into

ment o f the Geissler tube by German physicist, Heinrich

and undergo chemical combination without change in the

Geissler (1814-1879) o f Saxony. This enabled rarefied gases

original constituents o f the molecule. N oted by Jöns Jacob

to be visualized when electricity was passed through them.

Berzelius (1779—1848) in 1828. The definition was given

German physicist and chemist Johann W ilhelm H ittorf

by French chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt (1816—1856)

(1824—1914) noticed a peculiar glow when electricity was

around 1850.

passed through a vacuum in a Geissler tube. In 1869 Sir William Crookes (1832—1919) o f Cambridge improved the

R adioactive Tracer The first tracer experiment was done

vacuum and observed the effects o f passing a current

at theVienna Radium Institute in 1913. Its use in biological

through the tube. The Crookes tube was developed into the

research was pioneered by N obel Prize winner, George

cathode ray tube which was used by Wilhelm Konrad von

Charles von Hevesy (1885—1966) in 1922. Radioactive phos­

Röntgen (1845-1923) during his work on X-rays. In 1895

phorus was used to measure blood volume independently

while investigating cathode rays, Röntgen noticed that a

by F. A. Brown and R . S. Anderson in 1942. Further work

new ray o f greater penetrating power was emitted which he

on their use in cellular biology was done by Danish

called X-rays. Röntgen announced his findings in 1896 but

biophysicist, Hans Henrikson Ussing (b 19 11), head o f the

did not patent his discovery which helped his invention to

isotope department o f physiology at Copenhagen.

be freely used in the fields o f medicine, science and technol­

R adioactivity [Latin: radius, ray] Antoine Henri Becquerel

ogy. A pioneer in appHcation o f X-rays to orthopedics was

(1852—1908), a French physicist from Par is, discovered that

Etienne Destot (1864-1918) o f Lyon, who used radiology

certain substances like uranium salts emitted radiation

for diagnosis o f bone disease two months after R öntgen s

6 16

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RAINEY

discovery. W olf Becher (1826-1906) o f Germany demon­

treatment for cancer o f the uterus was developed by Swedish

strated that gastrointestinal tract can be outlined by X-rays

radiologist, Carl GustavAbrahamson Forssell (1876—1950) in

using lead subacetate in animals in 1896. Further advances

1917 and by Claude Regaud (1870-1940) in 1933. Another

'were made in the same year including the visualization o f

pioneer was Sir Stanford Cade (1895—1973) who wrote

blood vessels by injection o f a radio-opaque substance by

Malignant Diseases andTreatment by Radium in 1940.

two Viennese, E. Haschek and O. T. Lindenthal. John

R a d iu m

Macintyre (1857—1928), a laryngologist at the Glasgow

Jochimstal was allocated to Marie Curie (1867-1934) for

R oyal Infirmary was another pioneer who established the department o f radiology at the Glasgow

Pitchblend residue from the Dollar M ine at

investigation following her initial observations. She obtain­

Infirmary.

ed two radioactive substances, polonium and radium, from

He initially trained as an electrician before studying medi­

it in 1898. R adium was shown to have radioactive

cine, which helped him to construct the first portable X-ray

properties by Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852—1908) in

unit before 1900. Walter Edward Dandy (1886-1946), an

1896 and used successfully in treatment o f cancer by S. W.

American neurosurgeon at Johns Hopkins, devised a

Goldberg in 1903. See radiotherapy.

method o f introducing air into the ventricles o f the brain to visualize it on X-rays in 1918.The use o f X-rays to study the

R a d iu s F ractu re Fracture o f the distal radius o f the forearm

movement o f barium in the gastrointestinal tract was

is known as Colles fracture and was described by Abraham

pioneered by Walter Bradford Cannon (1871-1945) o f

Colles (1773-18 4 3), professor o f surgery at Berlin in 1814.

Harvard University in 1898. Iodized oil as a contrast medi­

John R h ea Barton (1794—1871) described a fracture o f the

um for use in radiology was introduced by Jean Athanase

posterior articular margin o f the lower end o f the radius

Sicard (1872-1929) in 19 21. Visualization o f the gall

(Barton fracture) in 1838. M oore fracture involving the

bladder was made possible in 1924 by Evarts Ambrose

lower end o f the radius with dislocation o f the head o f ulna

Graham (1883-1957) and Warren Henry Cole (b 1898) who

and entrapment o f the styloid process within the annular

used chlorinated and brominated phenolphthalein capable

ligaments was described by American surgeon, Edward

o f being excreted by the liver. lodophthalein, a less toxic

M ott M oore (1814—1902).

compound, was introduced as an oral and an intravenous

R a e , James (17 16 -17 9 1) Scottish surgeon from Stirling who

contrast medium by Whitaker and Miliken in 1929.

advocated lectures on clinical surgery, apart from anatomy.

Pheniodol replaced iodophthalein in 1940. Fluorescein, an

He also pioneered dentistry in Scotland. His son,John Rae,

early radioisotope used in diagnostic neuroradiology, was

was president o f the R oyal College o f Surgeons in 1804.

introduced by George Eugene M oore (b 1922) in 1947. See R a im o n d i,

C A T scanner, magnetic resonance scan, ultrasound.

Marcantonio

(1826-1890)

Physician

and

naturalist from Milan who explored Peru. He proved that R a d io th e ra p y [Latin: radius, ray; Greek: therapio, to care for]

isolation was an important factor in spéciation. He was

Following the discovery o f X-rays by W ilhelm Konrad von

professor o f medicine in Lima, and later chair o f natural

Röntgen (1845-1923) in 1895, they were used in medicine

history, a post he held for nearly 20 years.

for deep irradiation o f a hairy mole by Leopold Freund R a in b o w

(1868-1944) ofVienna in i896.The first cure by X-rays o f a

Worshipped by some tribes in Melanesia. The

Greek scientist Anaxagoras (488—428 B C ) o f Ionia explain­

basal cell carcinoma or rodent ulcer o f the nose was demon­

ed rainbows and some other natural phenomena. R o ger

strated by Thor Stenbeck o f Sweden in 1899.The effect o f

Bacon (1214—1292) also gave a theory o f rainbow. In 16 11,

radiation in treatment o f cancer was also shown by Tage

Antonio de Dominis, the Archbishop ofSpalatro suggested

Anton Ultemus Sjögren (1859—1939) in the same year. An

that light reflected by raindrops was colored by traversing

early study on inhibitory effects o f X-rays on cancer was done by German surgeon, Georg Clemens Perthes (1869— 1927) in 1903. Radium , an element first shown to be radio­

different thicknesses o f water. R en é Descartes (1596—1650) also gave an explanation in his Les Meteoros published in 1637. Sir Isaac New ton (1642—1727) made a smaU hole in

active by Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852—1908) in 1896,

the wall o f a darkened room to let in light and placed a

was used successfully in treatment o f cancer by S. W.

prism in its path which resulted in a the fracturing o f light

Goldberg o f St Petersburg in 1903. The results o f radium

into its colors, as seen in the rainbow.

treatment for cancer were published by Henri Danlos (1844—1912) in 1904.John Joly (1857—1933), a physicist from

R a in e y , George (1801-1844) Demonstrator at St Thomas’

Dublin, pioneered use o f radium for cancer treatment and

Hospital who described ectopic calcifications in tissues,

devised the Dublin method o f radiotherapy. Radium

known as R ainey tubes.

6 17

RALFE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TEST

R alfeTest Used for detection o f acetone in urine by adding

stenosis. Devised by German surgeon, Conrad Ramstedt (18 67-19 63),in 1912.

hydroxide and iodide o f potassium. Devised by Charles H enry Ralfe (1842-1896), a physician at the London

R a m o n y Cajal, Santiago (1852—1934) Spanish physician

Hospital. He wrote Urine (1880) and Diseases of the Kidney.

and histologist who graduated from Zaragoza University

R am an, Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata (1888-1970) Indian

in 1873. In 1883 he became professor o f anatomy at

physicist from Trichinopoly. He was educated at Madras

Valencia, then Barcelona (1886—1892) and finally professor

University and was appointed professor o f physics at Calcutta

o f histology and pathological anatomy at M adrid in 1892.

in 1917 where he served for 15 years before becoming the

He studied the microstructure o f the nervous system

director o f the Institute o f Science at Bangalore. He was

and developed many histological stains for this purpose.

awarded the N obel Prize for Physics in 1930 for his work on

He shared the N obel Prize in 1906 with Camillo Golgi

diffusion o f light and the discovery o f the Ram an effect.

(1843-1926) .

R am azzin i, Bernadini (1633—1714) Italian physician and

Ramsay, Alexander Scottish physician from Forfar in the

father o f occupational medicine, born at Capri near

17th century. He became a fellow o f the Royal College o f

Modena and graduated in medicine from the University o f

Physicians o f London in 1618 and was appointed physician

Parma in 1659. He was appointed to the chair o f medicine at

to Charles I in 1635.

Padua in 1700 and published De Morbis Artificum Diatriba in

Ramsay, David (1749—1815) Physician and historian from

1 7 1 3 .This was the first complete treatise on occupational diseases, including miners

Philadelphia. He practiced at Charleston in South Carolina

lung, farmers lung, lead

and became a member o f the first Legislative Council in

poisoning and other occupational diseases.

1776. He wrote History of American Revolution, The History of South Carolina, and several other works on history.

R am say H u nt Syndrom e

Facial paralysis, painful ears,

vesicular eruption o f the oropharynx due to herpes zoster infection

o f the

geniculate

ganglion. Described by

American neurologist,James Ramsay Hunt (1872—1937) in 1917. He graduated from the University o f Pennsylvania in 1893 and was made professor at the faculty o f the College o f Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University, N ew York in 1924.

Ramsay, SirWiUiam (1852-1916) Scottish chemist, born and educated in Glasgow. He was professor o f chemistry at University College,Bristol in 1880, and moved to London in 1887. He and Lord Rayleigh (1842—1919) discovered argon in 1894. He studied Brownian movement and explained it on the basis o f molecular coUision in 1879. He was professor o f chemistry at University College o f London from 1887 to 1912, during which time he was awarded the N obel Prize (1904) for Chemistry. H e wrote Essays Biographical and Chemical (1908), The Gases of the Atmosphere and the History of Their Discovery (1905) and several other works. Bernadini Ramazzini (1633-1714). Courtesy of the National Library of

R am sbotham , Francis H enry (18 0 1—1868) Son o f Joh n

Medicine

Ramsbotham, a lecturer in obstetrics at the London Hospital. After graduating from Edinburgh University in

R am d ohr Suture The upper part o f the divided intestine is invaginated

into

the

lower

part

during

1 822,he joined his father and became the first obstetric

intestinal

physician to the London Hospital 1853. He was an

anastomosis. Devised by American surgeon, Caesar A. von

opponent o f the use o f chloroform and published Principles

Ram dohr (1855-1912).

and Practice of Obstetric Medicine and Surgery in 1841 which went through 5 editions.

R am stedt O peration Used for relief o f congenital pyloric

618

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RAYLEIGH

R andacio N erves Five branches o f nerves arising from the

R aulin, Joseph (1708-1874) Physician to the king in Paris.

spheno-palatine ganglion. Described by a professor o f

H e wrote several m edical treatises in French including:

anatomy at the U niversity

Diseases occasioned by Variations in Atmosphere, Vapours in

o f Palmero, Francesco

Randacio (18 2 1-19 0 3 ),in 1863.

Females, Preservations of Infants and Diseases of Lying-in-women.

In craniometry, v^as described by Dutch

R auw olf, Leonhard (1537—1606) German botanist and

anthropologist and physician, Hans Rudolphe Ranke

physician who traveled extensively in Syria, Arabia and

(1849- 1887) in 1883.

Armenia, before he returned to his native Augsburg in 1576.

Ranke A ngle

R ankine, William John M acquorn (1820-1872) Scottish

His catalogue o f plants was published at Leiden in 175 5.The

natural philosopher and engineer, born in Edinburgh and

Indian snakeroot plant used as a remedy for snakebite and

graduated from Edinburgh University in 1838. He defined

for insanity was named after him by the French botanist.

the terms ‘actual’ and ‘potential’ energy. He was chair o f

Plumier.

engineering at Glasgow in 1855.

Rauivolfia serpentina The Indian snakeroot plant was used as a remedy for snakebite and insanity. French botanist.

Ranula [Latin: rana, frog] Old term for a tumor under the

Plum ier described it and named it after the Germ an

tongue, takes its origin due to its resemblance to a frog.

botanist Leonhard R a u w o lf (1537—1606). Five different

Ranvier, Louis Anthoine (1835—1922) French physician and

alkaloids were isolated from it by Indian doctors, S. Siddique

histologist at the College o f France, Paris. He made a special

and Rafat Siddique in 1931. It was used in the treatment o f

study o f peripheral nerves and described the regular

high blood pressure and psychoses by Indian scientists

interruptions o f the myelin sheath (nodes o f Ranvier) in 1 878.

Ganeth Sen and K atrick Bose, and by 19 5 1, it became

Defines the relationship between the vapor

established as treatment for hypertension under many

pressure o f a solvent above a solution and the mole fraction o f

names such as reserpine, serpasil, and sandril. Reserpine was

R aoult Law

solvent in solution. Proposed by French physical chemist,

the first tranquilizer to be introduced by R obert Wallace

François Marie Raoult (1830-1901) o f Paris. His work

in 1951.

provided a reHable method o f determining molecular weight.

R aw son, Sir William (d 1829) Oculist from Cornwall whose

R asm ussen A neurysm Branch o f the pulmonary artery

original name was Adams. He was apprenticed to a surgeon

affected by tuberculous involvement. Described by Danish

at Barnstaple where he developed an interest in diseases o f

physician, Fritz Waldemar Rasmussen (1834—1877).

the eye. He was appointed oculist to ophthalmology institutions at Bath and Exeter and was later made oculist

R at B ite Fever The first report o f rat bite fever was given by

extraordinary to the Prince Regent.

W hitm an W ilcox in 1840, and Streptobacillus monoliformis was shown as its cause by Henry Vandyke Carter (1831— 1897) in 1887. See Haverhillfever.

Ray, John (1628-1705) Born to a blacksmith’s family at Black Notley, near Braintree in Essex and educated at Cambridge,

Rathke P ouch Small diverticulum o f the early embryonic

where he taught until 16 61, before traveling as a naturalist in

pharynx giving rise to the anterior lobe o f pituitary gland.

Britain and abroad. His systems o f botanical and zoological

Described by a German professor at Dorpat, Martin

classification formed the basis for George C uvier’s (1769—

Heinrich Rathke (1793—1860) in 1838. He graduated in

1832) work. His Historia Plantarum containing a description

medicine from Berlin in 1818, and also discovered the

o f 18,600 plant species, commenced in 1686 and was

gillslits and gillarches o f birds and mammals in embryonic

completed in three volumes in 1704. He also published

stage, in 1829.

numerous treatises on a variety o f subjects.

Rau,J. Johann (1658—1719) Dutch anatomist who discovered

Rayer, Pierre François Olive (1793—1867) Physician from

the long process o f the auditory ossicle, anterior to the

Paris and authority on kidney diseases. He described

malleus, which is named (Rau apophysis) after him.

pyelonephritis in pregnant women, in 1841.

R äuber Layer Outer cell mass o f trophoblastic [Greek:

R ayleigh, Lord John William Strutt (1842-1919) British

trophe, nourishment + blastos, rudiment or bud] cells o f the

physicist, born in Essex and graduated fromTrinity College,

blastodermic vesicle. Described by Germ an-born professor

Cambridge in 1861. He completed his theory o f sound in

o f anatomy from Estonia, August Antinous Räuber (18 4 1-

1878. Sir William Ramsay (1852-1916) and Rayleigh

1917) in 1880.

discovered the inert gas helium in 1894. Rayleigh received

6 19

RAYNAUD

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

DISEASE

the N obel Prize for Physics for his work on gas density

membrane and stylus around 1865. A patent was obtained

in 1904.

by Alva Edison in 1877 and wax discs were used for recording sound by Alexander Graham Bell in 1886. A flat

R aynaud D isease Described by French physician, Maurice

disc phonograph was invented by a German inventor, Emile

Raynaud (1834-1881) o f the Hospital Lariboisière at Paris

Berliner (b 1851) in America in 1904.

in 1862. H e presented several cases o f intermittent cyanosis

R ectal Anesthesia Ether was used as rectal anesthesia by

which occurred on exposure to cold under the term ‘local

Nikolai Pirogofl^ (1810—1881) and R o u x in 1847. Although

asphyxia o f extremities’ .

ether produced excellent narcosis, its use was limited due to

R ead, Alexander (d 1680) Scottish physician and anatomist

damage caused to local tissues. Pirogoff later produced an

who graduated in medicine from Oxford in 1620 and wrote

apparatus, to warm ether and introduced it in the form o f

several medical treatises. One o f his most important, A

vapor. In 1 855, Dudley Buxton devised an improved appara­

Description of the Body of Man with practise of Chirurgery, and

tus with a similar function, but again the local side eflfects

the use of three andfifty Instruments, was published in 1615.

predominated. The technique was introduced into France

R eaum ur, R en é Antoine Ferchault de (1683—1757) French

by Daniel MoUiere in 1884, but failed to gain acceptance

natural philosopher, born in La Rochelle. He invented a

due to severe postoperative colitis. M ixing ether with olive

thermometer using alcohol and water with a range o f zero

oil was introduced by James Taylor Gwathmey (1865—1944)

to 80 degrees. H e wrote on insects. Mémoires pour sevir

in 1913. Paraldehyde was used byVincenzo Cervello (1854—

V historie des Insectes (1734—1742) in six volumes. He devel­

1919) in 1882 and it became widely used as a basal narcotic

oped a type o f porcelain and a method o f hatching eggs

from 1920 to 1930. Fritz Eicholtz o f Germany used avertin

using artificial heat.

or tribromomethyl alcohol in 1926. See anesthesia, ether, avertin.

R écam ier O peration Uterine curettage devised by French

R ectal B iopsy Routine use o f rectal biopsy in proctology

gynecologist,Joseph Claude Anselme Récamier (1774-1852).

was established by English surgeon,William Bahall Gabriel (b 1893) in 1948.

R ecapitu lation T h eory States that the series o f embryonic stages through which an animal passes during its develop­

R ectal C arcinom a In 1776 H. Pillore a French surgeon

ment represent its evolutionary ancestry. Advocated by

from R o u en opened the cecum into the right iHac region

Ernst Heinrich Phillipp August Haeckel (1834—1919) in

through a peritoneal incision for a patient with carcinoma

1866. His theory was supported by Jean Louis Rodolphe

o f the rectum. Extirpation was advised by Jacques Lisfi*anc

Agassiz (1807—1873) a Swiss-American naturalist and

(1790—1847) in 1830. Early surgical removal was advocated

glaciologist.

by William Harrison Cripps (1850-1923) in his Jacksonian Prize essay in 1876, and the surgical treatment was revived

R ecep tacu lu m Chyli [Latin: receptaculum, store house]

by Sir James Paget (1814—1889) in England. Perineal exci­

Dilatation o f the thoracic duct, described in 1647 by Jean

sion was performed by Swiss surgeon, Emil Theodor Kocher

Pecquet (1622-1674), a French anatomist, while he was a

(1841—1917) in 1875. Excision o f the coccyx and the left

student.

margin o f the sacrum to reach a higher level carcinoma was performed by Paul Kraske (1851—1930) in 1885.Abdom ino­

R ecessive [Latin: rece55M5, withdrawn] See dominance.

perineal resection was established by William Ernest Miles

R ecklinghausen D isease See von Recklinghausen disease,

(1869—1947) in 1904. Another radical operation was

osteitisfibrosa cystica.

introduced by William James Mayo (1861—1939) in 1910. A

R eclus D isease Painless swelling o f the mammary glands

perineal

method

of

excision

was

developed

by

due to multiple dilation o f the acini and ducts. Described by

Lockhart-M um m ery in 1914, and the two stage perineo-

French gynecologist, Paul Reclus (1847—1914).

abdominal method was described by Paul Turner in 1920.

R ecorde,

R o bert

(1510-1558)

mathematician, born

English

physician

Cuthbert Dukes’s (b 1890) analysis o f 1000 cases o f cancer

and

o f the rectum was published in The Journal of Pathology and

in Tenby and graduated from

Bacteriology in 1940.

Cambridge in 1545. He wrote a treatise on elementary arithmetic and algebra and introduced the equals sign.

R ectal D iseases [Latin: rectum, straight] See rectal carcinoma, analfistula, proctology.

R ecorder Leon Scott de Martinville, an American o f French origin, made graphic recordings o f speech using a vibrating

R ectal F eeding Practiced by Spanish physician Avenzoar

620

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

REED

(1092—1162). He washed out the lower bowel and then

microscopic organism o f plague. He used a primitive

injected milk, eggs and soft food into it, using a goat

microscope with a magnification o f only X32 and described

bladder connected to a rectal tube.

what he saw as ‘worm s’ o f plague in Scrutium Pestis.The first definite observation was made by a Dutch naturalist and

R ectal Prolapse [ L a t i n f o r t h + laps, to slip] A n operative

physician,Jan Swammerdam (1637—1680) in 1658. Antoni

treatment was described by Polish surgeon, Johann von

van Leeuwenhoek (1632—1723) made microscopical obser­

M ikulicz-Radecki (1850—1905) in 1888.

vations o f blood in 1674. Georges Hayem (1841—1933),

R ectu m [Latin: rectus, straight] One o f the inscriptions on

professor o f clinical medicine at the University o f Paris

the Egyptian tomb o f a physician from 2500 B C bears the

identified the early stage o f generation o f red ceUs and

phrase ‘Keeper o f the K ing’s R ectu m ’ . Hippocrates (460—

caUed them hematoblasts in 18 77. A classification o f anemias

377 B C ) was familiar with the subject and described a rectal

based on their morphology was proposed by M axwell M yer

speculum.John ofArdane (1307—1390), an English surgeon,

Wintrobe (1901—1986) in 1930 who proposed four types:

specialized in rectal diseases and designed several operations.

macrocytic, normocytic, simple microcytic and chronic

The O ’Beirne sphincter, a band at the junction o f the colon

microcytic. Formation o f hemoglobin from its precursor

and the rectum, was described by Irish surgeon,James O ’Beirne

substances w ithin the bone m arrow was shown by B. R .

(1786—1862). John Houston (1802-1845), a physician from

Burmester o f Leipzig in 1936. The life span o f red ceUs

Dublin, described sphincter ani tertius (Houston valve) o f

was established by London—born American pathologist,

the rectum in 1830. Sir Charles Bent Ball (1851—1916),

Winifred Ashby (1879—1935).

another proctologist from DubHn, described the rectal valves

R ed Cross S ociety The initiator o f the movement was a

(Ball valves) previously described by Giovanni Battista

Swiss philanthropist, Jean Henry Dunant (1828—1910) o f

Morgagni (1682—1771) in his The Rectum and Anus, their

Geneva. His efforts were motivated by the plight o f 40,000

diseases and treatment published in 1887. See rectal carcinoma.

dead or wounded at the battle o f Solferino in 1859. He

R ecurrent Laryngeal N erves [Latin: recurrens, returning;

wrote A Memory of Solferino in which he pleaded for neutral

Greek: laryngx, upper part o f wind pipe] Found on either

status for the wounded and for those who cared for them. In

side o f the trachea and were used for experimentation in

1863 he organized an international Congress in Geneva

animals by Andreas Vesalius (1514—1564). He demonstrated

where his proposals were adapted. The first R e lie f Society

that the voice was totally lost by cutting both pairs o f

was formed in the same year and it became the R e d Cross

nerves.

Society in 1864.

R ed B lo o d C ell See red cell.

R ed H ypertension See pale hypertension.

R ed B lo o d C orpuscle See red cell.

R ed Water Fever See babesiasis.

R ed C ell Fragility As early as in i77i,W iU iam Hewson

R ed i, Francesco (1626—1697) Italian physician from Arezzo

(1739—1774), a pupil o f John Hunter (1728-1793), observed

credited with being the first parasitologist. He refuted the

that red cells were destroyed in water but remained normal

theory o f spontaneous generation and demonstrated that

in salt solution. A salt solution capable o f preserving red and

maggots developed from eggs laid by the flies.The egg and

other cells was prepared by Sidney R in ger (1835—1910) in

the reproductive process o f the roundworm were described

1880. Studies on fragility were done by WiUiam Bosworth

him in 1684.

Castle (b 1897) and G.A.Dalland in 1937, and their work on

R ed u ctio n Potential See oxidation potential.

the subject was followed by that o f WiUiam Dameshak

R eed , Walter (1851—1902) American army surgeon from

(1900—1969) and Steven Otto Schwartz (b 19 11) in 1938.

Virginia who trained in medicine at the University o f

See Ham test.

R ed Cell Index

Virginia and the BeUvue Hospital Medical School. He was

Includes mean corpuscular hemoglobin

head o f the Medical Commission in Cuba in 1899 and,

concentration (M CH C), and mean corpuscular volume

together with James Carroll (i 854-1907), Aristedes Simone

(M C V j. Proposed by American hematologist, MaxweU M yer

Agramonte

Wintrobe (1901—1986) during his work on classification o f

(1868-1931)

and James WiUiam

Lazier

(1866-1900), studied yeUow fever. They worked on the

anemias on the basis o f red ceU morphology in 1930.

theory proposed by Carlos Finlay in 1881, that the mosquito

R ed Cell Probably first seen in 1658 by Athanasius Kircher

was the carrier o f the disease. Finlay aUowed himself to be

(1601—1680), a Jesuit priest, while attempting to view the

bitten by mosquitoes during the experiments and survived

621

REED-STERNBERG

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

CELL

an attack o f yellow fever but his colleague Lazier died o f the

1842) in 18 11 and François Magendie (1783-1855) in 1822.

disease. Further experiments proved that yellow fever was

The segmental nature o f the spinal cord and its interface

transmitted by a mosquito, Aëdes aegypti, in 1900. R eed s

with the higher centers was demonstrated by Marshall Hall

work demonstrated that the organism responsible was the

(1790—1857) in 1833. Further advances were made by Sir

same as that described by Martinus W illem Beijerinck

Charles Scott Sherrington (1857-1952) in 1899. Work on

(18 51-19 31) in 1898 and this was the first time that a virus

the tendon reflex or stretch reflex was continued at Oxford

had been implicated in a human disease.

by Edward George Tandy Liddell, a neurophysiologist, and

R eed —Sternberg Hodgkin

C ell

disease

and

Characteristic described by

Sir Charles Scott Sherrington in 1924. A comprehensive

cell found in Dorothy

work. Reflex Activity of the Spinal Cord, was published by

R eed

Sherrington, Sir John Carew Eccles (b 1903), Creed, Derek

(1874-1964) o f Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1902.

Denny-Brown

These cells were previously recognized by Austrian

(19 0 1-19 8 1)

and

Liddell

in

1932.

See autonomic nervous system, Barbinski reflex, kneejerk.

pathologist,Karl von Sternberg (1872—1935) in 1898.

R eflux Esophagitis [Latin: re, back + fluxus, flow +

R ees Test Used for detection o f albumin in urine with

oisophagos, guUet + itis, inflammation] The presence o f

tannic acid in an alcoholic solution. Devised by English

hydrochloric acid in the stomach was shown by English

physician, George O wen R ees (1813-1889).

chemist and physiologist, WiUiam Prout (1785—1850) o f Consists o f a reflecting mirror

Horton. Harvey Williams Cushing (1869—1939) ofAm erica

instead o f an objective glass. Invented by Giovanni Battista

used the term ‘esophagitis’ in relation to pathology found in

Amici (1786—1863) o f Florence in 1812. See microscope.

the esophagus o f patients with brain lesions in 1932. The

R eflectin g M icroscope

term ‘peptic esophagitis’ was coined by Asher Winkelstein

R eflectin g T elescope An early instrument was invented by from

(b 1894) ofA m erica in 1935. Another early account was

Aberdeen. He described it in Optica Promota, feu abdita

given by E.B. Benedict and E .M . Dalard in the New England

Radiorum Reflexorum and Refractorum Mysteria, Geometrice

Journal of Medicine in 1938. Use o f the term to denote

Enucleata, published in 1668. Another was built by Sir Isaac

inflammation o f the esophagus secondary to regurgitation

Newton (1642—1727) in the same year. John Hadley

o f gastric juices was started by Norm an R . Barrett

(1682—1744), an Enghsh mathematician and astronomer,

(1903-1979) in 1949.

James

Gregory

(1638-1675),

a

mathematician

perfected it in 1731 and John Mudge (d 1793), a physician

R efraction [Latin: refringere, to break apart] See optics.

and mechanic in Plymouth improved it in 1793. See telescope.

R efractory Period [Latin: refractorius, obstinate] Its existence R eflection o f H eat

Known to Pliny (AD 23-79) who

was observed by a German physiologist o f Jewish origin,

described the sacred fire ofVesta which was rekindled using a metallic mirror to

reflect the

M oritz Schiff (1823-1896). Refractoriness o f a frog’s heart

rays o f the sun.

during systole was demonstrated by Karl Hugo Kronecker

Giovanni Battiste deUa Porta (1535—1615), in his seventh

(1839—1914). Francis Gotch (1853—1913) and G.J. Burch in

book o f Natural Magic, pointed out that heat and sound

1899 showed that if a primary stimulus is followed by a

could be reflected in the same way as light. Italian professor

second stimulus within 0.008 second, the second stimulus

o f mathematics, Bonaventure Calvalieri (d 1647), used a

failed to evoke a response. Further investigation were done

spherical mirror and reflected the heat from burning coal

by Edgar Douglas Adrian (1889—1977) and Keith Lucas

to burn dry substances in 1632.

R eflex A ction [Latin: reflexus, bent]

(1879-1916) in 1912. The involuntary

R efrigeration

response o f the nervous system was observed as early as

A nesthesia

See

regional

anesthesia.

hypothermia.

1662 by R en é Descartes (1596—1650) and experiments on

R efrigeration [Latin: refrigió, m2Lke cool] A mixture o f snow

the physiology were done by Stephen Hales (1677—1761), a chemist, botanist and clergyman fromTeddington in 1730.

and saltpetre was used by an Italian, Zimara, in 1660.

He noted the reflex withdrawal o f the leg in a decapitated

Artificial ice was made by freezing water under pressure by

frog, and was able to abolish this by inducing a lesion in the

Sir John LesHe (1766—1832), professor o f physics at

spinal cord. The term ‘reflex’ was introduced by Johan

Edinburgh in 1810. The invention o f steam machines in

August Unzer (1727—1799) to describe the sensory-motor

1830 and electricity enabled ice to be mass produced and

reaction in 1771 .The functions o f the dorsal and spinal roots

led to establishment o f large cold storage rooms. The era o f

in the reflex arc were described Sir Charles Bell (1774—

modern refrigeration began with the invention o f a

622

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

REID

compression method, using ammonia, by French engineer,

SamuelTuke (i784-i857),aphysicianfrom Yorkin 18 15 ,and

Ferdinand Carre in 1857. His method was improved by a

by John ConoUy (1794-1866) at the Hanwell Asylum in

German, Karl Paul Gottfried von Linde (1842—1934) in

London in 1843. A pioneer in the application o f physical

1873.

medicine to diseases o f the joints and bones was French

Another was invented by Eugène Anatole Demarcay

(1852—1903), French chemistry professor in Paris. Freon, a non-toxic

and non-inflammable

surgeon, Amédée Bonnet (1802—1858). He was professor

agent for domestic

o f surgery at l’Hôtel Dieu in Lyon and published Traite des

refrigerators, was introduced by American scientist Thomas

Maladies des Articulations (1845) in two volumes, followed by

M idgley (1889—1944) around

Traites des Thérapeutique des Maladies des Articulations in 1853.

Seefood industry.

His works showed the application o f physiotherapy in joint

R efsum Syndrom e Congenital condition consisting o f

disease. One o f the first units to treat and rehabilitate spinal

retinitis pigmentosa, ataxia, and peripheral neuropathy

injuries in England was Stoke Mandeville Hospital which

Described by FThieubaut ofParis in i939.Another account o f

was started by Sir Ludwig Guttmann (1899—1980) at

the condition was given by Sigvald Refsum (b 1907) in 1945.

Buckinghamshire in 1944. In England the Chronically Sick

R ega, H enry Joseph (1690—1754) Professor o f medicine at

and Disabled Persons Act o f 1970 made local authorities

the University o f Louvain in France. He helped the poor

responsible for facilities for the disabled.

and the sick at his own expense and wrote several medical

R eich , Wilhelm (1897—1957) Controversial psychiatrist from

treatises including De Lymphopathia.

Vienna who proposed sexual satisfaction and orgasm as the

R egeneration [Latin; re, again + generare, to produce]

main theme in psychiatry. He wrote Function of the Orgasm

See tissue culture, nerve regeneration.

in 1929 and was expelled from Germany for his views on sex and politics. He emigrated to America in 1939 and was

R egion al Anesthesia Refrigeration anesthesia, by applying

later prosecuted there for improper practice.

cold water or snow, was introduced by Marco Aurelio Severino (1580-1656) o f Naples and French military

R eichel-Jones-H en derson Syndrom e

surgeon, Dominique Jean Larrey (1766—1842), used ice to

See Henderson,

Melvin Starkey.

perform amputations in the battlefield in 1807. A freezing

R eichert Cartilage Second bronchial arch described by

mixture o f ice and salt was used by James Arnott o f

German professor o f comparative anatomy at Dorpat, Karl

Aberdeen in 1847. Benjamin Ward Richardson (1828-1896)

Bogislaus Reichert (18 11-18 83) in 1836.

used ether spray to produce local refrigeration in 1867. Compression was practiced by James Carrick M oore

R eichstein, Tadeus (b 1897) Swiss chemist, born in Poland

(1763-1834) o f England in 1784.The local anesthetic effect

who worked on carbohydrate chemistry. He synthesized

o f cocaine on the eye was discovered by Carl Roller

vitamin C in 1933. From 1934 he began to work on steroids,

(1857-1944) ofVienna in 1884. N eural regional anesthesia

isolating and identifying 29, including cortisone and

was perform ed by injecting cocaine into the inferior

hydrocortisone. He shared the 1950 N obel Prize for

dental nerve for dental extraction by William Halstead

Physiology or Medicine. See adrenal insufficiency.

(1852-1922) o f America in 1884. He also injected cocaine

R eid , Alexander (1580—1641) Scottish physician from

into the meninges and this later paved the way for spinal

Aberdeen who lectured at the Barber-Surgeons Hall. He

anesthesia. See block, local anesthesia, spinal anesthesia.

bequeathed his library to Marischal College.

R ehabilitation M edicine [Latin: rehabilitare, to rehabilitate]

R e id ,Jo h n (1809—1849) Surgeon at Edinburgh who promot­

Minimizing the effects o f incapacitation caused by disease.

ed the study o f pathology. He differentiated between

Occupational therapy was used to treat mental disorders

typhoid and typhus fever and published several treatises

and the physician Seneca (4 B C —A D 65) recom m ended

on pathology, anatomy and epidemic fevers o f Scotland.

employment for mental unrest. Galen (AD 129—200) commented that ‘employment is natures best physician’ .

R eid , Thomas (1710—1796) B orn in Kincardine and regarded

French surgeon, Ambroise Paré (1510-1590) attempted

as the founder o f the Scottish School o f philosophy. He was

rehabilitation o f amputees with artificial limbs. Simple

educated at Aberdeen and was professor o f philosophy at

measures such as gardening, sewing, spinning were used

K ing’s College and professor o f moral philosophy at

successfully in a mental hospital in Philadelphia by

Glasgow from 1764 to 1781. He wrote Essay on the

Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) in 1798. Occupation as a form

Intellectual Power of Man (1785), Essays on the Active Power

o f treatment for mental illnesses was also proposed by

of the Human Mind (1788) and a number o f other treatises.

623

REID

BASE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

LINE

R eid Base Line Anthropometric measurements defined by

the first. Nicholas Avrion Mitchison (b 1928) in 1954

Scottish anatomist, R o bert William R e id (1851—1939), a

showed that transplant immunity could be passively

demonstrator in anatomy at St Thomas’ Hospital, in 1939.

produced by transfusing lymphocytes, thus estabHshing the fundamental immunological nature o f the reaction.

R eil, Johann Christian (1759—1813) Neuroanatomist and

The role o f 6-mercaptopurine in prolonging survival o f

physician at BerHn. He described the insula o f the cerebral

kidney

cortex or the lobule o f corpus striatum in 1796, known as the island o f R eil. He wrote a modern systematic treatise on

Franz Daniel

in

animals

was

demonstrated

by

R ejuvenation [Latin: re, again + juvenescere, to becom e

psychotherapy in 1803.

R eisseisen,

grafts

R .Y . Caine in i960. See organ transplant, histocompatibility.

young] There was an ancient belief that intercourse with a

(1773—1828) Anatomist and

young virgin rejuvenated the body. The alchemist’s search

physician from Strasburg in Germ any He demonstrated

for the mythical Philosopher’s stone was aimed at attaining

contraction o f the smooth muscles in the wall o f the

eternal youth. Operative procedures were explored in the

smallest bronchial tubes during an asthmatic attack in 1808.

early 20th century and Hgation o f the vas deferens was

R eissner M em brane Membrana vestibularis o f the cochlea

performed as a procedure for rejuvenation by Eugen

separating scala vestibuli and scala media. Described by

Steinach (1861—1944). SergeVoronoff (1866—1951), a French

Ernst Reissner (1824—1878),professor o f anatomy at Breslau

physiologist o f Russian origin, reported experimental

in 1851.

rejuvenation by means o f a testicular transplant in 1919. His Graffes testicularis (1920) was translated into EngHsh as

R eiter D isease Characterized by urethritis, conjunctivitis,

Rejuvenation by Grafting in 1925. See organotherapy.

and arthritis and described by Benjam in Collins Brodie

R elapsing Fever [Latin: re, again + lapsare, to slip] Observed

(1783—1862) o f St George’s Hospital in 1818. A modern description was given by a German bacteriologist, Hans

and described during the epidemic at the Island ofThasos

R eiter (1881—1969) o f the German Medical Corps in 1916,

by Hippocrates (460—377 B C ). John R u tty (1697—1775) mentioned it in his treatise on the diseases o f DubUn

who mistakenly attributed the disease to a spirochete.

published in 1770. A causative organism, a spirochete {Borrelia recurrentis) was discovered by Otto Hugo Franz Obermeier (1843—1873) in 1873. A tick, Ornithodorus moubata, was identified in 1904 as a carrier by Hedgeland Philip Ross

(1876—1929) and A.D.M ilne in Uganda

and Joseph Everett Dutton (1877-1905) and John Lancelot Todd (1876—1949) in the Congo. The causative organism o f American relapsing fever, the body louse {Pediculus humanis corporis), was identified by Frederick George N ovy (1864—1957), professor o f bacteriology at Michigan. Inoculation with blood from an infected patient or mouse • was employed as shock treatment for neurosyphiHs around 1920.

R elativity Thomas Young (1773—1829) considered the ether as an invisible medium through which Hght traveled in waves. Americans, Albert Abraham Michelson (1852-1931) o f German origin and Edward Williams M orley (1838Hans Reiter (1881-1969). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

1923) o f Newark, N ew Jersey showed that the velocity o f light was the same in all directions and independent o f the

R ejection R eaction Response following autotransplanta­

motion o f the Earth. In 1905 Albert Einstein (1879—1955)

tion o f skin was described by Thomas Gibson (b 1915)

developed the theory o f special relativity which referred to

and Sir Peter Brian Medawar (1915-1987) in 19 4 3 .They

systems in uniform motion relative to each other. His

demonstrated

the

theory o f gravitation, the general theory o f relativity, was

phenomenon by showing that the second transplant

the

immunological

nature

of

completed on November 25 1915 and submitted to Annalen

under similar conditions was rejected more quickly than

der Physik on March 20 1916. See Einstein,Albert.

624

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RENAL

RICKETS

R e m a k jR o b e r t (1815-1865) German professor o f neurology

i90i).Jaffe mixed the sample o f blood with picric acid and

at Posnan who noted in 1825 that the gray matter o f the

sodium hydroxide, which gave a red color reaction in

brain contained cellular tissue. He described the unmyeli­

combination with creatinine (Gaffe method). Danish

nated nerve fibers (Remak fibers) in 1838. He observed

physiologist, P. B. Rehberg (b 1895) assumed that creatinine

favus scutula while at the Charité Hospital in Berlin around

was excreted solely through the glomeruli and used its

1837. He discovered the cardiac ganglia which exert

clearance rate as a measure o f glomerular filtration in 1926.

nervous control on the muscular activity o f the heart

R enal H em a n g io m a [Latin: rendis, kidney; Greek: hdma,

(Remak ganglia) in 1844, and classified the embryonic

blood + anggeion, vessel] R are tumors found by Elexius

germ layers into ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm in

Thompson Bell (b 1880), professor o f pathology at the

1845. Acetic acid was used to fix nuclei in histology by

University

Rem ak in 1854.

R enal A cidosis [Latin: renalis, kidney] The occurrence o f

1938. He

autopsies performed in his Institute.

acid intoxication in renal failure was observed by R u d o lf

R enal H y p erten sio n [Latin: renalis, kidney; Greek: hyper,

von Jaksch (1855—1947) in 1888.Walter Straub (b 1874) and

above + tonos, tone] Profound involvement o f the cardio­

Schlayer in 1912 observed that the carbon dioxide content

vascular system with cardiac hypertrophy in cases o f renal

o f alveolar air in uremia was low. Edward Palmer Poulten

disease was observed by Richard Bright (1789—1858) in

(1883—1939) and J.H .R y ffel showed that the hydrogen

1827. He also noticed increased resistance o f the arteries

content o f the blood was increased in uremia in 1913.

to injection. Thickening o f renal arteries in hypertension

R enal A ngiogram [Latin: rendis, kidney; Greek: anggeion, vessel +

o f Minnesota, Minneapolis in

demonstrated only one hemangioma out o f 30,000

was demonstrated by Joseph Tonybee (18 15—1866) in

to write] Spanish physician, Reynaldo Dos

1846. Ludw ig Traube (1818—1876) o f Berlin found that

Santos (b 1880), injected a contrast medium directly into

arterial hypertension was the linking factor between

the renal arteries in 1937. Injection o f a dye into the renal

renal disease and hypertension in 1856. The humoral

artery via the femoral artery was done by P. L. Farinas in

mechanism was demonstrated by R o b ert A d o lf Arm and

1949 and Radner used the radial artery for access in 1949.

Tigerstedt (18 53-1923) and Per Gustaf Bergm an (18 74-

Selective catheterization o f renal arteries was developed by

1955)* T hey injected an extract o f the cortex o f rabbit

H .Tillander in 1951. A modification o f the percutaneous

kidney and produced elevated blood pressure in 1898.

technique for catheterization, which allowed the introduc­

T h ey also found that the blood from the renal vein had a

tion o f a catheter o f a diameter larger than that o f the needle

similar action and they named the active substance

used for initial puncture, was devised by Swedish radiolo­

‘renin’ . T he role o f renal ischemia in production o f

gist, Sven Ivar Seldinger (b 1921) in 1953.A special method

hypertension was demonstrated by H arry Goldblatt

for use on the surgically exposed kidney during operation

(18 9 1—1977) in 1934. T he protein nature o f renin was

(intra-operative angiogram) was devised by C.E.Aiken in 1950.

suggested by Sir George W hite Pickering (1904—1982)

R enal A rtery Stenosis [Latin: rewij/is, kidney] Harry J.G o ld -

and M yron Prinzmetal (b 1908) in 1938. R en al changes in

blatt (1891-1977) and colleagues demonstrated in 1934 that

malignant hypertension were demonstrated in animals by

if both renal arteries were constricted in dogs, hypertension

Clifford W ilson (b 1906) and Frank Burnet Byrom in

followed. Percutaneous transluminal dilatation o f stenozed

1939. See pale hypertension.

renal arteries was performed as treatment for renal

R enal O steodystrophy [Latin: renalis,kidney; Greek: osteon,

hypertension by Andreas R . Gruentzig (d 1985) and

bone + dys, mis + trophein, to nourish] See renal rickets.

co-workers in 1979.

R enal Papillary N ecrosis [Latin: renalis, kidney + papilla, R enal D ecapsu lation [Latin: rendis, kidney] Performed by

nipple; Greek: nekros, dead] The urographic appearance o f

R . Harrison in 1896 and revived by N ew York surgeon

the kidneys in this disease was described by G. W Gunther

George Michael Edebohls (1853—1908) in 1902.

o f Stuttgart in 1937. Diagnosis using Gunther’s radiological criteria was used by OUe Oleson in 1939.

R enal D ialysis [Latin: rendis, kidney; Greek: dia, through+ lysis, loosening] See artificid kidney.

R enal Rickets [Latin: renalis, kidney; Greek: rachis, spine]

R enal F unction A method o f estimating creatinine in blood

Renal osteodystrophy in patients with chronic renal disease

was devised by M ax Jaffe ( 18 4 1-19 11) in 1886, and its pres­

was described by Richard Clement Lucas (1848—1915) o f

ence in urine was detected by M ax von Pettenkofer (1818—

G uy’s Hospital in

625

1883. Conversion

o f 25-hydroxy-

RENAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

STONES

cholecalciferol from the liver to i-25-hydroxy-cholecalciferol

hypertension could be produced by clamping the renal

in the kidneys, which explained renal rickets, was discovered

artery. The protein nature o f renin was suggested by Sir

by D. R . Fraser and E. Kodicek in 1970.

George White Pickering (1904—1982), regius professor o f medicine at Christ Church College, Oxford and American

R enal Stones [Latin: renalis, kidney] Substances such as uric

cardiologist, M yron Prinzmetal (b 1908) o f Buffalo in 1938.

acid, calcium and ammonium in urinary stones were shown by English chemist and physician, William Hyde Wollaston

The enzymatic nature o f renin and its action on angiotonin

(1766—1828) in 1797. A procedure for nephrolithotomy,

was demonstrated by Eduardo Braun-Menendez (b 1903)

where the stone was removed through a lumbar incision,

from Buenos Aires and Argentinian N obel Prize winner,

was performed by Sir H enry M orris (1844—1926) o f

Luis Frederico Leloir (b 1906) and colleagues in i939.Their

London in 1880. A n X -ray o f renal calculus was taken by

findings were confirmed by Irwin Heinley Page (b 1901) o f Cleveland and O. M . Helmer in 1940. Pure renin was

John Macyntyre (1857—1928) in 1896.

obtained by Goldblatt, Hass and Lamfrom in 1953.

R enal Transplantation [Latin: rewa/is, kidney] Experim en­ tal studies on renal grafts were done by Alexis Carrel (1873—

R en ogram [Latin: renalis, kidney; Greek: graphein, to write]

1944) in 1914. A clinical transplant was performed at the

A method o f assessing kidney function using radioisotopes

Peter Bent Brigham Hospital at Boston in 1955 .A series o f 9

was introduced by C. C. Winter and G.V.Taplin in 1955.

patients who underwent transplantation from unrelated

Estimation o f renal blood flow using albumin iodine-13 1

cadavers was reported by David Milford Hume (1917—

was performed by Perskey in 1957.

1973),John Putnam M errill (1917—1986) and G .W Thorn in

R ep rod uction [Latin: re, again + productio, production]

1955. Five failed to show any measurable renal function and

See gametes.

varying levels o f renal functions were obtained from the other four patients for 180 days.The main cause for failure

R eserpine See Rauwolfia serpentina.

was thought to be an adverse antibody response. A successful renal transplant between identical twins was

R eson ance T heory Theory o f hearing that proposed that

made by Joseph Edward Murray (b 1919) and co-workers at

the transverse fibers o f the basilar membrane in the cochlea

Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in 1958. The role o f

o f the inner ear acted as a tuned resonator. Developed by

6-mercaptopurine in prolonging survival o f kidney grafts

Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (18 21—1894) o f Potsdam while professor o f anatomy and physiology at

in animals was shown by R .Y . Caine in i960.

Bonn in 1855.

R enaudot, Theophrastus (1583-1653) French physician from

R esorcin

Lundun who produced the newspaper, Mercure Françoise

Bactericidal, fungicidal and antipruritic, 1,3 -

between 1635 and 1643. He was physician to the King at

benzenediol, was obtained in crystalline form by Hlasiwetz

Paris and opened several free clinics for the poor in 1635.

and Barth in 1868. A study o f the antipyretic properties was

R endu—Osier—Weber

Syndrom e

(Syn:

done by J. Andreer in 1881, and it remained as a common

hereditary

antipruritic until 1900.

hemorrhagic telengiectasis) Multiple telengiectatic lesions

R espiration

o f the face and upper gastrointestinal tract with a bleeding

[Latin: respiratio, breathe] Orthopnoea as a

symptom o f cardiorespiratory disease was described by Paul

tendency. D escribed by H enri Jules Louis M arie R en d u (1844—1902) o f Paris in 1896, Frederick Parkes Weber

o f Aegina (625—690) as ‘to pant for breath and from their

(1863-1962) professor o f applied therapeutics at Temple

being obliged to keep the chest erect for fear o f being

University, Philadelphia in 1904 and Sir William Osier

suffocated, they are called orthopnoeic’ . Scientific work on respiratory physiology was done by London physician,John

(1849-1919) in 1907.

M ayow (1640—1679) who wrote On Respiration and On the

R enin [Latin: renalis, kidney] A pressor substance in saline

Respiration of the Foetus in 1674. In 1774 Joseph Priestley

extracts o f the cortex o f rabbit kidney was noted by R obert

(1733—1804), a chemist in England, demonstrated that blood

A d o lf Arm and Tigerstedt (18 53-19 2 3) and Per G ustaf

became bright red when exposed to oxygen and it turned

Bergman (1874—1955) in 1898. They injected the extract

darker with carbon dioxide. French chemist Antoine

into animals and found that it increased blood pressure.

Laurent Lavoisier (1743—1794) discovered that it required

They also found that blood from the renal vein had a similar

oxygen in 1775, stating that ‘Respiration is therefore a

action and named the substance ‘renin’ . H arry Goldblatt

combustion, slow it is true, but otherwise perfectly similar

(1891—1977),J. Lynch and R.F. Hanzal in 1934 showed that

to that o f charcoal’ .Julien Jean Cesar Legallois (1775—1814),

626

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RETINA

a physician and physiologist from Cherneix, Brittany,

Pierre Flourens (1794-1867) o f Paris identified the bilateral

discovered the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata

‘vital nodes’ o f the medulla in 1837.

in 18 12, and Pierre Jean M arie Flourens (1794-1867)

R espiratory F un ction Tests See pulmonaryfunction tests.

identified the bilateral ‘vital nodes’ o f this in 1837. The

R espiratory P hysiology

Hering-Breuer reflex, a neurogenic reflex arising in the

Change in blood color in the

lung and controlling the rate and depth o f respiration via

lungs was noted by a physician and pioneer in blood trans­

the vagus nerve, was described by Jo se f Breuer (1842—1925)

fusion, Richard Lower (1631—1691), from Cornwall in

and Karl E .K . H ering (1834—1918) in 1868.The part played

1669. Some physiology experiments on respiration were

by

done by English chemist and physician, Jo h n M ayow

the

diaphragm was

studied by Ludwig Traube

(1818-1876) and Le Gros Clark in 18 71, and George Minott

(1643—1679) who demonstrated the difference between

Garland (1849-1926)

arterial and venous blood in 1674 when a mouse in a closed

o f N ew York in

1878. Other

respiratory physiologists include: John Scott Haldane

container died. He named the hypothetical substance in

(1860-1936) who investigated the toxic effects o f carbon

the air ‘igneo-aereum’ which later was shown to be oxy­

m onoxide;John Gillies Priestley (1879—1941) a respiratory

gen. The role o f oxygen in respiration was demonstrated

physiologist who worked with Haldane;John Hutchinson

by Joseph Priestley (1733—1804), in 1774 and by Antoine

(18 11—1861) who invented the spirometer; Leonard Erskin

Laurent Lavoisier (1743—1794) in 1780. See respiration, lung

Hill (1866—1952) who worked on respiratory physiology o f

functions, aviation medicine.

caisson disease in 1915; and Sir Joseph Barcroft (1872-1947),

R esurrectionist

Body snatchers who took bodies from

professor o f physiology at Cambridge who devised an

graves to supply for a fee to anatomists for dissection. A

apparatus for blood gas analysis. In cellular respiration, the

famous criminal case was that o f Burke and Hare. See Burke

hydrogen

and Hare murders. Anatomy Act.

acceptor

cytochrome

was

discovered

by

M acM unn in 1886. Glutathione, a hydrogen carrier in

R esuscitation See cardiac resuscitation.

cellular respiration, was isolated by N obel Prize winner. Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861—1947) o f Cambridge

R eticuloend oth elial System [Latin: reticulum, net; Greek:

University in 19 21. See artificial respiration, cellular respiration.

endon, within + thele, nipple] Term coined in 1913 by Ludwig Karl Albert A schoff (1866-1942) to describe the characteristic cells distributed in the reticulum framework o f the spleen, liver and bone marrow which were phagocytotic to dyestuff. Classification o f reticuloendothelial diseases was proposed by Maurice Favre (1876-1954), professor o f pathological anatomy at Lyons.

R eticu locyte [Latin: reticulum, net; Greek: kytos, cell] Pre­ cursor o f the red blood cell identified by N obel Prize winner, Paul Erhlich (1854—1915), using his own staining method in 1881. A description was given in 1903 by Victor ClarenceVaughan (1851-1929), an American microbiologist and biochemist.

R etina [Latin: reticulum, a net] Described as one o f the seven layers o f the eye by Galen (AD 12 9 - 200). The blind spot was discovered by Edeme Mariotte (1620—1684), prior at

Sir Joseph Barcroft's differential blood gas manometer used for study of tissue respiration. G.V.Anrep and D.T. Harris, Practical Physiology 0 923).

the Cloister o f Saint Martin in France in 1668. Francesco

Churchill, London

Buzzi, an optic surgeon from Milan, observed and identified the ‘yellow spot’ or macula lutea and the central fovea in 1782. The layer containing rods and cones was

Respirators See artificial respiration, iron lung.

described by Irish ophthalmic surgeon, Arthur Jacob

R espiratory C enter Julien Jean Cesar Legallois (177 5-

(1790-1874) in 1819. R o b e rt Blassig (18 30 -18 78 ), the

1814), a physician and physiologist from Brittany in France

director o f the Ophthalmic Hospital at St Petersburg,

showed it in the medulla oblongata in 1812. M arie Jean

described the spaces in the anterior part o f the retina near

6 27

RETINAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

DETACHMENT

the ora serrata in 1863.The theory o f vision which ascribed

peri, around + teinenin, to stretch] Term coined by M . Bastos,

separate functions to rods and cones was proposed by

a Spanish surgeon, and colleagues in the early 1900s to

German zoologist, M ax Johann

Sigismund Schultze

denote the clinical condition o f acute hem orrhage into

(1825—1874) in 1859. Sir David Brewster (178 1—1868)

retroperitoneal tissues following abdominal injuries.lt was

published Optical Study of the Retina in 1861. See retinopathy.

later proved to be caused by involvement o f the retroperitoneal ganglia and plexus by hemorrhagic infiltration.

R etinal D etach m en t [Latin: reticulum, net] Mentioned by Charles de Saint-Yves (1667—1733) o f Paris in 1722. Histo­

R etroversion o f U terus [Latin: retroversus, turned back­

logical observations were made by J. Ware in 1805. James

wards] A description was given by William Hunter (17 18 -

Wardrop (1782—1869) in 1818 and Bartolomeo Panniza

1783) in 177 1. A suspension operation was performed by

(1785—1867) in 1826 also commented on the histological

Jam es A lexander Adams (1857—1930) o f Glasgow, and

findings. Jules Sichel (1802—1868) visualized it through

WiUiam Alexander (1844—1919) o f Liverpool in iS S i. An

ophthalmoscopy in 1841. A complete description was given

Analysis of the subject of Extra-uterine Foetation, and of the

by J. Coccius and Adrian Christopher van Tright (1825—

retroversion of the Gravid Uterus was written by John K ing o f

1864) in 1853. Albrecht von Graefe (1828—1870) gave an

Edisto Island, South CaroHna in i8i8 .T h e mechanism was

accurate clinical description in 1854. Familial occurrence

explained in detail by German gynecologist, Alwin Karl

was pointed out by Treacher Collins in 1892. A new surgical

Mackenrodt (1859—1925) in 1895.

operation was devised by Jules Gonin (1870—1935), a Swiss

R etzius, Anders A d olf (1796—1860) Swedish anatomist and

ophthalmic surgeon, in 1927.

anthropologist from Stockholm. The Hgament o f Retzius attached to the extensor retinaculum which acts as a sHng to

R etinopathy [Latin: reticulum, net; Greek: pathos, suffering]

the extensor tendons was described by him in 1841. He

Retinal changes in hypertension were observed by Ludwig

described several other anatomical structures.

Tiirck (1810—1868) in 1850, and it was referred to as albuminuric retinitis in Archives of Ophthalmology by

R etzius, Magnus Gustav (1842—1919) Neuroanatomist at the

Richard Liebreich (1830—1917) in 1859. An ophthalmo­

Karolina Institute in Stockholm. He described the brown

scopic description was first given by Heymann in 1858.The

lines in the enamel o f teeth, known as striae o f Retzius, in

‘silver

w ire’

appearance

of

the

thickened

arteries

1890 and several structures o f the brain which are named after him.

during ophthalmoscopy was described by Sir William Richard Gowers (1845—1915) in 1876.The study o f retinitis in

glycosuria

was

done

by

H enry

Dewey

R euter, Baron de (18 21—1899) Founder o f telegraphic news

Noyes

agency. B orn in Kassel in Germany, he emigrated to

(1832-1900) in 1869.

England in 1851 and established a telegraphic business to convey private messages between England and the

R etin oscop y [Latin: reticulum, net; Greek: skopein, to view]

continent. In 1858 he persuaded several newspapers to

See skiascopy.

use his agency which he developed into the current international firm (Reuters Agency) for collection and

R etrolental Fibroplasia [Latin: retro, backwards + /e«5, lentil + fibra, band; Greek: plasein, to mold) Found in premature babies and described by Theodore Lasater Terry (1899— 1946) ofAm erica in i942.The first cases reported in Europe

transmission o f news.

R everdin, Albert (1848—1908) Surgeon and cousin o f

in 1945 and the signs were explained by W C . Owens in

Jacques Louis Reverdin (1842—1929). He demonstrated the

1949. A. B. R eece and colleagues demonstrated that the

fatal effect o f excising the thyroid gland in animals.

lesion was due to proliferation o f endothelial and glial cells

R everdin, Jacques Louis (1842—1929) Swiss surgeon in Paris.

in the nerve fiber o f the retina in 1952.

Transplantation o f free skin instead o f pedunculated flaps was introduced by him in 1869.

R etroperitoneal Pneum atography [Latin: retro,backwards; Greek: peri, around + teinenin, to stretch + pneuma, air +

R everse Transcriptase Viral D N A polymerase enzyme

graphein, to write] Radiological visualization o f kidneys by

which translates into R N A . Discovered by American

injecting air into the retroperitoneal space was devised by

molecular biologist, David Baltimore (b 1938) o f N ew York,

Rossentein and Carelli in 19 2 1.This method carried a high

and virologist, Howard Martin Temin

risk o f perirenal hematoma and air embolism and it was

Philadelphia in 1970. They were awarded the N obel Prize

improved by R iu z Rivas in 1947.

in 1975.

R etroperitoneal Syndrom e [Latin: retro, backwards; Greek:

(b

1934)

of

R eview Journals A journal for critical analysis o f events

628

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RHEUMATOID

ARTHRITIS

and people. Journal des Scavans, was published by Denis de

rash were collectively described as ‘rheumatic fever’ by John

Salo o f Paris in 1665. Others appeared in Europe including:

Haygarth (1740-1827) o f Bath in 1805. In 1797 Matthew

Monthly Review (1749), Edinburgh Review (1802), Quarterly

Baillie (17 6 1—1823) described the association between

Review (1809),and British Quarterly (1844).

rheumatism and heart disease, previously noted by David

R eye S yndrom e Hepatitis, encephalopathy and m ulti­

Pitcairn (1749-1809) in 1788. Rheum atic nodules were

organ failure in children following an acute mild illness.

described by William Charles Wells (1757—1817), a physician

Described by an Australian physician o f German origin,

at St Thomas’ Hospital in 1810. In 1836 Jean Baptiste

Ralph Douglas R eye (1912-1977) in 19 63.Aspirin therapy

Bouillaud (1796—1881) gave the nam e‘endocardium’ to the

was identified as the main precipitating cause o f the iUness

interlining o f the heart and related the occurrence o f

in the mid-1980s.

endocarditis to acute rheumatism. He also described acute rheumatic polyarthritis in 1832 and mentioned the involve­

R h Factor See rhesusfactor.

ment o f the mitral valve in articular rheumatism in 1835.

R hazes (AD 850—932) Also known as Mohammed ibn

The latent period between sore throat and rheumatic

Zakariya al-R azi, was a great Arabian physician w ho is

symptoms was noted by H aig-Brown in 1886, and bacterial

ranked with Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) in his portrayal o f

invasion o f the throat as an etiological factor was recognized

disease. He was born at R aj in Khorassan in northeastern

by Mantle in 1887.The characteristic nodular lesions o f the

Persia, and became a pupil o f Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809—873)

heart were described by Ludwig Karl Albert Aschoff

who made important translations o f Galen (AD 129—200)

(1866—1942) in 1904. The causative bacteria, previously

and the Almagest o f Ptolemy. His Liber de variolis et morbilis is

named, Diplococcus rheumaticus by Frederick John Poynton

the oldest remaining treatise on smallpox and measles. He

(1869—1943)

also wrote on diseases o f children, and pioneered genitouri­

and Alexander Paine, was identified as

Streptococcus group A by Rebecca CraighiU Lancefield

nary medicine. He devised catheters with lateral holes in

(1895-1981) in 1940.

order to drain pus and used lead catheters, instead o f inflexible bronze ones. He is credited with 237 works, most

R heum atic G out [Greek: rheuma, flux] Old term used for

o f which are now lost. He followed the Hippocratic school

gout and chronic rheumatic diseases.

o f medicine in describing disease and giving a prognosis.

R heum atic R h eom eter [Greek: rheos, current + metron, to measure]

H eart

[Greek:

D isease

rheuma,

flux]

See rheumaticfever.

Early form o f galvanometer to measure electric current.

R h eu m atoid Arthritis [Greek: rheuma, flux] Described by

Invented by André M arie Ampère (1775-1836) in 1820.

French physician, Augustin Jacob Landre-Beauvis (1772—

See galvanometer.

1840). The term ‘rheumatoid arthritis’ was coined by Sir

R heostat [Greek: rheos, current + histanai, to place] Instru­

Alfred Baring Garrod (1819—1909) in 1858 to denote a form

ment to vary current by regulating resistance. Invented by

o f arthritis which differed from gout. It was noticed that

Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875).

jaundice had a beneficial effect on rheumatoid arthritis and

R hesus Factor (R h factor) The presence o f R h factor in

in 1938 Philip Showalter Hench (1896—1965) attempted to

human erythrocytes was demonstrated by testing human

treat it with injection o f bile salts and was partly successful.

blood against anti-rhesus serum obtained from rabbits after

In 1948 he noticed that surgery, pregnancy and starvation,

the injection o f erythrocytes o f rhesus monkeys by Nobel

which stimulated the adrenal cortex, also improved

Prize winner,Karl Landsteiner (1868—1943),and A exander

rheumatoid

S. Wiener (1907—1976) ofB rooklyn in 1940. See A B O blood

horm ones should be tested for anti-rheum atoid activity.

groups.

Edward Calvin KendaU (1886—1972) supplied a few grams

R heum atic Fever [Greek: rheuma, flux]

arthritis.

He

suggested

that

cortical

o f cortisone to Hench in 1948 to conduct a trial, and a

Mentioned in

Sometyme Rewmatik Humors by John ofTrevesia in 1398.

dramatic effect o f cortisone on certain cases was published

Aortic valve and mitral valve damage were described by

by Hench and co-workers in 1949. Phenylbutazone, one o f

Raym ond deVieussens (16 4 1-17 15) in 1695.The relation­

the first anti-inflammatory drugs, was introduced by J. P.

ship o f acute rheumatism and chorea was noted by Thomas

Currie, R . A. Brown and G.W ill in 1953. Hench, Kendall

Sydenham (1624—16 89) .The term ‘rheumatism’ was used by

andTadeus Reichstein (b 1897) shared the N obel Prize for

Guillaume de BaiUou (1538—16 16).Rheum atic arthritis and

Medicine or Physiology in 1950.

629

RHIND

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PAPYRUS

R hinoplasty [Greek: rhin, nose + plasmein, to mold] Nose surgery was practiced by ancient Hindu surgeons. A procedure was described by Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D 50) and revived in the i6th century by Gasparo Tagliacozzi (1546—1599), an Italian professor who special­ ized in plastic surgery at Bologna. A book was published by Carl Ferdinand von Graefe (1787—1840), professor o f surgery at Berlin in 1818.An Italian method was introduced to Britain by Sir William M acCorm ac (1836—1901) o f Belfast in 1877. See nose surgery. Rheumatoid arthritis involving the hand. Sir Alfred Baring Garrod, A Treatise

R hinosclerom a [Greek: r/zm, nose + 5^e/ero5, hard] Nodular

on Gout and Rheumatic Gout 0876). Longmans, Green & Co., London

hypertrophy o f the skin and mucous membrane o f the

R hind Papyrus Oldest surviving mathematical manuscript,

nose. Described and named by Ferdinand von Hebra (1816—

thought to be copied from an earlier manuscript by Ahmes

1880) and Moritz Kaposi (1837-1902) in 1870.

who lived around 1650 BC .A lso called the Ahmes Papyrus,

R hod es Scholarship

it was purchased by Scottish Egyptologist,Alexander Henry

(1853-1902) from Bishop Stortford who acquired wealth

Rh ind (1833-1863) in 1858.

R hinosporidiosis

[Greek: rhin, nose

Founded by C ecil Jo h n R h od es

from diamond mines in Africa. His will provided scholar­ +

ships at Oxford for Americans, Germans and citizens o f

sporos, seed]

British colonies.

Involving the mucocutaneous tissue o f the nose, was noted in Argentina by Alejandro Posadas (1870—1920) o f Buenos

R h od iu m

described by O ’Kinealy in the same year. James Hartley

R are metal in platinum ore discovered by

William Hyde Wollaston (1766—1828) in 1804.

Aires in 1903 .This diseases is also common in India and was

R hodius,

John

(1587-1659)

Danish

physician

from

Ashworth (1874-1936) o f Edinburgh proposed the genus

Copenhagen who wrote several treatises, including one on

Rhinosporidium as the causative fungus o f the disease in 1923.

artificial baths.

R hinolith [Greek: rhin, nose + lithos, stone] Rem oval o f a

R hod opsin [Greek: rhodon, rose + opsis, sight] Photosensitive

rhinolith or nasal calculus was recorded by Gardi in 1502.

R h in ology

[Greek:

rhin.

logos,

pigment in the retina discovered by Franz Christian Boll (18 4 9-18 79) in 1877. N am ed rhodopsin or ‘sehpurpur’

discourse]

(visual purple) by W illy Kuhne (18 2 1-19 0 1) in 1878.

See otolaryngology.

Vitamin A in the retina was shown by N ew York biochemist, George Wald (b 1906) in 1933, and his work led to the discovery o f the link between rhodopsin and vitamin A and with night blindness. He shared the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Ragner Arthur Granit (b 1900) and Haldan Keffer Hartline (1903-1983) in 1967.

R hubarb Known for its medicinal properties to the ancient Chinese, and found in the herbal Pen-King as Huang-Liang. The name o f the genus (Rheus) may come from the ancient name o f the river Volga, Rha, or from the Greek rheo m eaning‘to flow ’ referring to its purgative properties. Pliny (AD 23-79), Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C -A D 50), Mesue the Younger (d 1015) and Constantinus Africanus (d 1087) mentioned the plant. Alexander o f Tralles (525-605) referred to it. It became an expensive commodity during the Renaissance and was valued 12 times the price o f Italian method of rhinoplasty. Sir Frederick Treves, A Manua/of Operaf/Ve

benzoin in Alexandria in 1497. At U lm in 1596 it was more

Surgery (1892). Lee Bros. & Co., Philadelphia

costly than opium.

630

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RICHARDSON

R ibbert, M oritz W ilhelm Hugo (1855—1920) A histopathol-

R ib osom es

Subcellular organelles on the endoplasmic

ogist in Zurich who initiated the theory o f embryonal

reticulum and containing R N A which are the site o f

origin o f cancer in 1905.

protein synthesis. Their function was discovered by American cytologist o f Rom anian origin, George Emil

R ibes, François (1765-1845) Arm y surgeon from Toulouse who

Palade (b 1912) in 1956. Palade qualified in medicine from

described the uppermost sympathetic ganglion

Bucharest and migrated to America in 1946. After serving at

situated on the anterior communicating artery o f the circle

the Rockefeller Institute, N ew York (1946—1972), he

ofWillis, known as the ganglion o f Ribes, in 1817.

became head o f cell biology at Yale Medical School (1972),

R ibes G anglion See Ribes, François. R iboflavin

and was appointed professor o f molecular biology at University o f California, San Diego in 1990. In 1974 he

Vitamin B2. In 1932, while investigating

shared the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with

oxidation o f glucose-6-phosphate by a yeast preparation,

Albert Claude and Christian de Duve.

Nobel Prize winner, Otto Heinrich Warburg (1883—1970), a German biochemist and director o f Kaiser W ilhelm

R ice Polishings The pericarp and germ layers, used as a cure

Institute in Berlin, found that the reaction requires the

for dermatitis induced by vitamin deficiency from eating

cofactor riboflavin, which he called ‘old yellow enzyme’ .

polished rice. Its action was discovered by H. Schneider in

The important role o f this enzyme in oxidation—reduction

1930. The active factor in the rice was named ‘rice polish

during respiration was pointed out by Walter Christian

factor’ by G. C. Suppléé and colleagues in 1940. See thiamin.

(1907—1955) in the same year. It was separated into two

R ich , Arnold R ic e (1893-1968) American pathologist from

components, a protein and a pigment, by the same workers

Alabama who worked at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. He

in 1933 and was named vitamin B2. In the same year,

described the Hamman—R ic h syndrome in 1944. See

another N obel Prize winner, Richard Kuhn (1900—1967) a

Hamman—Rich syndrome.

professor from Heidelberg University, and Paul Gyorgy (1893-1976) isolated it from several sources and it was

R ichard, Felix Adolph (1822—1872) Surgeon from Paris who

renamed riboflavin by the Council o f Pharmacy and

described ovarian fimbria o f the ostium o f the fallopian

Chemistry o f the American Medical Association in 1937.

tube in 1851.

See ariboflavinosis.

R ibonucleic A cid (R N A )

Richards, Dickinson W oodruff (1895-1973) American cardiologist, born in Orange, N ew Jersey and educated at

Thomas Cech (b 1947) an

Yale. He was a pioneer in application o f the cardiac catheter

American biochemist at the University o f Colorado,

to study blood pressure, oxygen tension and other

Boulder discovered the ability o f R N A to act as a biological

physiological variables in health and disease. He was a

catalyst. He also discovered the role o f ribosomal R N A in

cardiologist at Columbia University (1928—1961) and was

catalyzing its own cleaving and splicing. Canadian biologist

professor o f medicine there from 1947. He shared the N obel

Sidney Altman (b 1939), professor o f biology at Yale, studied

Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1956 with Forssman

transfer R N A , the amino acid carrier in protein synthesis.

and Cournand,for his work on cardiac catheterization.

Altman and Cech shared the 1989 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their work.The operon theory o f gene regula­

Richards, Sir R e x Edward (b 1922) English chemist,

tion and messenger R N A were discovered by French

graduate o f St Joh n ’s College, Oxford, Vice-Chancellor

biochemists François Jacob (b 1920) and Jacques Lucien

o f the U niversity o f O xford and D irector o f the

M onod (1910—1976) in 1963 and they shared the Nobel Prize

Leverhulm e Trust. He worked on infrared spectroscopy

for Physiology or Medicine in 1965 .The complete molecular

and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. He applied

structure o f the transfer R N A was worked out by American

N M R to biological problems and contributed to its

biochemist, Robert WiUiam Holley (b 1922), and American

development as a medical technique.

geneticist, Seymour Benzer (b 1921), in 1965. The genetic

R ichardson, Sir Benjamin Ward (1828—1896) Physician and

code found in transfer R N A and involved in assembly o f

inventor o f ether spray as a local anesthetic. B orn at

amino acids into proteins under the direction o fD N A , was

Somerby in Leicestershire and qualified from Glasgow

decoded by Indian-born American molecular chemist Har

University. He moved to London in 1854 and took up the

Gobind Khorana (b 1922) and American biochemist

study o f anesthetics in 1865. He also did research on poisons

Marshall Warren Nirenberg (b 1927). Holley, Khorana and

in contagious disease and discovered a bacterial poison

Nirenberg shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for their work.

called septine in 1865. As an anesthetist, he modified

631

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RICHARDSON

chloroform inhalers and devised a lethal chamber for

protruded. Described by German surgeon,August Gottlieb

painless slaughter o f experimental animals in

Pdchter (1742-1812) o f Gottingen in 1785.

Pdchardson

wrote

A

City

of Health

and

1866.

Biological

R ickets

Experimentation, ItFunctions and Limits (1896).

[Greek: rachitis, spinal complaint] Observed in

Britain around 1620 and described by EngHsh physician,

R ichardson, Sir John (1787—1865) Born in Dumfries and

DanielWhistler (1619—1684) o f M erton College, Oxford in

graduated from Edinburgh as a physician in 1816. He joined

his De Morbo pueriliAnglorum, quam patrio idiomate indignae

the Naval Medical Service where he served for 48 years and

vocant published in 1645. Francis Glisson (15 9 7 - 1677),

took part in three Arctic expeditions.

regius professor at Cambridge, gave a more complete EngHsh

description in De Rachitide Sive morbo Purelli qui vulgo, the

physicist from D ew sbury in Yorkshire. H e used the term

Rickets Dicteur in 1650. Decline in fish consumption during

‘thermionics’ to describe emission o f electricity from hot

the Reform ation was probably responsible for the sudden

bodies. He was professor o f physics at Kings College,

increase in rickets in England, and it came to be known as

Richardson,

Sir Owen Williams

(1879—1959)

‘English disease’ . Bootius (1600—1654) in 1649 noted its

London in 1914 and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1928.

prevalence in Ireland and R obert Darley, an English Sign o f death was described by Sir

physician, and Armand Trousseau (1801—1867) in France

Benjamin Ward Richardson (1828—1896). He applied a

used cod liver oil as treatment. It became an extremely

R ichardson Sign

tight fillet to the arm and i f life was present the distal veins

common disease in smog-choked industrial cities in

swelled.

Europe and the U S A at the beginning o f the 20th century.

R icherand, A. (1779—1840) Professor o f surgery and physiol­

Effective treatment was experimentally demonstrated in

ogy in Paris. He was ranked as one o f the most skilled

England by Sir Edward Bland-Sutton (1855—1936) who fed

surgeons but was unpopular due to his overwhelming

lion cubs in the zoo with crushed bone and cod Ever oil in

ambition, vanity and unpleasant personal traits. He resected

1889.

the 5 th and 6th ribs in 1818.

on dogs in which rickets was induced by diet. Animals

Between 1908 and 1918 experiments were carried out

which were regularly exercised recovered and a controversy

R ich et, Charles R obert (1850—1935) French physiologist,

arose as to whether exercise or diet were responsible. In

born in Paris and obtained his medical degree there in 1877.

1890 Palm had suggested the effectiveness o f sunlight as a

He was made professor o f physiology at Paris in 1888 and

cure and it was later discovered that a chemical reaction

did pioneering work on serum therapy having noted that

producing vitamin D can take place in the skin when it is

the blood o f animals which are resistant to a harmful

bared to ultraviolet rays. The increase in the disease was,

bacterium may contain an element that could confer

therefore, attributable to a reduction in light penetration o f

immunity. He coined the term anaphylaxis to denote a

the

form o f allergic reaction in 1902, and was awarded the

smoke-filled

atmosphere. Sir

Edward

MeUanby

(1884-1955) produced rickets in dogs by maintaining them

N obel Prize for his work on allergy in 1913. He also worked

on a deficient diet and suggested that the missing nutrient

on hypnosis, digestion, pain, muscle contraction and animal

was a fat-soluble substance, vitamin D. He advocated the

heat.The International Institute o f Metaphysics at Paris was

use o f cod liver oil and was responsible for the virtual

founded by Richet, and Joseph Tessier, professor o f medicine

elimination o f the disease. Vitamin D was discovered

at Lyons.

by American

biochemist, Elmer Verner

McCoUum

R ich et, Louis Alfred (1816—1891) Professor o f clinical

(1879—1967) and colleagues o f Baltimore in 1921 and it was

surgery at Paris. He described the canal for the umbilical

obtained in a crystalline form at the National Institute o f

vein in the anterior wall o f the umbilical canal in 1855.

Medical Research in London during 1930. See ergosterol.

R icketts, Howard Taylor (18 71—1910) Microbiologist from

R ich ter Scale Measurement o f the energy released by an earthquake on a scale o f i to 9 where an increase o f one unit

Northwestern University who showed that the causative

corresponds to 30 times the seismic energy. Invented by

agent o f R o ck y Mountain spotted fever was transmitted

A m erican seismologist, Charles Francis R ich te r (19 0 0 -

by ticks. He died in M exico during his research on the

1985) o f Hamilton, Ohio and German-born American

causative organism o f M exican typhus fever, which was

geophysicist,Beno Gutenberg (1889—1960) in 1932.

named {Rickettsia muricola). See Rickettsia prowazekii.

R ich ter H ernia

Rickettsia burnetii See Coxiella burnettii, Qfever.

Where only a part o f the lumen is

632

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

Rickettsia prowazekii

RITTER

proposed by American dental surgeon John Mankey Riggs

The bacterium found in ticks taken

(1810-1885) in 1876. See dentistry.

from patients with M exican typhus fever, by da R och a Lim a (18 79 -19 56) in 1916. N am ed for Howard Taylor

R inger, Sydney (1835—1910) British physiologist from a

Ricketts (18 71—1910), an American pathologist and Stanislas

Quaker family in N orw ich who graduated from University

von Prowazek (1876—1915), a German microbiologist,both

College

o f whom died during the course o f their research on

thermometry in clinical medicine. See Ringer solution.

Hospital, London

in

i860. He

introduced

rickettsial diseases.

R inger S olution R icord, Phillipe (1799—1889) American pioneer in venereol­

Sydney R inger (1835-1910) studied

metabolite antagonism in 1883 and found that sodium

ogy who studied medicine in Paris. He demonstrated the

alone could not maintain the beat o f an isolated heart unless

different etiology o f syphilis and gonorrhea and described

balanced

the three stages o f syphilis. His work on venereal diseases

developed a physiological solution consisting o f sodium

was published in 1838.

by

calcium

and

potassium. He

therefore

chloride, potassium chloride and calcium chloride, which now bears his name.

R id d och Syndrom e Inattention to objects in one half o f the visual field, with inability to recognize these objects.

R in g w o rm A parasitic fungus o f Trichophyton or Microsporum

Described by Scottish neurologist, George Riddoch (1889—

that causes tinea. Discovered by A ntoine Pierre Ernest

1947) in 1917. He graduated from Aberdeen and spent most

Bazin (1807—1878) o f France. B u t initially opposed by

o f his career in London.

some

R ideal—Walker Test

dermatologists

including

Erasmus

Wilson

(1809-1884).

Used to determine the germicidal

power o f disinfectants. Invented by two English chemists,

R in n ie Test Use o f a tuning fork to differentiate between

Samuel Rideal (1863—1929) and J.T . Ainsley Walker (1868^

sensotimotor deafness and conduction deafness. Devised by

1930) around 1920.

German otologist, Heinrich A d olf R innie (1819—1868) in 1855.

Ridley, Humphrey (1653—1708) English anatomist and physician in London. He described the cerebral vessels o f

R io la n , Jean,Secundus (1580-1657) Leading anatomist ofhis

the brain in his The Anatomy of the Brain published in 1695.

period and dean o f the Faculty o f Medicine in Paris. He

The coronary sinus is named (Ridley sinus) after him.

opposed William

Harveys

(1578—1657)

discovery

of

R ied el Lobe Accessory right lobe o f the liver, described

circulation in his Encheridium Anatomicum published in

by German professor o f surgery, Bernhard M oritz Carl

1648. Several anatomical structures described by him in

Ludwig R iedel (1846—1916) ofjena in 1893.

Anatomia Corporis Humani (1610) were subsequently named after him.

R ied el Thyroiditis Chronic inflammation o f the thyroid leading to a hard mass in the gland. Described by a German

R iolan, Jean, Primus (1539-1606) French physiologist and

professor o f surgery, Bernhard M oritz Carl Ludwig R iedel

the father o f the celebrated anatomist, Jean Riolan

(1846-1916) ofjena in 1896.

(1580-1657), Secundus.

R ift Valley Fever Febrile disease caused by a virus carried by

R ipault Sign Pressure applied to the eye ball to see if the

mosquitoes and affecting cattle. Described in the R ift Valley

distortion was permanent —a sign o f death. Described by

o f Kenya by R obert Daubney (b 1891) and John Richard

French

Hudson in 1931.

(1807-1856).

R igV eda Sacred book attributed to the Hindu god Brahma,

physician,

Louis

Henry

Antoine

Ripault

R isley P rism Rotating prism in a metal frame with scales.

containing hymns to the gods.

Devised to measure the imbalance o f the ocular muscles by Samuel Doty Risley (1845—1920), an ophthalmologist in

R igal Suture Utilizes rubber rings, used instead o f thread to

Philadelphia.

close wounds. Devised by French surgeon, Jean Antoine R igal (1797-1865).

Ritter, Johann Wilhelm (1776-1810) German physicist who

R iggs D isease Pyorrhea alveolaris. Pierre Fauchard (1678—

studied medicine at Jena. He discovered ultraviolet light

1761) described pyorrhea alveolaris or marginal periodon­

through its darkening effect on silver chloride in 1801.

titis in 1746. It was later named Riggs disease because o f

He constructed a dry cell battery in 1802 and an

a new treatment consisting o f scraping the teeth to the roots

accumulator in 1803.

633

RITTER

R itter

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

DISEASE

D isease

Dermatitis

exfoliativa infantum

or

R ivin gton , Walter (1835-1897) B orn in Highgate, he joined

staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome. Described by

the London Hospital as an assistant surgeon in 1863 and

German physician, Gottfried Ritter von Riettshaim

became dean o f the medical school. His The Medical Profession was the first complete account o f the history,

(1820-1883) in 1878.

character and laws governing the medical profession.

R iva-R occi, Scipione (1863—1937) Italian physician at the department o f pathological medicine in the University o f

R ivini Gland An early description o f the sublingual gland

Turin. He improved the sphygmomanometer by using a

was given by August Quirinus Rivenius (1652—1723), a

pneumatic cuff, which was described in Gazzetta Medicina

botanist and physician at Leipzig.

di Torino in 1896. He published a further two papers on the

R izz o li Institute Orthopedic institute in R o m e founded

technique in the same journal in 1897.

by F. Rizzoli (1809-1890) ofBologna in 1880.

R ivinus, Augustus Quirinus (1652-1723) Professor o f

R N A See ribonucleic acid.

physiology and botany at Leipzig. He described the duct o f

R obbins, Frederick Chapman (b 1916) American physiolo­

the sublingual glands (duct o f Rivinus) in 1678. He also

gist and pediatrician from Auburn, Alabama. He worked

attempted a classification o f plants into eighteen groups,

with John Franklin Enders (1897—1985) and Thomas

based on the morphology o f petals or corolla in Systema

Huckle Weller (b 1915) at the Infectious Disease Research

Plantarum.His father,Andreas Rivinus (1601—1656), was also

Laboratory o f the Childrens Hospital in Boston on

a professor o f physiology at Leipzig.

improving techniques for culturing viruses.They succeed­

R iverius, Lazarus (1589-1655) Physician in Montpellier and

ed in cultivating the poliomyelitis virus, an important step

professor o f medicine in his native town in 1622, where he

in development o f polio vaccine. All three shared the N obel

remained until his death. He wrote Institutiones Medicinae,

Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1954.

Praxis Medica and several other treatises.

R obert o f C hester ( iiio —1160) English scientific writer

Rivers, Clive (1872—1929) Physician at the City o f London

who wrote an alchemical text in Latin in 1145, translated Al-Kwarizm i s Algebra and the Koran in 1144.

Hospital. Pioneer o f artificial pneumothorax in the treat­ ment o f tuberculosis. H e also advocated the early diagnosis

R obert L igam ent Fascicle o f fibers arising from the pos­

and treatment o f pulmonary tuberculosis. See artificial

terior cruciate ligament to the lateral meniscus o f the knee.

pneumothorax.

Described by French surgeon, César Alphonse R o b ert (1801-1862).

Rivers, Thomas M ilton (1888-1962) American virologist at the Rockefeller Institute who established the basis for

R obert Pelvis Rudim entary sacrum with marked narrow­

diagnosing psittacosis by injecting the sputum o f the patient

ing o f the transverse and oblique diameters. Described by

into white mice in 1938.

German gynecologist, Heinrich Ludwig Ferdinand R obert (1814-1874).

Rivers, William Halse (1864-1922) British neuropsychiatrist and anthropologist from Kent and member o f the Torres

R oberts, Richard (b 1943) British molecular biologist who

Straits expedition who established anthropology on a firm

moved to the U S A in 1969 to work at the Cold Springs

scientific footing by collection o f empirical data. His Instinct

Harbor Laboratory in N ew York. In 1977 he published his

and the Unconscious (1920) challenged Freud s libido theory,

findings on the section o f D N A in genes now known as the

and Medicine, Magic and Religion in 1924 showed the

‘intron’ which carry no genetic information. He shared the

importance o f studying indigenous medical systems in the

N obel Prize for Physiology or M edicine in 1993 with

same context as social institutions.

Philip Allen Sharp (b 1944) who had reached

R iviere P ortion

similar

conclusions.

A 17th century remedy made o f an

effervescent solution o f citric acid and potassium carbonate.

R oberts Test Used for detection o f albumin in the urine

Prepared by French physician,Lazare Riviere (1589-1655).

with a solution o f magnesium sulfate and sulfuric acid. Devised by English physician. Sir William

R iviere Sign Dullness o f percussion over the 5th, 6th and

Roberts

(1830-1899).

7th dorsal vertebrae indicating pulmonary tuberculosis. Described by an English physician, Clive R iviere or Rivers

R obertson , Matthew George First professor o f mental diseases at the Edinburgh Medical School in 1919.

(1873-1929).

6 34

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ROESLER

R ob in , Charles Filippe (1821-1885) Professor o f histology at

(1839—1937), founder o f the Standard O il Company (1870)

the Faculty o f Medicine in Paris. He described the

in Ohio. Its buildings and laboratory were completed in

lymphatic spaces around the arteries in 1868 (Robin

1906 on the East R iver N ew York, and the microbiologist

spaces). He also described the osteoclastic cells o f bone.

Simon Flexner (1863-1946) was its first director.

R obinson , Frederick Byron (1857-1910) Surgeon and

R o ck y M ountain Spotted Fever (Syn: blue disease, black

gynecologist from Wisconsin. He graduated from Rush

fever, spotted fever) Found in the Montana and Idaho

Medical College in 1882 and practiced in Europe in 1887.

districts o f America and described by Edward Ernest M axey

He worked with Lawson Tait (1845-1899) at Birmingham

(1867-1934) in 1896.The etiology was investigated by W il­

before returning to the U S A as professor o f surgery at

son and Chowning in 1902, who mistakenly attributed it to

Chicago in 1891. Several gynecological structures have

a parasite, Babesia, previously known to cause Texas cattle

been named after him.

fever. In 1906 A.F.A. King (18 4 1-1914 ) proposed that it was caused by a tick, Dermacentor andersoni, and it was also found

R obinson , J. William (1869—1936) Campaigner for birth

to

control in America who protested State interference in distribution o f information on contraception. He induced Abraham Jacobi

(1830-1919), the

first president

R oddick,

the

Sir Thomas

George

(1846—1923)

Canadian

in the establishment o f the Medical Council o f Canada.

University o f Edinburgh.

R o d en t U lcer [Latin: rodere, to gnaw] Epithelial tumor o f

R obinson , Victor (1886-1947) Professor o f history o f

the skin described by Charles Hewitt M oore (18 21—1870), a

medicine at the Temple U niversity School o f M edicine

pioneer in treatment o f cancer in England. A monograph

in Philadelphia. He wrote The Story of Medicine in 1931.

was written by John Collins Warren (1778—1856).

Formed by the anastomosis o f the

R od gers, John Kearny (1793-1851) See humerus.

abdominal aorta, common iliac, hypogastric, uterine and

R odgers, David (1799-1877) See jaw.

anatomist,

Frederick Byron Robinson (1857-1910).

R o d rig u ez, J.M . (1828—1894) M exican obstetrician and pioneer in the diagnosis o f pregnancy by palpation and

R obison, R obert (1884-1941) British biochemist who studied carbohydrate metabolism. He developed organ

auscultation.

Honor Bridget Fell

R oeb uck, John (1718—1794) Physician from Sheffield who

(1900-1986) in 1929. He published on conversion o f blood

studied medicine at Edinburgh University and graduated

calcium into insoluble calcium in the bone in 1923.

from Leiden in 1742 but devoted his time to chemistry. He invented the lead chamber process for manufacture o f

R o b o t A forerunner, the turtle, was invented by British Grey Walter

transmitted

surgeon to Montreal General Hospital. He was instrumental

in 1766 and was professor o f natural philosophy at

neurologist, William

( 18 7 1—1910), w ho

graduated from McCiU University and became chief

(1728-1799) as lecturer in chemistry at Glasgow University

culture techniques with Dame

Haemaphysalis,

surgeon and reformer o f medical practice in Canada. He

R obinson , Jo h n (1739 -18 0 5 ) Succeeded Joseph Black

by American

Rhipicephalus,

The causative organism was named Rickettsia rickettsii.

and other works on birth control.

arteries. Described

by

disease to a monkey by means o f an infected tick in 1909.

for contraception. He wrote Limitation of Offspring (1904),

ovarian

transmitted

Taylor Ricketts

of

American Medical Association, to establish a medical forum

R ob in son Circle

be

Amblyomma and Ixodes. His theory was proved by Howard

(19 11—1977)

sulfuric acid with Samuel Garbett in 1746 and founded the

who

Carrón Ironworks in Stirlingshire in 1759.

emigrated to America in 1910.

R ockefeller Foundation Established in 19 13 by the oil

R oem er, Olaus (1644—1710) Danish astronomer from Aarhus,

magnate, John Davison Rockefeller (1839—1937), founder

Jutland and professor o f astronomy at Copenhagen. He

o f the Standard Oil Company (1870) in Ohio. His

calculated the speed o f light through space, with impressive

foundation donated over 500 million dollars in the first half

accuracy,from astronomical observations in 1695. His most

o f the 20th century to various institutions for the

important work Basis Astronomiae was published in 1735.

development o f science and education.

R oesler, Hugo (b 1899) Cardiologist at Temple University

Established in 1902 with funds

Hospital and the Shriner’s Hospital for Crippled Children

provided by the oil magnate, John Davison Rockefeller

in Philadelphia. He described the rib erosion and aortic

R ockefeller Institute

635

ROGERS

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SPHYGMOMANOMETER

knob as radiological signs o f aortic coarctation in 1928.

R oller N ucleu s Nucleus lateralis o f the accessory nerve.

His Clinical Rontgenology of the Cardiovascular System was

Described by Christian Friedrich Wilhelm RoUer (1802-

published in 1937.

1878),a neuropsychiatrist at Strasburg in 1881. aneroid

R olleston , Sir Humphry (1778—1829) R egius professor o f

manometer instead o f a mercury one was designed by Oscar

physic at the University o f Cambridge and a medical

R ogers

S ph ygm om anom eter

An

early

Harrison Rogers (1857—1941), a physician from N ew York.

historian. He was physician to K ing George V I and president o f the R oyal CoUege o f Physicians.

R oger Syndrom e See maladie de Roger.

R ollet, Alexander (1834—1903) Austrian professor o f histol­

R ogers, Sir Leonard (1868—1962) British physician who worked in Calcutta and wrote Fevers in the Tropics and Bowel

ogy at the University o f Graz, who described the colorless

Disease in the Tropics. He gave emetine injections for amebic

stroma o f the erythrocytes (RoUet stroma) in 1880.

dysentery and hepatitis in 1912. He advocated intravenous

RoUier, Auguste (1874—1954) Swiss physician who advocat­

saline solutions in treatment o f dehydration due to cholera.

ed the use o f increasing doses o f sunUght in treatment o f tuberculosis in 1913.

R ogerson, John Physician from Dumfries who emigrated to Russia a year after publishing his doctoral thesis De

R o m a n M edicine

The first physicians in R o m e were

Morbis Infantum in 1765, and became a trusted advisor to

Greeks, as the Rom ans looked down upon the medical

Empress Catherine II for 50 years.

profession and were reluctant to practice.The Aquilian Law

R oget, Peter Mark (1779-1869) Huguenot physician at the

made physicians and surgeons accountable for their actions

M anchester Infirm ary w ho com piled Roget’s Thesaurus

and was enacted in 300 BC.JuHus Caesar gave citizenship to

from his Thesaurus of English Words and Phrase published in

Greek physicians and estabUshed them as free men in 46

1852.

B C . Appointment o f physicians was regulated by Emperor

H e also contributed to Encyclopedia Britannica and

Antonius in A D lóo.Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C -A D

wrote a Bridgwater treatise On Animal and Vegetable

50) established the four cardinal signs of: inflammation,

Physiology in 1834.

heat, pain, redness and swelling. Claudius Galen (AD 129—

Rokitansky, Karl Freiherr von (1804—1878) Czech professor

200) from Pergamom in Asia M inor was another R om an

o f pathology inVienna, contemporary o f Rudolph Virchow

philosopher and physician who described over 347 herbal

(18 21-19 0 2), and a founder o f modern pathological

remedies, and earned him the title o f father o f pharmacolo­

anatomy. He gave original descriptions of: gastromesentric

gy. Dioscorides (AD 40—90) coined the term materia

ilius, spondylohthic pelvis (kyphotic pelvis) (1839), striped

medica to denote his compilation and description o f over

muscles in tum or (sarcoma), acute dilation o f the

600 medicinal substances. Fabiola, a R om an lady who

stomach (1842), acute yellow atrophy o f the liver (1843), a

devoted her entire life to working for the poor sick people,

scientific account o f hemorrhage from dilated esophageal

is credited with having built the first Christian hospital or

veins in portal hypertension (1840), and clinical features o f

nosocomium in R o m e around A D 390. Emperor Justinian

congenital transposition o f the aorta and pulmonary artery

encouraged the physicians to train pupils in medicine in A D

(1875). His work was translated into English and published

533

by the Sydenham Society in 1850.

and

fixed

salaries

for

physicians. A

R om an

medicine stamp found at Tranent in East Lothian provided

R olan d o Fissure The sulcus centralis o f the brain was

evidence for the existence o f R om an medicine in Scotland.

described by Luigi Rolando (177 3-18 31), professor o f

The stamp is that o f an oculist, Lucius Vallentius, and

anatomy at Turin. It was named fissure o f Rolando by

contains aromatic prescriptions for cicatrices and crocodes

François Leuret o f Paris in 1839. Rolando also made a study

used for affection o f the eyes. R om an medical instruments

o f the cerebeUum and published a series o f observations on

have also been located in Scotland and are exhibited at the

the effects o f experimental removal o f the cerebeUum in

National Museum o f Scotland in Edinburgh.

animals. Several other structures o f the brain, including

R om an es, John George (1848—1894) Naturalist and disciple

Rolandic area and Rolandic convolution, bear his name.

o f Charles Darwin. He studied invertebrates and compared

R olan do Fracture Variation o f the fracture o f the first

the mental development o f animals and humans. H e wrote

metatarsal bone. Described by Silvio Rolando, a Milanese

Mental Evolution in Animals, and the first book on

surgeon, in 1926.

comparative psychology, Awirnii/ Intelligence in 1883 •

636

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ROSENMULLER

R om an ovsk y Stain Eosin and methylene blue stain for

R ond elet (1507-1556) Italian zoologist who studied marine

studying blood films. D evised by D im itri Leonidovitch

organisms o f the Mediterranean. H e wrote Aquatic Animals

Rom anovsky (1861—1921), a physician from Russia. During

in 1554.

his study in St Petersburg, he used the stain to demonstrate

R ö n tg en Rays See Röntgen, Wilhelm Konrad von. X-ray.

that malarial parasites were damaged during treatment with quinine. This was an important landmark in chemotherapy

R ön tgen , Wilhelm Konrad von (1845—1923) German

and the first time that a direct effect o f chemotherapy on a

physicist who discovered X-rays. Born in Lennep, Prussia,

pathogenic organism was demonstrated on live patients.

he studied under Kundt (1839—1894) in Z u rich and was

R om b erg, M oritz Heinrich(i795—1873) German professor

Würzberg in 1888. In 1895,while investigating cathode rays,

appointed professor o f physics at Giessen in 1879, and at o f neurology at BerHn who wrote the first formal treatise on

he noticed a new ray o f greater penetrating power emitted

nervous diseases, Lehrbuch der Nervenkrankheiten, between

from the cathode tube. He accidentally discovered their use

1840—1846. He also described the pathognomonic sign in

when his wife placed her hand on a photographic plate. He

truncal sensory ataxia (Rom berg sign).

announced his findings before the Würzberg Society in 1895 but did not patent his discovery. He was awarded the first N obel Prize for Physics in 1901.

R orschach Test Diagnostic procedure in mental disorders and personality tests using standardized ink blots. D e­ vised by Hermann Rorschach

(1884—1922), a Swiss

neuropsychiatrist at Zurich.

R ose, Edmund (1836—1914) Berlin physician who described cardiac tamponade caused by collection o f blood in the pericardium secondary to cardiac rupture.

R ose, William (1847—1910) English surgeon who performed excision o f the gasserian ganglion as treatment for trigeminal neuralgia.

R ose, WiUiam Gumming (1887—1984) American biochemist from Greenville, South Carolina who studied at Yale and Freiburg Universities. He did research on mammaHan nutrition in relation to each o f the 20 known amino acids and identified 10 which are indispensable for proper nutrition. He purified threonine (1936),methionine (1937), and valine (1939).

R osenbach, Julius Friedrich (1842—1923) German surgeon who introduced the name Streptococcus for the cocci

Moritz Heinrich Romberg (1795-1873). Courtesy of the National Library of

found in chains in 1884. H e also differentiated between

Medicine

staphylococci and streptococci.

R osen bach Test Detects bile in the urine using nitric acid

R om b erg Sign See Romberg, Moritz.

as a reagent. Devised by a German physician, Ottomar

R oem er, Olaus (1644—1710) Astronomer from Copenhagen

Rosenbach (1851-1907) in 1876.

who invented a transit circle to measure the time o f transit

R osenberger Stain

across the m eridian. H e used it to calculate the time it

Detects spirochetes using aniline

oil. Devised by Randal Rosenberger, a bacteriologist in

would take for light to traverse the radius o f Earth s orbit.

Philadelphia.

R o em er Serum Early antipneumococcal serum prepared of

R osenm iiller, Johann Christian (177 1—1820) Embryologist

Griefswald. He also standardized the old tuberculin method

and professor o f anatomy at Leipzig who described the

in 1909.

pharyngeal recess (RosenmüUer fossa) in 1805.

by German professor, Paul R oem er

(1876—1916)

637

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ROSENTHAL

R osenthal, Isodor (1836—1915) Professor o f physiology in Germany who described the spiral canal o f cochlea (Rosenthal canal).

Rosier Line

Surface marking from the anterior superior

iliac spine to the ischial tubercles. Defined by Wilhelm R oser (1817—18 88), professor o f surgery at Marburg in 1844.

R osicrucians Sect o f mystical philosophers whose name is derived from

Confessa Rosa

Crucis proposed by

Valentine Andreas in 1615. It originated in Germany in the 14th century and was revived in the 17th century. They follow the ancient philosophy o f the Chaldeans and Persians.

R oss, Sir Ronald (1857—1932) British physician, born in Nepal and graduated from St Bartholomew’s Hospital. He was surgeon major in the Indian Medical Services from 1881 to 1889, and returned to Nilagri mountains in India in 1895 where he identified the mosquito as the carrier Rösslin's Rosengarten. Title page (1513) of one of the earliest obstetrics

o f the malarial parasite in 1897. He worked out the life cycle

textbooks

o f transmission o f malaria through mosquitoes and birds in 1898. He was appointed professor o f tropical medicine

R ostan, Louis Léon (1790—1866) Parisian physician who

at the new Liverpool School o f Tropical Medicine in

described cardiac asthma.

1899, and was awarded the N obel Prize for Physiology

R otch , Thomas Morgan (1848—1914) Philadelphia pioneer

or Medicine in 1904.

o f modern pediatrics in America. He graduated from

R oss, Thomas Arthur (1875-1941) Edinburgh psychiatrist

Harvard in 1870 and studied in BerHn andVienna before he

who rejected Freudian psychoanalytic methods. He was

returned to Boston in 1876. He was appointed to the first

president o f the psychiatric section o f the Royal Society o f

chair o f diseases o f children at Harvard in 1888.

Medicine in 1936, a member in three B M A Committees on

R o tch Sign Dullness to percussion over the right 5th inter­

Mental Diseases and served on the committee o f Mental

costal space in pericardial efílision. Described by Boston

Health and Psychoanalysis. He practiced hypnotherapy and

physician,Thomas Morgan R o tch (1848—1914).

psychotherapy and wrote Common Neuroses in 1935.

R oth , M oritz (1839-1915) Professor o f pathological anatomy

R ossel Test Detects occult blood in feces using Barbados aloin and other reagents. Devised by

at Basel who described the tubercle o f epididymis

Swiss physician,

connected with rete testis (Roth vas aberans) in 1877.

Otto Rossel (18 75-19 11).

R oth D isease

R ossetta Stone Ancient Egyptian stone with three scripts

Septic retinitis, described by Russian

neurologist,Vladimir Karlovitch R o th (1848—1916).

inscribed on it. Discovered by Napoleon’s soldiers while they were digging near the Rosetta branch o f the Nile in

R o th Spots White hemorrhagic spots seen in the retina

1799. It was brought to England in 1802 and placed in

in cases o f bacterial endocarditis. Described by Swiss

the British Museum. The inscriptions in three kinds o f

physician,Moritz R o th (1839-1914) in 1872.

writing (Greek, Demotic or enchorial, and hieroglyphic)

R otheraT est Detects acetone in the urine and was devised

were used as a key to Egyptian hieroglyphics by Jean

by Australian biochemist, Arthur Cecil Hamel Rothera

François ChampoUion (1790—1832) o f France who wrote

(1880-1915) in 1908.

Precis du Système Hiéroglyphique in 1824.

R otheram , John (d 1787) Physician from Yorkshire who

R ôsslin, Eucharius (d 1526) German physician from Worms

graduated from Edinburgh. He wrote several treatises,

who later practiced in Frankfurt-am-Main. He wrote a

including one on the nature and properties o f water.

manual on obstetrics, Rosengarten, in 1513 which remained

R o to r Syndrom e Congenital form o f hyperbilirubinemia

as a standard work for nearly two centuries.

638

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ROYAL

OF N U R S I N G

Pasteur Institute in 1904. He worked on the anthrax

described by Filipino physician,Arturo R o to r in 1948.

and rabies vaccines and did research on syphilis. The

R otunda H ospital See maternity hospitals. R ou get M uscle

COLLEGE

pathogenicity o f diphtheria toxin produced by the bacteria

Circular fibers o f the ciliary muscles.

was

Described by French professor o f physiology at Montpellier,

demonstrated

by

Roux

and Alexandre Yersin

(1863-1943) in 1889.

Charles M arie Benjamin R ou get (1824—1904) in 1856.

R o u x , Philibert Joseph (1780—1854) Guillaume Dupuytrens

They were also described by Heinrich M uller (1820—1864)

(1777—1835) successor at Hôtel Dieu in Paris. He sutured a

in 1857.

ruptured

R ou n d Ligam ents o f the Uterus See utero-sacral ligaments.

female

perineum

in

1834

and

pioneered

staphylorrhaphy and repair o f cleft palate.

Intestinal colonization was known to the

R o u x , W ilhelm (1850-1924) German physiologist and

ancients and male fern was used as treatment by Theophrastus

anatomist at Halle. He was a pioneer in experimental

R oundw orm

(370-285 B C ),P lin y (AD 23—79) and Galen (AD 129—200).

embryology and recognized germ plasm inheritance from

An anatomical description o f Ascaris lumbricoides or round-

parent to offspring in 1883.

worm was given by EdwardTyson (1649—1708) in 1683 .The

Rowland, Henry Augustus (1848—1901) American physicist

egg and reproductive process were described by Italian par­

and first professor o f physics at the Johns Hopkins University

asitologist, Francesco R e d i (1626-1698) in 1684.

in 1875. He advanced thermodynamics and discovered the

R ous, Francis Peyton (1879—1970) American pathologist,

magnetic effect o f electric convection in 1881.

born in Baltimore and graduated in medicine from Johns Hopkins University, before he joined the Rockefeller

R oxburgh, William (175 1-18 15) Scottish botanist and

Institute for Medical Research, N ew York in 1920. His main

physician from Ayrshire who graduated from Edinburgh

research was oncogenic viruses for which he was awarded

University. He was director o f the botanical gardens at

the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1966. See

Calcutta and cultivated many economically important Indian plants. He discovered the coloring substance o f the

Rous Sarcoma.

lacca insect and wrote Flora Indica and The Plants of the

R ous Sarcom a American pathologist Francis Peyton R ous

Coasts of Coramandel.

(1879—1970) o f Baltimore discovered a virus which induced a tumor in chickens, capable o f being transmitted to other

R oyal C ollege o f General Practitioners General practice

closely related chickens, in 19 11. He used his findings to

was introduced around 1820 in England to represent the

study the behavior o f carcinogenic viral agents, and was

group o f medical practitioners who practiced all branches

awarded the U N prize for cancer research in 1962.

o f medicine including surgery, midwifery, pharmacy and medicine. The first attempt to represent them was made

R ousette, François (1535-1590) French physician to the

w ith the form ation o f Associated M edical and Surgical

Duke o f Savoy and a contem porary o f Am broise Paré

Practitioners in 1826, and a com m on register was

(1510—1590). He advocated cesarean section and published a

established in

series o f 15 successful cesarean sections in 1581.

1858. Attempts to establish a college

continued andWiUiam Pickles from Aysgarth in Yorkshire

R ousseau, Louis François Emmanuel (1788—1868) French

was an advocate around 1920. He became a founder

histologist in Paris who described the accessory external

member o f the College. A steering committee was formed

lachrymal bone in 1829.

in 1952 which led to the establishment o f the coUege in

Roussy, Gustave

1961 and it received its charter in 1972.

(1874-1948) French pathologist who

demonstrated thalamic syndrome due to a lesion o f the

R oyal C ollege o f M idw ives See Midwives Institute.

thalamus in 1906.

R oyal C ollege o f N ursing A rapid expansion o f profes­ R ou x,

Augustin

(1726—1776)

French

physician

from

sional nursing occurred after i860 and the first professional

Gascony who graduated from Bordeaux. He wrote several

association, the British Nurses Association, was founded

medical and chemical treatises including one on purifying

by Ethel Gorden Manson, matron at St Bartholom ew’s

liquors.

Hospital, in 1886. The association received its charter in 1893 and became the College o f Nursing in 1916.

R oux, Pierre Paul Emile (1853-1933) French bacteriologist from Charente who served as assistant to Louis Pasteur

It was made the Royal CoUege o f Nursing through a

(1822-1895) before he succeeded him as director o f the

second charter in 1963.

639

ROYAL

COLLEGE

OF

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OBSTETRICIANS AND GYNAECOLO GISTS

R oyal C ollege o f O bstetricians and G ynaecologists

Insane, founded in Gloucester in 18 4 1. Its name was

Attempts were made to establish a college for the obstetri­

changed to Medico-Psychological Association in 1865, and

cians in the early 19th century but the move was resisted by

it was given a charter as the Royal Medico-Psychological

bodies such as R oyal CoUege o f Physicians on the grounds

Association in 1926.The coUege acquired its present name

that the prestige o f their coUege would be diminished. After

under another charter in 1971.

nearly a hundred years the CoUege o f Obstetricians was

R oyal C ollege o f Surgeons, Edinburgh Barber surgeons

founded in 1929. It received its charter as the R oyal CoUege

o f Edinburgh held their meetings at Magdalen Chapel in

o f Obstetricians and Gynaecologists in 1937.

Cowgate,and their earliest minutes were recorded in 1581.

R oyal C ollege o f Physicians and Surgeons, G lasgow

InitiaUy known as the Incorporation o f Surgeons, it

Originated in 1599 with a grant ftom King James V I to two

controUed apprenticeship and practice o f surgery in

physicians, Peter Lowe (1550—1613) and R obert HamUton,

Edinburgh. The Incorporation received a charter in 1778

to regulate medical practice at Glasgow It was known as the

and became the Royal CoUege o f the C ity o f Edinburgh.

R oyal Faculty o f Physicians and Surgeons, Glasgow and its

The coUege received its present name through another

present name. R oyal CoUege o f Physicians, was given to it

charter in 1851.

in 1962.

R oyal C ollege o f Surgeons, Ireland The Guild o f Barbers

R oyal C ollege o f Physicians, Edinburgh A n attempt to

existed in Ireland in the 15 th century and was granted a

establish a coUege was made in 16 17 during the reign o f

charter by Queen EUzabeth in i577.The surgeons separated

King James VI. A second attempt was made in 1630 and the

themselves from the barbers in 1784 with the formation o f

matter was referred to the Privy Council by Charles I but

the Royal CoUege o f Surgeons, Ireland through a Royal

no further action was taken. In 1656, during the time o f

charter granted by George III.

Oliver CromweU, a charter was proposed and signed by 16

R oyal In stitution o f L ondon Founded on 9 March 1799 at

physicians and presented to Parliament. Again the matter was dropped until efforts by Sir R obert Sibbald (1641—

a house in Albermarle Street, PiccadiUy by Count Rum ford

1722), a physician from Linlithgow, in 1681. The CoUege

and Sir Joseph Banks. It was given a Royal Charter and made The Royal Institution o f Great Britain in 1800. Its

obtained its charter in 1681 with an initial Ust o f 21

purpose was defined as ‘for diffusing knowledge and

prominent members o f the medical profession. It acquired

facihtating the general introduction o f useful mechanical

its own premises near Cowgate,in i704.The foundation for

inventions and improvements, and for the teaching by

new premises was laid at the east end o f George Street by

courses o f phUosophical lectures and experiments, the

WiUiam (1710—1790) in 1775 and meetings at the new

appUcation o f science to common purposes o f life’ .The first

premises commenced in 178 1. A new charter specifying its

lecture was given in 1801 by Garnett who was the first

role was given in 1861.

professor o f natural philosophy and chemistry. The second lecture was given by Thomas Young (1773—1829) in 1802.

Royal C ollege o f Physicians, Ireland OriginaUy the Fra­ ternity o f Physicians, founded in 1654. It was given a Royal

Humphry Davy (1778—1829) was its director in the same

charter by Charles II and became the CoUege o f Physicians,

year and Michael Faraday succeeded him in 1825.

Ireland in 1667. The present name. R oyal CoUege o f

R oyal Jelly

Physicians, was given in 1890.

First suggested to contain vitamin E, by H.

Leonard and E. F. Burnett in their article in Nature titled Fertility of Bees and Vitamin E published in 1932.This led to

Royal C ollege o f Physicians, L ondon The first Royal

its popular use as an aphrodisiac and sexual stimulant.

CoUege was estabUshed by Oxford physician, Thomas Linacre (1460—1524), under the patronage o f H enry VIII

Royal M edico-C hirugical S ociety o f L ondon See Royal

in 1518. It was known as CoUege or CommonaUty o f

Society of Medicine.

the Faculty o f Medicine o f London, and was given its pre­

Royal N ational Institute for the B lind The first school

sent name in 16 82.Three volumes o f biographical data o f aU

for the blind in England was founded in Liverpool in 1791.

the members were prepared by WiUiam M unk (1816—1898)

Edinburgh and London followed in 1799. Louis Braille

in 1855.

(1809—1852) devised an alphabet for the blind with varying

R oyal C ollege o f Psychiatrists OriginaUy the Association

combinations o f six dots in 1834, which is still in use today.

o f Medical Officers o f Asylums and Hospitals for the

An embossed system, based on Rom an capitals, was devised

640

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RUBNER

in 1845 by William M oon (1818—1894), an inventor from

clerk to the society. Some distinguished presidents include:

Kent who himself was partially blind. The National

Sir ChristopherWren (1680), Samuel Pepys (1 6 84), Sir Hans

Institute for the Blind was established in 1914 and it

Sloane (1727), Sir John Pringle (1772), Sir Humphry Davy

developed M oon s system for teaching. A R oyal charter was

(1778—i 8 2 9 ) ( i 8 2 o ) , and Sir Benjamin Brodie (1858).

given in 1949 and it acquired its present name, Royal

Royal S ociety o f M edicine Originated from two institu­

National Institute for the Blind, in 1953.

tions in 1907: the R oyal M edico-Chirugical Society o f

R oyal N ational O rthopaedic H ospital Founded in 1839

London, founded by JohnYelloly (1774—1842) and Marcet

by William John Little (1810—1894), a British orthopedic

in 1805, and the Medical Society o f London, established in

surgeon and known as the Orthopaedic Institution. It was

1773. The society received its R oyal charter from King

re-named the Royal Orthopaedic Hospital in 1845 and

WiUiam IV to become the R oyal Medical and Chirurgical

moved to Hanover Square in 1855. After amalgamation

Society in 1934. It became the Royal Society o f Medicine

o f the Royal, the National and the C ity Orthopaedic

after amalgamation with 17 specialties in 1907 and was

Hospitals with the help o f K ing’s Metropolitan Hospital

given a supplementary charter by EdwardVII.

Funds in 1905, it became the Royal National Orthopaedic

R ubber Gloves Introduced as an aseptic measure in surgery

Hospital.

by William Halstead (1852—1922), an American surgeon at

R oyal N orthern (Central) H ospital, L ondon Founded

Johns Hopkins Hospital. He made bronze casts o f his hand

by S.F. Statham to give medical care to the poor sick o f

upon which the gloves were molded in 1890.

north London in 1856. O riginally know n as the Great

R ubber See Latex.

Northern Hospital because o f its proximity to the Great Northern Railway Station, Kings Cross. It moved to

R ubella Vaccine Live attenuated vaccine was developed by

Holloway in 1888, and after amalgamation with the Royal

Harry M . M eyer in 1966.

Chest Hospital in 1924, it was renamed R oyal Northern

R ubella German measles, named by H enry Richard Lobb

Hospital.

Veale (1832—1908) in 1866. Experimental proof that it is Comm enced as the

caused by a virus was provided by A lfred Fabian Hess

Philosophical Society ofEdinburgh in 1739 and became the

(1875—1933) o f Germany in 1914. Successful transmission in

Royal S ociety o f Edinburgh

Royal Society ofE d inbu rgh in 1783. It received a new

children using filtered nasal washings was demonstrated by

charter in 18 11.

Y. Hiro and S. Tasaka in 1938. Experiments on the virus commenced in the 1940s, and Karl Habel o f America

R oyal S ociety o f L ondon In 1645 several learned men, including John Wilkins (1614—1672) and John Wallis (1616— 1703), started weekly meetings in London.The physicians

transmitted it through five consecutive passages in the chorio-aUantois o f chick embryos in 1942. After the fifth passage the material was capable o f producing clinical

in their group included Jonathan Goddard, Christopher

rubella in rhesus monkeys.The increased risk o f congenital

Merret andTheodore Hawk.The group split in 1649 by the

heart disease and congenital cataracts during the first

removal o f Wilkins, Wallis and Goddard to Oxford. The

trimester o f pregnancy was pointed out by Australian

Oxford group was joined by Seth Ward (1617—1689) and

ophthalmologist.

William Petty. Their meetings were held in Wilkins’

Sir

Norman

McAlister

Gregg

(1892—1966) in 1941. The triad, cataract, congenital heart

apartment at Wadham College and later at the house o f

defects, and deafness (Gregg triad) in children is named

R obert Boyle (1627—1691). The Philosophical Society o f

after him. Isolation o f the virus was achieved in 1962 by

Oxford was formed out o f their meetings but only lasted

Thomas Huckle Weller (b 1915) and Frankelin Allen Neva,

until 1 650.The London group continued functioning with

and Paul Douglas Parkman, E. L. Buescher and M . S.

its members, Christopher Wren (1632—1723), Laurence

Artenstein.

Rooke (1622-1662), Lord Brouncker (1620—1684) ^nd several other important men. After the restoration o f

R ub id ium Alkaline metal discovered by R obert W ilhelm

Charles II it received its Royal Charter in 1662. The

Bunsen (18 11—1899) using spectrum analysis in 1861.

Society’s publication. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal

R ubini, Peter (1760-1819) Physician from Parma who wrote

Society, was started in 1665 by Henry Oldenburg at his own

several treatises on fever. He was archiater and physician to

expense. Sir Isaac New ton (1642—1727) presented the

the Archduchess Maria Louisa in 1816.

manuscripts o f his Principia to it in 1668 and it was published at the expense o f Edmund HaUey (1656—1742) who was

R ubner, M ax (1854-1932) German physiologist and pupil o f

641

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RUBWUNGA

Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig (1816—1895) who held

from Hannover who lived in Paris and built the first induc­

professorships at M unich and Marburg before he succeeded

tion coil in

R obert Koch (1843—1910) at Berlin. His main interest was

development o f the Geissler tube.

metabolism and he measured the metabolic changes in the

1855 which formed the basis for the

Rum ford, Benjamin Thompson, Count (1753—1814) Enghsh-

body using the animal body as a calorimeter in 1891. He

American founder o f the Royal Institution o f London. He

described the specific dynamic action o f food.

came to England in 1776 and spent most o f his life there.

Disease endemic in northwest A frica and

During his travels in the continent he married the wife o f

Uganda was shown to be identical to plague by R o b ert

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743—1794),the French chemist

Koch (1843-1910).

who was guillotined during the French Revolution.

R ubw unga

Rum ford suggested that heat is a form o f energy in 1796.

R udbeck, O lo f (1630—1702) Swedish anatomist and botanist and a rival to Thomas Bartholin (1616—1680) in his claim to

R unge, Friedlieb Ferdinand (1795—1867) German chemist,

the discovery o f the lymphatic system. He was professor o f

born at Hamburg and studied medicine in Berlin and Jena.

medicine at Uppsala and prepared a large illustrated work

He obtained caffeine from seeds o f Coffea arabica in 1820.

on botany with over 3000 woodcuts. His w ork was

Carbolic acid or phenol, a by-product o f distillation o f coal

destroyed before it could be published, by the great fire o f

tar, was discovered by him in 1834. He developed a method

Uppsala in 1702. He was succeeded at Uppsala by his son

o f chromatography.

(1660-1740) o f the same name.

Rupture o f Bladder Benjamin Bell (1749—1806) suggested

R udin, Ernst (1874—1952) Professor o f psychiatry and

suturing the bladder after rupture in 1789, and the

director o f the Kaiser W ilhelm Institute o f Psychiatry at

procedure was performed by WiUet o f St Bartholom ew’s

Munich. He advocated eugenics during the N azi period

Hospital.William M acCorm ack (1836—1901) performed his

and presided at the third international eugenic congress in

procedure in 1885 and published two cases in 1886.

N ew York in 1932. He was the architect o f the enforced

Rupture An old term for hernia. See hernia.

sterilization program o f Nazi Germany.

R usconi, Mauro (1776—1849) Italian embryologist and

R udinger, Nicolaus (1832—1896) Professor o f anatomy at

comparative anatomist from Pavia who wrote several

Munich who described the muscles internal to the circular

treatises on embryology.

fibers o f the rectum (Rudinger muscle) in 1879.

R ush, Benjamin (1745—1813) American physician who

R udolphi, Carl Asmund (177 1—1832) Swiss anatomist and

graduated from Edinburgh University in 1768 and was

helminthologist. He used the term ‘echinococcus’ to refer

appointed professor o f physic at the Medical College o f

to the vesicular hydatid in 1808.

Philadelphia in 1789. He was a statesman as well as a physi­

R ud olp hin e Tables Devised by Johannes Kepler ( 15 7 1-

cian and a signatory to the Declaration o f Indepe dence. He

1630) in 1627, and gave accurate planetary positions and

is regarded as the first psychiatrist in America and wrote the

predicted the transits o f M ercury and Venus across the Sun.

first book on mental diseases in America Diseases of the Mind,

Named in honor o f Kepler’s patron, Emperor Rudolph II.

published in 1821. He introduced occupational therapy in the treatment o f mental diseases and wrote other treatises on

R uffini C orpuscles The muscle spindle or the stretch affer­

insanity, cholera infantum and yellow fever.

ent which is a neuromuscular end organ o f the muscle.

R ush M edical C ollege Chicago college was chartered in

Studied by Wilhelm Kühne (1837-1900) in 1862. The

1837 and began courses in 1843. It became the medical

sensory nature o f the spindle was proposed by Sir Charles

department o f the University o f Chicago in 1898.

Scott Sherrington (1857-1952) in 1894 and described in detail by professor o f histology at Bologna, Angelo Ruffini

Ruska, Ernst August Friedrich (1906-1988) Inventor o f the

(1874-1929) between 1892 and 1898.

R ufus o f Ephesus

electron microscope, born at Heidelberg and educated at Munich and Berlin Universities. He developed the electron

(AD 98-138) Greek physician and

microscope while he was at the Technical University o f

surgeon who lived during the reign o f the Emperor Trajan.

Berlin in 1931. He shared the N obel Prize for Physics with

He gave a description o f plague and many anatomical

two other workers on electron microscopy, Gerd Karl

structures in On Naming the Parts of the Body.

Binnig (b 1947) and Heinrich R ohrer (b 1933) in 1986. See electron microscope.

R uhm korf, Heinrich Daniel (1823-1877) German mechanic

642

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

RYLE

TUBE

a pioneer in the study o f hearing and proposed the theory

R ussell, Alexander (d 1770) Scottish physician from Edinburgh who wrote a history on Aleppo while he was a

that the tymphanic membrane, on receiving sound,

physician there in 1755. On his return to England in 1759 he

vibrated like a microphone and imparted electrical impuls­

became a physician at StThom as’ Hospital.

es to the brain. His lectures on physiology at Edinburgh were very popular and the novelist Conan Doyle was one o f

R ussell, James Burn (1837-1904) Pioneer in public health

his students.

and preventive medicine in Glasgow. He was superinten­

Rutter, John

dent o f the Parliamentary R o ad Fever Hospital, established

(1762—1838)

Edinburgh

physician

who

to relieve the pressure caused by epidemics o f typhus and

founded the Liverpool Athenaeum and the Liverpool

other infectious fevers on Glasgow Infirmary.

Medical Institution.

R ussell, Frederick FuUer (1870—1960) Born in Auburn, he

R uysch, Frederic (1638—1731) Professor o f anatomy at

was a pathologist w ho demonstrated the value o f

Amsterdam who coined the term ‘bronchial’ to describe the

antityphoid vaccination in the U S Arm y in 1910.

arteries and veins around the bronchi in 1665. The capillaries in the deepest part o f the choroid (tunic

R ussell, Richard (d 1768) English physician who wrote a

o f Ruysch) were described by him in 17 2 1. His museum

treatise on sea waters in the i8th century.

collection o f over 1300 specimens was bought by Peter

R ussell V iper V enom Named after a Scottish physician,

the Great and was brought to St Petersburg. The sailors

Patrick Russell (1727—1805) who was medical officer in the

who brought the specimens were found drunk after

British Arm y in India. He gave a description o f viper venom

consuming the alcohol used to preserve the specimens.

in Account of Indian Serpents (1896—1809).

R u ysch ’s daughter, Rachel, was also an anatomist and

R ust D isease vertebrae.

ophidism.

was the first woman director o f the anatomical museum at

Tuberculous spondylitis o f the cervical

Described

by

German

Amsterdam.

surgeon, Johann

R uzicka, Leopold (1887-1976) Yugoslavian chemist from

Nepomak Rust (1775-1840) in 1834.

Vuvkor who became professor o f chemistry at Utrecht in

R utherford, Daniel (1749-1819) Chemist, botanist and

1926, and Zurich in 1929. He pioneered the study o f sex

physician in Edinburgh. He was a pupil o f Joseph Black

hormones and prepared testosterone artificially from

(1728—1799) and obtained nitrogen from air in 1772.

cholesterol, with Wettstein in 1935. He was awarded the N obel Prize for Chemistry with Aleksandr Mikhailovich

R utherford, Ernest (1871—1937) Pioneer o f atomic physics,

Butenandt (1828-1886) in 1939.

born at Nelson in N ew Zealand. He studied at Canterbury CoUege and won a scholarship to England in 1894 where he

R x Symbol representing the eye o f Hom s, and used as amulet

worked in the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge under

5000 years ago by the Egyptians. It has remained as the

Sir Joseph JohnThom son (1856—1940). He invented a system

recipe sign for medical prescriptions. See Homs.

o f wireless telegraphy able to transmit over half a mile, which

R yder, Hugh (1664—1693) London Naval surgeon and

preceded Marconi. He was professor o f physics at M cGill University,Montreal in 1898 and continued his research into

surgeon to Jam es II. H e wrote New practical observations in

radioactivity. He named alpha rays, radiation rays emitted

surgery in 1685.

from radium, in 1899. He and Frederick Soddy (1877—1965)

R yle, John Alfred (1889-1950) Physician at G u y’s Hospital

in 1902 put forward the atomic disintegration hypothesis.

who in 1921 improved the stomach tube designed by

He proposed an hypothesis which led to the modern theory

Martin Emil Rehfuss (b 1887) in 1914, making it safer and

o f atomic structure in 19 11. He conceived the idea o f an

more comfortable for the patient to swallow. He wrote

atom as a miniature replica o f our solar system with the Sun

Gastric Function in Health and Disease in 1926.The physicist

as the positively charged central nucleus and the planets as

and radioastronomer. Sir Martin R y le (1918—1984), was his

the electrons. He published 150 papers and many books in­

son. See stomach tube.

cluding: Radioactivity {igo4). Radioactive Transformations (1906),

R yle Tube See Ryle Jo h n Alfred, stomach tube.

Radioactive Substances and their Radiation, and Radiation from Radioactive Substances (1930).

Rutherford, William (1839—1899) Scottish professor o f physiology at K ing’s College London in 1869, who occupied the chair at Edinburgh University (1874). He was

643

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SACROILIAC

JOINT

Sabouraud M edium Agar for culture o f bacteria. Devised by French dermatologist and microbiologist, Raym ond

S

Jacques Adrien Sabouraud (1864—1938).

Saccharin [Latin:

sugar] 2,3-dihydro-3-oxobenziso-

sulfonazole was the first synthetic sweetener. It was developed in 1879 by two Americans, Constantin Fahlberg and Ira Rem sen during their research on coal tar deriva­ tives. It remained a prescription product until the Food and Drugs Administration allowed its use as an industrial food

Sabaeism Worship o f the sun, moon and stars. In Peru the sacred flame was kept burning throughout the year for the virgins o f the Sun.The Coroados tribe o f Brazil considered

additive in 1938.

Sachei^M asoch, Leopold von (1835-1895) See masochism.

the moon more powerful. Sun and the m oon are held as

S ach s, Bernard Parney (1858—1944) SeeTay—Sachs disease.

deities by some Indian Hindu tribes.

Sachs, Hans (1887—1947) Non-medical follower o f Freud and a founder o f Imago which dealt with application o f

Sabatier, Paul (1854—1941) French professor o f chemistry

psychoanalysis

at Toulouse who worked with Berthelot (1827—1907) at

art, mythology, anthropology

and

hterature. He emigrated to America and published a new

Paris. He researched chemical catalysis with Jean Baptiste

Imago there in 1939.

Senderens (1856—1936) and discovered catalytic hydrogena­ tion o f oils. He shared the N obel Prize for Chemistry with

to

Sachs, Hans (1877—1945) Serologist in H eidelberg w ho devised a flocculation test for serodiagnosis (Sachs—Georgi

Victor Grignard (18 71—1935) in 1912.

test), with Walter Georgi (1889—1920) in 1919.

Sabatier Suture M ethod o f approximation o f the intestinal wound using cardboard soaked in turpentine. Devised by

Sachs, Julius von (1832—1897) German botanist, born at

French surgeon,Raphael Bienvenu Sabatier (1732—18 11) o f

Breslau in Poland and became a professor at Wurzburg in 1868. He proposed that the green pigment was not diffusely

Paris. He performed resection o f the head o f humerus and

present in the plant tissues, but instead was contained in

amputation at the shoulder joint.

special bodies. His Lehrbuch derBotanik (1868) was translated

Sabin, Albert Bruce (1906—1993) Polish-American microbi­ ologist who received his medical degree from N ew York University in 1931. He was professor o f pediatrics at the

into English in 1875.

Sachs, WiUy (1864—1909) Swiss surgeon from Bern who modified Senns plates for suturing intestines.

University o f Cincinnati in 1946, where he commenced his research on vaccines against Japanese B encephalitis and

Sacral U lcer See bed sore.

dengue fever. He developed the live attenuated oral vaccine

Sacred D isease [Latin: sacer, sacred] The term ‘sacred disease’

for polio in 1957. His vaccine was found to be safe and effec­

for epilepsy is found in the writings o f the Greek

tive and is more widely used than Salk s killed polio vaccine.

philosopher Heraclitus (c 500 B C ) and the historian Herodotus (484—425 B C ). According to Herodotus, the

Sabin, Florence R ena (18 71-1953) Graduate o f Johns

Persian king Cambyses sufiered from a strange disease

Hopkins Medical School in 1900 and the first woman to be

which was called sacred by the others. Plato (428—347 B C )

elected to the National Academy o f Sciences in 1925.

used the name on the grounds that it caused divine

She studied the maturation o f myeloblasts and devised a

revolutions in the head.The term was also applied to leprosy

supravital stain for leukocytes.

by the ancient Greeks. A monograph on epilepsy. On the

Sabouraud, Raym ond Jacques Adrien (1864—1938) B orn in

Sacred Disease, was written by a Hippocratic physician

Nantes, he was an eminent dermatologist at the St Louis

around 400 B C . This gives the first rational approach to

Hospital in Paris. He attained a worldwide reputation for

epilepsy, placing the brain as the seat o f the disease.

his work on ringworm and dermatophytes. His Les teignes,

Sacroiliac Joint

Described by French physician, Joseph

published in 1910, is a classic on mycology. He developed

Capuron (1767—1850) in 18 11. Resection o f the joint was

X -ray treatment for ringworm in 1904 and devised the

performed by German surgeon, Bernhard Bardenheur

Sabouraud culture medium for pathogenic fungi.

(1839—1913) in 1899 and French surgeon, R obert Picque

645

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SACRUM

(1877—1927) in i909.An operation for extra-articular fusion

Sagittal Suture [Latin: sagitta, arrow] Bone o f the skuU,

was done by an A m erican orthopedic surgeon, Willis

named because o f its resemblance to an arrow.

Cohoon Campbell (1880-1941) in i927.Am erican radiolo­

Sahib D isease

gist, William Edward Chamberlain (b 1892) described X -ray features o f the joint in 1932.

Sahli M ethod To determine hemoglobin in the blood.

Sacrum [Latin: 5izrer, sacred] According to Scottish anatomist

Devised by Swiss physician, Herman Sahli (1856—1933)

Alexander M onro (1697—1767) in 1732, this bone is

in 1902.

so named ‘from being offered as a dainty in sacrifice or because o f its largeness in respect o f the other vertebrae’ .

Sadism

Name for kala azar by the people o f

Garo hills, India. See kala azar.

Saillant, Charles Jacques (1747-1804) French physician in Paris who wrote a treatise on influenza in 1780.

Sexual pleasure obtained through cruelty. Term

coined by Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840—1902) in 1886

Saint Triad Consists o f gall bladder disease, diverticulosis

and derived from the name o f a French novelist. Marquis

and hiatus hernia. Described by South African physician at

Donatien Alphonse François de Sade (1740—1814) who was

Groote Schuur Hospital, Charles Frederick M orris Saint

involved in several scandals and acts o f cruelty to women.

(1886-1973).

Sadler C om m ittee Select committee set up by the House

Saissy, Jean Antoine (1756—1822) French physician who

o f Com m ons under the chairmanship o f a Yorkshire

wrote a treatise on diseases o f the internal ear in 1829.

businessman, Michael Sadler (1780—1835), to inquire into

Sajous, Charles Euchariste de M edici (1852-1929) American

working condition o f children in the factories in 1831.

physician w ho wrote an early m onograph on internal

See child laborfactory acts.

secretions in 1903.

Sadlers Wells

Medicinal spa built in North London by

Sakel, Manfred Joshua (1900—1957) French physician who

Sadler in 1683. He entertained patients with a live orchestra

introduced insulin shock in treatment for schizophrenia in

in a theater opened in 1765.

1937-

Sadom asochism See sadism, masochism.

Sakharov, Andrei Dimitrievich (19 21—1989) Dissident

Saem isch, Edwin Theodor (1833-1909) Ophthalmologist

Soviet physicist who graduated from M oscow State

from Bonn described serpiginous ulcer o f the cornea

University in 1942, and developed the Soviet hydrogen

(Saemisch ulcer) and its treatment in 1870. See cataract.

bomb in 1953. He campaigned for civil rights in Russia and

Saenger, Alfred (1861—1921) Neurologist in Hamburg who

proposed a nuclear test ban treaty which led to his house

gave an account o f pupils which simulated research on

arrest at Gorky. He was awarded the N obel Peace Prize in

syphilis in 1902.

1975, and was released from his arrest in 1986.

Safe P eriod Avoidance o f sexual intercourse during recep­ tive

times

for

conception. Described

Salkowski, Leopold Ernest (1844-1923) Chemist in Berlin

by Avicenna

who described pentosuria in 1895. He devised tests for

(980—1037). The discovery was by Japanese gynecologist,

purine bases (1894), cholesterol (1872), creatinine (1880),

Kyusaku O gino in 1929. Herman Knaus o f Prague

bile pigments (1880), carbon monoxide in blood (1888),

University published similar findings a few months later, on

glucose in urine (1899) and hematoporphyrin (1891).

which the modern safe period for contraception is based.

Sakushu Fever See Autumnfever. Safety Lam p Devised for miners to detect methane in coal Sal A m m o n ia c

mines. Invented by Sir Humphry Davy (1778—1829) in 1815.

Obtained from camel dung in Ancient

Egypt. It was known to Geber, Avicenna (980—1037) called

Saffron M edicine, condim ent, perfum e and dye obtained

it ‘Noshadur’ and the Persians called it ‘Arm eena’ . It was

from Crocus sativa stigmas. The name ‘krokus’ was used for

employed as a lotion by the surgeons.

the plant by H om er, Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) and Theophrastus (372—287 B C ) and the H ebrews called it

Salerno Town near Naples, ancient health resort in the

‘Karcom ’ and it is mentioned in the Song o f Solomon.

second century B C . Its medical school was renowned in

Saffron tea was used to treat measles and it is still used as a

Europe as early as A D 904. The Christian church began

diaphoretic and for chronic hemorrhage o f the uterus. The

monastic medicine in Salerno which developed into a

plant was introduced into England during the reign o f

renowned medical center with hospitals and the first

Edward III around A D 1350.

medical school in Europe that provided an organized

646

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SALMONELLOSIS

curriculum and awarded doctorates.The Latin poem on

Salm on D isease

Saprolegnia, a fatal disease o f fish, was

the Salernian rules for hygiene and medical treatment,

described by William Arderon, a naturalist from Norwich.

Regimen sanitatis salernitqanum, was printed in 1484, and

He communicated his findings to London microscopist

translated into most European languages.

Henry Baker (1704—1774) in 1748, who presented a description to the R oyal Society o f London later in the

Salicetti, Guilielmo (12 10 -12 77 ) Italian professor o f surgery

same year. The same disease in goldfish was described by

at Bologna in 1268 who distinguished between arterial and

Edinburgh physician, J. Hughes Bennett (1812—1875) in

venous bleeding, described crepitus as a sign o f fracture, and

1844. The causative organism, Salprolegnia monoica, was

gave one o f the earliest accounts o f dropsy caused by

identified by English physician, Thomas H enry H uxley

diseased kidneys. His Chyrurgia, written in 1275, was

(1825-1895) in 1882.

published in 1476.

Salm on, William (1644—1713) So-called professor o f physick,

Salicin Obtained from the plants wintergreen and white

practiced near St Bartholom ew’s Hospital where he attend­

willow and used as a remedy for rheumatism since ancient

ed patients who were not admitted to the hospital or

times. It is a glucoside and was isolated in 1819. The

discharged uncured. In his The Practice of Curing Diseases

compound was prepared by Raffaele Piria (1815—1865) o f

(1694) he discussed several case histories including one

Paris in 1839. It was introduced as treatment for acute

o f senile dementia. He was instrumental in introducing

rheumatism by John Thomas Maclagan (1838—1903) in

digitalis into the London Pharmacopoeia, which he trans­

1876. See aspirin, salicylic acid.

lated into English from Latin. His other works include The Complete Physician and Universal Herbal Folio.

Salicylate See aspirin, salicylic acid, salicin.

Salmonella

Its clinical use as an antipyretic was

Salicylic A cid

The organism was named after Daniel Elmer

demonstrated by Carl Emil Buss o f Switzerland in 1875.

Salmon (1850—1914), a veterinary pathologist from Cornell

The anti-inflammatory effects were demonstrated by Said

University who isolated American hog cholera bacillus

(1838—1903)

while working with Theobald Smith (1859—1934) at the U S

introduced salicylates in the treatment o f rheumatic fever in

Bureau o f Animal Industry in 1885. The discovery that the

1876. See aspirin, salicin.

dead virus could be used to induce immunity was made by

Franz

Striker. John

Thomas

Maclagan

Salmon and Smith in 1884. See salmonellosis.

Salisbury, Sir Edward James (1886—1978) Botanist from Salmonella typhimurium Cause o f meat poisoning isolated

Harpenden in Hertfordshire. He was professor o f botany at

by German bacteriologist Friedrich August Johannes

the University College in 1929 and director o f Kew

Löffler (1852-1915) in 1892. Another bacillus was identified

Gardens in 1942. He wrote The Reproductive Capacity of

as the cause o f the outbreak by de Nobele during an

Plants (1942) and other works.

epidemic o f meat poisoning at Aertry eke, Belgium in 1897.

Saliva The digestive action o f saliva was observed by Italian

It was independently isolated by Herbert Edward Durham

biologist Lazaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) in 1780. The

(1866-1945) o f England and named Bacillus aertrycke and

association between secretions o f saliva and gastric juice was

later found to be identical with the bacteria isolated by

proposed by Am erican physiologist, Jo h n R ichardson

Löffler and renamed, Salmonella typhimurium.

Young (178 2-18 04) o f Maryland in 1803.

Salivary Glands

Salm onellosis

See parotid gland, Walther canal, Mikulicz

syndrome.

Salk Vaccine

The causative organism o f enteric fever.

Salmonella typhi, was discovered in 1880 by Carl Joseph Eberth (1825—1926), professor o f pathology at Halle. The name was given to this group o f enteropathogenic organ­

Killed polio virus vaccine was developed

isms in honor o f Daniel Elmer Salmon (1850—1914) who

in 1952 by Jonas Edward Salk (b 1914), a physician and

isolated the American hog cholera bacillus in 1885. Georg

virologist at the N ew York University College o f Medicine.

Theodor Gafiky (1850—1918), a German bacteriologist

His vaccine had to be given by injection and has been

from Hannover, obtained a pure culture o f Salmonella

largely replaced by Sabin’s oral polio vaccine w hich is

typhi in 1884 and demonstrated it caused typhoid.

more effective and convenient to administer. Salk became

Theobald Smith (1859-1934) o f America established the

the director o f the Salk Institute in San Diego, previously

bacteria as enteropathogenic in 1893. A n important land­

known as the Institute o f Biological Studies, in 1963.

mark in the study o f bacterial food poisoning was the

Salm on, Daniel Elmer (1850—1914) See salmonellosis.

discovery o f Bacillus enteritidis as a cause o f meat poisoning

647

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SALPETRIERE HOSPITAL

by Austrian physician, Gustav Gaertner (1855—19 2 1),

1912) o f Nottingham, a minister at the Wesleyan Methodist

during an outbreak at Frankenhausen in 1888.This organ­

Church. It opened at a Whitechapel public house under the

ism was later renamed Salmonella enteritidis. Sir William

name East London Christian Society and was renamed the

George Savage (b 1872) and Bruce White in England

Salvation Arm y by Booth.

contributed to the investigation o f salmonella infection in

Sam os Island on the west coast o f Asia Minor, colonized

England during the 1920s.The O antigens or somatic anti­

by the lonians in 1043 B C . Epicurus (341—270 B C ), the

gens o f the typhoid bacillus were identified by Polish

Greek philosopher who founded the Epicurean School,

bacteriologist Arthur Felix (1887—1956) in 1924. In 1934 an

and Pythagorus (580—500 B C ), philosopher and mathe­

International Salmonella Center at the State Serum

matician, were born in Samos.

Institute, Copenhagen was established. J.W ilson in England

Sam pson, John Albertson (1873—1946) Gynecologist from

studied outbreaks in chicks in 1944 and suggested that the presence o f bacillus in the egg shell is the cause and

Troy, N ew York who graduated from Johns Hopkins

considered the possibility o f infection o f the egg contents

University in 1899 and later became professor o f gynecolo­

by penetration o f the shell.

gy at Albany Medical College. He described chocolate cysts o f the ovary (Sampson cyst) in 19 21. He gave an account o f

Salpêtrière H osp ital Founded in Paris in 1656, mainly for

pelvic lymphatics in relation to radical surgical treatment

the care o f women and children.The hospital was revived in

o f cervical cancer in 1904.

the 19th century and Jean Martin Charcot (1825—1893) was (Syn: Desert rheumatism) A

San Joaquin Valley Fever

appointed as a physician in 1862.

disease with

respiratory symptoms, joint pains

and

S alp in gitis [Greek: salpinx, tube + itis, inflammation]

erythema multiforme in California and investigated by

Inflammation o f the fallopian tubes in live patients and

M yrnie A. Gifford in 1936. It was recognized as a milder

several cases at postmortem were described by Sir James

form o f coccidiomycosis by E .C . Dickson and M yrnie G if­

Young Simpson ( 18 11—1870) in i860. Lawson Tait (1845—

ford in 193 8. See coccidiomycosis.

1899) opened the abdomen and took out the ovaries and

Sanatorium [Latin: SiinaionW, conferring health] Cold,pure

fallopian tubes as treatment.

air was introduced as treatment for consumption by George

Salpingography [Greek: salpinx, tube + graphein, to write]

Bodington

(1799—188^)

in

1840. A

sanatorium

for

M ethod o f assessing the patency o f the fallopian tubes.

tuberculosis was established by Gustav A d olf R obert

Devised by WilHam HoUenback Carey (b 1883) o f America

Hermann Brehmer (1826—1899) in Germany in 1859.

in 1914. It was discovered independently by N ew York

Another at Nordach, Black Forest was started by Otto

gynecologist Isador Clinton R u bin (1883—1958) in 1915,

Walther in 1888. The K ing Edward V II Sanatorium at

who used tubal insufflation for treating sterility resulting

Midhurst in England was founded in 1903.

from occlusion o f the fallopian tubes, in 1920.

Sanchez, Francisco (1550-1623) Portuguese professor o f

Saltatoric Spasm [Latin: saltatio, to jump] Condition o f

medicine at Toulouse in 1612. He was a critic o f experimen­

inability to stand still due to springing or jum ping

tal knowledge and published Quod Nihil Scitur which

movements. Described by Fleinrich von Bamberger

opposed Aristotle’s views, in 1581.

(1822-1888) ofVienna in 1859.

Sanctorius Sanctorius or Santorio Santorio (1561— 1636) Inventor o f the clinical therm om eter and Italian

Salter, Henry Hyde (1823—1871) See asthma.

physician. He graduated in medicine from Padua in 1582

Salter Line Incremental lines in the substance o f dentine in

and practiced in Poland from 1587 for 14 years. He was

teeth. Described by Sir Samuel James Salter (1825—1897)

appointed professor o f medicine at Padua in 16 11, but

o f G uy s Hospital in 1865.

resigned in 1629 and settled in Venice where he continued his scientific studies. He designed a balance to calculate the

Salvarsan The magic bullet, arsphenamine, developed and

weight in relation to food intake, excretion, perspiration

used in treatment for syphilis by Paul Ehrlich (1854—1915) in 1910.

It was later found to be effective in the treatment o f

relapsing fever and trypanosomiasis. See side-chain theory,

and breathing. His work, Ars de statica medicina, was published in 1614. It was probably the first treatise on metabolism and was translated into English by John Q uincy

chemotherapy.

in the 18th century. He also designed the earliest instrument

Salvation Airmy Founded in 1865 by William Booth (1829—

648

to measure pulse rate, which he called pulsilogium. It

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SAPHENOUS VEIN

consisted o f a lead weight attached to a long thread, the

Sanger, M argaret H iggins (1883—1966) Pioneer o f birth

length o f which could be adjusted according to the

control in America who started her career as a nurse in the

frequency o f the pulse. He probably learnt the principle

poor lower East Side o f N ew York around 1910. She began

which is similar to that o f a pendulum, from Galileo.

her crusade on the prejudice against birth control and published Family Limitation, but had to leave the country as

Sandblasting M ethod o f cleaning and correcting irregular­

a result o f threatened court action. She returned to America

ities on the surface o f metals by projecting sand particles

and established the first contraceptive advice station at

with the use o f steam or compressed air, introduced in 1904.

Brooklyn in 1916. H er other contributions include: the

Workers in this industry showed a high incidence o f fatal

publication o f the first radical periodical for women. The

silicosis and it was prohibited by the Blasting Special

Women Rebel, the foundation o f National Birth Control

Regulations Act o f 1949.

League in 1917 (later the American Birth Control League)

Sanderson, John Scott Burdon (1828—1905) Professor o f

under her presidency, and the organization o f the World

medicine at Oxford who investigated cattle plague in 1865.

Population Conference in Geneva in 1927.

He pioneered electrophysiology and devised an improved

Sanger O peration Cesarean operation where the upper

rheotome with which he made a detail study o f electrical

part o f the uterus is widely opened. Revived and described

changes in the ventricles o f the frog and tortoise around 1870.

by M ax Sanger (1853—1903) ofBayreuth in 1882.

Sandfly Fever Seephlebotomusfever.

Sanitation [Latin:

Sandifort, Edouard (1742—1814) Dutch physician who

health] See public health.

Sanskrit Language o f Brahmins o f India. Related to Latin,

described congenital cyanotic heart disease in 177 1. His

Greek, Celtic and Scandinavian. Horace Hayman Wilson

work on pathological anatomy (1777—1781) is held equal to

(1786—1860), professor o f philology at Oxford, translated

that o f Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682—1771).

the RigVeda, the sacred hymns o f the Hindus, and published

Sandow Term sometimes used to denote a strong man, takes

a dictionary o f Sanskrit in 1852. M ax M uller (1823—1900)

its origin from Eugene Sandow (1867-1925), a Russian

published a history in 1859. See Aryans.

from Königsberg. He was the worlds strong man at

Sansom , Arthur Ernest (1838-1907) Wiltshire physician,

the Chicago World Fair in 1893 and later opened a Health

educated at K ing’s College London, and became physician

Institute in London.

to the London Hospital in 1890. He wrote The Antiseptic

Sandstrom , IvarVictor (1852-1889) See parathyroid.

System and Diseases of the Heart.

Sanger, Frederick (b 1918) EngHsh biochemist who unraveled

Santonin

Principle constituent o f the plant Artemisia

the complete sequence o f amino acids in insuHn in 1951 and

marítima, known to the Greeks, Romans and Arabians as a

provided a sequence o f amino acids for a protein. He was the

wormicide. Dioscorides (AD 40-90) mentioned seeds

son o f a physician from Gloucester and was educated at St

which he used as treatment for Ascárides and Lumbrici

John’s College, Cambridge, before he joined the Medical

around A D 60. A exander ofTralles (525-605) advocated its

Research Council Laboratories in 1951. He also did work on

use against intestinal worms. It is a derivative o f naphthalene

the structure o f D N A and R N A and became the first person

and was isolated in 1829 by Kahler from Dusseldorf. Augus­

to be awarded two Nobel Prizes for Chemistry in 1958 and

tus Alms, a druggist’s assistant at Penzlin, independently

1980.

isolated it and named it santonin in 1830. It was a popular remedy against Ascaris lumbricoides in the 19th century.

Santorini, Giovanni Domenico (16 8 1-1737) Italian anato­ mist and a pupil o f MarceUo Malpighi (1628—1694). He described the accessory duct o f the pancreas (Santorini duct) and several other structures in his Observationes Anatomicae (1724). Some structures have been named after him.

f

Santorio, Santorio See Sanctorius. Saphenous Vein [Greek: saphenes, manifest] Avicenna (980-

Margaret Sanger (1883-1966). Courtesy of the New Haven Colony Historical

1037) used the term al-safm (hidden) for the vein in his

Society

64 9

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SAPPEY VEIN

Canon written around A D loio. The Arab physicians used

conditions, including syphilis. It was introduced into Seville

blood letting and found the saphenous vein difficult to find as

from South America by a physician, Nicolas Monardes

it was visible only through a small part o f its course. Accord­

(1493—1588) o f Seville in 1536. A specific account was given

ing to some, the vein was so named because it stood out as a

by Pedro de Ciezo in Parte Primera de la Chronica del Peru in

result o f its tortuosity and varicosity. R ene G. Favaloro from

1553. Its successful use in conditions including rheumatism

La Plata, Argentina performed a successful coronary artery

was given by Portuguese physician o f Jewish origin, Joao

bypass graft using a saphenous vein graft in 1967.

Rodriguez de CasteUo Branco in Curationum medicinalium centuriae quatuor published in 1556. A preparation known

Sappey Vein Found in the venous plexus o f the falciform

as Zittmann decoction became a popular treatment for

ligament o f the liver. Described in 1859 by Marie Philibert

chronic syphilis in the first half o f the 17th century. William

Constant Sappey (1810-1896), chair o f anatomy at Paris in

Hunter (1723—1789) promoted it for the treatment o f

1865.

bubo or syphilis, but WiUiam Cullen (1710—1790) declared

Sapphism Lesbianism, derives its name from the Greek

it to be o f no value.

poetess Sappho who lived at Lesbos, around 600 B C .

Sattler Gland Ciliary glands described by ophthalmologist,

Sarcoidosis [Greek: sarkos, flesh] Benign sarcoid syndrome

Hubert Sattler (1844—1928) o f Salzburg in 1877.They were

was described by Norwegian dermatologist Peter Caesar

described by Dutch ophthalmologist Jacob Antonius MoU

M oeller B oeck (1845-1917) in 1899. French dermatologist

(1832-1914) in 1857.

Ernest Besnier (1831—1909) gave an account oflupus pernio

Saturnine Palsy [Latin: saturnus, lead] Lead palsy. See lead

and other features in 1889. The systemic nature was

poisoning.

described by Jorgen Nilson Schumann (1879-1953). An intradermal diagnostic skin test using saline suspension

Satyriasis Abnormal, extreme, insatiable, sexual desire in

o f sarcoid tissue was devised by R . H. Williams and D A .

the male.

Nickelson in 1935. Elevation o f serum calcium was noted

Saucerotte, Nicolas (174 1-18 14 ) See acromegaly.

by G .T Harrell and S. Fisher in 1939. Norwegian patholo­ gist Ansgar M orten Kveim (b 1892) gave a comprehensive evaluation o f the skin test in diagnosis in 1941, and the test bears his name. The beneficial effect o f adrenocorticotrophic hormone was demonstrated by L. E. Shulman and co-workers in 1952. The condition o f bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy was first noted by P. Kerley in 1942.

Sarcom a [Greek:

flesh] Viennese professor, Baron Karl

Freiherr von Rokitansky (1804—1878),described a tumor o f striped muscles known as sarcoma. Pigmented sarcoma o f the skin (Kaposi sarcoma) was described by M oritz Kaposi (1837—1902), a Hungarian dermatologist in 1872. Leo Loeb (1869—1959) was an early experimenter and managed to transmit cystic sarcoma o f white mice though 40 genera­

Ferdinand Sauerbruch's negative pressure chamber. Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

tions in 1910. Sarcoma o f the bone was described by Samuel Weissel Gross (1837-1899) o f America in 18 79 .James Ew ing

Sauerbruch, Ernst Ferdinand (1875—1951) German cardio-

(1866—1943), professor o f oncology at the Cornell U ni­

thoracic surgeon who held the chairs o f surgery at Munich,

versity Medical College, N ew York City, gave a detailed

Z u rich and Berlin. H e invented the negative pressure

account o f the endothelial tumor o f the shaft o f long bones

chamber which allowed the chest to be opened without loss

in 1920 (Ewing sarcoma). See Rous sarcoma.

o f respiration or collapsing the lung. He operated for cardiac aneurysm in 1903, and thymectomy as treatment for

Sarcoptes scabiei [Greek: sarkos, flesh + koptein, to cut]

myasthenia gravis was introduced by him in 1912.

SeeAcarus scabiei.

Sarsaparillae [Spanish: zarza, briar + parillae, vine] Plants in

Saunders, John Cunningham (1773—1810) London surgeon

the genus Smilax have been used as a remedy for various

who devised a special cutting needle for cataract operation.

650

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCARLATINA

He published a treatise on the anatomy o f the human ear

Joseph Moorhead (b 1874) in 1925 and a similar one with a

in 1806.

drill was devised by Los Angeles surgeon, James Vernon Luck (b 1906) in 1941. A string saw was used by R obert

Saussure, Horace Bénédict de (1740—1799) Swiss geologist

Abbe (1851—1928) o f N ew York for dilating esophageal

and physicist from Geneva who introduced the word

stricture.

‘geology’ . He climbed M ont Blanc in 1787 and wrote Voyages dans les Alps in 1779 and Dissertation Physica de Igne.

Saxer Cells

Primitive leukocytes in embryonic mesen­

His son, Nicholas Théodore de Saussure (1767—1845), was a

chymal tissues. Described by Fritz Saxer (1864—1906), a

geologist, physician and botanist.

pathologist at Leipzig, in 1896.

Saussure, Nicholas Théodore de (1767-1845) Physician and

Saxon M edicine See Anglo-Saxon medicine.

botanist from Geneva and son o f Horace de Saussure. He

Sayre Apparatus Used for suspending the patient during

studied plant nutrition and showed the role o f carbon

application o f a plaster o f Paris jacket. Designed by an

dioxide in photosynthesis. His wrote Recherches chimiques sur la

American surgeon, Lewis Albert Sayre (1820-1900) from

published in 1804.

N ew Jersey.

Sauvages, François Boissier de la Croix de (1706—1767)

Sayre, Lewes Albert (1820—1900)

Professor o f medicine and botany at MontpeUier and

American orthopedic

surgeon from N ew Jersey who did the first complete

member o f the Royal Society o f London. His publications

resection o f the hip joint and creation o f an artificial joint in

include Theoria Febris, Nosologiae Methodicae,Transitions o f

1863. See Sayre apparatus.

Hales Essays from English and several other works.

Scabies SeeAcarusscabiei.

Savage, H enry (1810-1900) A founder and gynecologist at the Samaritan Hospital in London. He described the

Scaliger, Julius Caesar (1484-1558) Italian sign painter who

perineal body between the anus and the vulva (Savage

graduated in medicine from Padua. He wrote several works

perineal body) in 1863.

on Theophrastus, Aristotle and Hippocrates.

Scalinus A nticus Syndrom e See thoracic outlet syndrome.

Savart, Félix (179 1—1841) French physician and physicist who invented the Savart quartz plate for measuring polar­

Scalpel Used in dissection and surgery during the time o f

ization o f light and the Savart wheel to measure tonal

AndreasVesalius (1514 -1564 ).Until this time razors were the

vibrations. He discovered the law related to the intensity o f

sole instruments available in dissections.

a magnetic field produced at a given point near a long straight current-carrying conductor with Jean-Baptiste

Scanners See C A T scanner, magnetic resonance imaging.

Biot (1774-1862) around 1820.

Scapula [Latin; scapula, shoulderblade] Congenital upward displacement o f the scapula was described by Dresden

Savilian Chair Mathematics and astronomy chair at Oxford, founded by Sir Henry Savile (1549—1622), an English schol­

surgeon, Otto Gerhard Carl Sprengel (1852—1915) in 1891.

ar from Bradley who was Greek tutor to Queen Elizabeth

The sign o f triangular swelling corresponding to the outline o f the scapula in cases o f fracture was described

in 1619.

by Italian surgeon,Antonio Com olli (b 1879) in 1932.

Saw According to Pliny (AD 29—79), h was designed to Scarification [Greek; skariphismos, scratching up] Method o f

resemble the jaw o f a serpent by Talos. Abaptiston, an

making little punctures or cuts in order to let out blood and

ancient surgical circular saw, was described by Galen

fluid from anasarcous infections or infection with swelling.

(129—200), Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1533—1619) and

Practiced from ancient times up to the early 20th century.

Johann Schultes (1595—1645) used it for trephining the

Instruments called scarifiers were devised for this purpose.

cranium. A saw for osteotomy was devised by English surgeon, Adams Williams (1820-1900) in 18 71. N ew York

Scarlatina

Old name for scarlet fever. There was an

surgeon, Fred Houdlett Albee (1876—1945) designed one

epidemic o f the disease in Sicily in 1543. An account was

for cutting bone grafts in

given by Daniel Sennert (1572-1637), a German physician

1915. Frank Huntington

Bosworth (1843-1925), a N ew York otorhinologist, devised

and

a saw for removing spurs in the nasal septum. An electric

(1624—1689) described it in his book on fevers around 1683.

bone saw was constructed by N ew York surgeon, John

See scarletfever.

651

medical

writer

in

1676.

Thomas

Sydenham

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCARLET FEVER

Scarlet Fever Long-chain streptococci were noted in the

biochemist who developed an assay for corticotrophin-

early days o f bacteriology and 700 such cases were proved by

releasing hormone, isolated thyrotropin-releasing hormone

A. Baginsky and P. Sommerfeld o f Berlin in 1900.

and luteinizing hormone. H e shared the N obel Prize for

American parasitologist, Ludwig Hektoen (1863—1951) in

Physiology or Medicine with R osalynYalow (b 1921) in

1903 isolated streptococci from blood in 12% o f his patients

1977. See thyrotropic hormone.

with scarlet fever. Serological identification o f hemolytic

Scham berg D isease Progressive pigmentary disorder o f

streptococcal infection was introduced by Paul Moser

the skin, often affecting the low er limbs. D escribed by

(1865—1924), a Viennese pediatrician, and Clemens von

A m erican dermatologist. Jay Frank Scham berg (1870—

Pirquet (1874—1929) in 1902. A skin test, the Dick test, was

1934) o f Philadelphia in 1901.

devised by George Frederick Dick (1881—1967) and his wife

Schatz Pessary

Gladys Rowena Dick (1881—1963) o f Johns Hopkins

SheU-shaped pessary with perforations.

Devised by Germ an gynecologist, Christian Friedrich

Medical School in 1924. See scarlatina, beta hemolytic streptococci.

Schatz (1841-1920).

Scarpa, Antonio (1747-1832) ItaHan surgical anatomist and a

Schaudinn, Fritz Richard (18 71—1906) German zoologist

medical artist. He studied under Giovanni Battista M orgag­ ni (1682—1771) and made several important contributions

and microbiologist, born in East Prussia, and educated in

to surgery. The first comparative study o f the organs o f

BerHn. He was director o f the Protozoological Research

hearing in man and other animals was made by Scarpa in

Institute for Tropical Diseases at Hamburg in 1904. He

1789, and he also wrote a monographs on hernia, Traite des

discovered the spirochete. Treponema pallidum, the causative

Hernies, in 1814. The membranous labyrinth o f the ear was

organism o f syphiHs in 1905. H e inoculated himself with

discovered by him in 1772. He is considered the father o f

Entamoeba histolytica during his studies on tropical dysentery

ItaHan ophthalmology and pubHshed an important book on

and demonstrated the amebic cause o f the disease in 1903.

the eye in 1801 .An accurate account o f congenital club foot

He also demonstrated that hookworm infection occurs

was given by him in 1803.

through the feet and described several other groups o f protozoans, including Balantidium species.

Scarpa Triangle Femoral triangle, described by Antonio Scarpa (1747-1832),ItaHan anatomist,around 1724. See Scarpa,

S ch au m an n ,Jorgin Nilson (1879-1953) Dermatologist from

Antonio.

Stockholm who described the systemic nature o f sarcoidosis (Besnier—Boeck—Schaumann disease) in 1922.

Scarpa Fascia Fibrous layer o f the superficial fascia o f the abdomen, described by Antonio Scarpa (1747—1832).

Schauta, Friedrich (1849-1919) Viennese gynecologist who

See Scarpa,Antonio.

devised a radical vaginal hysterectomy for carcinoma o f the cervix (Schauta operation) in 1908.

S catology [Greek: skatos, dung + logos, discourse] Study or preoccupation with feces..

Schede M ethod

S catophagy [Greek: skatos, dung + phagein, eat] Copropha-

covering it with aseptic gauze and rubber. Practiced by M ax

gia or dung eating has existed since ancient times, especiaUy

Schede (1844—1902),a surgeon

amongst fanatics.

Sceptic

Scraping away all dead tissue in bone

necrosis, permitting a blood clot to fiU the cavity, and Bonn.

Scheele, Carl Wilhelm (1742—1786) Swedish chemist who

Philosophical sect who carefliUy analyze every­

thing, doubt aU the results and never make conclusions. It

was apprenticed to an apothecary at Gothenburg at 14 years

was founded by Pyrrho in 336 B C .

old. During his apprenticeship he learned most o f his chemistry from books. He moved to Uppsala in 1770 and in

Schaafhausen, Hermann (1816—1893) Anthropologist and

1775 he purchased an apothecary shop in Köping. The

scientist from Bonn who described a Neanderthal skuU

phosphorus content o f bone was demonstrated Joh an

in 1858. See Neanderthal man.

Gotlieb Gahn (1745-1818) and Scheele. Scheele also discovered chlorine gas in 1774, and molybdenum in 1778.

Schacher G anglion See ciliary ganglion.

His other contributions include: a detailed study o f

Schafifer R eflex Extension o f the great toe on pinching the

hydrogen sulfide, discovery o f barium (1774), glycerin

achiUes tendon. Described by a German physician. M ax

(which he caUed the ‘sweet principle o f fats’ , 1779), nitrous

Schaffer (1852—1923).

acid (1774), Schlee’s green, or copper arsenate, uric acid and oxygen (1774). The action o f light on silver chloride was

Schally, Andrew Victor (b 1926) Polish-born American

6 52

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCHISTOSOMA HEMATOBIUM

studied scientifically by him in 1777. His investigation o f

Bile salts secreted into the intestine are

SchifF C ycle

Prussian blue in 1782 led to the discovery o f hydrocyanic

reabsorbed and returned to the Hver. Described by M oritz

acid, and he was the first to prepare lactic acid from sour

Schiff (1823—1 896), a German physiologist o f Jewish origin,

milk. His work on combustion predated that o f Joseph

in Geneva. Schiff also investigated the nervous system and

Priestley

defined the pathways for touch and pain sensations in the

(1733-1804)

and Antoine

Lavoisier

(174 3-

spinal cord.

1794) and he wrote On A ir and Fire in 1777. His work was fundamental to the development o f organic chemistry

S ch iff Test

Used to detect carbohydrates in urine with

sulfuric acid, glacial acetic acid and alcohol. Devised by

Schenck, Joh n Graffenburg de (1531—1598) Swiss physician

German chemist, Hugo Schiff (1834—1915) who worked in

at Freiburg w ho wrote Observationum medicorum and several

Florence.

other works. His son, Joh n George Schenck, was also a physician and wrote De Formandis Medicinae Studiis and

Schiller Test Test for carcinoma, where the cervix is painted

Monstrorum Historia.

with Gram stain to detect unstainable areas o f possible carcinoma. Devised by Austrian pathologist,Walter Schiller

Schenck D isease See sporotrichosis.

(1887-1960) o f Vienna. After working in various parts

Sch enkiusJoh nTh eodore (16 19-1671) Professor o f medicine

o f Europe and the Middle East, he joined the Jewish

at Jena. He wrote Observationes Medicinae, De Sero Sanquinis

M emorial Hospital in N ew York in 1937 and later worked at

and a catalogue o f plants in the medical garden at Jena.

the C ook County Hospital, Chicago from 1938 to 1944. and

Schilling Test Test for vitamin B 12 absorption by oral

professor o f mathematics at Zurich. He wrote a treatise

administration o f radioactive vitamin B 12 and urinary

Scheuchzer, John James

(1672—1733)

Physician

on mineral waters o f Switzerland and other works on

excretion o f radioactivity. Studied by American hematolo­

botany and natural history.

gist, R obert Frederick Schilling (b 1919) in 1953.This was later developed into the standard Schilling test for the

Scheuerm ann D isease Necrosis o f the epiphyses o f the

diagnosis ofB i2-related anemia.

vertebrae leading to osteochondrosis in kyphosis. Described

Schilder D isease Induration o f cerebral substance due to

by Danish radiologist from Copenhagen, H oger Werfel

slow inflammatory reaction was observed by PhiUipe Pinel

Scheuermann (1877—1960) in 19 21.

(1822), John Abercrombie (1836), Ernst Gustav A d olf Skin test for determining the susceptibility

Gottfiried von Strümpell (1878) and Désiré Magloire

to diphtheria. Devised by Bela Schick (1877—1967), a

Bourneville (1897). Paul Schilder (1886—1940), an American

Hungarian pediatrician in N ew York in 1 9 1 1 .

psychiatrist o f German origin, identified a subclass where

Schick Test

extensive lesions o f white matter occurred in both hemi­ spheres. He noticed that the diseased zones had nerve fibers denuded o f myeHn while their axons were preserved to a variable extent, similar to multiple sclerosis. He described it as ‘encephalitis periaxialis diffusa’ in 1912.

Schindler, R u d o lf (1888—1968) See gastroscopy. S ch i0tz T onom eter Instrument for measuring intraocular tension. Devised by N orwegian physician, Hjalmar Schiotz (1850-1927).

S chirm er Test Test for tear formation using filter paper. Devised in 1896 by German ophthalmologist, Otto WilhelmAugust Schirmer (1864-1917). Schistosoma hematobium [Greek: schisto, spHt + soma, body] Discovered by Theodor MaximiUian Bilharz (1825-1862), German professor o f zoology in Cairo. He located the worms in the portal system o f blood vessels o f the patients with

Moritz Schiff (1823-1896). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

653

schistosomiasis

in

1851.

Wilhelm

Griesinger

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCHISTOSOMA JAPONICUM

(1817-1868) later demonstrated the fluke in the veins o f the

the avulsion o f the tongue-shaped projection o f the

mesentery o f the bladder and other parts. The endemic

tubercle. Described by Carl Schlatter (1864-1934), Swiss

status o f the disease in the Cape o f Good Hope was noted

surgeon in Zurich around 1895.

by John Harley in 1864.

Schleiden, Matthias Jacob (1804—1881) See cell. Scheiner, Christophorus (1575—1650) Jesuit priest inVienna w ho devised a test to demonstrate accom m odation and refraction in the eye, in 1619.

S ch lem m Canal Found at the junction o f the cornea and sclera and described by a professor o f anatomy, Friedrich Schlemm (1795-1858) ofB erlin in 1830.

Schlling C ount See leukocyte count. Schlesinger Test Detects urobilin in the urine using Lugol iodine. Devised byViennese physician,Wilhelm Schlesinger (b 1869).

Schistosoma hematobium. Sir Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases (1914). Cassell & Co., London

Schm erling, Phillipe Charles (1791-1836) Dutch physician from Delft who provided evidence for the antiquity o f the

Schistosoma japonicum

human race. He published findings on human bones and

[Greek: schisto, split + soma, body]

extinct animals in 1833.

Endemic disease associated with hepatosplenomegaly and cachexia was noted in Hiroshima, Japan. Autopsy revealed

Schm idt, Alexander (1831-1894) German physiologist who

an unidentified helminth in their liver. In 1904, Fujiro

demonstrated that blood coagulation involved a sequence

Kasurada (1867—1946) found larvae similar to those o f

o f reactions, in 1892.

Schistosoma hematobium in the stools o f these patients. A few

Schm idt-R im pler, Hermann (1838—1915) German physi­

months later he discovered eggs, similar to those found

cian and pioneer in routine screening o f children for eye

in man, in the portal system o f cats, and he named the

defects. He devised one o f the earliest forms o f optometer.

new nematode. Schistosoma japonicum. The parasite was

Schm idt, Johann Adam (1759-1809) Oculist inVienna who

discovered in the colon o f a man from China, by Catto at

described inflammation o f the anterior portion o f uveal

the St Johns Quarantine Island in Singapore in 1904.

tunica or iris due to syphilis and named it iritis. He founded

Schistosom iasis [Greek: schisto, split + soma, body] See

the first journal o f ophthalmology, Ophthalmologische

Schistosomajaponicum. Schistosoma hematobium.

Bibliothek in 1801.

Schizophrenia [Greek: schizein, divide + phren, mind] The

Schm idt Clefts Found intersegmentally in the medullary

term ‘demence precoce’ was coined by Austrian psychia­

sheath o f the peripheral nerves. D escribed by H enry

trist, Augustin Bientôt M orel (1809—1873) in 1856, and

Schmidt (1823—1888) who was a pathologist at the Charity

adapted to psychiatry by Em il Kraepelin (1856—1926) in

Hospital in N ew Orleans in 1874.

1901.

Carl Gustav Ju ng (1875—1961) in 1908 pointed out

that ‘the name dementia is a not a very happy one, for the

Schm idt Syndrom e Adrenal insufficiency and hypothy­ roidism. Described by Martin Benno Schmidt (1863—1949)

dementia is not always precocious nor in all cases is there

o f Germany in 1926.

dementia’ . His work. The Psychology of Dementia Praecox, was published in 1906. In 19 11 EugenBleuler (1857-1939),a

S chm idt Test Used for the detection o f bilirubin in the

professor o f psychiatry at Burgholzli Hospital, noted that

feces, with mercuric chloride as reagent. Devised by A d olf

these people were not demented and that they may recover,

Schmidt (1865—1918) who was a physician at Halle.

and renamed the condition ‘schizophrenia’ .Treatment with

Schm iedberg, Johan Ernst Oswald (1838-1921) Professor at

electroconvulsive therapy was introduced by Lucio Bini

Dorpat (1870) and Strasburg (1872) who investigated the

(1908—1964) and U go Cerletti (1877—1963) in 1938.

effects o f various poisons and drugs on the frog’s heart in 1871. He determined the formula o f histamine and nucleic acids.

Schlatter D isease Pain in the tibial tuberosity at the point o f insertion o f the ligamentum patellae, thought to be due to

S ch m iedel G anglion See inferior carotidganglion.

654

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCHULTZ ANGINA

Small cartilaginous intervertebral disc

Schónlein, Johannes Lucas (1793-1864) German professor

protrusions believed to be degenerative in nature, found

o f pathological anatomy at Würzburg. He introduced the

during postmortem examination. Described by a German

terms hemophiha and tuberculosis and described peliosis

professor o f pathology, Christian Georg Schmorl ( i8 6 i-

rheumatica (Schonlein disease or purpura rheumatica). He

Schm orl N od es

discovered the organism responsible for favus {Trichophyton

1932) o f Dresden in 1926.

schonleinii).

Schneider, ConradVictor (16 14 -16 18 ) German anatomist at

Schonlein D isease Peliosis rheumatica was described by

Wittenberg who wrote a treatise on the membranes o f the nose. De Catarrhis, in 1660. His work on the organ o f

German physician, Johannes Lucas Schonlein (1793—1864)

sensation o f odor published in 1655 led to the naming o f the

in i837.This was the first description o f purpura rheumatica.

mucous membrane o f the nasal cavities as the Schneider

S ch onlein -H enoch Purpura See Henoch-Schonlein purpura.

membrane. He disputed the prevailing idea that mucus

S ch ott Treatm ent Treatment for heart disease using warm

from the nose originated in the pituitary gland.

saline baths with exercise. Advocated by Theodor Schott

Schoem aker Line Connects the greater trochanter o f the

(1850-1921), a physician at Nauheim, Germany.

femur to the anterior superior iliac spine. Described by a Dutch surgeon from the Hague, Jan Shoemaker (18 71— 1940). He described a modification o f the Billroth

Schottmuller, Hugo (1867—1936) German professor o f medi­ cine at Hamburg who isolated Streptococcus viridans in blood o f patients with bacterial endocarditis in 1910. He described

operation for gastroduodenostomy.

paratyphoid in 1900.

Scholer, Heinrich Leopold (1844-1918) German ophthal­

Schreger Line Bending o f dentine tubules near the surface

mologist who described an operative treatment for

o f the dentine. Described by Danish anatomist, Christian

detachment o f the retina in 1889.

Heinrich Theodor Schreger (1768-1833) o f Wittenberg in 1800.

S chönbein Test Uses hydrogen peroxide and tincture o f guaiac to detect traces o f blood. Designed by Germ an

Schroder O peration M ethod o f colporrhaphy designed by

chemist and physician, Friedrich Christian Schönbein

German gynecologist, Carl Ludwig Schroder (1838—1887).

(1799—1868) in Basel. He was a pioneer in chromatography.

He wrote a textbook on obstetrics in 1874.

Gun cotton which is a highly explosive mixture o f nitric

Schroeder Test Used for urea, with a solution o f bromine

acid and sulfuric acid was invented by him in 1846. See ozone.

in chloroform. Devised in 1882 by German physician,

Schonheim er,

R u d o lf

(1898-1941)

German-born

Woldemar von Schroeder (1850-1898).

American pioneer o f modern biochemistry who wrote

Schroeder Van D er Kolk, Jacob Ludwig Conrad (179 7-

Dynamic State of Body Constituents. He used deuterium to trace

1862) Physician in Utrecht who made microscopic studies

biochemical pathways and showed the steady degradation and

o f the medulla o f the brain in 1859. The fibers o f the

replacement o f fat, protein and bone. He distinguished the

reticular formation o f the medulla are named after him.

pathways o f saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. He devised a method o f estimating cholesterol in the blood.

Schuchardt, Karl August (1856-1901) German surgeon, born and qualified in medicine at Góttingen. He practiced extended mediolateral paravaginal incision (Schuchardt incision) in vaginal surgery in 1893 •

Schiiller D isease See Hand-SchUller-Christian syndrome. Schultes, Johann or Scultetus (1595-1645) Surgeon from U lm who wrote one o f the most important illustrated works on surgery in the 17th century. Armamentarium chirugicum,in 1653 which went into several editions.

Schultz A ngina Necrotic ulceration o f the throat following complete disappearance o f polymorphonuclear cells in the Johannes Lucas Schönlein (1793-1864). From Schönlein's Pathologie und

blood. Described in four patients by German physician,

Therapie, (1841), St Galen. Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

Werner Schultz (1878-1944) ofBerlin in 1922.

655

SCHULTZ

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

CELLS

Schultz Cells See olfactory nerve.

Schwartze O peration

Schultz M em brane See olfactory nerve. Schultze,

Bernhard

Sigismund

Mastoid cells in disease o f the

middle ear, opened with a hammer and chisel. Described in 1873 by German otologist, Hermann Hugo R u d olf Schwartze

(1827—1919)

(1837-1910).

German

gynecologist in Berlin who demonstrated that the remains

Sciatica [Greek: ischiadikos, gout in the hips] A classic

o f the yolk sac are normally incorporated into the placenta.

descriptions was given by Domenico Cotugno (1736-1822),

Schultze M ethod Revives asphyxiated neonate by invert­

professor o f anatomy at Naples in 1764. Sciatic pain induced

ing and swinging the infant. Described a German

by adduction o f the thigh was described by French surgeon,

gynecologist, Bernhard Sigismund Schultze (1827—1919).

Amedee Bonnet (1802—1858) in 1845.The early study and review involving 1000 cases was done by E. Valentine

Schultze, M ax Johann Sigismund (1825—1874) German

Gibson at the Devonshire Hospital in 1893. A case due to

zoologist who in 1861 defined the cell as the building block

rupture o f the intervertebral disc was described by George

o f a living organism, containing a nucleus and surrounded

Stevensen Middleton (1854—1928) o f Scotland in 19 11.

by protoplasm. He introduced osmic acid as a stain for ner­

Boston orthopedic surgeon, Joel Goldthwait (1867—1961),

vous tissue and demonstrated the different nerve endings o f

described an operation for lumbar disc prolapse in the

cones and rods in the retina. See olfactory nerve, retina.

same year. American neurosurgeon, Walter Edward Dandy (1886-1946) o f the Johns Hopkins University operated on

Schultze, John Henry (1687—1745) Professor o f medicine at

what he thought was loose cartilage from the intervertebral

Halle who wrote Physiologia Medica, Pathologia generalis et

disc in 1929. William Jason M ixter (1880—1958) and Joseph

specialis. Historia a Medicinae a rerum initio ad annum et urbis

Seaton

Rome, de Materia Medica and other works.

Barr

(190 1-19 63)

o f Massachusetts

General

Hospital showed it to be due to disc prolapse in 1934. A

Schuster, Sir Arthur (1851—1934) British physicist born in

scientific study on the cause and mechanics o f lumbar disc

Frankfurt whose major interest was terrestrial magnetism.

degeneration was done by Stein Freeberg and Carl Hirsh

He

(1913—1973) o f Stockholm in 1950.

designed

the

Schuster—Smith

magnetometer

to

measure the Earths magnetic field. He also pioneered

Sea Richard Russell (d 1768), an Enghsh physician, wrote

spectroscopy.

a treatise on sea waters in the i8th century. Iodine was prepared from seaweed by Bernard Courtois (1777—1838), a

Schütz, Johann W ilhelm (1839—1920) See glanders.

manufacturer o f nitre in 1 8 1 1 . Sea bathing was advocated as

Schwalbe, Gustav Albert (1844—1917) German neuroan­

treatment in the i8th century and the R oyal Sea-bathing

atomist who described the vestibular nucleus and several

Hospital at Margate in England used this form o f treatment.

other structures o f the brain which are named after him.

Sea Sickness Treatment with atropine and strychnine was Schwann, Theodor (1810—1882) German physiologist who

described by Am erican naval surgeon, Conrad Alfred

is famous for his classic cell theory (1839). He was born in

Girard (18 4 1-19 14 ) in 1906.

Neuss and graduated in medicine from Berlin in 1834.

Scientific American American scientific magazine for the

described the neurilemma (sheath o f Schwann) in 1839.

general reader, founded by Alfred Beach in 1 845.

The striped muscle in the upper part o f the esophagus is named after him. He moved to Belgium and was professor

Scientist [Latin: scientia, knowledge] Term used by EngHsh

o f anatomy and physiology at Louvrain in 1838 and Liège in

scholar, W illiam W hew ell (1794—1866) o f Lancaster, at a

1848. He showed that air is necessary for development o f

meeting o f the British Association for the Advancement o f

the embryo, that putrefaction is produced by living bodies

Science in 1833. He wrote History of Inductive Sciences in 1837

and cannot occur in sterile broth, and discovered the organ­

in which he popularized his new term.

ic nature o f fermentation in yeast. He isolated pepsin during

Sclavo, Achille (1861-1930) Italian bacteriologist in R o m e

his work with Johannes Müller (1801—1858) in 1835, and

who developed an antiserum for anthrax in 1895.

demonstrated that bile is essential to digestion. He proved

Scleroderm a [Greek: scleros, hard + derma, skin] Confused

that the tension o f muscle contraction varies with its length.

with leprosy and other skin conditions for centuries.

Schwarz Sign Fat at the apex o f the heart causing confusion

An early attempt to differentiate it was made by ItaHan

with enlargement o f the heart on a chest X-ray. Described

physician. Carlo Curzio.The term scleroderma was coined

by German radiologist, Gottwald Schwarz (b 1880) in 1910.

by E. Gintrac in 1847.

656

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCRUB TYPHUS

petitioned Parliament to make it illegal for affected animals

Sclerosis See disseminated sclerosis.

to be mixed with healthy animals. The name was given

Sclobetoplaga [Latin: sclopetum, gun + plaga, wound]

because diseased animals scrape themselves against objects.

Synonym for gunshot wound. See gunshot wounds. [Greek: skolios, twisted]

Understanding came mainly in the present century and its

Known to ancient

causative agent was fully described by Hunter and Millson

physicians and during Hippocratic times traction and

in 1977. The most remarkable property o f the infectious

countertraction were applied on the Hippocratic bench,

agent is that it resists boiling and ultraviolet radiation.

the scamnum. The earliest study on its pathological

See prion disease.

Scoliosis

anatomy was done by Francis Glisson (1597—1677) in 1650.

Scribonius, Largus R om an physician in the first century

He thought that all cases were due to rickets and devised an

who accompanied Claudius during his attempt to conquer

appliance for axillary and head suspension. Ambroise Paré

Britain in A D 47. He wrote Compositiones Medicamentorum

(1510 -15 90) used a corset o f thin iron sheets to treat it.

which was first published by R u el at Paris in 1529.

Prevention and treatment o f abnormal spinal curvature was described in the first book on orthopedics written by

Scrofula [Latin: scrofula, brood sow] The earliest mention o f

Nicolas André (1658—1742) in 1741 .Tuberculous etiology o f

this disease o f inflammatory swelling o f lymph glands in the

humpback was noted by German physician, Johann

neck, armpit and groins is found in the writings o f the

Zaccharias Platner (1694—1747) in 1744. A method o f

School o f Salerno. Its effects on children are described in

wiring the spinal process in Pott disease or tuberculosis o f

the Hippocratic writings. Galen (AD 129—200) used the

the spine was introduced by Berthhold Ernst Hadra

name to denote the scirrous hardness which followed

(1842—1903) o f America in 1891. Anterior spinal fusion in

the disease. It is also mentioned in several passages o f

treatment o f Pott disease and Pott paraplegia was employed

Constantinus Africanus (d 1087).The tuberculous etiology

by Russell Aubra Hibbs (1869-1933) o f Kentucky and Fred

was established with the discovery o f tubercle baciUus

Houdlett Albee (1876—1945) o f Maine in 1906.

by R obert Koch (1843—1910) in 1882. See struma.

Scop olam ine Anticholinergic alkaloid derived from several

Scrotal C ancer [Latin: scrotum, bag] Cancer o f chimney

solanaceous plant species, isolated by G erm an chemist

sweeps due chronic exposure to soot was described by

Albert Ladenburg (1842—19 11)

Percivall Pott (1714—1788) in 1770. It was also described in

combination

with

morphine

in 1871 for

and used in anesthesia

by

cotton-mule spinners due to prolonged contact with

Schneiderlinn in 1900.

lubrication oil on spindles by S. R . Wilson o f the Royal Infirmary Manchester in 1906.

S cop oli, Johann-Antoni (1723—1788) Italian physician from Cavalese in the Tyrol and a naturalist who wrote Annus I

Scrotal Elephantiasis [Latin: scrotum, bag] Described by a

Historico-Naturalis in 1769. The genus Scopolia which have

Canton physician called Wong in 1858 and by Vandyke

similar properties to hyoscyamus and belladonna, is named

Carter (1831—1907) in 1861. A larval nematode was isolated

after him.

in the chylous fluid o f the tunica vaginalis in a case o f hydrocele by Jean Nicolas Demarquay (1814-1875) in 1863.

Scorbutus (Syn. scurvy) See scurvy.

The same organism was later found in a number o f cases o f

S co tt, John (1799—1846) British inventor o f the Scott

chyluria by a German physician working in Brazil, Otto

dressing used by surgeons worldwide in the 19th century.

Heinrich Wucherer (1820—1873) in 1866. In its male and

He studied medicine at the London Hospital and became

female form it was found in blood o f a Bengali patient by

surgeon to the R oyal Ophthalmic Hospital, Moorfields in

Edward Gayer in Calcutta in 1877. His specimens were later

1828. He was assistant physician to the London Hospital in

examined and identified by Tim othy Richard Lewis who

1828, where he advocated treatment o f diseased joints

was already famihar with the organism, and he named it

through passive movement.

Filaria sanguinis hominis in 1 872.

Scot, Reginald (1538—1599) English Justice o f the Peace and

Scrub Typhus (Syn: Japanese flood fever) Observed in Japan

M ember o f Parliament who associated witchcraft with

in 1878 and originally known as Shima-mushi or island

mental illnesses. In The discoverie of witchcraft (1584) he

insect disease. It was first believed that it was caused solely

pointed out that melancholy was mistaken for witchcraft.

by a trombiculoid red mite, akamushi or tsutsugamushi.

Scrapie Form o f spongiform encephalopathy in sheep and

Chinese literature o f the i6th century describes a similar

goats was noted in 1755 by Lincolnshire farmers who

disease caused by the sandmite. Shibasaburo Kitasato

657

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCUDAMORE

(1852-1931) in 1893 successfully transmitted it to monkeys.

annuity and the title o f councilor to a Swiss apothecary

The rickettsial cause was demonstrated by M . Nagayo and

called Matthieu. Peruvian bark was used as a secret remedy

colleagues in 1930, and they named it Rickettsia orientalis. It

and was bought by Louis XIV.The secret o f Goddard Pow­

was renamed Rickettsia tsutsugamushi by N. Ogata in 1931.

der was bought by Charles II, for 5000 pounds. Another secret remedy called Scot’s pills made o f aloe and jalap

Scudam ore, Sir Charles (1779-1849) Third son o f William

was introduced in 1635 and remained popular until 1875.

Scudamore, a medical practitioner from Kent. He graduat­

Patrick Anderson, a physician from Edinburgh in the 17th

ed in medicine from Glasgow in 1814 and became a

century, published the virtues o f his secret pills in Grana

member o f the R oyal College o f Physicians and honorary

Angelica in 1635. His daughter Catherine communicated

member ofTrinity College Dublin. He was also physician

the secret to Edinburgh surgeon, Thomas Weir, and they

to Prince Leopold and the Duke o f Northumberland. He

remained in use for over 200 years until analyzed in 1910.

wrote several treatises on mineral water, gout, blood and

The R oyal College o f Physicians published a list o f com­

coagulation, auscultation, pulmonary disease and other

monly used secret remedies in 1910 along with a detailed

subjects. He was an authority on gout who popularized

analysis o f their contents. A select committee was appointed

hydrotherapeutics.

in 1914 to deal with abuses related to patent medicines.

Scurvy [Latin: scorbutus] A deficiency disease o f sailors,

Secretin Hormone secreted by the duodenal mucosa which

known as‘spoyle’ .Jean dejoinville (1224—1319) described it

stimulates the flow o f pancreatic juice. Discovered by Sir

in 1250. French clergyman,Jacques deVitry,gave an account

William Maddock Bayliss (1860—1924) and Ernest Henry

at around the same time. Naval Commander, Sir Richard

Starling (1866-1927) in 1905. It was isolated in crystalline

Hawkins (1562—1622), gave an account on prevention with

form by Swedish pharmacologist Einar Hammarsten

lemon juice during his voyage to the South Sea in 1593. An

(b i889),E.Jorpes and G.Agren in 1933. See hormone.

early book on naval medicine. The Surgeons mate, o f 1617 by John Woodall (1556—1643) o f the East India Company,

Sedillot, Charles Emmanuel (1804-1883) See gastrostomy.

contains the suggestion that lime could be used as a cure.

Seessel, Albert (1850-1910) Medical graduate from Yale and

James Lind (1716—1794) proved the effect o f lemons and

assistant to W ilhelm His (18 3 1—1904) in Germ any from

oranges in prevention by conducting the first controlled

1876 to 1877, before he returned to America to practice in

trial on record on H M S Salisbury in 1747. His A Treatise on

N ew York. He described the Seessel pocket, a diverticulum

Scurvy was published in 1757. It was also found in prisoners

o f the embryonic pharynx found anterior to the cranial

during the 19th century and was described by George Budd

attachment o f the buccopharyngeal membrane.

(1808—1882) who gave a lecture series o n ‘Disorders arising

Sefstrom , Nils Gabriel (1765-1829) Swedish physician and

from defective nutrition’ . See ascorbic acid.

lecturer in chemistry at the Royal Military Academy

Scutari Site o f a hospital for the Anglo-French army during

in Carlsberg who also taught in the School o f Mines. He

the Crimean War. Florence Nightingale (1820—1910) and a

discovered vanadium. See vanadium.

team o f 38 nurses worked there and succeeded in producing

Sègalas,

a drastic reduction in morality.

Gascon Pierre

Saloman

(1792—1875)

French

urologist and pioneer in application o f endoscopy to

Scythia Ancient region o f Asia and southeast Europe north

urology. He improved the method described by Phillip

o f the Black Sea.The Greek historian Herodotus (484—425

Bozzoni (1773—1809) in 1826 and wrote a treatise in 1828.

B C ) mentioned the Scythians who inhaled the vapor o f

Seguin, Armand (1765—1865) French chemist in Paris who

hemp to become intoxicated.

studied human metabolism on himself and published a

Seborrheic E czem a Unna dermatosis was described by Paul

treatise on respiration with Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

Gerson Unna (1850-1929),a dermatologist in Hamburg.

(1743-1794) in 1789-

Secret R em ed ies Various common ingredients were cam­

Séguin, Edouard (1812—1880) American psychiatrist who

ouflaged and used in the preparations, mostly by quack

proposed education for the mentally deficient. See idiocy.

physicians and companies. In 1775 Louis X V I paid 18,000

Seiler Cartilage Small cartilaginous rod attached to the

francs to the w idow o f the Swiss surgeon Nuffer to obtain a secret remedy against tapeworm, which later turned out to

vocal process o f the arytenoid cartilage. Described in 1879

be mainly felix mas fern. Frederick the Great similarly

by Carl Seiler (1849—1905), an American laryngologist o f

obtained a remedy (also male fern extract), after granting an

Swedish origin.

658

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SEMMELWEISS

Seism ograph [Greek: seismos, earthquake + graphein, to

Selye, Hans Hugo Bruno (1907—1982) Canadian physician,

write] An early version involved dropping a ball from the

originally from Vienna and who studied medicine in

mouth o f a bronze dragon into the mouth o f a bronze frog

Prague, Paris and R om e. He worked with Collip on

and was invented by Zhang Heng in China in A D 132. A

hormonal interactions involving the adrenal and pituitary

modern instrument was invented by Italian meteorologist

glands and the hypothalamus on osteoblast multiplication,

and professor at Naples, Luigi Palmieri (1807—1896),

bone formation, gonadal stimulation and blood sugar level.

director o f the Vesuvius observatory in 1854. Another was

He developed the general adaptation syndrome in which a

described by R obert Mallet in 185 8. An America model was

physiological mechanism raises resistance to stress, anxiety

installed at the Lick Observatory in California in 1888.The

and their biochemical consequences in disorders such as

inverted pendulum type was invented by Emil Weichart

hypertension, rheumatism and nephrosclerosis. See stress.

in 1900. The Earth s core was discovered using seismo-

S em eiology [Greek:

graphic records by geologist and seismologist, Richard

symptom + /o^o5, discourse]

(Syn. symptomatology)

Dixon Oldham (1858—1936) ofDublin in i9o6.The R ichter scale was invented by Charles Francis Richter (1900—1985)

Sem en [Latin: semen, seed] Gardinius postulated the existence

o f Hamilton, O hio in 1930. A system o f unprecedented

o f particles in the semen capable o f effecting fertilization, in

seismographic accuracy o f o .i second was devised by

1623.

American geophysicist,Victor Hugo B enioff (1899—1968)

particles similar to tadpoles under the microscope in semen

o f Los Angeles.

and this led to the discovery o f spermatozoa in 1677.

S eism om eter [Greek: seismos, earthquake + metros, measure]

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) observed

Sem icircular Canal [Latin: semi, half + circulus, circle] Part o f

See seismograph.

the ear discovered by Gabriele Falloppio (1523-1562), a

Seldinger Technique A modification o f the percutaneous

pupil o f Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564).The apparatus o f the

technique for arterial catheterization, which allowed the

middle ear including the cochlea and semicircular canals

introduction o f a catheter o f larger diameter than the

were described by Cecilio Foli (1615-1660) in 16 45.The

needle used for initial puncture, was devised by American

intercellular membrane in the ampulla was described

radiologist, Sven Ivar Seldinger (b 1921) in 1953. He used

by Urban Pritchard (1845-1925), an eminent London

the technique for percutaneous angiography and it was later

otorhinologist, in 1876. Their role and that o f otoliths in

adapted to therapeutic procedures such as cardiac pacing

maintaining equilibrium was demonstrated by R u d o lf

and intra-aortic balloon pumping.

M agnus (1873-1927) in 1926.

Sem ilunar Cartilage o f the K nee Surgery for displace­

Selenium [Greek: selene, moon] Element discovered by Swedish chemist, Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848) in 1818

ment was performed on a 30-year-old miner by Thomas

and Johann Gottlieb Gahn (1745—1818). It is a potential

Annandale (1838-1909), professor o f surgery at Edinburgh

industrial hazard in glass,photoelectric material and rubber

in 1884. His work was published in the British Medical

manufacture. Poisoning from industrial waste was described

Journal in 1885. An experimental study on injury and repair

by Madison, an army surgeon from South Dakota, in 1856

o f the semilunar cartilage in animals was done by Donald

and called‘alkalie disease’ due to the mistaken notion that it

E. King (1903—1987), chief o f orthopedics at Stanford

was caused by alkali in waste from factories. Selenium as the

University.

cause o f disease was identified by K.W. Franke in 1934,

Sem inal Vesicle [Latin: semen, seed + vesica, bladder] The

although studies in man by D .M . Hadjimarkos in 1952

term ‘prostate! chirsoides’ was used by Aristotle (384—322

showed that it caused dental caries, its pathogenicity to

B C ) to denote the seminal vesicles. Galen (AD 129—200)

humans is doubtful. It was used as anticancer therapy by M .

described the prostate gland, seminal vesicles and associated

Wasserman and F. Keysser o f Germany in 19 11 and A .T

structures. Prostaglandins were detected in 1930 in seminal

Todd in 1928.

vesicles.

Sella Turcica [Latin: sella, saddle] Pocket o f the sphenoid

Sem iniferous Tubule Described by Parisian anatomist Jean

bone on which the pituitary gland rests. Named ‘sella

Riolan (1580-1687) in 1626.

turcica’ due to its resemblance to a Turkish saddle. Enlarge­ ment o f this on a skull X -ray in a case o f acromegaly was

Sem m elw eiss,

Ignaz

Phillipp

(1818-1865)

Hungarian

shown by Hermann Oppenheim (1858-19 19),a neurologist

obstetrician and advocate o f asepsis for prevention o f puer­

in Berlin in 1899.

peral sepsis,born in Budapest. He demonstrated in 1847 that

659

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SEMON SIGN

mortality due to puerperal fever could be reduced from

progressive

1 8% to less than 2% i f students and doctors w^ashed their

dementia in the fifth and sixth decade o f hfe, was described

hands before attending patients. His findings were not

by Otto Ludwig Binswanger (1852-1929) in 1894.

accepted and he was ridiculed and persecuted. He was

subcortical

encephalopathy

leading

to

Senility See geriatrics.

committed to a mental asylum in Vienna and died o f sepsis

Senn B o n e Plate Made o f decalcified bone and used to

resulting from a wound infection o f the finger in 1865.

approximate and suture the divided intestine by American

S em on Sign Retraction or fixation o f the umbilicus in upper airway disease. Described by Sir Felix Semon (1849— 19 2 1), a G erm an -born laryngologist in London at the

surgeon, Nicholas Senn (1844-1908) o f R ush Medical College, Chicago. He also pioneered use o f X-rays in surgical diagnosis.

Throat Hospital (1874) and St Thomas’ Hospital (1882).

Senac, Jean Baptiste (1693—1770) French physician in Paris and physician to the king. He wrote On the Structure Action and Diseases of the Heart, Reflections on Drowned Persons, and translated Heister^s Anatomy. He used quinine in treatment o f palpitations.

Senator, Hermann (1834—19 11) German surgeon who described a syndrome o f splenomegaly and anemia leading to cirrhosis and ascites (Band-Senator syndrome) in 1901. The disease was described by Guido Banti (1852—1925) in Florence in 1894.

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus ( 3 B C —A D 65) Stoic philosopher o f Greece who wrote Natural Questions which gave an account o f natural phenomena. He also gave a classical description o f chronic alcohohsm.

Sengstaken-B lakem ore Tube See Blakemoren-Sengstaken Nicholas Senn's bone plates. Frederick Treves, A Manual o f Operative Surgery (1892). Lea Bros. & Co., Philadelphia

tube.

Senile D em en tia Areteaus the Cappadocian (AD 81—138) studied prepsychotic personalities and differentiated senile

Senna The extract from leaves or seed pods o f plants o f

dementia from mania. London physician, William Salmon

Cassia acutifolia or senna is an ancient remedy that is

(1644—1713) described symptoms in a patient in 1692 as,

currently used as a laxative. Isaac Judaeus, a medical writer

Defects of the Imagination, Reason and Memory in a Man Superannuated.

PhiUipe Pinel

(1745—1826)

from Egypt in the loth century mentioned that the best

recognized

senna was brought from Mecca. The Arabian physicians

intellectual deterioration as a separate entity — dementia.

Serapion (339—359) and Mesue (d 1015) introduced it to

Jean Etienne Dominique Esquirol (1772—1840) o f Paris

Europe where it became popular with medieval physicians.

studied different states o f dementia in senility in 1838. British

physician

and

anthropologist, James

It was cultivated as a medicinal plant in Italy in the first half

Cowles

o f the i6th century.

Prichard (1786—1848), gave an early description under the title, incoherence, in 1835. Alois Alzheimer (1864—1915),

Sensory System Thomas Aquinas (1225—1274) o f Naples, a

during his research on neuropathology at Emil Kraepelin’s

pupil ofAlbertus Magnus (1200—1280), separated the body

(1856—1926) Psychiatric Clinic in Munich, studied brains o f

from the soul and attributed the sensory functions entirely

demented and senile patients and correlated their signs and

to sensory organs and not the brain. Experiments on the

symptoms with histological findings. Creutzfeld— Jakob

physiology o f sensation and reflexes were done by Stephen

disease, a syndrome o f dementia accompanied by pyramidal

Hales (1677—1761), a clergyman in Teddington. He noted

and extrapyramidal signs which usually occurs after middle

the reflex withdrawal o f the leg in a decapitated frog which

age and may be due to a slow virus, was described indepen­

he was able to abolish by inducing a lesion in the spinal cord

dently by Hans Gerhard Creutzfeld (1885—1964) andAlfons

in 1730. The term ‘reflex’ was introduced by Johan

Jakob (1884—1931) in 19 21. Binswanger disease, a form o f

August Unzer (1727-1799) from Halle, to describe the

660

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

sensory-motor

reaction

in

17 7 1.

SERTOLI CELL

Sir

Charles

BeU

Septic A bortion

(1774—1842) differentiated nerve roots into sensory and

A n early description o f placental

bacteremia leading to shock was given by William Em ery

motor components in 1 8 1 1 . Pacini corpuscles, end organs o f

Studdiford (1897—1964), professor o f gynecology at the

sensory nerves, were described by Italian professor o f anato­

N ew York University College o f Mediciné, and Gordon

my at Pisa, Filippo Pacini (1812—1883) in 1840 and by

Watkins Douglas (b 1921) in 1956.

Abraham Vater (1684—1751) in 1717, and were known as

Septicem ia A classic account o f pyemia or septicemia was

Pacini—Vater corpuscles. Krause bulb, sensory nerve end

given by Sir Samuel Wilks (18 24 -19 11) o f Guy s Hospital in

organs, were described by W ilhelm Krause (1833—1910) in

iS ó i.S ee sepsis.

i860. Merkel corpuscles, another form o f sensory tactile nerve endings, were described by Friedrich Sigmund

Serapion Junior or ibn Serabi (cAD 1070) Arabian physician

Merkel (1845—1919), professor o f anatomy at Gottingen in

who wrote many medical treatises including one based on

1880. Ernst Axel H enrik Key (1832—1901), professor o f

the works o f Galen (AD 129—200) and Dioscorides (AD

pathological anatomy at Stockholm, described the sensory

40—90), De temparamentis simplicum.

nerve endings known as the Key bulb.The sensory nature o f

Serapion

the muscle spindle was proposed by Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857—1952) in 1894, and described in detail by Angelo Ruffini (1864—1929) between

o f A lexandria {c 300 B C )

Opponent o f

Hippocratic medicine. Amongst his unusual remedies he promoted crocodile dung and other excreta, and as a result

1892 to 1898.

they became very costly.

Cutaneous areas o f the sensory nerve roots related to viscer­ al organs were mapped by Sir H enry H ead (18 6 1-19 4 0 ), a

Serapion Senior or Yahya ibn Serabi (d A D 930) Syrian

neurologist at the London Hospital in 1893 .The proprio­

physician who wrote two books. A Latin translation by

ceptors, highly specialized somatic sensory end organs o f

Gerard o f Cremona (114 7-118 7) was published inVenice.

the muscles, tendons and joints, were described by

Serenas, Samonicus R om an physician during the reign o f

Sherrington in 1906.

Em peror Lucius Septimus Severus around A D 150. He

Senstaken

Tube

hemorrhage

from

Inflatable

balloon

esophageal

for

varices.

controlling

Designed

composed a poem on medicine.

by

Serine Amino acid isolated from the protein, sericin, in silk

American surgeon,R.W . Senstaken (b 1923).

by Cramer in 1856.

Sepsis [Greek: sepsis, decay] Commonest cause o f fatality Serology [Latin: serum, whey +

following wounds, surgery and childbirth since ancient

logos, discourse]

See

immunology, serum proteins.

times. Application o f mold to the wound was practiced for centuries and has been rationalized with the discovery o f

Serpent Used as the physician’s emblem since the time o f

the antibacterial properties o f the pénicillium mold in 1929.

Aesculapius. The grounds o f the temple o f Aesculapius

Ignaz PhiUipp Semmelweis (1818—1865), a Hungarian

contained large non-poisonous yellow snakes which were

obstetrician from Budapest advocated asepsis for prevention

allowed to lick the diseased parts o f the body to effect

o f puerperal sepsis. Several other doctors have died o f

healing. Aesculapius is depicted with a serpent around his

sepsis as a result o f accidental surgical wounds. Jacobus

staff. See ophidism.

KoUetschka, professor o f forensic pathology at Vienna, died this way in 1847. Henry Phibrick Nelson, a surgeon at the

Serres A ngle Metafacial angle o f anthropometry described

London Hospital died at the age o f 35 years through

by Antoine Etienne Renaud Augustin Serres (1786-1868),

accidental contamination during surgery.The introduction

professor o f anatomy and natural history at the Jardin des

o f the antibacterial sulfonamide compound. Protonsil, by

Plantes, Paris in 1824.

Gerhard Johannes Paul Domagk (1895—1964) in 1935

Serres Gland Islands o f epitheHum present in the gums o f

changed the outlook on sepsis caused by bacteria and

infants. Described by Antoine Etienne Renaud Augustin

revolutionized treatment o f bacterial diseases. A 10-

Serres (1786—1868), professor o f anatomy and natural

m onth-old infant dying o f staphylococcal septicemia was

history at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris in 1824.

saved by treatment w ith Protonsil in 1933. C linical trials in Germ any by Domagk and others established treatment

Sertoli C ell Supporting cells o f the testicular epithelium

o f other conditions such as empyema, erysipelas and

described by Enrico SertoH (1842—1910), professor o f

puerperal fever with sulfonamides.

experimental physiology at Milan in 1865.

661

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SERTÜRNER

Sertürner, Adam Frederick Wilhelm (1783-1841) German

pulmonic veins and arteries’ . He also recognized changes

chemist from H annover w ho isolated m orphine from

from venous blood to arterial blood in the lungs. He was

opium in 1801. See morphine.

burnt at the stake because he denied the divinity o f Christ.

Serum

Ernest Henry Starling (1886-1927)

Proteins

Sesam e O il Seegingili oil.

discovered the functional significance o f serum proteins. A

Setchenov, Ivan Mickailovich (1850—1898) Considered the

calorimetric method o f estimating them was devised by

father o f physiology and neurology in Russia. He described

California biochemist, David M orris Greenberg (b 1895) in

the reflex inhibitory center in the medulla oblongata

1929. Another method for total protein content o f human

(Setchenov center) and several other structures o f the

plasma and serum was described by American physician,

nervous system.

Benjamin M ilton Kagan (b 1913) o f Baltimore in 1938.

Seton [Greek:

Their study was advanced by the development o f

bristle] Derived from the use o f horsehair

Tiselius

to keep a wound open and facilitate discharge o f infected

(190 2-1971) in 1930. He showed the gammaglobulin

material. Silk or linen were used later for this purpose. It was

components, and globulins and classified them according

introduced in treatment o f ununited fractures by Philip

to mobility.

SyngPhysick (1768-1837) in 1804.

electrophoresis

by

Arne

Wilhelm

Kaurin

Seventh N erve Seefacial nerve.

Serum Sickness [Latin: serum, whey] An early description was given by a pediatrician and immunologist, Clemens

Severus, Alexander (AD 225-235) R om an physician who

von Pirquet (1874-1929), ofAustria in 1877 and another by

established public lecture rooms for teaching medicine in

German physician Franz Hamburger (1874—1954) and

R om e. He granted stipends to teachers who were expected

Ernst Monro (1874—1951) in 1903.A monograph was w rit­

to teach poor state-supported students free o f charge.

ten by von Pirquet and Bela Schick (1877—1967) in 1905.

Sewer [Old French: sewiere] Used to drain waste water and

Serum Therapy Used in therapeutics by Emil A d olf von

other products since ancient times. Sewers to drain water

Behring (1854—1917) against tetanus and diphtheria in 1890.

from marshes and low lying areas were constructed in

He was the winner o f the first N obel Prize for Physiology

England during the reign o f King Henry VIII. They were

or Medicine in 1901.

later opened into the R iver Thames making it a cesspool. Poor sanitary conditions in London were addressed by Sir Edwin Chadwick (1800—1890) in his report o f 1842. The City Sewers Act was passed six years later and the first medical ofricer o f health was appointed.The modern system in Lon­ don was designed by EngHsh pioneer in pubHc health engineering. Sir Joseph William Bazalgette (1819—1891) in 1866. Around the same time, a canal system for Berlin was proposed by Rudolph Virchow (1821—1902). The modern system in Munich was planned by M ax von Pettenkofer (1818—1901) in 1869. Impervious drainage pipes replaced the unhygenic brick gullies and brought about a revolution in sanitation, and were invented by Sir Henry Doulton (1820—1 897), founder o f a pottery factory at Lambeth.

Sex Change The world’s first such operation was performed in 1952 on George Jorgenson, who later became known as Christine.

Sex C hrom osom es See accessory chromosome, Barr Murray. Michael Servetus(1511-1553). William Stirling, Some/\posf/e5 of Physiology (1902). Waterlow & Sons, London

Servetus,

Michael

(15 11—1553)

Sex D eterm in a tio n See accessory chromosome, Barr Murray. Sex-Linked Inheritance Demonstrated in Drosophila fly in

Spanish physician and

probably the first to describe pulmonary circulation saying

1910 by Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866—1945) o f Lexington,

‘that the mass o f blood passes through the lungs by means o f

Kentucky, a pioneer in the field o f modern genetics.

662

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SHEBBEARE

Sharpey, William (1802-1888) Graduate o f medicine from

S exology See sexual psychology.

Edinburgh

Sexual O ffenses A ct A series o f sexual offenses acts were passed in Britain in 1956, 1967 and 1976. The Sexual Offences Act

of

1967

removed

the

prohibition

University.

He

studied

under

Guillaume

Dupuytren (1777—1835) and others in Europe before he succeededjones Quain (1785-1851) as professor o f anatomy

of

and physiology at the University o f London in 1836.

homosexuality, provided it took place privately between

Sharpey fibers are connective tissue fibers found between

consenting adults.

the periosteum and the bone. He was the first physiologist

Sexual P sychology A pioneer was Magnus Hirshfeld (1868-

in England to devote his entire attention to physiology.

1935), professor o f psychiatry at BerHn.He promoted a med­

Sharpey-Schafer, Sir Edward (1850—1935) Pioneer in

ical approach to sexual problems and founded the Institute o f Sexual Sciences in Berlin. In his Sexual Anomalies and

endocrinology, born

Perversions he dealt with homosexuahty, sadism and murder in

University College, London where he later became

in

Hornsey,

and

educated

at

a scientific manner. A British pioneer was Henry Havelock

professor o f physiology from 1883 to 1899. He was appoint­

Ellis (1859—1939), a psychologist from Croydon, who pub­

ed to the chair o f physiology at Edinburgh in 1899 and

lished six volumes o f Studies in Psychology of Sex (1899—1910).

continued in his post until 1933. In 1895, while working

Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902), a German forensic

with George Oliver (1841—1915) at University College, he

psychiatrist, specialized in sexual pathology. He defined and

demonstrated the effects o f extract o f suprarenal gland.This

named many sexual deviations such as masochism and sadism

was shown to produce contraction o f arteries and accelera­

in Psychopathia Sexualis, published in 1886.

tion o f heart rate thereby increasing the blood pressure, and was later named adrenaline. H e also investigated the role o f

Sézary Syndrom e Exfoliative erythroderma associated with circulation o f abnormal lymphocytes. Described French

the pancreas and what was later to be known as insulin. He

dermatologist,Albert Sézary (1880-1956).

wrote The Essentials of Physiology, which was considered the most advanced book on physiology in the world for its

Shaftesbury, Lord, Anthony Ashley Cooper (1801-1885)

time, and Essentials of Histology in 1885.

London reformer responsible for the Coal Mines Act 1842 which prohibited underground employment o f women

Sharpnell M em brane Membrana flaccida o f the membrana

and children under the age o f 13. He chaired the Lunacy

tymphani. Described by H enry Jones Sharpnell (d 1834)

Commission in 1834 and brought in the Lunacy Act which

o f Gloucestershire, a surgeon to

offered considerable reforms in 1845. A public meeting

Gloucestershire Regim ent, in 1832.

the R oyal

South

presided by him in 1861 inspired Thomas Holloway

Shaver D isease

(1800-1883) to build a magnificent sanatorium for the

Pneumoconiosis amongst workers in

Canada from exposure to corundum or bauxite. Described

mentally ill atVirginia Waters, Surrey in 1873.

by Cecil G. Shaver (b 1901) and A. R . Riddell in 1947.

Shaking Palsy See paralysis agitans. Sham anism

Shaving the H ead Formerly used as a method o f treating

Religious practices o f certain groups in

insanity for nearly four centuries. Levinus Lemnius (1505—

Northern Asia and North America who believe in good

1568), a clergyman and physician in The Netherlands, in his

and evil spirits. The term is o f Siberian origin where

treatise on complexion published in 1561, considered it to

shamans worked themselves into a trance inspired by the

be helpful in allowing vapors that hurt the memory or mind

spirit and were able to foretell the future.

to escape. He also pointed out that shaving the beard lifted

S ham poo Term derived from the Hindu word ‘chambón’

the mood.

for washing.

Shaw, Peter (d 1763) English physician who wrote Practice of Sharp, Philip Allen (b 1944) American molecular biologist

Physic, A course of Chemistry and an edition o f Bacon’s work

from Kentucky. He was director o f the M IT Center for

in five volumes.

Cancer Research for 1985 to 1991 and co-founder o f Biogen. nuclease mapping for detection o f

Shebbeare, John (1709—1788) Physician from Bideford in

unknown R N A molecules and discovered that genes are

Yorkshire. He obtained his medical degree from Paris and

separated into sections by introns that do not carry genetic

practiced in London where he was imprisoned twice for

information. He was awarded the N obel Prize for

violent behavior. He wrote Letters to the People of England,

Physiology or Medicine in 1993.

The Marriage Act, and several other works.

He invented S i

663

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SHEEHAN SYNDROME

Sheehan Syndrom e Total pituitary failure as a result o f post partum hemorrhage. Described by an English physician, Harold Teeming Sheehan (1900—1988) in 1937. He was born in CarHsle and graduated from Manchester University in 19 21. He spent his career at CarHsle and Manchester before being made professor o f pathology at Leeds in 1946.

Sheffield Royal Infirmary Founded in 1786 mainly through the efibrts o f WiUiam Younge (1762—1838), a medical graduate from Edinburgh University

Sheldon, John (1752—1808) Son o f an apothecary with the same name, from Tottenham Court R oad, London. He opened a private anatomy school at Great Queen Street in 1777, and succeeded WiUiam Hunter (1718 -178 3) as professor o f anatomy at the Royal Academy in 1782.

Shellfish

A n outbreak o f mussel poisoning occurred in

WUhelmshaven in 1885 resulting in four deaths, and Ludwig Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857-1952). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

Brieger isolated a toxin,M ytilotoxine,from mussels in 1889. Another outbreak occurred in DubUn with five fataUties in 1908. Karl Friedrich M eyer (b 1884) o f San Francisco

Sherrington, Sir Charles Scott (1857—1952) Professor o f

recorded an outbreak o f mussel poisoning with six fataUties

physiology

in CaUfornia in 1927.

at

Liverpool

(1895—1913)

and

Oxford

(1913—1935). His contributions to neurology include: the

Shen N u n g (2820—2697 B Q Chinese emperor, physician

demonstration o f decerebrate rigidity by transection o f the

and reformer. He organized a system o f agriculture, experi­

spinal cord through the upper part o f the midbrain in 1897;

mented on plants and discovered their medicinal values.

establishment o f knee jerk as a genuine reflex by demon­

The great herbal book Pen Tsoa, which describes over 365

strating that it was an inherited phenomenon in 1893;

drugs is attributed to him.

demonstration o f the sensory nature o f the muscle spindle in 1894; description o f the proprioceptors which are highly

Sherard, James (d 1737) Apothecary in London who had a

specialized somatic sensory end organs o f the muscles,

garden o f unusual plants in Eltham Kent and a catalogue o f

tendons and joints in 1906; and the first use o f the term

which was pubUshed by John James DiUenius (1687—1747)

motor unit to denote ‘an individual motor nerve fiber

o f Darmstadt in 1732. He quaUfied as physician during the

together with a bunch o f muscle fibers enervated by it’ in

latter part o f his life. His brother, a Fellow o f A ll Souls

1925. He co-wrote a comprehensive work on reflexes,

CoUege Oxford, was a famous botanist who traveled widely and served as tutor to Royalty.

Reflex Activity of the Spinal Cord, pubHshed in 1932 by

Sherren, James (1872—1945) EngUsh surgeon who advocated

Derek Ernest Denny-Brown (1901—1981) and Edward

Sherrington, Sir Arthur Carew Eccles (b 1903), Creed,

conservative management for acute appendicitis compli­

George Tandy Liddell (1895—1981). He shared the N obel

cated by peritonitis. He also studied the consequences o f

Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Sir Douglas Adrian

injury to the peripheral nerves in man in 1905.

(1889-1977) in 1932.

Sherm an, Henry Clapp (1875—1955) American biochemist

Shiga, Kiyoshi (1870—1957) Japanese bacteriologist, born in

from Ash Grove,Virginia. H e was professor o f analytical

Sendai on the island o f Honshu. He graduated from Tokyo

chemistry, professor o f organic analysis, professor o f food

Medical School in 1896 and discovered the bacillus o f

chemistry and M itchill professor o f chemistry at Columbia

dysentery {Shigella shigae) in 1897. H e worked in Germany

University. He did research on nutritional requirements for

with Paul Ehrhch (1854—1915) at Frankfurt in 1900 and, on

metal ions and vitamins, and in 1920 described the need for

his return to Japan in 1905, became director o f the Kitasato

calcium in man and the daily requirements, interaction

Research Institute.

with phosphorus and vitamin D. From 1932 he studied vitamin B requirements in relation to the deficiency

Shigella The first o f these bacteria, the Shigella shigae group,

disease, polyneuritis.This was followed by vitamin A studies

was described by Kiyoshi Shiga (1870—1957), a Japanese

and iron-deficiency anemia.

m icrobiologist, in 1898. A nother causative organism o f

664

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SIAMESE TWINS

dysentery. Shigellaflexneri,w2s discovered by Simon Flexner

Medical

(1863—1946), an American bacteriologist from LouisviUe,

(1551-16 15), a physician, proposed a method o f shorthand in

Kentucky who was the first director o f the Rockefeller

A n Arte of Shorte, Smfte and Secrete writing by Character. A

Institute, in 1900. Shigella sonnei, a lactose-fermenting

system was invented by Sir Isaac Pitman (1813—1897),

organism and the least pathogenic species, was isolated in

an educationist from Trowbridge, Wiltshire and his

Denmark by Carl O laf Sonne (1882—1948) in 1915.

Phonographers,

in

1894. Tim othy

Bright

Stenographic Sound Hand was pubUshed in 1837. He later established a Phonetic Institute at Bath for teaching short­

Shippen, WiUiam (1736-1808) Philadelphia physician and

hand in 1839. His system was introduced into America by

son o f another physician. He graduated from the College o f

his brother Benjamin Pitman (1822—1910) in 1852, who also

N ew Jersey in 1757 and studied medicine under John

formed the Phonetic Institute at Cincinnati in 1853.The

(1728—1793) and WiUiam Hunter (1718—1783) in England. On his return to America he joined John Morgan (1735— 1789) in founding the Medical School o f the College o f

German system was invented by a civil servant, Franz Xavior (1789—1848) o f M unich around 1830. A new system was developed by an Irishman, John R o bert Gregg

Philadelphia in 1765.

(1867—1948) from Shantonagh, Monaghan who emigrated

Shock A theory based on vasomotor paralysis was proposed

to America in 1893 and wrote Gregg Shorthand Manual

by Breslau surgeon, Hermann Fischer (18 31-19 19 ) in 1870.

in 1888.

Research was done by American surgeon and physiologist

Shoulder A m putation Raphael B. Sabatier (1732—18 11) o f

George Washington Crile (1864—1943) in 1888. Shock

Paris and Jacques Lisfranc (1790—1847) performed amputa­

foUowing railway injury was described by London surgeon,

tion o f the arm at the shoulder joint in 1815.The excision o f

Irvine Heinly Page (b 1901). Constriction o f peripheral

the humeral head was performed in a case o f tuberculosis o f

vessels was shown by EngUsh surgeon,John David Malcolm

the shoulder joint by James Syme (1799—1870) in 1826.

in 1893. Avoidance o f shock during amputation by nerve

Shoulder D islo ca tio n See dislocation of shoulderjoint.

block and observation o f blood pressure was advocated by Harvey WiUiams Cushing (1869-1939) in 1902.The theory

Shoulder Joint The first prosthetic replacement with an

o f exhaustion was suggested by English physician, John

artificial joint o f rubber and platinum was performed by

Percy Lockhart-M umm ery (b 1875) in his Hunterian lec­

Jules Emile Pean (1830—1898) o f Paris in 1894. See dislocation

tures on shock in 1905. A treatise on the nature and theory

of shoulderjoint.

was published by N ew York physician, Samuel Jones

Shw artzm an P h en o m en o n

Meltzer (1851—1920) in 1908. Intravenous coUoids were

Local skin reaction to the

used as treatment by CaHfornia physician, James Joseph

filtrate o f baciUus typhus culture. Described by N ew York

Hogan (b 1872) in 1915. Fat embolism in traumatic shock

physician,Gregory Schwartzman (1896-1965) in 1928.

was proposed by Boston physician, WiUiam Townsend

Shy—D rager Syndrom e Progressive neurological disorder

Porter (b 1862) in 1917. The role o f capiUaries foUowing

accompanied by postural hypotension, rigidity and tremor.

wounds was described by Sir WiUiam Maddock Bayliss

Described by two American neurologists, George Milton

(1860—1924) in 1918. Secondary shock due to histamine

Shy (1919—1967) o f Colorado, and Glen A. Drager (19 17 -

release was shown by Sir Henry HaUet Dale (1875-1968) in

1967) in i960.

1919. English physician D. K . HiU studied blood volume

S iem en

during shock in 1941. Shock due to crush injury was demonstrated on an experimental basis by Baltimore

(1816—1892). He determined the electrical resistance o f

surgeon, George Walton Duncan (b 1914) in 1942. Its occur­

several substances, invented the self-acting dynamo, devised

rence in burns and trauma was investigated in the same year

several galvanometers, introduced a process o f electroplat­

byAm erican physician, Sanford M . Rosenthal (b 1897).

Short,

Thomas

(1789—1843)

Medical

graduate

ing, and developed the first telegraphic system in Prussia.

from

He also established a factory for making electrical and

Edinburgh in 1815 who was medical officer on St Helena

telegraphic equipment in Berlin in 1847.

(1815—1821) during the imprisonment o f Napoleon, and

Siam ese Twins

one o f the five medical officers present at his autopsy

Shorthand

Gowers

(1845—1915)

Living conjugated twins. Named after

Chang and Eng from Thailand who were exhibited in

Its use in medical work was advocated by

WiUiam Richard

SI unit o f electrical conductance named after

German electrical engineer, Ernest Werner von Siemens

England in the 19th century. A case was brought to the

o f University

notice o f King James IV (1473—1513) in 1490 and he saw to

CoUege Hospital, London, founder o f the Society o f

their care and education.They Hved to the age o f 28 years.

665

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SIBBALD

Sibbald, Sir R obert (1641—1722) Scottish physician and

Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) started working on the side-chain

naturalist, born in Edinburgh and graduated in medicine

theory, while director o f the Institute for Experimental

from Leiden in 16 6 1. H e was the first professor o f m edi­

Therapy at Frankfurt in 1898. He proposed that an antigen

cine at Edinburgh University in 1685 and physician to K ing

had two distinct groups ‘haptophore’ and ‘toxophile’ , and

Charles 11. He established a physick garden at Edinburgh

the side-chains in mammalian cells contained receptors

in 1670, and became the founder o f the R oyal College o f

which anchored the haptophores. This com bination

Physicians o f Edinburgh in 16 8 1. He wrote History of

brought otherwise harmless toxophiles close enough to the

Sheriffdom of Fife (1710), Scotia Illustrata, Liberty and Indepen­

cell to poison it. He used this principle to develop a

dence of the Kingdom and Church of Scotland, and several other

manmade chemotherapeutic agent, tryphan red, which

works.The genus o f plants, Sibbaldia,is named after him

cured infected mice with trypanosomiasis in 1904.This was followed by his development o f arsphenamine, or salvarsan,

Sibenm ann Canal Small vascular canals in the aqueduct

in 1910.

o f the cochlea, described by an ophthalmologist, Friedrich

Sideroblastic A nem ia See sideroblasts.

Sibenmann (1852-1928) ofBasel in 1894.

Sideroblasts [Greek: sideros, iron + blastos, bud] Prussian blue

Sibson, Francis (1814—1876) Professor o f medicine at St M ary’s Hospital in London. He described the Sibson fascia,

was used to stain iron granules in red cells by Guilio Cesare

a septum covering the apical pleura attached to the first rib,

Bizzozero (1846—1901) in 1883. A more detailed study was

in 1846.

made by H. Gruneberg in 1940, who showed stainable granules o f iron in erythrocytes o f mice with a congenital

Sibthorp, John (1758—1796) Born in Lincolnshire and

anemia. Alwin M . Pappenheimer (1878—1955) in 1945

studied medicine at Edinburgh University, before he

noticed that these granules appeared as basophilic bodies

succeeded his father as Regius professor o f botany at

(Pappenheimer bodies) when stained with Rom anowsky

Oxford in 1784. He wrote Flora Oxoniensis in 1794.

stain. The term sideroblast was introduced in 1954 by

Sicard, Jean Athanase (1872—1979) French physician and

E. Kaplan and co-workers to denote a nucleated red cell

radiologist from Marseilles. He specialized in neurology

containing iron granules, visible under the microscope. In

and the mechanisms o f pain. He introduced injection o f

1953 A. S. Douglas noted that these granules were concen­

sclerozing solutions for varicose veins. He introduced

trated in a perinuclear ring in the red cells o f patients with

Lipidol, a radio-opaque iodized oil for injection into

anemia. The occurrence o f anemia with ring sideroblasts in

cerebrospinal fluid. See Collet—Sicard syndrome.

the bone marrow was later named sideroblastic anemia.

Sidgw ick, N evil Vincent (1873—1951) Theoretical chemist

Sick Sinus Syndrom e Term coined by Bernard Town o f Brigham Hospital, Boston in 1967. He came across this

and fellow and tutor at Lincoln C ollege, O xford. He

condition when the sinus node failed to function after

worked on molecular structure and formulated the theory

cardioversion for atrial fibrillation.

o f valence for which he was awarded the R oyal Society Medal in 1937. He wrote The Electronic Theory o f valence in

Sickle Cell A nem ia Inherited hemoglobinopathy leading

1927.

to severe anemia with the presence o f sickle-shaped red

Siebold,

blood cells. Recognized by James Bryan Herrick (18 6 1-

Karl Theodor

Ernest

(1804—1865)

German

zoologist, studied asexual reproduction or development o f

1964) o f America in 1910. The name was given by Verne

an egg without fertilization —parthenogenesis. He demon­

Rh eem Mason (b 1889) in 1922. Genetic studies were done

strated that dogs could be experimentally infected with

by Clyde Graeme Guthrie (b 1880) and John Gardiner Huck

Taenia echinococcus in 1854

(b 1891), o f the Johns Hopkins University in 1923. The structural variant o f hemoglobin responsible was identified

Siebold, Phillip Franz von (1796—1866) German physician

in 1949 by Linus Carl Pauling (b 1901),American molecular

and botanist introduced western medicine into Japan. He

biologist. Substitution o f the amino acid valine for glutamic

published several works on the flora and fauna o f Japan.

acid in hemoglobin o f patients was demonstrated by Vernon

Sigerist, H enry Ernest (1891-1957) Professor at the Johns

Martin Ingram (b 1924) ofEnglandin 1957.

Hopkins University and director o f the Institute o f the

Side-C hain T h eory A few chemotherapeutic agents, such

History o f Medicine. He published several important books

as cinchona, mercury and ipecacuanha, were known before

on history o f medicine.

666

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SIMPSON

Sight [Anglo-Saxon:5í/zí/z,sight] See vision.

(1668-1738) in 1738.

S igm oid C olon [Greek: sigmoeides,^S'-sh^ipcd] Derives its

Silver Stain

name from its resemblance to the Greek letter.

Cohnheim

Silicon [Latin: silex, flint] Non-metallic element noted to be

pathologist from

the Italian histologist, Camillo Golgi (1843-1926) in 1873.

1682), a chemist from Bavaria in 1660. Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard

(1839-1884), a German

Pomerania, Poland in 18 6 3.The method was improved by

suitable for glass making by Johann Joachim Becher (16 35(1778-1850)

Used, among other things, to study nerve

endings in the muscles and introduced by Julius Friedrich

(1777-1857)

S im m on ds D isease (Syn: pituitary cachexia) Hypopitu­

obtained silicon in 1809, although in an impure form. Pure

itarism resulting from atrophy o f the anterior pituitary lobe.

crystalline silicon was obtained by D eville in 1854. See

A case history o f post-partum necrosis o f the anterior

silicosis.

pituitary was first published by Leon Konrad Glinski (18701918) o f Poland in 1913 and a pathologist from Hamburg,

Silicosis Occupational lung disease described in Schneeberg miners as ‘mala metellalorum’ by Paracelsus (1493-1541) in

M orris Simmonds (1855—1925) in 1914. The name Sim­

15 31. It'w as described in Joachim sthal in Bohem ia by

monds disease was introduced by L. Lichtwitz in 1914. A

George Agricola (1494-1555). A description o f the lung

case in America was reported by D. A. L. Graham and R . E

pathology was given in 1672 by Isbrand van Diemerbroeck,

Farquharson in 1931. Philip Edward Smith (1884-1970)

professor o f medicine in Holland. In his Anatome Corporis

in 1930 noted that it could be produced in rats by hypophy-

Humane, he described the mass o f sand particles found in

sectomy. Harold Teeming Sheehan (1900-1988) in 1939

lungs o f stone cutters. The term silicosis was coined by

described it following post-partum hemorrhage.

Visconti in 1870. The carcinogenic potential was demon­

Sim m ons, James Stevens (1890—1954) American bacteriologist

strated by Haerting and Hesse in 1879. In 1891 Arnold

who prepared a citrate agar medium for culture o f

Knight drew attention to cutlery grinder’s asthma in

bacteria. He established Aedes albopictus as the vector o f

Sheffield, and John Scott Haldane (1860—1936) described it

dengue fever in 1930.

in sand-quarry workers in 19 11.

S im on , Gustav (1824—1876) Professor o f surgery in Rostock

Silkw orm D isease The fungal cause ofmuscardine disease

(1861) and Heidelberg (1867). He wrote monographs on

o f the silkworm was discovered in 1835 by Italian lawyer,

vesicovaginal fistula (1854), splenectomy (1857) and on

Agostino Bassi (1773-1856) who became a farmer. This is

plastic surgery (1868).

considered to be the first proof for pathogenesis o f germs. The fungus was named Beauveria bassiana.

Silkworm s

S im on, Sir John (1816-1904) English surgeon, public health reformer and a lecturer in pathology at King’s College

Brought from China to Europe in the 6th

Hospital, and later a surgeon at St Thomas’ Hospital. He was

century. A microscopic dissection was performed by

appointed as the first medical officer o f health to the city o f

Marcello Malpighi (1628—1694) in 1669. See silkworm disease.

London in 1848 and brought in several important sanitary

Silurian P eriod named

by

Period in Earth history identified and

Scottish

geologist. Sir

R oderick

reforms. He showed the advantages o f smallpox vaccination.

Impey

He published General Pathology in 1850.

Murchison (1792—18 71) ofTarradale in 1835. M urchison

S im on , Theodore (1873—1961) French psychologist in Paris

falls in Uganda, and the Murchison R iver in Western

who devised the Binet—Simon tests for intelligence with

Australia are name after him.

Alfred Binet (1857—19 11) in 19 11.

Silva, John Baptist (1684—1744) Physician ofjew ish origin in S im ons, Samuel Foart (1750-1813) Physician from Sand­

Bordeaux who wrote a treatise on the use o f bleeding, and a

wich in Kent. He graduated from Leiden, and practiced in

number o f other works.

London. He was elected physician to the Westminster

Silver Salt Silver nitrate was prepared by Geber the alchem­

Dispensary in 1780 and was physician to George III in 1803.

ist in the 14th century and was used as a remedy by Avicenna (980—1037) and by Paracelsus (1493—1541). Giro­

Sim pson, George Gaylord (1902—1984) American paleon­

lamo Cardano (1501—1576) andAmbroise Paré (1510—1590)

tologist from Chicago who introduced the concept o f

used it as a hair dye in the i6th century. They were used

genetics into paleontology. He wrote Tempo and Mode of

commonly for hysteria and epilepsy in England in the i8th

Evolution (1944), The Meaning of Evolution (1949) and several

century but use was condem ned by H erm an Boerhaave

other works.

667

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SIMPSON

Sim s S pecu lum See SimsJames Marion. Sim ulated D isease Galen (AD 129-200) was one o f the earliest ancient authors to write on simulated disease. He described hemoptysis simulated by cutting the gums and swallowing blood then expectorating it with a self-induced cough. See Munchausen Syndrome.

Sinoauricular N o d e (SA node) The pacemaker o f the heart was discovered by Sir Arthur Keith (1866-1955) and Martin William Flack (1882-1931) in 1906. Sir Thomas Lewis (1881-1945) traced excitation from it down the bundle o f His to the Purkinje fibers, around 1910.

Sinoatrial N o d e See sinoauricular node. Sinus N o d e See sinoauricular node. Sinusitis A method o f washing out the antrum o f Highmore James Young Simpson. H. Laing Gordon, Chloroform (1897)

was described by French surgeon in Paris, Anselme Louis

James Young Simpson and

Bernard B ere billet Jourdain (1734-1816) in 1767. George W Caldwell (b 1866) o f N ew York described the operative

Sim pson, Sir James Young (18 11—1870) Scottish obstetrician from

Bathgate, West

Lothian

Edinburgh University in

who

graduated

treatment for suppuration o f the maxillary antrum and

from

other sinuses in 1893. An American laryngologist, Joseph

1830. He was professor o f

midwifery at Edinburgh in 1 840, and used ether as an inhala-

Hammond Bryan (1856—1935) wrote on sinusitis in 1889.

tional anesthetic on a woman in labor in 1840 and later

English physician. Sir St C lair Thom pson (1859—1943)

introduced chloroform in 1847. Acupressure, where a pin or

described the symptoms and complications in 1914.

needle was passed across the blood vessel to anchor it and

Conservative treatment with irrigation was advised by

apply pressure so as to promote hemostasis to control bleed­

Arthur Walter Proetz (b 1888) o f St Louis in 1926 and

ing during surgery, was introduced by him in 1864.The pin

M elvin Harold Hays (1880—1940) o f N ew York in 1937.

was removed from a few hours to few days after bleeding

Sipple

stopped. He was physician to Queen Victoria and used

Syndrom e

Familial condition o f medullary

carcinoma o f the thyroid, parathyroid adenoma and

chloroform in her deHvery o f Prince Leopold. See chloroform.

pheochromocytoma. Described by American respiratory

Sim s, James M arion (1813—1883) American gynecologist,

physiologist,John H. Sipple (b 1930) in 1961.

born in Lancaster County in South Carolina and graduated in medicine from Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia

Sippy D ie t Antacid therapy with frequent milk feeds and

in 1835. He practiced as a surgeon in M ount Meigs,Alabama

compounds such as magnesium hydroxide for peptic ulcer.

and performed several original operations such as excision

Introduced in 1915 by Bertram Welton Sippy (1866-1924),

o f the upper and lower jaw and the repair o f hair lip. He

an American gastroenterologist.

developed an interest in vesicovaginal fistula and devised

Siriasis [Greek: seiriasis, disease produced by heat o f the sun]

the knee—chest position for gynecology examination. He

Ancient Greek term for inflammation o f the brain. Paul o f

used a pewter spoon as a vaginal speculum in 1845 which

Aegina (625-690) recommended application o f egg yoke

was later developed into Sims duck-biUed speculum in 1870.

The first successful operation to surgically correct

and oil o f roses on the hollow o f bregma o f the skull as treatment.

vesicovaginal fistula was performed by him in 1849. His On the Treatment ofVesico-vaginal Fistula appeared in the American

Sirkari D isease Another name for kala azar used by people

Journal of Medical Sciences in 1852. Around 1850 he moved to

o f the Garo hills in India. See kala azar.

N ew York and worked at the W omens Hospital until 1861.

Sjögren

He traveled in Europe and performed his only operation in

Syndrom e

Keratoconjunctivitis

sicca

and

England which was a repair o f vesicovaginal fistula at the

xerostomia, enlarged parotid gland with polyarthritis.

Samaritan Hospital, London. He wrote Clinical Notes on

Described by A. W. M . Houwer in 1927, and J. Iskowitz in

Uterine Surgery which was published in 1866.

1928. Scandinavian neurologist, Henrik S.C. Sjögren

668

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SKULL

(1899—1989) noted the additional features o f oral, parotid

FRACTURE

Skin Test An early test used in diagnosis o f disease was

and skin changes in 1933. Further cases were reported by

devised by O. H. Salisbury o f Ohio. He used suspensions o f

P. EUman and F. P.Weber in 1949.

spores from straw as a test for farmers lung in 1862.A test for susceptibility to diphtheria was devised by Bela Schick

S catological M edicine In his Scatological Rites of all Nations,

(1877-1967), an Austrian pediatrician in N ew York, in 19 11.

Captain Bourke devoted one section to it. It uses medicines

The first positive test for house dust extract in allergy was

such as ear wax, human flesh, bat blood, mouse dung, rabbit

shown by R . A. Kern in 19 21. The Dick test to detect

dung, fox dung, sweat o f athletes, oil o f spider, snake tongue

susceptibility to scarlet fever was devised by American

and hundreds o f other remedies. The theory may have

physicians, G eorge Frederick D ick (18 8 1-19 6 7 ) and

originated from the belief that nastiness is the sign o f

Gladys R o w en aD ick (1881—1963) in 1924.

efficacy. Hundreds o f scatological medicines used since ancient times were mentioned by Pliny (AD 29—79) in his

Skin Traction Seefemoralfractures.

natural history. See dung.

Skoda, Josef (1805-1881) Austrian physician from Pilsen, Bohemia. He graduated fromVienna where he spent most o f

Skeleton [Greek: skeletos, dried body] See osteology.

his career. He was a contemporary o f Karl Freiherr Rokitan­

Skene Gland Paraurethral glands o f the female described in

sky (1804-1878), and popularized the use o f R en é Laënnec’s

1880 by Alexander Johnston Chalmers Skene (1838—1900),

(1781—1826) stethoscope in clinical medicine and described

an American gynecologist o f Scottish origin. He was

many auscultatory signs in the chest (Skoda resonance).

professor o f gynecology at the Long Island College

Skull [Middle English: skulk, cranium] The Cannstadt skull,

Hospital in N ew York.

found in 1700, was one o f the earliest o f a primitive man.

Skiagram

[Greek: skia, shadow

+

gramma, writing]

Peter Camper (1722-1789), a surgeon at Leiden, attempted

Rontgenogram or use o f X-rays to obtain photographs.

to measure the skull from an anthropological viewpoint.

Skiascopy [Greek: skia, shadow + skopein, to look] Shadow

Craniology, study o f variation o f skull in relation to race,

test to determine refraction o f the eye by illuminating the

was established by Friedrich Blumenbach (1752—1840) o f

retina with a mirror and observing movements o f light and

Gottingen in 1775. Several Neolithic skulls were found in

shade o f the pupils. Described by Chibret in 1886. It was

Brittany and other parts o f France around 1870. Evidence

introduced into clinical medicine by E.Jackson (1856—1942)

for primitive man, Australopithecus, believed to be three million years old, was found in the R ift Valley in South

ofPhiladelphia.

Africa in 1925. Phrenology, study o f the external form o f the

Skin [Anglo-Saxon: scinn, skin] See dermatology.

skull as an indicator o f mental powers and moral qualities,

Skin Graft [Anglo-Saxon: scinn, skin] Aulus Cornelius

was established by Franzjoseph Gall (1758-1828),a German

Celsus (25 B C —A D 50) included a description o f plastic

physician, and Casper Johan Spurzheim (1776—1832). Paul

surgery to the face and skin grafting in his writings. Experi­

Broca (1824—1880) founded anthropom etry with his

mental grafting was done by Italian surgeon, Giuseppe

invention o f 27 craniometric and cranioscopic instruments.

Baronio (175 9 -18 11) around 1800. He demonstrated the

Trepanning is the oldest form o f neurosurgery and 19 skulls

fundamental principle that an autograft from the same

with trephine holes,from the pre-Incan period were identi­

animal worked while an allograft from another animal was

fied by Muniz in 1894. A Neolithic skull with a trephine

rejected. American surgeon Frank Hastings Hamilton

hole was found in the river Thames in 18 64. The calvarium and femur o f a primitive man. Pithecanthropus erectus, was

(1813—1886) treated ulcers by grafting in 1854.Transplanta­

discovered by Eugene Dubois (1858-1940),a surgeon in the

tion o f free skin instead o f pedunculated flaps was

Dutch army while stationed in Java in 1893. Books on

introduced by Swiss surgeon, Jacques Louis Reverdin

comparative anatomy in relation to anthropology include:

(1842—1929) in 1869. Contracture following burns was

Tabulae Craniorum Diversaurum Gentium by Sandifort (1830),

treated with grafts by George David PoUock (1817-1897) in 18 71.

Grafts o f intermediate thickness were perform ed by

Léopold Louis X avier Edouard Ollier (1830—1900) o f

Crania Americana (1839) and Crania Egyptiaaca by Morton {1S44), Atlas de Cranioscopie (1845) by Gustav Carus,and Crania Britannica (1856) by Davis andThurnum. See Piltdown man.

Paris in 1872, and full thickness grafts were advocated by German surgeon, FedorVictor Krause (1857—1937) in 1893.

Skull Fracture PercivaU Pott (1714-1788) wrote on head

Split skin grafts in plastic surgery were introduced by Vitray

injuries and fractures o f the skuU in 1760. Another English

Papin Blair (18 71—1955) and James Brown in 1929.

surgeon,William FredericTeevan (1834-1887), investigated

669

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SLE

wounds to the skull in 1864 and concluded that fractures occurred in the line o f extension and not compression. Symptoms and signs o f fracture o f the posterior cranial fossa were described by London surgeon,William Henry Battle (1855—1936) in 1890. Cracked-pot note on percussion was described by SirWiUiam Macewen (1848—1924) o f Glasgow in 1893. Conservative treatment was advised by N ew York surgeon,John Fox Connors (1873—1935) in 1934.

SLE See systemic lupus erythematosus. Sleep

Described by Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) in De

Insominis and by Aristotle (384—322 B C ) in his treatise Somno et Vigilia. The aphorisms o f Hippocrates state that when sleep is laborious, it is a deadly symptom, when sleep puts an end to delirium it is a good symptom, and both sleep and insomnolency, when immoderate, are bad.Averrhoes o f Alvar Gullstrand's slit lamp with corneal microscope. W.V Freeman, The

Cordova (112 6 -119 8 ), Spain, around A D 1150, defined sleep

British Journal of Physiological Optics,W, 1927. British Optical Association,

as the recession o f the sensorial powers from their organs to

London

the internal part, and stated that those who sleep with their eyes open do not perceive the objects nearest to them. Haly

Sloane, Sir Hans (1660—1753) Physician from Killeleagh in

Abbas (930—994) postulated that during sleep animal pow­

Ireland who studied and practiced in London. He was

ers are suspended and the vital and natural powers continue

physician to George II and founded the Chelsea Physick

unaffected. Paul Charles Dubois (1848-1918), in 1896,

Garden, which he handed over to the Apothecaries

demonstrated that lesions in a specific center near the floor

Company in 17 2 1. He had over 800 species o f plants in his

o f the third ventricle cause disturbance o f sleep. Sleep

herbarium which he took with him to Jamaica when he

studies on animals were done by Szymansky in 1918 who

was physician to its governor. He was president o f the Royal

observed that animals which depended on tactile and

Society in 1727 and advocated immunization for smallpox.

olfactory senses to obtain food had short spells o f sleep, and

His library o f over 50,000 volumes and several thousands

he classified them as polyphasic sleepers, and that animals

manuscripts were given to the British Museum.

which used visual sense were monophasic sleepers. The human infant is initially polyphasic in sleep but later

Sm allpox V accination See inoculation.

becomes

Sm allpox A treatise on smallpox and measles, Liber de variolis

monophasic. In

1937

Harvey

and Hobart

identified five different patterns (delta, delta and alpha,

et morbillis,v^2LS written by Rhazes (AD 860—932) in 910. He

delta, null, and intermittent alpha) using E C G during sleep.

mentioned the Pandects o f Alexandrian physician, Aaron

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849—1936) experimented on dogs

who appears to have been well acquainted with it in the 7th

and identified internal inhibition o f the internal cortex in

century. It was probably present in India during the time o f

1927. Walter

Swiss

the Athara Veda o f the Brahmins and they practiced inocula­

physiologist and N obel Prize winner, worked on the brain

tion.The term variola was used by Constantinius Africanus

Rudolph

Hess

(18 8 1-19 73),

a

as a coordinating organ for the functions o f internal organs

around 1080. The contagious nature was suggested by the

and sleep.

English physician Gilbertus Anglicus in the 13 th century,

Sleeping

Sickness

trypanosomiasis. The

who advocated the use o f red light as treatment. R e d hang­

Terminal presentation o f African presence

of

trypanosomes

ings in treatment were used by John o f Gaddesden

in

(1230—1361) and other Anglo-N orm an physicians. The

cerebrospinal fluid o f patients affected with it was demon­

pathological differences between smallpox and measles

strated in Uganda by Aldo CasteUani (1879-1971) in 1902.

were recognized by Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia (1510—1580).

See African trypanosomiasis.

The first American treatise was written by Thomas Thacher

Slit Lam p Used for microscopic study o f the living eye.

(1620-1678) in 1677. Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689)

Invented by Swedish ophthalmologist Alvar Gullstrand

clinically differentiated smallpox from measles in 1685.

(1862-1930) in 1903.

See inoculation.

670

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SMITH

Sm ee, Alfred (1818-1877) London surgeon who devised an

Sm ith, Sir Grafton Elliot (18 71-1937) Australian neurologist

electric cell made o f two plates (one zinc and one platinized

and anthropologist graduated in medicine from Sydney

silver) in sulfuric acid.

University in 1892. He was professor o f anatomy at Cairo in

Sm egm a

1900, and occupied the chair o f anatomy at Manchester

[Latin: smegma, soap]Secretion o f the sebaceous

glands o f the penis that derives its name from its soapy

(1909) and University College (1919). He was an authority

appearance behind the prepuce.

on brain anatomy and human evolution. He published Human History in 1930, and several other works on

Sm ell Caspar Bartholin the Elder (1585-1629), a physician

sociology and evolution.

from Copenhagen, Denmark, described the functions o f the olfactory nerve in ló ii.T h e olfactory apparatus offish,

Sm ith, Hamilton Othaniel (b 1931) American molecular

birds, reptiles and man was studied by Antonio Scarpa

biologist, born in N ew York. He graduated from and

(1747-1832) in 1789. The islets o f olfactory cells in the

worked at the Johns Hopkins Medical School. He discov­

hippocampal cortex were described by Julián Calleja y

ered endonucleases in bacteria that can split D N A o f

Sánchez (1836-1913), professor o f anatomy at Madrid in

invading phage particles and inactivate them. These endonucleases are known as restriction enzymes and are

1893.

site-specific and now used in establishing D N A nucleotide

Sm ellie, William (1697—1763) Scottish surgeon and obstetri­ cian from Lanark. He designed practical straight forceps for

sequences. He shared the N obel Prize for Physiology or

use in obstetrics in 1750 and improved longer forceps in

Medicine in 1978.

1754. Brachial palsy, later known as Erb palsy, was described

Sm ith, Henry (1862-1948) British surgeon in the Indian

by Smellie in 1763. Pelvimetry, study o f the measurements

Medical Service who devised the clamp and cautery treat­

o f pelvis o f the mother in relation to childbirth, was

ment o f hemorrhoids. He described a method o f extracting

introduced by him in 1752.

Sm ilax

cataracts in the capsule in 1905.

Source o f sarsaparilla and the steroid precursor,

Sm ith, James Lorrain (1862-1931) Scottish pathologist from

smilagenin.

Dumfries and pioneer in establishment o f the pathological

Sm iles, Samuel (1812—1904) Scottish writer and a medical

services. After qualifying from Edinburgh University,

graduate from Edinburgh University. He was a surgeon in

he was professor o f pathology at Belfast, Manchester and

Leeds and later became editor o f the Leeds Times. His works

Edinburgh. He founded the Pathological Society at

include: Physical Education (1838), Self Help (1859), Thrift

Manchester in 1894.

(1875),and Duty (1880).

Sm ith, Sir James Edward (1759-1828) English physician and Sm ith, Sir Alfred Sydney (1883-1969) Forensic medical

naturalist

expert from N ew Zealand. He was a professor o f forensic

from

Norwich.

He

studied

medicine

at

Edinburgh University and graduated from Leiden in 1786.

medicine at Cairo in 1917 and was regius professor o f foren­

He established the Linnean Society and was its first

sic medicine at Edinburgh in 1928. He wrote Textbook of

president. He wrote English Botany, Flora Botanica, English

Forensic Medicine (1925), and Mostly Murder in 1959.

Flora, and Introduction to Botany.

Sm ith, Eustace (1835-1914) Graduate o f University College

Sm ith, Lester (1904—1992) English biochemist, educated at

London who became personal physician to Leopold II,

Chelsea Polytechnic. He worked on dietary requirement

King o f Belgium. He returned to London and was appoint­

for vitamin A, developed the first commercial production o f

ed physician to the East London Children s Hospital and

penicillin, isolated vitamin B 12 and showed that it contains

the London Chest Hospital. He wrote Wasting Diseases of

cobalt and used radiolabeling to distinguish forms o f

Infants and Children in 1868 2ind A PracticalTreatise on Diseases

vitamin B 12.

in Children in 1884.

Sm ith, Michael (b 1932) British-Canadian biochemist,

Sm ith Fracture Hand fracture, a reversed CoUes fracture, named after R obert William Smith (1807—1873), professor

educated at the University o f Manchester and moved to the

o f surgery at Trinity College, Dublin who described it in

University o f British Columbia in 1956 and later became

1847. His Treatise on Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of

professor and director o f the Biotechnology Laboratory.

Neuroma on multiple neurofibromatosis in 1849 preceded

He discovered site-specific mutagenesis which is now used

Friedrich von Recklinghausen’s (1833—1910) description

in altering the genetic code o f organisms to produce useful

by 33 years.

proteins. He shared the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1993.

671

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SMITH

Sm ith, Nathan (176 2-18 29 ) Surgeon from Connecticut

stenosis. He suffered and died from it before he could find a

who gave an early account o f osteomyelitis in 1827. He also

cure. Charles P. Bailey took up the work and succeed in

described the contagious nature o f typhoid in his treatise,H

commissurotomy in aortic valve stenosis in 1950.

Practical Essay on Typhus Fever published in 1842. He was a

S m og

founder o f the Dartmouth Medical School.

A mixture o f fog and smoke containing toxic

substances from air pollution. It has caused considerable

Sm ith, Nathan R y n o (1797—1879) American surgeon who

morbidity and mortality. A three-day smog in a small town

described an anterior suspensory apparatus for fractures o f

in Pennsylvania m adebooo persons, or half the population,

the lower extremity in 1867.

ill and killed 20 persons in 1948. One o f the worst smogs

Sm ith—Petersen N ail

occurred in London in 19 52,and deaths exceeded 4000. See

Nail used for fixing fractures o f

air pollution.

the neck o f the femur. Designed by a Boston orthopedic surgeon, Marius Nygaard Smith-Petersen (1886—1953) and

Sm ok ing Introduced from South America into England by

colleagues (E.F. Cave and G.W. van Gorder) in 1931. He

Sir Walter Raleigh in 1565, but the habit o f smoking tobac­

also described a method o f osteotomy for ankylosing

co really started around 1586. King James I tried to stop the

spondylitis (which he called rheumatoid arthritis) in 1945.

habit o f tobacco

smoking and, in

1602

he issued

Counterblaste to Tobacco in which he described the habit as ‘A

Sm ith, Theobald (1859—1934) American microbiologist and

custome loathesome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harme-

im m unologist at Harvard University, w ho was born in

ful to brain, dangerous to the lung, and in the black stinking

Albany, N ew York. He demonstrated that the tick was the

fume therof neerest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke

insect vector ofTexas cattle fever and distinguished between

o f the pit that is bottomless’ . The association o f tobacco

human and bovine tuberculosis. He also laid the foundation

smoking with angina was noted by J. H. S. Beau

for development o f cholera vaccine and improved several

(1806—1865) in 1861, and H. Favarger proposed that nico­

other vaccines.

tine constricted coronary arteries in 1882. W. Huchard

Sm ith, Sir Thomas (1833-1909) London surgeon who

introduced the term ‘tobacco angina’ in 1899, and divided it

described loss o f the femoral head due to acute inflamma­

into three groups: functional angina due to coronary artery

tion in infancy in 1876. He also gave a description

spasm, organic angina due to nicotine sclerosis, and

o f craniohypophysial

(Hand-Schiilter-

pseudoangina due to dyspepsia induced by smoking. G. D.

Sm ith, Thomas Southwood (1788—1861) English physician

was not unique. In 1968 a twelve year follow-up Framing­

from Somerset who graduated from Edinburgh University

ham study demonstrated a positive correlation between

and became a physician to the Fever Hospital in London in

heavy smoking and angina. Around the same time,

1824. He wrote Treatise on Fever in 1830.

O. Auerbach showed that advanced atherosclerosis o f

xanthomatosis

Christian disease) in 1865.

Friedman and colleagues showed that angina in smoking

coronary arteries was three times more prevalent in heavy

Sm ith Papyrus See Edwin Smith papyrus.

smokers. Dimness o f vision due to tobacco was described

Founded by English chemist,

by William Mackenzie (179 1—1868) in England in 1835.

James Lewis Macie Smithson (1765—1829), who was the

A more accurate description was given by Jonathan

illegitimate son o f Sir Hugh Smithson Percy, first Duke o f

Hutchinson (1828—1913) in 1864 and the subject was dis­

Sm ithsonian Institution

Northumberland. After the rejection o f one o f his treatises

cussed exhaustively by Forster o f Germany in 1868. Evarts

by the R o yal Society o f London in 1826, Smithson be­

Ambrose Graham (1883—1957), professor o f surgery at

queathed a sum o f 105,000 pounds to his nephew but

Washington University, St Louis, associated smoking

stipulated that if he died without heirs the money was to be

with lung cancer. Smoking as a cause o f carcinoma o f the

used to found ‘at Washington, under the name o f the

lung was demonstrated by Sir William Richard Doll

Smithsonian Institution, an Establishment for the increase

(b 1912) and Sir Austin Bradford Hill (b 1897) in 1950. It was

and diffusion o f knowledge among men’ . It was established

listed as a risk factor for stroke by the American Medical

by Act o f Congress in 1846 and the American physicist and

Association in 1984. See tobacco.

inventor o f the first electromagnetic motor (1829), Joseph

SmoUett, Tobias George (17 2 1—1771) Physician from D um ­

Henry (1797-1878) o f N ew York, was its first secretary.

barton who studied medicine at Glasgow University in

Smithy, Horace Gilbert (1914—1848) American cardiac

1736 and obtained his M D from M arischal C ollege

surgeon who worked on a surgical treatment for aortic

Aberdeen in 1750. He moved to London in 1738 and wrote

672

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SNOW

his first novel, Roderick Random, in 1749. He was a navy sur­

o f tissue transplants in mice, the histocompatibility genes or

geon and lived in Jamaica for a short time before he wrote

major histocompatibility complex (M HC). He shared the

his second novel, Peregrine Pickle, in 1751 which criticized

N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with French

Akenside, Fielding and others. He was imprisoned for a

immunologist, Jean Baptiste Gabriel Dausset (b 1916) and

short time for w riting on the courage o f Sir Charles

Venezuelan—American immunologist, Baruj Benacerraf

Knowles in the

(b 1920), for their work in this area. See histocompatihilty.

Critical Review. His last novel

The

Expeditions of Humphry Clinker, was published in 177 1.

Snell, Simeon (1851—1909) English ophthalmologist.

Sm ooth M uscle A ntibodies The presence o f these in two Snellen Chart Test for visual acuity o f the eye devised by

thirds o f patients with active chronic hepatitis, half with biliary

Hermann SneUen (1834—1908), a Dutch ophthalmologist at

cirrhosis, and a quarter with cryptogenic cirrhosis, was shown

Utrecht in 1862.

by G. D.Johnson,E.J. Holborrow and L.E. Glynn in 1965.

S m ooth M uscle Contraction o f smooth muscles in the wall

Snellius orWiUebrord SneU (1591—1626) Professor o f mathe­

o f the smallest bronchial tubes during an asthma attack

matics at Leiden who discovered the law o f refraction in

was shown by anatomist and physician, Franz Daniel

1624. The same law was proposed by R e n é Descartes

Reinssensen (1773-1828) o f Strasburg in 1808. The struc­

(1596-1650).

ture o f various specialized cells, such as nerve cells and smooth muscle cells, was described by Theodor Schwann

^\ON OF ^

(1810—1882) in 1839. The presence o f smooth muscle in the ¿ p '"'

middle coat o f smaller arteries was discovered by German

Dr. JOHN

/ SNOW

histologist, Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle (1809-1885) in 1844. They were isolated from the tissues by Swiss

1813-1858

anatomist, R u d o lf Albert von KoUicker (1817-1905) in 1852.

Pioneer Anaestherist and 0^ Epidemiologist O

Sm ythjJam es Carmichael (174 1-18 21) Physician who studied medicine at Edinburgh University and Leiden. He discov­ ered a method o f destroying contagion using nitrous oxide,

^

for which he was remunerated by Parliament in 1802. He

lived in a house ^ on th is sire S IN

wrote several pamphlets and an edition o f D r Sark s works.

Snake B ite See orphidism. John Snow. Commemorative plaque erected at 54 Frith Street, London

Snakeroot The plant Aristolochia serpantaria was included as a medicine in Gerard’s Herbal published by Thomas

Snow ,John (1813-1858) Anesthetist and epidemiologist from

Johnson, an apothecary in London in 1636. Its use for bites

York. He started his medical studies in Newcastle Infirmary

o f rattlesnakes was described by Dale (1693) and Geoffrey

where he developed an interest in the epidemiology o f

(1741). It is also used as a stimulant, tonic and diaphoretic.

S neezing

cholera. He moved to London in 1836 and graduated in medicine in 1844. He was a lecturer in forensic medicine at

Being aware that it may precede illness, the

the Aldersgate School o f Medicine until 1849. During the

ancient Greeks said a short prayer to Jupiter,‘help m e’ , every

cholera outbreaks o f 1848 and 1854 in London, he traced

time they sneezed. To stop hiccup Hippocrates (460—377

the source o f an outbreak to sewage contaminating a well in

B C ) advised gargling with water and tickling the nose to induce sneezing. Galen (AD 129—200) thought that hiccup

Soho and he later implicated the river Thames as a source o f

was caused by irritation o f the stomach leading to violent

infection. His work helped to abort the epidemics. As an

reaction, and suggested sneezing as a cure. A dissertation,

anesthetist, he invented the ether inhaler and was anesthetist

written by Martin Skooskis, was published in the French

to St George’s Hospital in 1847. He virtually put an end to

Journal des Scavens in 1665.

objections to the use o f chloroform in obstetrics by administering the agent to Queen Victoria during the

Snell, Albert Markley (1896-1960) See Addison disease.

delivery o f Prince Leopold in 1853. The endotracheal method o f inducing anesthesia was tried on animals by

Snell, George Davis (b 1903) American geneticist who demonstrated that X-rays

can induce

mutations in

him in 1858 and he published On Chloroform and other

mammals. He worked on the genes responsible for rejection

Anaesthetics in the same year.

673

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SNYDER

Snyder, Solomon Halbert (b 1938) American psychiatrist

Phaedo. Plato states ‘Socrates after swallowing the poison

and pharmacologist from Washington who investigated

cup walked about for a short time as he was directed by the

the

executioner, when he felt a sense o f heaviness in his limbs he

biochemistry

o f nervous

tissue. He

researched

catecholamines from different areas o f the brain, examined

laid down on his back, his feet and legs fast lost their sensi­

turnover o f ornithine decarboxylase and its relation to

bility and became stiff and cold, and the state gradually

opiates and psychotropic drugs and found opiate receptors

extended towards the heart, when he died convulsed’ .

in nervous tissue. He has also investigated cyclic A M P

Soddy, Frederick (1877-1956) English radiochemist, born

transport and nitric oxide.

S oberheim ,

Joseph

Friedrich

in Eastbourne. He was professor o f chemistry at Glasgow, (1803-1846)

Oxford and Aberdeen.The atomic disintegration hypothe­

German

sis which stated that radioactive elements made o f complex

physician who introduced the word myocarditis in 1837.

particles undergo spontaneous changes, or disintegrate and

S oberheim M ethod Combined active and passive immu­

discharge high velocity negatively charged electrons or beta

nization for anthrax, widely adopted in Germany and

rays and positively charged particles or alpha rays, was put

South America. Introduced by G. Soberheim o f Berlin in 1902.

He used a combination o f immune serum from cattle

and a preparation o f attenuated growth o f the anthrax

forward by Ernest Rutherford (18 71-1937) and Soddy in 1902. He used the word ‘isotope’ to denote elements with identical chemical qualities but different atomic weights.

bacillus to make his vaccine.

He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 19 21. He

Social Services in M edicine The first social service in the

wrote Science and Life (1920).

world was started at the Massachusetts General Hospital

S odiu m Sulfate Glauber salt. See Glauber,John Rudolph

outpatient department by its physician, Richard C. Cabot

S odiu m Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy (1778—1829) in

(1868-1939) in 1907. He realized the social responsibility o f the hospital for those w ho were affected by sickness and

1807. The characteristic spectrum was observed by Irish

expanded his services to include beds for such patients in

physicist. Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1819—1903) during

1914. Ida M . Canon was first chief o f the Hospital Social

his experiments with a prism on the flames produced by a

Services at the M G H and it became an integral part o f the

spirit lamp in 1845. Sydney R in ger (1835-1910) studied

hospital in 1919.

metabolite antagonism in 1883 and found that cations o f sodium could not maintain the beat o f an isolated heart

S ociété de A nthropologie Paris society founded in 1869

unless balanced by calcium and potassium. A reagent for

with Paul Broca (1824-1880) as director.The Anthropolog­

estimating sodium was discovered by H. H. Barber in 1928.

ical Society o f London was formed in 1863 and that o f N ew

A method o f estimating it in biological fluids was devised

York in 1865.

by Albert M acy Butler (b 1894) who worked with Fuller

S ociety for P sychical R esearch Founded in London in

Albright (1900-1969) in describing Albright syndrome. Its

1882 under the presidency o f Henry Sidgewick, professor o f

importance in diet o f patients with Addison disease was

moral philosophy at the University o f Cambridge.

demonstrated by R obert Frederick Loeb and G. A. Harrop

S ociety o f E xp erim en tal P sych ologists

ofAm erica in 1933. A low sodium diet in treatment o f heart

American

failure was shown by Henry Alfred Schroeder (1906—1975)

society founded in 1904 by Edward Bradford Titchener

in 1941. Dependency o f action potential o f the cell on

(1867—1927), a naturalized American psychologist from

sodium concentration was shown by Sir Alan Lloyd

Chichester, England.

Hodgkin (b 1914) and Sir Bernard Katz (b 19 11) in 1949.

Socrates (470-399 B C ) Athenian philosopher, son o f Soft Chancre See chancroid.

Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenerete, a midwife. He is regarded as the instigator o f inductive reasoning and

Soldier H eart See Da Costa syndrome.

abstract definitions. He left no writings and most o f his

Sollm ann, Torald Hermann (1874-1965) See carotid sinus

works were made known through Plato (428—347 B C ) and

depressor reflex.

Xenophon. Plato met Socrates at the age o f 20 years and remained his pupil for eight years. Socrates was a censor o f

Solution A systematic work on diffusion o f dissolved sub­

public wrongs and private follies and opposed state tyrants,

stances and their properties was written by Thomas Graham

which eventually earned him a death sentence. Hemlock

(1805-1869). He distinguished crystalloid from colloid on

was used in his official execution and described by Plato in

the basis o f diffusion in 1857. Substances which passed

674

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SPALLANZANI

through parchment paper were named crystalloids by him

Sorensen, Soren Peter Lauritz (1868-1939) Danish chemist

and those which did not were colloids.

and director o f the Carlsberg Research Laboratory in Copenhagen. He described the effect o f hydrogen ion con­

Solvent Abuse The habit o f sniffing o f glue, gasoline, nail

centration on enzyme activity and introduced the pH scale,

polish, plastic cement or similar substances was reported in

the word ‘buffer’ and the general equation for the relation­

the United States around 1952.

ship between acids and bases (the Henderson-Hasselbalch

S om agyi U nit Biochemical assay named after American

equation). See buffer, p H scale.

biochemist, Michael Somagyi (b 1883) o f St Louis. He described a method o f determining serum amylase, used in

Sottas, Jules (b 1886) See Dejerine disease.

the diagnosis o f acute pancreatitis, in 1940. A method o f

Soubeiran, Eugene (1793-1858) French chemist who

measuring reducing sugars in the blood was devised by him

discovered chloroform in 1831, independently o f Justus von

in 1926.

Liebig (1803-1873) and Samuel Guthrie (1782-1848).

Som astatin [Greek: soma, body + statikos, causing to stand]

South, John Flint (1797-1882) Surgeon who trained in

Inhibitor o f hypothalamic hormone isolated and named by

Germany before he was appointed to St Thomas’ Hospital.

R o ger Guillemein and colleagues in 1973. It was synthe­

The body o f John Hunter (1728—1793) was reburied at

sized later in the same year by D. H. C oy and co-workers

Westminster Abbey through his efforts. He published

at theTulane University School o f Medicine.

Som atotropin

Household Surgery and Hints on Emergencies.

soma, hody + trophein, to nourish] See

Souttar, Sir H enry Sessions (b 1875) See cardiac surgery.

growth hormone.

S om m erin g,

Samuel

Thomas

(1755-1830)

Space M edicine

German

Related to physiological and health

problems arising out o f exploration o f space beyond Earth’s

professor o f anatomy in Kassel, Mainz, M unich and

atmosphere. Interest started with H .G. Armstrong’s paper

Frankfurt-am-Main. He described the long pudendal nerve, the suspensory ligament o f lachrymal gland and

which appeared in the United States Armed Forces Medical

several other structures which are named after him. He also

Journal in 1959. In the same year C.A . R o os produced a

described the crossing fibers o f the optic nerves in 1786.

bibliography o f 446 references. A summary o f physiological requirements o f man in a sealed cabin was given by R .M .

Soranus ofE p h esu s (AD 98—117) Physician who first prac­

Fenno in 1954. The pathology of boredom was published by W.

ticed in Alexandria and later in R om e, during the reigns o f

Heron in 1957. A paper on Potable water recycledfrom human

Hadrian and Trajan. He is considered the founder o f obstet­

urine b y j. Sendroy and H .A. Collison appeared in 1958.The

rics and gynecology. He wrote On the Diseases of Women, a

implications o f radiation in space flight was studied

standard on the subject for over 15 centuries. He advised

independently by W.H. Langham and H.J. Schaefer in 1959.

contraception with cotton, ointments and fatty substances and denounced mechanical measures for abortion. He also

Spalding, Alfred Baker (1874-1942) American gynecologist

wrote on childhood diseases, hygiene, pharmacology and

in San Francisco who described an operation for uterine

fractures. Some o f his extant works were published in Greek

prolapse in 1919.

in Paris in 1554. H enry

Spallanzani, Lazaro (1729-1799) Italian physiologist, born from

in Modena and educated at Bologna before he became a

Woodhouse near Sheffield who introduced the study o f

priest. His studies on experimental physiology showed that

Sorby,

Clifton

(1826-1908)

Geologist

rocks with a microscope. His On the Microscopic Structure of

digestion differed from putrefaction and fermentation in

the Calcareous Grit of the Yorkshire Coast was published in

wine and that a sealed vessel o f broth did not decay. He

1851.

showed that blood passes from arteries to veins in a warm

Sorcerer Cave paintings have revealed their influence dur­

blooded animal. He demonstrated that hydrochloric acid

ing prehistoric times.They were often called upon to cure

was produced by the stomach and established the fact that

diseases which paved the way for them to become medicine

spermatozoa were essential for fertilization in 1786. He

men. They practiced trepanning, perforation o f the skull

successfully used artificial insemination in amphibians, silk­

and blood letting. Ancient sorcerers also attained consider­

worms and a dog. He wrote Experiments on the reproduction

able knowledge o f herbal medicines, poisons and animal

of Animals, Essay on Animalcula in Fluids and Microscopical

products as cures. See demonology.

Experiments.

675

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SPASTIC DIPLEGIA

Spastic D ip legia Cerebral palsy with mental deficiency and

ground and polished gems to correct defective sight.

muscle weakness in the newborn (Little disease) due to

Alhazen wrote a book on optics,Kitab Al-Manazir, which

variety o f causes such as asphyxia, birth injury and prematu­

included refraction, reflection and study o f lenses. This was

rity was described by William John Little (1810—1894), a

the first step towards the invention o f spectacles. Roger

London orthopedic surgeon in Deformities of the Human

Bacon (1214—1294) suggested use o f lenses to aid the sight

Frame published in 1843. In his second monograph. On the

around 1270. The word was used by a Scottish professor at

Influence of Abnormal Parturition, Difficult Labours etc., upon the

Montpellier, Bernard de Gordon, around 1307 and invented

Mental and Physical Condition of the Child, was published in

by Savinus Aramatus or Salvino degliAramati o f Pisa around

1862, Little attributed intracranial hemorrhage as the cause

1300. Some illustrations are found in paintings dating from 1352.They were prescribed for shortsight by HoUorius and

in 75% o f cases o f spastic paralysis.

others in 1550 and for the near-sighted by Nicholas Krebs o f

Specialization Ancient Egyptian physicians specialized in

Germany, also known as Nicholas o f Cusa,in i450.They were

various diseases and records exist o f a court physician who

cumbersome and mounted on wood, metal or leather, but

called himself the ‘Keeper o f the K ings R ectu m ’ around

improved during the 15th and i6th centuries. The modern

2500 B C .A t this time Egypt was full o f oculists who some­

form, with hinged side pieces, came into use in the latter half

times specialized in the left or right eye. Herodotus (484— 425 B C ) commented ‘Medicine with them (Egyptians) is

o f the 18 th century. A combination o f short and long lenses to bring distant objects near was invented by Dutch lensmaker,

distributed so that every physician is for one disease, not for

Hans Lippershey (1571-1619). Use o f prismatic and cylindri­

several.The whole country is full o f physicians for the eyes,

cal lenses was introduced by Dutch ophthalmologist and

others o f the head, others o f the teeth, others o f belly, and

physiologist, Franciscus Cornelis Donders (1818—1889) o f

others o f obscure diseases’ .

Utrecht.

Species [Latin: species, particular kind] The concept o f

Spectroscopy

[Latin: spectrum, image + skopein, to view]

a group o f organisms or species was proposed by French

R obert Wilhelm Bunsen (18 11-18 9 9 ) and Gustav R obert

naturalist. Count

Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

George

Louis

Leclerc

de Buffon

in

1859 constructed a prism

(1707—1788) o f Burgundy in 1749. The terms genus and

spectroscope. Sir William Huggins (1824-1910) attached a

species were used in the system o f classification to include

spectroscope to a telescope and studied lines seen around 40

every known living thing developed by Carl Linnaeus

stars in 1862. He also noted that when a star receded the

(1707-1778).

lines were displaced towards the red end o f the spectrum.

Specific Gravity [Latin: speciflcus, particular kind + gravid,

English astronomer. Sir Norm an Lockyer (1836—1920) o f

heavy] The principle was discovered by Archimedes around

R ugby, predicted a new element ‘helium ’ , w hich was discovered by Ramsay in 1895. It was used to determine the

250 B C and he described it in On Floating Bodies. Richard

chemical composition o f the Sun and stars by an Irish

Schmaltz, a physician in Dresden, described a method o f

physicist. Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1819—1903),professor

estimating specific gravity o f blood in 1890. A hydrometer

o f mathematics at Cambridge, around 1845. His experi­

for determining it in small volumes o f urine was devised by N ew York physician, George Alexander De Santos (1876— 19 11) in 1903 .The value as an indicator o f renal function was

ments with a prism on a flame produced by a spirit lamp allowed him to identify the spectrum o f sodium and laid the foundation for spectroscopic analysis o f various metals and

advocated by Franz Volhard (b 1872) o f Berlin in 1918.

other substances. A spectroscopic survey o f stars was done

Specific H eat [Latin: speciflcus, particular kind] The concept

by the Italian astronomer,Angelo Secchi (1818—1878), who

o f quantity o f heat required to raise equal weights o f differ­

catalogued over 4000 stars.Victor Stokes Schumann, an

ent substances through the same temperature was proposed

engineer from Leipzig, extended spectroscopy to the ultra­

by Irvine, a pupil o f Joseph Black (1728-1799). He called it

violet spectrum in 1892. The N obel Prize for Physics for

the capacity o f heat and it was re-named specific heat by

studies on spectroscopic measurement o f light was awarded

Johan Gadolin (1760-1852) in 1784. The distinction

to Albert Abraham Michelson (1852-1931) o f America in

between latent heat and specific heat was made by

1907. See absorption spectra, dispersion.

Germ an-born

Swedish physicist, Johan

Carl Wilcke

Spectrum [Latin: image] Dispersion o f light into its wave­

(1732-1796) in 178 1.

lengths. It was shown by Sir Isaac Newton (1642—1727)

Spectacles [Latin: spectacula, to see] Use o f magnifying glasses

using a small hole cut in wall o f a darkened room with a

was known to N ero and Seneca (d A D 65), who used

prism in its path, resulting in the production o f intense

676

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SPERM

colors. This principle was used by R obert Wilhelm Bunsen

and the site o f its lesion in the brain was identified by Karl

(18 11-18 9 9 ) and Gustav R obert KirchhofF (1824—1887) to

Wernicke (1848—1904). The motor speech center in the

develop their spectrometer in 1859. See spectroscopy.

brain, the Broca area, was found in the third frontal

S pecu lum

convolution o f the brain o f a 2 1 -year-old patient with

[Latin: specula, mirror] Used for examining

aphasia during autopsy by Broca in 1861. A collective study

internal organs since the time o f Hippocrates (460—377

on speech defects was done by English neurologist, Jo h n

B C ). Blepharoxyston or speculum oculi was an ancient

Hughlings Jackson (18 53-19 11) in 1864. Sir H enry Head

instrument used to examine the eye. Hippocrates men­

(1861-1940), a neurologist at the London Hospital,

tioned a rectal speculum and Paul o f Aegina (625—690)

published Aphasia and kindred disorders of speech in 1926.

devised one with two blades which could be adjusted

Speed Fusion

according to the size o f the patient. Soranus o f Ephesus (AD

Operation for malunited fractures o f the

98—117) used a vaginal speculum.The English proctologist

ankle joint. Devised by American surgeon, James Spencer

and surgeon, John o f Ardane (1307—1390), used one to

Speed (b 1890) o f Memphis, in 1936.

examine the rectum during the Middle Ages.James M arion

Speed O peration For recurrent anterior dislocation o f the

Sims (1813-1883) o f South Carolina used a bent spoon to

shoulder using a bone graft. Described by American

visualize a vesical fistula in a female in 1845 .This was devel­

surgeon,Kellog Speed (b 1879),in 1927.

oped into the Sims duck-billed speculum. Another vaginal instrument was designed by Joseph Claude Anthelme

Spem ann, Hans (1869—1941) German zoologist, born in

Recam ier (1774—1852) o f Paris. Sir William Fergusson

Stuttgart and educated at Stuttgart and Heidelberg, and

(1808-1877), a Scottish surgeon and pupil o f R obert Knox

became professor at Rostock in 1908. He showed that the

(179 1—1862), devised several surgical instruments including

fate o f embryonic cells was influenced by adjacent cells and

a vaginal speculum. The speculum for examination o f the

tissues. He wrote Embryonic Development and Induction in

ear was invented by British otologist, Joseph Tonybee

1938. He was awarded the N obel Prize for Physiology or

(1815-1866).

Medicine in 1935.

Spence Axillary Tail Part o f the mammary gland extending

Speech Leon Scott de Martinville, an American o f French origin, made graphic recordings o f speech using a vibrating

towards the axilla. Described by James Spence (1812—1882),

membrane and a stylus in 1856. A patent on an apparatus to

professor o f surgery at Edinburgh in 1871.

transmit recorded speech was obtained by Thomas Alva

Spencer, Herbert (1820—1903) British philosopher, born in

Edison (1847—1931) in 1877.Alexander Graham Bell (1847-

Derby. He worked as a railway engineer, teacher, journalist

1922), Scottish-born professor o f vocal physiology at

and subeditor before turning to full-time writing. His main

Boston University, was interested in education o f deaf

interest was evolutionary theory and he wrote Principles of

mutes and invented an electrical device to transfer speech

Psychology in 1855. He also wrote on ethics and sociology

into a visible form in 1876. His work led to the invention o f

and was an advocate o f ‘social Darwinism’ , the idea that

the telephone in 1876. A voice-operated computer system

societies evolve in competition for resources and that sur­

to interpret speech and answer in a synthetic voice was

vival o f the fittest was morally justifiable. He also wrote:

invented by two Americans, Thomas Martins and R . B.

System of Synthetic Philosophy, Principles of Biology, Principles of

Cox, in 1973. See speech disorders.

Psychology, Principles of Sociology and Principles of Ethics. See evolution theory.

Speech D isorder Aphasia was described by Carl Linnaeus (1707—1778) in 1745 and the site o f the lesion in the brain

Spencer Wells Forceps Sir Thomas Spencer Wells (1818—

causing it was suggested by Jean Baptiste Boullaud

1897) was a gynecologist from St Albans, Hertfordshire. He

(1796—1881) in 1825. It was called‘alalia’ by Lordet in 1841,

advocated clamping o f blood vessels by forceps to arrest

Pierre Paul Broca (18 24-18 8 0) o f Paris re-nam ed it

bleeding during surgery. He called this ‘forci-pressure’ and

‘aphemia’ and Chrysaphis gave it the current name. Pierre

devised forceps for the purpose.

M arie (1853—1940) o f Paris, during his experiments on the cerebellum,

demonstrated

the

classical

Spens, Thom as (176 9 -18 4 2) Son o f Nathaniel Spens, a

symptoms

physician in Edinburgh. H e was a Fellow o f the R o yal

(staggering, tremor and slurring o f speech) by ablation o f

College o f Physicians at the age o f 25 and gave an account

the cerebellum. H enry Charlton Bastian (1837-1915), a

o f heart block in 1793. See heart block.

British neurologist, described sensory aphasia in 1869.This

Sperm See spermatozoa.

was called‘word deafness’ by A d olf Kussmaul (1822—1902),

677

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SPERMATOCYTE

[Greek: sperma, seed + kytos, cell] See

S p erm atocyte

Described by Francis Glisson (1597-1677) in 1654 and re-described by Ruggero Oddi (1864-1913) from the

spermatozoa.

Sperm atozoa

[Greek: sperma, seed

+

University o f Perugia in 1887.

zoon, animal]

Sphygm ograph [Greek: sphygmos, pulse + graph, write]

Gardinius postulated the existence o f particles in semen

See sphygmomanometer.

affecting fertilization in 1623. Antoni van Leeuv^enhoek (16 32-1723) observed particles under the microscope in the

S p h ygm om anom eter

semen, similar to tadpoles, and this led to the discovery o f

[Greek: sphygmos, pulse + metron,

measure] A mercury manometer to measure blood pressure

spermatozoa in 1677. However, Leeuwenhoek and other

was devised by Jean Léonard M arie Poiseulle (1799-1869)

scientists o f the period continued to believe that the sper­

in 1828 and was known as Poiseulle hemodynometer. A

matozoa contained the life-giving properties o f the embryo

practical method o f frequently measuring blood pressure by

and that the ovum merely acted as a nutrient base. Lazaro

applying counter pressure to the artery was devised by Karl

Spallanzani (1729—1799), an Italian physician, showed that

Vierordt (1818-1884) o f Germany in 1854. This was

spermatozoa were essential for fertilization in 1786. Their

cumbersome due to the attachment o f weights, and further

cellular origin was described by R u d o lf Albert von KoUiker

improved models using a pneumatic cuff were produced

(1817-1905) in 1841, and evidence that they contained a nucleus was provided by Franz Schweigger-Seidel (1834— 1871) and LaValette St George in 1865. Seefertilization.

and introduced into clinical medicine by Samuel Sigfried Ritter von Basch (1837-1905) in 1881 and Scipione R iva R o cci (1863—1939), an Italian physician from the depart­ ment o f pathological medicine o f the University o fru rin,in 1896. A simple portable air machine was devised by Pierre Carl Edouard Potain (18 2 5 -19 0 1) in 1889. T he R o g e r sphygmomanometer used an aneroid manometer instead o f mercury and was designed by N ew York physician, Oscar H. Roger, around 1887. A machine for measuring blood pressure in the finger was invented by Angelo Mosso (1846-1910) in 1895. See blood pressure.

Spider N aevi See Bouchard, CharlesJacques. Spiegelberg, Otto (1830-1881) German gynecologist from Hannover who studied medicine at Gottingen and gradu­ ated in 1851. He accurately described the paraovarian cysts and performed curettage o f the uterus for retained tissues. He wrote Das Compendium der Geburtshilfe, a popular textbook o f obstetrics, at the age o f 28 years.

Roger Wolcott Sperry (b 1913)

Spighel Lobe See caudate lobe of the liver.

Sperry, R o ger Wolcott (b 1913) American neuroscientist from Hartford, Connecticut. He was Hixson professor o f

Spina Bifida (Syn: hydrorachitis, clove spine) The Arabians

psychobiology at Caltech from 1954 to 1984. He helped

attempted to treat this under the impression that it was due

establish the way in which nerve cells are wired into the

to deficient spinous process. Benjamin Bell, a student o f

central nervous system and pioneered split-brain experi­

John Hunter (1728—1793) and surgeon to the Edinburgh

ments.The latter showed that each hemisphere had specific

Royal Infirmary, believed that it was a result o f spinal

functions. He shared the N obel Prize for Physiology or

marrow disease and that there was no cure. John Abernethy

Medicine in 1981.

(1764-1831) o f St Bartholomew’s Hospital, tried applying

S ph en oid B o n e [Greek: speno, wedge] Depicted in the first

gentle pressure to cause the fluid to be absorbed. Repeated

o f the seven books o f Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), De

aspiration as treatment was performed by Sir Astley Paston Cooper (1768-1841) o f G u y’s Hospital in 1809. English

Fabrica Humani Corporis in 1543

Spherocytosis

[Greek:

sphaira, globe

+

surgeon. Sir Arthur William Mayo R obson (1853-1933),

kytos, cell]

described a method o f plastic surgery in 1885 .Julius Arnold

See acholuricjaundice, congenital spherocytosis.

(1835—1915), a Heidelberg physician, gave an account in 1894. American surgeon, William Wayne Babcock (b 1872)

Sphincter o f O ddi At the termination o f the bile duct.

678

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SPINAL

NERVES

o f Philadelphia, devised an operation in 19 11 and Wilder

Friedrich GoU (1829—1903), a neuroanatomist from Zurich

Graves Penfield (b 1891), a surgeon in Montreal, described

and a contemporary ofRudolphVirchow (18 2 1-19 0 2 ),des­ cribed fasciculus gracilis or the posterior column in 1868.

another in 1932.

Embryonic development was described by Carl Ernst von

Spina Ventosa Term used by Arab physicians to refer to a

Baer (1792—1876), a Russian embryologist from Estonia, in

disease o f the bone v^hich discharged its contents through

1769. The ciliospinal and genitospinal centers were des­

the surface o f the skin. It is essentially chronic osteomyelitis

cribed by Julius Ludwig Budge (18 11-18 84 ), professor o f

and was described under that name by Samuel Cooper

physiology at Bonn, in 1841 .A classic work on the conduc­

(1780—1848), professor o f surgery at University College

tion pathways was done by French neurologist, Edouard

London. He performed a successful partial but extensive

Brown-Séquard (1817—1894), in 1863. Abolition o f the ten­

resection o f the affected tibia in a young woman from

don reflexes in the lower extremities associated with lesions

Richm ond for chronic osteomyelitis.

above the lumbar segment was demonstrated by a British

Spinal A ccessory N erve Eleventh cranial nerve (nerve o f

neurologist, H enry Charlton Bastian (1837—1915) from

Willis). Described by Thomas Willis (16 21-1675) in Cerebri

Truro. Muscular rigidity o f the body produced by tran­

anatome, published in 1664.

section o f the spinal cord through the upper part o f the

Spinal A nesthesia

midbrain was described by Sir Charles Scott Sherrington

Introduced by a neurologist, James

(18 57-19 52) o f O xford U niversity in 1897. Sir V ictor

Leonard Corning (1885-1923), o f N ew York in 1885. August

Alexander Haden Horsley (1857—1916), the founder o f

Karl Gustav Bier (1861—1949) o f Kiel used cocaine in 1899

neurosurgery in England, removed a tumor in 1888.

and Heinrich Irenaeus Quincke (1842—1922) experiment­

Reflex Activity of the Spinal Cord was published by

ed with lumbar punctures on himself and described the

Sherrington, Sir Arthur Carew Eccles (b 1903), Creed,

procedure in 1891. Successful subarachnoid block using

Derek Ernest Denny-Brown (1901—1981) and Edward

cocaine was performed by Karl Gustav August Bier (b 1861)

George Tandy Liddell (1895-1981) in 1932.

o f Berlin in 1889. It was introduced into Britain by Barker o f University College in 1907. In France it was popularized

Spinal Curvature The prevention and treatment was des­

by French surgeon, M arin Théodore Tuffier (1857—1929).

cribed in a book on orthopedics written by Nicolas André

Stovain was introduced by Ernest Fourneau (1872—1949)

(1658-1742) in 1741. The method o f anterior spinal fusion

o f France in 1904. This was followed by Novocaine or

was introduced by Russell Aubra Hibbs (1869-1932) o f

procaine by Russian-born American physician. M ax

N ew York and Fred Houdlett Albee (1876-1945) in the

Einhorn (1862- 1953),in i905.Percaine or Nupercaine was

treatment o f Pott disease in 1906. Their technique was also

synthesized by Meischer in 1929 and used in England by W.

applied as treatment for scoliosis by Hibbs in 1924.

H. Jones o f Charing Cross Hospital in 1930. See anesthesia.

Spinal Fluid Pressure

Spinal Caries See caries of the spine.

A water manometer to measure

spinal fluid pressure was devised by Boston neurologist, James Bourne Ayer (1882-1963) in 1920.

Spinal Cord The ancient Chinese believed that it opened into the testicles and Greek physicians thought that the

Spinal F usion See scoliosis.

cerebrospinal fluid poured into the pharynx. Charles

Spinal Injury An institution for treating them as a specialty

Estienne (1503—1564) o f Paris described the central canal. Its

in England, the ^^Ske Mandeville Hospital, was established

role in reflex action was demonstrated by Stephen Hales

by Sir Ludwig Guttmann in 1944. The Bradford frame for

(1677—1761) who noted in 1730 the reflex withdrawal o f the

spinal disorders was devised by American surgeon, Edward

leg in a decapitated frog could be abolished by inducing a

HicklingBradford (1848—1926),in 1890.A classification was

lesion in the spinal cord. Peter Johann Frank (1745—1821), a

proposed by Sir Frank Wild Holdsworth (1904—1969) in

Bavarian physician, focused his studies on diseases o f the spinal cord in 1792. Charles Frederick Burdach (1776— 1 847), professor o f medicine at Dorpat, described the poste­

1963 .The Halo traction for skeletal fixation o f the spine was devised by Vernon L. Nickel, professor o f orthopedics at the University o f California, San Diego, in 1968. A spring

rior column in i8i9.The role o f the ventral and dorsal roots in reflex reaction was discovered by Sir Charles Bell (1774— 1842) (1811) and François Magendie (1783-1855) (1822). Its

loading device for use in injuries o f the spinal cord was introduced by Marian Weiss (19 21—1981) from Poland in 1 9 7 5 .

segmental nature and interface with the higher centers was demonstrated by Marshall Hall (1790-1857) in 1833.

Spinal N erves Galen (AD 129—200),R ené Descartes (1596-

679

SPINAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PUNCTURE

1650) and R obert Whytt (1714—1766) suggested the

Otto Hugo Franz Obermeier (1843-1873) in 1873. Trepone­

existence o f motor and sensory nerves. Sir Charles Bell

ma vincenti, found in the throat o f patients with Vincent

(1774—1842) established the motor function o f the ventral

angina, was identified by Jean Hyacinthe Vincent (1862-

nerve roots in 18 11 and the sensory function o f the dorsal

1950) in 1898. The pathogenic spirochete. Treponema pal­

spinal nerve roots was demonstrated by François Magendie

lidum, was discovered in 1905 by Fritz Richard Schaudinn

(1783—1855) in 1822. The importance o f unmyelinated

(1871—1906) from Germany who worked as protozoologist

nerve fibers in the dorsal roots was recognized by Chicago

at the Institute ofTropical Diseases at Hamburg.

neurologist Stephen Walter Ranson (b 1880) in 1912. See

Spirom eter [Latin: spirare, to breathe + metron, measure]

autonomic nervous system, spinal cord.

Apparatus to measure the vital capacity o f the lung. Invent­ ed by English physician, John Hutchison (18 11—1861) in

Spinal Puncture See lumbar puncture.

1846. See lungfunction.

Spinal Tuberculosis See caries of the spine.

Spitzka, Edward Charles (1852-1914) N ew York neurologist

Spinal Tum or The earliest removal was performed by Cline

who graduated ffomVienna. He was editor o f the American

in 1814 and, although his patient died, his treatment aroused

Journal of Neurology and wrote several treatises on neurology.

considerable interest. Scottish surgeon. Sir William Macewen

The fibers o f the posterior longitudinal bundle connecting

(1848—1924),reported a successful operation in 1885.British

the 3rd and 6th nerve cranial nuclei (Bundle o f Spitzka)

surgeons. Sir Victor Alexander Haden Horsley(i857—1916)

were described by him in 1876.

and Sir William Richard Gowers (1845—1915), presented a

Spleen [Greek: splen, spleen] Described as part o f the hepatic

case o f successful removal in 1888.

system by Averrhoes (1126—1198) who called it the second

Spinhaler M ethod o f delivery o f drugs to the lungs via

liver. Aristotle (384—322 B C ) in Historia animalium com­

inhalation, used as treatment for asthma. Developed by a Syrian-born

British

physician, Edward

pared the anatomical features o f hog and human spleen.

Collingwood

Paul o f Aegina (625-690) described its function as attrac­

Alyounyan (1922-1987).

tion o f melancholic humors from the liver without which a black jaundice would intervene. John Zaccharius Acturius

S pinning M ule A hybrid between Arkwright s spinning jenny and James Hargreaves water frame was invented by

o f Byzantine in 1300 stated that it attracts melancholic

Samuel Crompton (1753—1827) o f Bolton, Lancashire in

humors. Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) described several

1779. Scrotal cancer (mule spinners’ cancer) due to

afflictions in de Internis affectionibus. Caelius Aurelianus, a

prolonged contact with lubricating oil in the spindles o f the

physician in the fifth century, suggested that it should be cut

cotton-mule was recognized by S. R . Wilson o f the Royal

out if it is diseased. Rufus o f Ephesus (AD 98—138) consid­ ered it to be a useless organ. Italian physician, Guiseppe

Infirmary Manchester in 1906.

Zambeccari (16 55-1721) at Flcrfence demonstiated that it is

Spinoza, Benedict de (1632—1677) Dutch philosopher and

not essential for life, in 1680. A splenectomy was performed

lens maker in Leiden who wrote a treatise on optics in 1671.

by Carl Friedrich Quittenbaum (1793—1852) in 1826, but

His doctrine o f pantheism, advocating intellectual love o f

his patient died o f shock within six hours. Simon Gustav o f

god, was controversial and was published after his death.

Darmstadt,

professor

at

Rostock

and

Heidelberg,

Spinster A monograph on gynecological diseases o f spin­

performed the procedure and wrote a monograph in 1857.

sters was written by Georg Ernst Stahl^ 6 6 0 —1734) in 1724.

A spleenectomy in England was performed by Sir Spencer Wells (1818-1897) in 1865, and his patient lived for six days.

Spiranolactone See aldosterone antagonist.

A successful spleenectomy was done by Jules Emile Pean

Spirillum [Greek: speira, spiral] Genus o f bacteria, including

(1830—1898) in 1867. The immune compromised state

Spirillum rubrum, isolated from a decomposing mouse by

following spleenectomy was shown by Deutsch in 1899.

E. Esmarch in 1887.

Overwhelming sepsis in patients who had a splenectomy was described by H .King and H .B. Shumacker in 1952.

Spirochaete [Greek: speira, spiral + chaite, hair] Term coined

Susceptibility o f these patients to pneumococcal infection

in 1833 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795—1876) to

was noted by A.Traub and colleagues in 1987.

denote a large flexible motile microorganism found in water. It was later confined to organisms twisted spirally

Splenic R upture A case was reported by Leeds surgeon,

around their axis. Borrelia recurrentis, the causative organism

Edward Atkinson (1830—1905) in 1874. Shifting o f dullness

o f relapsing fever, was discovered by German physician,

in the left flank by clotting o f blood in the left paracolic

680

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SPURZHEIM

gutter was described by English surgeon, Sir Charles Alfred

Transcaucasian railway, was described by Sakharoff in 1891.

Ballance (1856-1936), in 1898. Delayed bleeding from the

The causative agent was mistakenly identified and named as

spleen after trauma was noted by London surgeon,

Treponema anserinum. A form was described in 1898 by

Archibald Hector M clndoe (1900-1960),in 1932.

American

pathologist

Benjamin

Robinson

Schenck

Splint R ig id appliance used for immobilization in cases o f

(1873—1920). A complete description was given by Charles

fracture or deformity since ancient times. See Agnew splint,

Lucien de Beurmann (1881—1955) in 1912. Asteroid bodies

Cabot splint, Gooch splint. Gunning splint, Hodgen splint, Stader

due to the precipitation o f antigen—antibody complexes on

splint, Stromeyer splint,Thomas splint,fractures.

the cell surface was noted by Alfonso Splendore in 1908. The largest epidemic occurred in South Africa in infected

Spock, Benjamin (1903—1998) American pediatrician from

timber from the mines in 1941.

N ew Haven, Connecticut. H e graduated from Columbia

Sports M edicine

University in 1929 and became famous through his book.

The Greeks had gymnasiums [Greek:

Baby and Child Care, written for the general public. He was

gymnos, naked] where they exercised. Galen (AD 129-200)

an opponent o f American involvement inVietnam and was

was the first physician to attend to sports injuries through his

convicted for evading war service in 1968.

attendance on the gladiators o f Rom e. He recommended conservative treatment for wounds, but for cut tendons he

Spondylolisthesis [Greek: spondylos, vertebra + olisthanein,

recommended uniting them with sutures. An illustrated

to slip] A description was given by Viennese surgeon, Karl

book on sport and exercise, Artis Gymnastica apud Antiguos

Freiherr Rokitansky (1804—1878),in 1839. Hermann Fried­

Celliberimae nostris temporibus ignoratae, was written by

rich Kilian (1800—1863), professor o f gynecology at Bonn,

Geronimo Mercuriale (1530—1606), professor o f medicine

pointed out the importance o f spondylolisthetic pelvis in

at Bologna, Padua and Pisa. Frederick Ludwig Jahn

pregnancy in 1853.A treatise on the etiology and causes was

(1778—1852), a physical educationist from Prussia, was the

published by Franz Ludwig Neugebauer (1856—1914) o f

father o f gymnastics and founded the first gymnasium at

Germany, in 1885.

Berlin in i8 ii.A n early treatise on use o f gymnastics to treat

Spondylotherapy [Greek: spondylos, vertebra + therapio, to

disease was written by Francis Fuller (1670-1706) in 1705. A

care for] Method o f treating illness by manipulating or

modern English treatise was written by Brehmer Charles

applying pressure to specific areas o f the spine. Invented

Heald in 1931.

in 1910 by Albert Abrams (1863-1924), a physician from

Sprengel, Hermann Johann Phillip (1834—1906) Physicist

Heidelberg, who practiced in San Francisco.

from Hannover who emigrated to England in 1859. He

Sponge K idney See medullary sponge kidney.

invented a high vacuum pump (Sprengel pump) which

Spongiform Encephalopathy See scrapie, Kuru, Creutzfeldt-

enabled William Crookes (1832-1919) to construct his cathode ray tube for studying radiation.

Jakob disease, mink encephalopathy.

Spontaneous G eneration Attributed to germs from put­

Sprengel, P.J. Kurt (1766-1833) German botanist and profes­

refaction. Jan Swammerdam (1637—1682) o f Amsterdam

sor o f medicine at Halle. His most important work was on

opposed the theory. Francesco R ed i (1626-1698), a physi­

history o f medicine.

cian from Arezzo in Italy, refuted it with his demonstration

Sprue

that maggots developed from eggs laid by flies. Louis

Cehac disease due to gluten-induced enteropathy.

Described by

Pasteur (1822—1895) in 1857 proved that microorganisms

Samuel Jones

Gee

(1839—1911)

o f St

Bartholomew s Hospital in 1888 and redescribed by Christian

were the cause o f fermentation, thus undermining the

Archibald Herter (1865—1910) in 1908 and Danish physician,

theory and introducing the biological theory o f germs.

ThornwaldEinar HessThaysen (1883—I93b),m 1929.

Sporothrix schenckii Also known as Sporotrichum beurmanni,

Spurzheim , Casper Johan (1776—1832) German physician

fungus isolated from beech bark by Charles Lucien de

and pioneer in phrenology, which was first proposed by

Beurmann (1881-1955), a French physician, in 1908. The

another German physician, Franz Joseph Gall (1758—1828)

largest epidemic o f sporotrichosis occurred in infected

in 1758. Spurzheim wrote Anatomy and Physiology of the

timber from mines in South Africa in 1941. See sporotrichosis.

Nervous System, and of the Brain in Particular with Gall in

Sporotrichosis (Syn: Schenck disease) Avian sporotri­

1800. He lectured in England, Ireland and Scotland and

chosis, a fatal disease o f geese found at stations o f the

settled in America.

681

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SPUTUM

Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) commented that, ‘if

would build a hospital i f cured. St Bartholomew is said to

they possess a fetid smell, or sink to the bottom o f salt water,

have appeared to him and given him the vision o f the hospi­

they indicate great danger’ . Fragments o f malignant tissue

tal. The first Royal Charter was given in 1133 and it was run

in sputum was recognized by Walter Hayle Walshe (1812—

by the nuns and monks o f the priory attached to it. Rahere

1892) o f London in 1843. Malignant cells were also identi­

became prior and master o f the hospital until his death

Sputum

fied by Lionel Smith Beale (1828—1906) o f K ing’s College

in 1144. The priory was closed by the dissolution o f

in i860 and his finding formed the basis for analysis for

monasteries o f Henry V III in 1539, but the hospital

malignant cells in diagnosis o f lung carcinoma by Leonard

remained. Thomas Vicary (1495—1561), surgeon to King

Stanley Dudgeon (1876-1938) and C .H .J.W rigley in 1935.

Henry VUl, reestablished it, along w ith Bridew ell, St

Analysis for malignant cells in diagnosis o f lung cancer is

T hom as’ and the Bethlehem Hospitals in 1546. It has continued to function at the same site for over 800 years and

currently an established standard.

has had many illustrious medical men such as: William

Spygm ograph [Greek: sphygmos, pulse + graphein, write]

Harvey (1578-1657), David Pitcairn (1749-1809) and Sir

Instrument to trace the human pulse, invented by Karl

James Paget (1814—1899) .The medical school was started by

Vierordt (1818-1884) in 1854. An improved form was

JohnAbernethy (1764-1831) in 1822.

devised by Etienne Jules Marey (1830—1904) o f Paris in i860. The ink polygraph which measured both arterial

St B en ed ict See Benedictine Order.

pulse and venous pulse was developed by Sir James

St Catherine H ospital Built near the Tower o f London and

Mackenzie (1853—1925) around 1900.

founded in medieval times by Queen Matilda, wife o f King Stephen.The Royal Charter was given by Queen PhiUipa,

Squire, Truman Hoffman (1823—1889) American surgeon

the wife o f King Edward III.

who wrote a treatise on the stricture o f the urethra (1867) and designed a catheter.

St Clarw, William (1752-1822) English physician from Preston who specialized in mental diseases. He used a

Squint See strabismus.

portable electric machine for treating patients.

St A nthony Hermit saint from Memphis in the 3rd century,

St D a m ien See anarguori.

who lived for 104 years on a diet o f bread and water. He advocated celibacy and his early followers lived in caves

St Francis Founded the Franciscan order. He was born to a

before the monasteries were established. He is the patron

wealthy cloth-merchant from Assisi in 1182. His dedicated

saint for ergotism or St Anthony’s fire. See ergotism, erysipelas.

care o f lepers earned the title o f the nursing saint.

St A nthon y’s Fire Ergot poisoning from infected rye or

St G eorge’s H ospital Lord Lanesborough’s house at Hyde

barley occurred in epidemics in the Middle Ages. There

Park Corner in London was obtained for the new St

was an outbreak in France in A D 857 and several

George’s Hospital and it opened in 1734. It was enlarged to

epidemics. Its symptoms o f intense irritation and burning

include 200 beds in 1767 and John Hunter (1728—1793) was appointed surgeon in 1768. The hospital was rebuilt in

leading to dancing were interpreted as demonic possession. In 1085 Pope Urban II designated St Anthony as the saint

1824-1834, and by 1890 it had 350 beds. Matthew Baillie

against o f the disease and it was known as ‘ignus sacer’ (holy

(176 1—1823) from Larnarkshire also practiced there and

fire) or St Anthony’s fire.The monastic order o f St Anthony

attended King George III during his last illness. The first

nursed those affected and was founded in 1095 by Gaston de

recorded successful blood transfusion was given there by

Dauphine who believed that his iUness (which was probably

Samuel Armstrong Lane (1802-1892) in 1839. Other im­

erysipelas) was cured by Saint Anthony. It has been confused

portant medical men include: Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie (1783-1862), William Cheselden (1688—1752) as a visiting

with erysipelas.

surgeon,Sir Everard Home (1756-1832),Henry Gray (1827-

St Andrews U niversity First Scottish university, founded in

1861) anatomist, and William Stewart Duke-Elder (1898—

14 11 by Henry Wardlaw, Bishop o f St Andrews. Its first

1978) ophthalmic surgeon to the Queen and founder o f the

degree in medicine was granted in 1696.

Institute o f Ophthalmology at London University in 1948.

St A ugustine See Aurelius Augustinus.

The move to transfer the hospital to its present site at Tooting started around i960 and was completed in 1980.

St B arth olom ew ’s H ospital Oldest hospital to remain at its original site. Founded by Rahere, a public entertainer in

St John Order o f K nights H ospitaller Originated during

112 3. He fell ill on pilgrimage to R o m e and vowed that he

the first Crusade. A monastic hospice mostly run by the

682

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

STAIN

Benedictine order cared for sick pilgrims to the H oly Land

compulsorily purchased to make way for a new railway

and was supported by the Crusaders. The providers and

scheme, and its present site was bought for 100,000 pounds.

protectors later became the Knights Hospitallers, an order

The new hospital facing Parliament was opened by Queen

o f St John recognized by Pope Paschal II in 1113 . They

Victoria on 21 June 1871.

moved to Cyprus, Malta, Rhodes and other parts o f Europe

St V itus D an ce A form o f chorea accompanied by involun­

and became an influential and wealthy order in the 13 th century

In

London

they

established

themselves

tary irregular jerky movements occurring in children and

at

young adults. Described by Thomas Sydenham (1624—

Clerkenwell but their order was dissolved by H enry VIII

1689) in Schedula Monitoria de Move Febres Ingressu (A Sketch

during the reformation in 1540.Their power and influence

by way o f warning o f the approach o f a new fever) and

declined in the 17th and i8th centuries and R o m e became

Processus Integri in 1686. It is named after St Vitus, patron

the headquarters for the Grand Master in the i8th century.

saint o f hysterical and nervous diseases, who lived in Sicily

The Order was revived in England in 1831 and initiated the

in the fourth century.

modern ambulance service and establishment o f the St

Stacke O peration

Joh n ’s Ambulance Association in 1877.

Rem oval o f the mastoid and the

contents o f the tympanum so that the antrum, tympanum

St John’s A m bulance A ssociation See ambulances.

and meatus form a single cavity. Devised by German

St Louis E ncephalitis The largest outbreak occurred in St

otologist, Ludwig Stacke (1859-1918).

Louis,M issouri in 1933.The causative virus was isolated in

Stacpoole, Henry deVere (1863-1951) Irish physician and

the same year by R . N. Muckenfuss and colleagues.

novelist who wrote The Blue Lagoon (1905), The Pearl Fishers

St M ary’s H ospital Founded in 1841 in London and it

(1915),and Green Coral (1945).

opened to patients in 1851. The medical school was

Stader Splint Used in the treatment o f fracture o f the shaft

established in 1853. Some o f its well known physicians

o f long bones and devised by Otto Stader (1894-1962), a

include: Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) who discovered

veterinarian from Pennsylvania, in 1942.

the antibacterial action o f Penicillium in 1929, Sir William Henry Broadbent (1835-1907) who described the clinical

Staderini N ucleus Nucleus intercalatus, a small nucleus

signs in constrictive pericarditis in 1898, and Augustus

found dorsal to the nucleus o f the 12th nerve. Described by

Desiree Waller

Rutilio Staderini professor o f anatomy at Siena, in 1894.

(1856—1922)

who

recorded

electrical

potential in the human heart in 1887.

Stahl, George Ernst (1660—1734) German scientist who pro­

St T h om as Aquinas (1227—1274) Dominican monk

posed the phlogiston theory. He believed that all substances

and architect o f Catholic philosophy. He remodeled

which burned contained an essence called phlogiston and

Aristotelian philosophy to suit ecclesiastical doctrine.

that they became dephlogisticated after burning. Joseph Priestley demonstrated the role o f oxygen in combustion in

St T h om as’ H ospital Originated from the priory o f St

1770. He wrote Experimenta et Observationes Chemicae

M ary o f the Order o f Augustine Canons around 1100, near

et Physicae, Theoria Medica Vera, Fundamenta

the Rom an bridge o f Southwark in London. Most o f the

Chyniae

Dogmaticae et Experimentalis and Negotium Oliofum.

priory was destroyed by a fire in 1207 and a soldier named Peter de Rupibus, who became bishop ofWinchester,raised

Stain

Early attempts to stain bacteria with carmine and

indigo were made by Wilhelm Friedrich von Gleichen

a new building through public donations. Beds were estab­ lished in the hospital around the 13 th century and it

(1717—1783) o f Germany in 1778. Some o f the best staining

continued to serve for the next 100 years through generous

methods for bacteria were devised by Carl Weigert (1845—

gifts and donations. B y 1507 it was dilapidated and a new

1904)

building was erected. Following the dissolution o f the

dyes in 1877. Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) noted in 1882 that

around 1875. R obert Koch (1843-1910) used aniline

monasteries in 1540 the hospital closed and remained

certain bacteria were resistant to decoloration when stained

derelict for i i years. It was revived by Edward V I with

with fuchsin. German bacteriologist, Franz Ziehl (1857-

several surgeons on its staff. The first physician was

1926), confirmed this and established acid fast staining in

Henry Bull who was appointed in 1556. M odern medicine

1883.The Rosenberger stain for spirochetes using aniline

began with the appointment o f Richard Mead (1673-1754)

oil was devised by Randal Rosenberger, a bacteriologist

in 1703. Thomas Guy, founder o f G u y’s Hospital, was a

from Philadelphia. Methyl blue was introduced by Ehrlich

governor o f the hospital.Teaching started around 1800 and

in 1881. He also used aniline dyes to stain white blood cells

it had about 450 in-patients. In 1847 the building was

in 1877. Orth stain, consisting o f lithium and carmine, was

683

STANDARD

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

DEVIATION

introduced into histology by German pathologist,Johannes

by staphylococci was shown by C .E . Dolman o f Canada and

Orth (1847—1923). Pappenheimer stain, a specific test for

Minet o f England in 1938. Dolman and R .J. Wilson o f

plasma cells, was devised by Arthur Pappenheimer (1870—

Canada gave the name ‘enterotoxin’ to the toxin in 1941.

1916), a German professor o f hematology in Berlin. The

Staphylococcus [Greek: staphyle, bunch o f grapes + kokkos,

currently used eosin and methylene blue stain for studying

berry] The bacterium was discovered by Sir Alexander

blood films was devised by Russian physician, Dimitri

Ogston (1844—1929), regius professor at Aberdeen, who

Leonidovitch Rom anowsky (1851—1921). See Gram stain.

named it in 1881. Staphylococcus pyogenes was isolated and

Standard D eviation Concept invented by London mathe­

described by Anton Julius Friedrich Rosenbach (1842—

matician Karl Pearson (1857—1936), professor o f applied

1923) who divided it into S. albus and S. aureus in 1884.

mathematics (1884) and Galton professor ofEugenics (1911)

Staphylorrhaphy [Greek: staphyle, bunch o f grapes + rhaphe,

at University College London.

Stanford U niversity

suture] Surgical treatment for incomplete soft palate. Intro­

Californian university, founded in

duced by American surgeon, John Collins Warren (1778 -

1885 by Leland Stanford, a railway magnate, in memory o f

1856) o f Harvard Medical School, in 1828.

his deceased son. It was built on Stanford s Palo Alto farm

Starling, Ernest Henry (1866-1927) One o f the greatest

and the founders left an endowment o f 21 million dollars

British physiologists. He qualified in medicine from G u y’s

for its activities. It opened as a private co-educational insti­

Hospital in 1889 and was professor o f physiology at Univer­

tute to 559 students in 18 9 1.The Stanford Food Research

sity College London from 1899 to 1923. He devised the

Institute was established in 1921 and the Stanford Medical

heart—lung preparation in 1910, and formulated the law o f

Center was completed in 1959. The Stanford Linear

contraction for heart muscle, known as Starling law o f the

Accelerator Center, funded by Congress, opened in 1961.

heart.The concept o f hormones and feedback mechanisms

Stanier, R o ger Yate (b 1916) Canadian microbiologist from

was developed by Sir William Maddock Bayliss (i860—

Victoria in British Columbia. He researched tryptophan

1924) and Starling during their work on secretin and other

metabolism, discovered the mandelate pathway and the

hormones, and the word ‘hormone’ was coined by Starling.

mechanism o f streptomycin action.

He also discovered the functional significance o f serum proteins and demonstrated that kidney tubules could

Stanley, Edward (1791—1861) Surgeon at St Bartholomews

reabsorb water. See Starling law.

Hospital, London.The retinacular fibers, reflected capsular fibers on the neck o f the femur (Stanley cervical ligaments)

Starling Law The ability o f striated muscle to respond to

were described by him in 1818.

increased stretch with a proportional increase in contrac­ tion was described by Otto Frank (1865—1944) in 1875, and

Stanley, Wendell Meredith (1904—1971) American biochem­ ist at the R o ck efeller Institute for M edical R esearch in

his observation was demonstrated in heart preparations by

Princeton, University o f California and director o f the

Ernest Henry Starling (1866-1927) in 1918.

Virus Laboratory at Berkeley. He obtained protein and

Statistics A book on vital statistics in England was Natural

nucleic acid from tobacco mosaic virus in 1935. He then

and Political Observations Upon the Bills of Mortality by John

characterized the shape, amino acid composition, reactive

Graunt (1620—1674).WiUiam Petty (1623—1687),a physician

groups and R N A properties o f this virus. He shared the

from Hampshire and pioneer in statistics, applied statistics

N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1946.

to the econom y and proposed a department to record

Staphylococcal F ood P oison in g J. Denys o f Belgium in

deaths, births, marriages, age, sex, economy, trade and

1894 isolated Staphylococcus pyogenes from meat which had

education. A census in Ireland was taken by Petty and he

caused an outbreak o f diarrhea. An American bacteriolo­

published Essays on Political Arithmetic in 1687. A lifetable

gist, R obert W. Goldsborough Owen (b 1882) o f Detroit,

was

isolated it from the gastrointestinal tract o f patients with

(1656—1742).Thomas Bayes (170 2-176 1), a clergyman and

food poisoning in 1907. M .A . Barber in 19 14 isolated

mathematician in London, studied statistical inference and

Staphylococcus albus from milk, which was responsible for an

wrote Essay towards solving a problem in the Doctrine of

published

by

the

astronomer, Edmund

Halley

outbreak o f gastroenteritis. Edwin Oakes Jordan (1866-

Chances. Thomas R obert Malthus (1766—1834) wrote

1936) in 1930 showed that man was an important source o f

Essay on th Principle of Population in 1798. A pioneer in

enterotoxic staphylococci. G.M . Dack did important stud­

medical statistics in France was physician Pierre Charles

ies in the same year.The production o f a heat resistant toxin

Alexandre Louis (1787—1872) who also provided statistics

684

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

STEPTOE

on diphtheria, typhoid and yellow fever. Work on vital sta­

Stein-Leventhal Syndrom e

Bilateral polycystic ovaries.

tistics in England was done in 1839 by William Farr

Described by two American gynecologists, Irving Freiler

(1807—1883), an official in the General Registrars Office

Stein (1887-1976) and Michael Leo Leventhal (19 0 1-19 71),

and a general practitioner in London. He related mortality

in 19 3 5 .

and morbidity in plague and plotted fatality for the small­

Steinm ann P in It is inserted through the distal end o f the

pox epidemic in 1840. Belgian astronomer, Adolphe

fragment o f a fracture and combined with skeletal traction.

Quetelet (1796-1824), applied the theory o f probability to

Introduced by Swiss surgeon, Fritz Steinmann (1872—1932)

humans. Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher (1890—1962), professor

o f Bern, in 1907.

o f genetics and a statistician from London, wrote Statistical

Stellwag Sign Infrequency o f blinking and widening o f

Methods for Research Workers in 1925, which became a stan­

palpebral fissure seen in exophthalmic goiter. Described

dard work on the subject. Physician and mathematician,

by Austrian ophthalmologist, Carl von Carion Stellwag

John Brownlee (1868—1927) from Glasgow University,

(1823-1904).

became director o f the Statistical Services o f the Medical Research Council and wrote over 80 papers. Statistics was

Steno, Nicolaus or Niels Stensen (1638—1686) Danish

Pearson

anatomist and naturalist from Copenhagen. His De

(1857—1936) who devised the chi-square test o f significance

Musculis et Glandulis Observationum Specimen on anatomy

and the concept o f standard deviation. See normal distribution

was published in 1664. He defined the principles behind the

curve, medical statistics.

formation o f the Earth’s crust and fossils in 1669. H e also

specialty

of

London

mathematician

Karl

discovered the duct o f the parotid gland which is named

Status E pilépticas The term ‘etat de mal’ was used at the

after him. He gave up his medical career for the church,

Salpêtrière and Bicêtre to denote a series o f tonic-clonic

became Bishop ofTitiopolis in 1667 and spent the rest o f his

attacks o f epilepsy. It was translated into ‘status epilepticus’ .

life trying to convert Northern Europe to Catholicism.

Stedelm an, Ernest (b 1885) A physical chemist from

Stenography [Latin: sténos, narrow; Greek: graphein, to write]

Königsberg who discovered beta-oxybutyric acid in urine

The earliest extant system is Ars Scribendi Charactaris written

in diabetes in 1883.

around 1412. Timothy Bright (1551—1615) a physician,

Stearns, John (1770—1848) First president o f the N ew York

invented a system o f shorthand and published Characterie An

Academy o f Medicine. He introduced the use o f ergot into

Arte of Shorte, Sunfte and Secrete writing by Character, invented by

obstetrics in America in 1807 and published a paper on it

Timothe Bright, Doctor of Phisike in 15 88. Peter Bales published his work in 1590, and John Willis’s Sténographié was published

in 1822.

in 1602. Other systems include those o fB yro m (1750),Taylor

Steell, Graham (1851-1942) Son o f Scottish sculptor who

(1786) and Pitman (1837). See shorthand.

designed the Scott Monument in Edinburgh. After gradu­

Stensen D u c t See parotid gland, Steno Nicolaus.

ating in medicine from Edinburgh University, he developed an interest in cardiology and became physician to the Manchester R oyal Infirmary. He wrote Physical Signs of Cardiac Diseases (118 1), Physical Signs of Pulmonary Diseases (1882), and Textbook of the Diseases of the Heart in 1902. See Graham Steell murmur.

Stefan, Jo sef (1831—1893) Viennese physicist who interpreted measurements o f the rate o f loss o f heat from a platinum wire ofjohnTyndall (1820—1893). He proposed in 1879 that the loss o f energy radiated per second from a black body was proportional to the fourth power o f the absolute tempera­ ture. The Stefan constant or law was incorporated into the formula for calculation o f heat.

Steinach, Eugen

Sir Patrick Christopher Steptoe (1913-1988)

(1861—1944) Viennese surgeon who

Steptoe,

Patrick

Christopher

(1913—1988)

English

proposed the role o f hormonal factors in the female

gynecologist and reproductive biologist from Witney. He

reproductive cycle in 19 11. He tried experimental ligation

graduated from St George’s Hospital Medical School and

o f the vas deferens for impotence in 1920.

worked at Oldham and District Hospital, Lancashire. He

685

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

STEREOCHEMISTRY

began his work on in vitro fertilization with British physiol­

rendering a person incapable o f reproduction. Division o f

ogist, R obert Geoffrey Edwards (b 1925) in 1968 and

the fallopian tubes as a means o f female sterilization was

worked at the B o u rn Hall C linic in Cam bridgeshire

suggested by James BlundeU (1790—1878) in 1834. S.S. Lungren o f Toledo, Ohio recorded his procedure o f tying

where he achieved the first birth o f a test tube baby in 1978.

the fallopian tubes during a cesarean section on a patient

Stereochem istry [Greek: stereos, solid] The chemical study

with a contracted pelvis in 1880. The procedure was

o f spatial arrangement o f atoms in molecules and the effect

popularized by

o f these arrangements on molecular properties. Scottish

German obstetrician. M ax Madlener

(1868-1951), around

physicist, William N icol (176 8 -18 6 1), constructed a prism

1919. Ralph

Hayward Pomeroy

(1867—1925), a N ew York obstetrician, devised a technique

o f Iceland spar in 1828 and used it in 1844 to make a

for tying and dividing the fallopian tubes around 1920. A

polarimeter which facilitated the study o f optically active

modified method was described in 1924 by another N ew

substances. Louis Pasteur (1822—1895) related optical activi­

York obstetrician, Frederick Carpenter Irving (1883—1957).

ty and chemical structure in 1848 and stereochemistry

See vasectomy.

originated from his work on tartaric acid in the same year where three tartaric acid isomers were found: one rotated

Sterility See azospermia,fallopian tubes.

light to the right, one to the left and a third was optically

Sternal Puncture [Greek: sternon, breast] See bone marrow

inactive. The explanation was given independently in 1874

aspiration.

by Dutch chemist,Jacobus HenricusVan’t H o ff (18 52-19 11) who suggested that the four bonds o f carbon are directed

Sternberg, Karl (1872-1935) Austrian pathologist from

towards a tetrahedron, and French chemist Joseph Achille

Vienna who described Sternberg lymphoma, a mediastinal

Le B el (1847—1930) who wrote on the three dimensional

mass progressing to leukosarcoma. He served as a doctor

structure o f atoms in molecules. The term was coined by

during World War I and was highly decorated. Later he

German

worked on bowel infection, typhoid and tuberculosis. See

chemist, Viktor

M eyer

(1848-1897), while

studying isomerism o f oximes.

Reed-Sternberg cell.

Stereoscope [Greek: stereos, solid + skopein, to see] Instru­

Steroids [Greek: steros, soHd + oidos, form] Group o f organic

ment that unites two images o f an object so as to produce

compounds related to cholesterol with a cyclopentanoper-

one apparently solid image. Invented by Sir Charles

hydrophenantherine ring were designated steroids according

Wheatstone (1802-1875) in 1838.

to the suggestion o fR .K . Callow and F.G.Young in i936.An active

Stereotaxic Surgery [Greek: stereos, solid + tactus, touch]

cortical

extract

from

adrenal

glands

was

Used to produce discrete lesions in basal ganglia as treat­

prepared by Wilber Willis Swingle (b 1891) andjosephjohn

ment for parkinsonism by E. A. Spiegel, Wycis, Marks and

Pfiffner (1903—1975) in 1930 who demonstrated the remark­

Lee o f N ew York in 1947. Their method was improved by

able effect o f this extract on adrenalectomized animals.

R . Hassler andT. Reichart in 1954, and I. S. Copper and G.J. Bravo in 1958.

Cortisone was isolated in 1936 by: Tadeus Reichstein (b 1 897),Edwin Calvin Kendall (1886—1972) andP.S.Hench (1896-1965), and Oskar Paul Wintersteiner (1898-1971)

Sterilization [Latin: sterilis, barren] M ethod for producing

and Pfiffner. Reichstein elucidated its structure and called it

asepsis or removal o f microorganisms. An apparatus for

compound F. Research on oxysteroids was commenced in

automatically regulating steam under pressure (autoclave)

America and dehydrocortisone was synthesized in 1945.

for sterilization was used by French confectioner, Nicolas

Cortisone was first tried as treatment for rheumatoid arth­

Francois Appert (1749-1841) in 1810. Irish physicist, John

ritis by KendaU with remarkable beneficial effect in 1948.0 .

TyndaU (1820—1893), wrote The Floating Matter of A ir in

Hechter and G. Pincus in 1954 made the observation that

relation to Putrefaction and Infection (1881) proposing a

the amount o f cholesterol in adrenal glands markedly

method o f applying intermittent heat. Sir John Pringle

decreased when the production and release o f hormones is

(1707-1782) published Experiments upon Septic and Antiseptic

stimulated, and this led to the view that cholesterol is a

Substances in 1750. Lord Joseph Lister (1827-1912) devised a

precursor o f adrenal steroid hormones. Fludrocortisone

carbolic spray to sterilize the surroundings during surgery.

acetate, a 9-halogenated synthetic steroid, was prepared by

Sir Arthur H enry Downs (1851—1938) and Thomas Porter

Fried and Sabo o f America in 1953.They became standard

Blunt demonstrated the antiseptic effect o f sunlight in 1877.

treatment for asthma in 1953, and their use in treatment o f

See antiseptics, asepsis, autoclave.

active chronic hepatitis was suggested by I. R . Mackay and I.J.W ood in 1961. Steroid glycosides are found in Digitalis

Sterilization, Fem ale [Latin: sterilis, barren] Process o f

686

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

STOHR

CELLS

purpurea, Strophanthus kombe and other plants. The andro­

they observed that certain synthetic compounds detected as

gens, estrogens and adrenocortical hormones are also

impurities had an estrogenic effect although they did not

steroids. See adrenal, estrogen, androgen, Strophanthus.

have a steroid nucleus.Their observation led to the synthesis o f stilbestrol by K. Miescher, C. Scholz and E.Tschopp.

Stethoscope. [Greek: stethos, chest + skopein, to examine] Before its invention in 1819 by French physician, R ené

Stiles, CharlesWardell (1867—1941) See Ancylostoma duodenale.

Théophile Laënnec (178 1—1826), physicians applied their

Still, Sir George Frederick (1868—1941) Born in London and

ear directly to the chest to listen to chest sounds. He Avorked

educated at Cambridge, he started his career as house physi­

at the N ecker H ospital and was consulted by an obese

cian at the Great Orm ond Street Hospital for Children. He

woman whose age and sex prevented him from putting his

published On aform of chronicjoint disease in Children when

ear against her chest wall as a part o f his examination. He

he was a registrar in 1896. He confined his practice to dis­

rolled a piece o f paper and held it against the chest wall o f

eases o f children and is considered by some as the founder o f

the patient and listened. He published his treatise on auscul­

pediatrics in England. His Common Disorders and Diseases of

tation in 1819 and his instrument was later made from

Childhood was published in 1909.

wood. Early models were 13 to 18 inches long and were modified into three detachable parts (stem, bell and earpiece) by Judson Holland. Pierre Piorry (1794—1879) reduced the stem to the thickness o f a finger and English physician Charles James Blasius Williams (1805—1889) developed the more popular trumpet-shaped stethoscope. Nicholas Comen devised a flexible monaural stethoscope in 1 829. A binaural stethoscope, a wooden chest piece and lead tubes, was made by Williams in 1829. George Camman substituted rubber tubes for lead in 1850 and his model was the prototype o f the modern stethoscope. Casper Wistar Pennock (1801-1867) o f Philadelphia invented another flexible binaural instrument in 1859 and a diaphragm in the chest piece was introduced in 1894. Howard B. Sprague added the bell-shape to the stethoscope in 19 21.

Stevens, William (1786-1868) Surgeon at Santa Cruz who George Frederick Still (1868-1941). Courtesy of the National Library of

successfully tied the internal iliac artery in a case o f

Medicine

aneurysm in 1812.

Still D isease Chronic arthritis in childhood. Described by

Stevens— Johnson Syndrom e Fever, stomatitis and muco­

Andre Victor Cornil (1837-1898), a physician at Paris in

cutaneous eruption. Described by R obert R endu (b 1886) o f Paris in 1916. It was named after two American pediatri­

1864 and Sir George Frederick Still (1868-1941) in 1896.

cians, Albert Mason Stevens (1884-1945)

Stills article, H form of chronicjoint disease in Children (1896),

and Frank

discussed 22 cases o f the disease. Chauffard o f Paris

Chambliss Johnson (1894—1934) who described it in 1922.

described the same condition shortly after Still.

Stewart, Alexander Patrick (1813—1883) See entericfever. Stiller, Berthhold (1837-1922) Hungarian physician who Stewart, George N eil (1860—1930) Graduate o f the Univer­

described general asthenia (Stiller disease) in 1907.

sity o f Edinburgh who used (with Julius Moses Rogofl)

Stilling R o o t Prolongation o f the optic tract extending to

adrenocortical extract for treatment o f adrenal insufficiency

the 3rd nerve nuclei, the cerebellum and the pons.

in 1929.

Described by Jakob Stilling (1842-1915), professor o f

Stewart, Sir James Purves (1869—1949) English neurologist.

ophthalmology at Strasburg in 1882.

See nerve regeneration.

Stockard, Charles R upert (1879-1939) See carcinoma of cervix.

Stilbestrol The first estrogen to be chemically synthesized.

Stohr Cells Found in the pyloric gastric glands and named

As naturally occurring estrogens contain a phenanthrene ring, a search for similar compounds were made by Sir

after Philipp Stohr (1849—19 11), professor o f anatomy at

Edward Charles Dodds (1899—1973) and co-workers. In 1938

Würzburg who described them in 1887.

687

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

STOICHIOMETRY

S toichiom etry [Greek: stoicheion, element] Study and numeric

relationships

o f chemical

compounds

S toltz O peration U sedforcystocele, by denuding a patch

and

on the anterior abdominal wall and running a purse string

elements by mass. Proposed by German chemist, Jeremias

suture around the edge. Designed by French gynecologist

Benjamin Richter (1762—1807).

from Strasbourg,Joseph Stoltz (1803-1896).

Stoics Disciples o f Zeno, a Greek philosopher who lived

S tom ach C ancer See gastric carcinoma.

around 308 B C and taught in a portico, or stoa, in Athens.

S tom ach Surgery See gastrectomy, Billroth operation, abdominal

Their concept was that man should be free from passion and

surgery, gastroenterostomy and gastrostomy.

accept calmly aU occurrences in submission to divine wiU

S tom ach Tube Used for studying digestion by withdrawal

or natural order..

o f a test meal from the stomach. Designed by American

Stoke M andeville H ospital Established by Sir Ludwig

physician, Martin Emil Rehfuss (1887-1964), in 1914. It

Guttmann (1899—1980) in 1944 in Buckinghamshire to

contained a metal capsule which sometimes damaged the

treat spinal injuries.

gastric mucosa. British physician, John Alfred R yle

Stoker, WilHam (1773—1848) Irish physician who investigat­

(1889—1950), improved it in 1921 by covering the entire tip

ed the velocity o f sedimentation o f blood corpuscles in 1823.

with rubber and providing perforations above the bulb.

Stokes, Adrian (1887—1927) American pathologist who

S tom ach U lcer See gastric ulcer.

found the specific virus o f yellow fever in 1923. He died o f it

Stone A ge The earliest known period o f human culture,

during his experimentation.

characterized by the use o f stone tools. Identified by French

Stokes, Sir George Gabriel (1819—1903) Irish mathematician

magistrate, Gouget, in 1758. It lasted several hundred thou­

and physicist w ho used spectroscopy to determine the

sand years. A n early depiction o f an ancient medicine man is

com position o f the Sun and stars, identified X -rays as

found in the Ariege cave painting in France. It shows a

electromagnetic waves and formulated the Stokes law on

human wearing a skin around the shoulders with deers

the force opposing a small sphere in its passage through

antlers on his head. Evidence o f Paleolithic culture was

viscous fluid.

found in Abbeville, France by Jacques Boucher de Perthes surgeon who

(1788—1868) in 1805. His finding provided evidence for the

described the method o f amputation through the articular

existence o f man over 30,000 years ago. Sir John Lubbock

end o f the femur in 1870.

(1834—1913) in 1865 used the terms Paleolithic and

Stokes,

Sir William

(1839—1900)

Irish

Neolithic to divide it on the basis o f stone artifacts found in

Stokes, WiUiam (1804—1878) Irish physician who gave a

Western Europe. R o u gh stone instruments delimited the

description o f paroxysmal tachycardia in 1854 and heart

Paleolithic, and polished stone instruments were Neolithic.

block associated with syncopal attacks in 1846. He des­

The Paleolithic age was further divided into the period o f

cribed Cheyne—Stokes breathing in apoplexy in 1854. His A Treatise on the Diagnosis and Treatment of the Diseases of the

Neanderthal man and the appearance o f Homo sapiens or

Chest was published in 1837.

modern man.

Stokes Lens convex

Stone O peration For ununited fracture o f the tibia was

Combination o f a concave cylindrical and

cyHndrical lenses used in the

astigmatism. Designed

by

English

diagnosis

described

of

by Boston

surgeon, James

Savage

Stone

(1868-1929) in 1907.

physicist, George

Gabriel Stokes (1819—1903).

Stonehouse,

Sir James

(1716 -1795)

British physician

S tokes-A dam s S yndrom e A classical description o f heart

from Berkshire who practiced for nearly 20 years in

block associated with syncopy was given by R obert Adams

Northampton and founded the Infirmary. He became a

(17 9 1—1875) o f D ublin in 1827. W illiam Stokes (18 0 4 -

clergyman and died in Bristol. He published a book on

1878), another Irish physician, gave an account o f heart

friendly advice to patients.

block with syncopal attacks in 1846.The condition was later

Stoney, George Johnston (1826—19 11) Irish physicist and

named Stokes-Adams attack or syndrome.

professor o f natural philosophy at Galway. He calculated the approximate value o f the charge on an electron and

Stoll, MaximOlian (1742-1787) Austrian epidemiologist in Vienna.

introduced that term.

688

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

STRESS

stereoscopic instrument to train the eye in order to over­ come squint, was designed by Claude Worth (1869—1936) around i9o6.The successful operative treatment by severing the tendons o f the eye muscles was perform ed by Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach (1792—1847) ofKonigsberg in 1829. Streptococcus [Greek: strepto, twisted + kokkos, berry] The

name streptococcus was introduced by German surgeon, Julius Friedrich Rosenbach (1842-1923) in 1884. He isolated Streptococcus pyogenes, differentiated staphylococci and streptococci, and divided staphylococcus into albus and aureus groups. In 1920 James Howard Brown (b 1884) published a monograph in the medical researches o f the Rockefeller

Institute

in

1920

which

classified

the

streptococcal group into A, B, A prime and G, based on the type and degree o f hemolysis produced by the bacteria on a

One of the first family planning clinics of Marie Stopes (1880-1938).

blood agar plate. A classification o f pathogenic hemolytic

Reproduced with permission of the IPPF

streptococci based on serology related to polysaccharides (1880—1958)

and pathogenicity was proposed by a N ew York bacteriolo­

Paleobotanist from Dorking, Surrey who graduated from

gist, R eb ecca Craighill Lancefield (18 9 5 -19 8 1) in 1933.

Munich and became the first female science lecturer at

T h e pathogenic strains o f hemolytic streptococci were

Manchester in 1904. In 1916 she became interested in

shown to produce a substance which dissolves human fibrin

Stopes,

Marie

Charlotte

Carmichael

promoting contraception and wrote Married Love which

(fibrinolysin) by American pathologist, William Smith

was banned in America. She opened the first birth control

Tillet (b 1892) o f Baltimore and R .L . Garner in 1933.

clinic in England and wrote 70 books on the subject. Her Streptococcus viridans [Greek:

Contraception: Its Theory, History and Practice, w ith an introduction

by

William

Bayliss

(1860—1924),

twisted + kokkos,henry;

Latin: viridis, green] Isolated from blood o f patients with

was

bacterial endocarditis by a German professor o f medicine at

published in 1923.

Hamburg, Hugo SchottmüUer (1867—1936) in 1910.

Stromeyer, George Friedrich Ludwig (1804-1876) German

Streptokinase See thrombolysis.

surgeon who performed subcutaneous section o f tendo achilles as treatment for club foot in 1830.

Streptom ycin Antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces griseus by Albert Schatz (b 1920) and co-workers in 1944 and intro­

Stout, George Frederick (1860—1944) English psychologist

duced as a first line drug in treatment o f tuberculosis by

from South Shields, Durham. He was professor o f logic and

Horton Corw in Hinshaw (b 1902) and Hugh William

metaphysics at St Andrew’s from 1903 to 1936. He wrote

Feldman (1892-1974) in 1946. Russian-born American

Analytic Psychology (1896), Manual of Psychology (1899), and

microbiologist and N obel Prize winner, Selman Abraham

Mind and Matter (1931).

Waksman (1888—1973), also synthesized it around the same

Stovaine A m ylocaine Discovered by Ernest Fourneau

time and used it in treatment o f tuberculosis. The structure

(1872—1949) o f France in 1904, and used as a spinal

was worked out by American biochemist, Karl August

anesthetic by Henri Chaput in 1910. L. H. Maxson in 1938

Folkers (b 1906) and co-workers in 1948.The genetics were

demonstrated that it was irritable and unsafe as a spinal

elucidated by British geneticist, David Alan H opwood

anesthetic and could produce paralysis.

Strabismus [Greek:

(b 1933), o f Staffordshire, who was John Innés professor o f genetics at the University o f East Anglia. His work led to

a squinting] Haly Abbas (930—

development o f the technique o f genetic manipulation in

994), a Persian physician, said that it was due to unequal

antibiotic production.

contraction o f the eye. Avicenna (980—1037) later remarked that squinting was caused by debility or spasm o f some o f

Stress The physiological effects o f fear were described by

the muscles o f the eye. Paul o f Aegina (625—690) recom­

Luis Juan Vives (1492-1540) o f Basel as early as 1548. An

mended wearing blinkers to make the child look forward

increase in adrenal output due to emotional stress was

and also prescribed eye exercises. The amblyoscope, a

observed by American physiologist, Walter Bradford

689

STRING

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SIGN

practiced bleeding from the site o f the lesion for scrofula.

Cannon (18 71—1945) in 1 9 1 1 .A scientific work on stress linking it to biological and physiological consequences in

Cinchona, as a specific treatment, was introduced by John

man was done by Hans Hugo Bruno Selye (1907—1982), a

Fordyce in 1755. The tuberculous nature o f the disease

Canadian physician o f Austrian origin, in the late 1940s. He

became known only in the late i8th century. Sea bathing

proposed the stress-adaptation syndrome in 1949.

was advocated as treatment, and the Royal Sea-bathing

String Sign

Hospital at Margate used this form o f treatment in the i8th

Radiology sign where a narrow streak o f

century. On Scrofulous Diseases of the External Lymphatic

barium is seen in cases o f Crohn disease. Described by N ew

Glands was written in 1861 by P. C. Price, a surgeon to Great

York surgeon,John Leonard Kantor (1890-1947).

Northern Hospital and the Metropolitan Infirmary for Scrofulous Children at Margate. Lugol iodine, a mixture o f

String G alvanom eter See electrocardiography.

iodine and potassium iodide, was introduced as treatment o f

Stroke See apoplexy.

scrofula by French physician Jean Guillaume Auguste Lugol

Stroking Used as a method o f healing o f diseased parts by

(1786—1861) in 1829. The term struma lymphosa refers

many faith healers. A physician who used this method was

to Hashimoto disease o f the thyroid gland described

Valentine Greatrake (1629—1683) from County Cork,

by Hakaru Hashimoto (1881-1934) in 1912. See scrofula,

Ireland. He became known as ‘the stroker’ and demonstrat­

thyroid goiter.

ed his powers on patients from St Bartholomew s Hospital

Strüm pell-B echterew -M arie Syndrom e See ankylosing

at the Palace ofWhitehall at the request o f Charles II.

spondylitis.

Strom eyer Splint Two hinged portions which could be

Strüm pell D isease Polioencephalomyelitis was described

fixed at any angle. Devised by German orthopedic military

by German neurologist, Ernst Gustav A d olf Gottfried von

surgeon, George Ludwig Stromeyer (1804—1876).

Strümpell (1853-1925) at Leipzig in 1891.

Strong, Nathan (178 1-18 37) American physician who

Struthers L igam ent

described cerebrospinal meningitis in 1810.

Attached to the medial condyle o f

the humerus. Described by Sir John Struthers (1823-1899), professor o f anatomy at Aberdeen, in 1849.

Strong, Richard Pearson (1872-1948) American physician fromVirginia and a graduate ofVale University in 1893. He

Struthius,Josephus (1510-1578) Hungarian and physician to

was professor at the University o f Philippines until 1913

Sigismund August, King o f Poland. His Ars sphigmica (1555)

when he became professor o f tropical medicine at Harvard

was an important work on the action o f the heart and

University. He organized several expeditions to study tropi­

diseases o f the blood vessels.

cal diseases and wrote Diagnosis, Prevention and Treatment of

Strychnine Seed from Strychnos Nux-vomica,which is indig­

Tropical Diseases.

enous to India and the Malay archipelago, is said to have

Strongyloides stercoralis [Greek: strongylos, round] Intestinal

been introduced into medicine by the Arabians. A descrip­

parasitic roundworm causing diarrhea. Described by Louis

tion was given by Valerius Cordus (1515—1544) o f Hesse in

Alexis Normand in Cochin, China in 1876.

1540, and De Nuce Vomica, giving an account o f its toxic effects, was published by J. Lossius in 1682. It was used as a

Strophanthus [Greek: strophos, twisted cord + anthos, flower]

pest poison in England in the 17th century and its poiso­

Seeds o f a vine used in Africa to prepare a powerful arrow

nous action was later proved to be due to its alkaloids,

poison called Kombe. Sir Thomas Fraser demonstrated in

strychnine and brucine. Strychnine was extracted by Pierre

1885 that its action was similar to digitalis in the treatment o f

Joseph

dropsy. See arrow poisons.

Pelletier

(1788-1842)

and Joseph

Bienaime

Caventou (1795-1877) in 1817.

Strum a A term used ambiguously to refer to goiter as well as

Stukeley, William (1687—1765) Physician from Lincolnshire,

King s evil or scrofula, a condition o f induration o f glands

obtained his M B degree in 1709 and then took holy orders

m ainly in the neck and armpits due to tuberculosis.

in 1729. He wrote a dissertation on the spleen and was a

Described by Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) who considered

founder o f the Egyptian Society in 1741.

the neck as the worst site for it. Galen (AD 129—200)

Sturge-W eber Syndrom e Angioma o f the leptomeninges

recommended removal with a knife, and application o f quicklime and honey was advocated by Paul o f Aegina

[Greek: leptos + slender, meningx, membrane] and ipsilateral

(625—690). Leonides o f Alexandria and Antyllus operated

portwine stain on the face in the region o f trigeminal distri­

on the glands in the 3rd century. Avicenna (980—1037)

bution. Described by English Quaker physician, William

690

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY LIGATION

Allen Sturge (1850-1919) ofBristol in 1879.An account was

nodes) found were described by Canadian physician. Sir

also given by Friedrich Weber-Liel (1832-1891) in 1922.

William Osier (1849—1919), in 1908. R o th spots or white hemorrhagic spots seen in the retina were described by

Sturtevant, Alfred H enry (1891-1970) American geneticist

Swiss physician, M oritz R o th (1839—1914) in 1872. Strepto­

from Jacksonville, Illinois. Educated at Columbia Universi­

coccus viridans was isolated in cases by H ugo Schottm iiller

ty and spent his career at Caltech as professor o f genetics

(18 67-19 36) o f Germ any in 1910. Effective treatment

and later as professor o f biology. He developed chromo­

with penicillin was demonstrated on 269 patients by

some maps o f Drosophila and provided the background for

RonaldVictor Christie (b 1902) in 1948.

gene mapping experiments and established the basis for the

Subarachnoid H em orrhage [Latin: sub, under; Greek:

chromosomal theory o f heredity. See chromosomes.

arachnoides, spider + haima,h\ood + rheein,to flow] An early

Stutter Speech problem described by H. Klencke in The

account was presented to the Academie des Sciences, by

Cure of Stuttering published in i860. H e recom mended

Joseph Guichard Duverney (1648-1730) who was professor

breathing exercises and systematic exercises o f organs o f

o f anatomy at Paris in 1682. In his description he stated that

speech as cure. A French teacher, Claudius Chervin (18 25-

a large clot was found in the theca. The description o f the

1896), did pioneering work on the subject.

death o f King H enry II by Ambroise Paré (1510—1590) is consistent with a subarachnoid hemorrhage and Prince

Subacute C om bined D egeneration o f the Spinal Cord (SymDana syndrome,Putnam disease) Degenerative changes

Charles o f Sweden died suddenly while riding from a sub­

in the spinal cord associated w ith pernicious anemia.

arachnoid hemorrhage in 1810. An extensive account was

Described independently by Charles Loomes Dana (1852—

given by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682—1771) in De

1935) from Vermont, and another American, James Jackson

Sedibus et Causis Morborumper antomen indagatis published in

Putnam (1846-1918) o f Boston in 1891. A review was given

1761. The suggestion that it was related to aneurysm was

by Ludwig Lichtheim (1845—1928) o f Germany in 1897.

made by Sir William H enry Withey Gull (1816-1890) in

Another classic description in relation to pernicious anemia

1859. From 1800 to 1880 over 86 papers related to it were

was given by English neurologist, Frederick Eustace Batten

published. A classical case o f rupture o f an aneurysm at the

(1865—1918) o f Queen’s Square, James Samuel Riesien

bifurcation o f the middle cerebral artery was reported by

Russel (1861-1939)

Sir William Osier (1849—1919) in 1877. Byrom Bramwell

James Stansfield Collier (1870-

(1847-1931) associated it with rupture o f an intracranial

1935) in 1900.

Subacute

aneurysm in 1886. Sir Charles Putnam Symonds (1890—

B acterial Endocarditis (SABE) An early

description

was

given

by

George

Hilaro

1978), a neurologist to G u y’s Hospital and National Hospi­

Barlow

tal for Nervous Diseases in Q ueen’s Square, reviewed 124

(1806—1866) and George Owen R ees (1813-1889) in 1843. Norwegian

Emanuel

Frederick

Hagbarth

cases in 1923 and concluded that rupture o f the intracranial

Winge

artery was the commonest cause. The presence o f blood in

(1838—1921) suggested a microbial cause in 1869. A defini­

the cerebrospinal fluid in cases o f meningeal hemorrhage

tive account was given by Sir SamuelWilkes (1824—19 11) in

was noted by several workers including George Ferdinand

1870 under the name, arterial pyemia. The occurrence o f

Isidore Widal (1862-1929) (1903), Georges Froin (1874-

peripheral emboli due to valvular vegetations was recog­

1932) (i904),andlngvar (1913).

nized by William Senhouse Kirkes (1823—1864) o f England in 1842. Hematuria with focal glomerular lesions in the

Subbarow, Yella Pragada (1896—1948) Seephosphocreatinine.

kidney due to minute bacterial emboli from endocardial

Subclavian A rtery Ligation [Latin:

under + clapis,hey]

vegetations was observed by M ax Hermann Friedrich

Abraham Colles (1773—1843), a leading Dublin surgeon,

Loehlein (1877—1921) o f Leipzig in 1907. It was already

tied the subclavian artery in 1811,W righ t Post (1766-1822)

known as hemorrhagic nephritis to Harbitz o f Germany in

o f Long Island treated a case o f brachial aneurysm by tying

1899. American physician, Emanuel Libman (1872—1946),

it in 1816 and Guillaume Dupuytren (1777—1835) per­

referred to these lesions as ‘embolic glomerular lesions o f

formed the same procedure in 1819. An aneurysm o f the

subacute bacterial endocarditis’ in 1923. The Janeway

axilla was successfully treated by tying by Charles Aston Key

lesions, which consist o f nodular hemorrhagic spots in the

(1793-1849) .An American vascular surgeon,Valentine M ott

palms and soles o f patients with subacute bacterial

(1785—1865), treated an aneurysm o f the subclavian artery

endocarditis, were described by Edward G. Janeway

by tying it within the scleni muscles in 1833. Sir William

(18 4 1-19 11) in 1899, and the cutaneous nodules (Osier

Fergusson (1808—1877), Scottish surgeon and a pupil o f

691

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SUBCORTICAL DEMENTIA

R obert Knox (179 1-18 6 2), tied it. A Successful ligation of Subclavian Artery

was

published

by

Richard James

Sommering (1755-1830) in 1800.

Succinyl C hloride

Mackenzie (18 21—1854), an anatomist and surgeon at the

Introduced as a muscle relaxant by

Italian pharmacologist, Daniel Bovet (1907—1992).

Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. N ew York surgeon, WiUiam

Succussion Splash [Latin: succussio, shaking from beneath] It

Stewart Halstead (1852—1922), performed a successful

was used as a physical sign in cases o f hydropneuomothorax

ligation o f the left subclavian artery in America in 1892.

by Hippocrates (460—377 BC ).

Subcortical D em en tia [Latin: sub, under + cortex, bark + de, down + mens, mind] An early form o f subcortical

Sudden D eath A large number occurred in R o m e in 1705

encephalopathy leading to a classic picture o f dementia in

which caused public panic. A treatise, De Subitaneis Mortibus

the fifth and sixth decade o f life was described by Otto

(1707), which included autopsy findings o f five cases, was

Ludwig Binswanger (1852—1929) in 1894. Another form

written by Giovanni Maria Lancisi (1654—1720), professor o f anatomy at the CoUegio de Sapienza and physician to the

due to progressive lenticular degeneration was described by

Pope. He also wrote De Motu Cordis etAneurysmatibus which

Samuel A .K . Wilson (1877—1937) in 1912. The term was

contained essays on physiology and the motion o f the heart,

used to denote progressive supranuclear palsy by M .L.

and on aneurysms o f the heart and blood vessels.

Albert and coheagues in 1974. The affection o f subcortical structures such as basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus,

Sudeck A trophy Form o f bone atrophy, giving a washed

midbrain and cerebeUum have since been identified in

out spotted appearance to the distal bones on X-rays, and

a variety o f conditions including Parkinson disease,

accompanied by sweUing and tenderness o f the tissues

Huntingdon chorea and A ID S dementia complex.

overlying it. Described in 1923 by Paul Hermann Martin Sudeck (1866—1938),professor o f surgery at Hamburg.

Subcutaneous Fluid Injection Devised by Francis R yn d (18 0 1-18 6 1) at the Meath Hospital,Dublin in 1844. He gave

Sudeck Critical Point Highly vasculated area on the colon,

an accurate description o f the instruments used in 1845 and

between the colic and superior rectal arteries. Described in

used the method mainly to treat neuralgias.

1923 by Paul Hermann Martin Sudeck (1866-1938), professor o f surgery at Hamburg.

Subcutaneous T enotom y [Latin: sub, under + cutis, skin + tendere, to stretch; Greek: tomos, to cut] A method o f treat­

SudhofF, Karl Friedrich Jakob (1853—1938) German physi­

ment for clubfoot by subcutaneous section o f the achilles

cian and medical historian who occupied the first chair for

tendon was introduced in 1816 by Jacques Mathieu Del-

the history o f medicine at Leipzig. He wrote Bibliographia

pech (1777—1832), professor o f surgery at MontpeUier. It

Paracelsica (1884—1889) and other works on the history o f

was applied as treatment for most deformities arising out o f

medicine.

muscular defects by German orthopedic surgeon, Georg

Sue R yder Foundation

Friedrich Ludwig Stromeyer (1804—1876) around 1836. It

Established at Cavendish near

Sudbury, Suffolk to promote residential care for the

was performed in France by a surgeon, Amedee Bonnet (1802-1858) in 1841.

sick, disabled and homeless by English baroness and philanthropist. Sue R yd er from Leeds, in 1953.

Subdural H em atom a [Latin: sub, below + dura, hard;

Sugar The best sugar is produced from sugar cane and

Greek: haima,h\ood] See chronic subdural hematoma.

Alexander the Great s admiral, Nearchus, became familiar

Subhyaloid H em orrh age [Latin: sub, under; Greek: hyalos,

with it in India. It was used as a beverage in Pompeii. Pliny

glass + haima, blood + rheein, to flow] Described in a 2 1-

(AD 29—79), refers to it as saccharum, and Galen (AD 129—

year-old man with subarachnoid hemorrhage by Hale

200) prescribed it as medicine. Dioscorides (AD 40—90)

White (1857—1949) in 1895 and caused by a ruptured

referred to a concrete honey found in canes in India and

aneurysm o f the internal carotid artery.

Arabia. It was brought to Europe from India around A D

Subm axillary Gland A description was given by English

1150 and the Portuguese and Spaniards introduced it into

anatomist, Thomas Wharton (16 14 -16 73), in Adenographia

America in 1510.The process o f refining sugar was started in

published in 1656.

Europe by aVenetian trader in 1503 and it was introduced

Substantia N igra [Latin: substantiae, substance + nigresecere,

into England in 1659. It was extracted from sugar beet

to turn black] A crescent-shaped grayish black nuclear

by German agricultural chemists, Andreas Sigismund

material lying in the midbrain between the pedunculi

M arggraf (1709—1782) in 1747 and Franz Karl Achard

and tegmentum. Identified and named by Samuel Thomas

(175 3-18 21) in 1799.

692

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SUN

Suicide [Latin; sui, o f himself + caedere, to kill] It was consid­

by virtue o f their structural similarity, blocked their

ered a crime by most philosophers o f R o m e and Greece

metabolism. Sulfamethazine was introduced by Donald

and the hand o f the victim was burnt separately from the

William Macartney in 1942. A number o f other compounds

body Zeno (362—264 B C ) o f Citium in Cyprus, founder o f

o f sulfapyrimidine have been synthesized. See antibiotics.

the

Stoic

sect,

committed

suicide

by

strangling.

Sulfur [Latin: sulfuris] Hom er and Pliny (AD 29-79)

Eratosthenes (274—194 B C ), librarian at the University o f

mentioned the use o f the pungent fumes produced by

Alexandria, who made significant contributions to the field

burning

o f mathematics, was blinded by an eye disease and commit­

sulfur for

cleansing the

air. Valentinius, a

Benedictine monk and alchemist in the 15th century, was

ted suicide. The R om an Catholic Church forbade suicide

familiar with its production from green vitriol.

and denied church services for self-murder. Until 1824 the

Sum erian M edicine

body o f a suicide was buried at a crossroad. A n extensive

The Sumerian civilization was

treatise in English on suicide, Lfes preservative against self­

established in the Mesopotamian riverlands o f the Tigris

killing, was written by an Essex clergyman, John Sym

and Euphrates around 3000 B C . It was the worlds first

(1581—1637) in 1637. He recognized that mental iUness may

empire and cradle o f civilization. T h eir m edical know l­

lead to suicide. Antoine Louis (1723—1792) o f France wrote

edge is revealed in the cuneiform writings on clay

on the differential signs o f murder and suicide in cases o f

tablets. T h ey considered blood as vital to aU organs and activities and the liver was held sacred as it served to store

hanging in 1763.

blood. Marduk was their god o f science and medicine and

Sulkow itch Test Used for detecting calcium in urine and

had a temple erected to him which later developed into a

devised by Boston physician, Hirsh W olf Sulkowitch

school o f medicine. Evil spirits were also thought to cause

(b 1906).

iUness.They had considerable knowledge o f astronomy and

Sulfa C om p ou n d s See sulfonamides. Sulfadiazine

based some o f their medicine on interpretation o f the stars. See Mesopotamian medicine.

Introduced as an antibiotic by M axwell

Finland (b 1902) in 1941. It was used as a local application

S um m ation [Latin: summa, total] Accumulation o f effects o f

for burns in 1945 by American surgeon, Kenneth Leroy

a number o f stimuli on a muscle or nerve. Evidence that the

Pickerell (b 1910) o f Baltimore.

refractory period is succeeded by increased excitability so that a stimulus o f less intensity is required to propagate

Sulfapyrim idine An early antibiotic, developed in 1937 by

electrical disturbance in a nerve was provided by Edgar

London chemist,ArthurJames Ewins (1882—1957).

Douglas Adrian (1889-1977) and Keith Lucas (1879-1916)

Sulfonam ides Protonsil was the first such compound to be

in 1912. It is known as the Law o f Summation.

synthesized by Paul Gelmo (b 1902). Its bacteriostatic

Sum ner, Jam es Batcheller (18 8 7-1955) A m erican b io­

property was recognized in the azo-compounds by

chemist, born in Canton, Massachusetts and educated at

Gerhard Johannes Paul Domagk (1895-1964) who demon­

Harvard. In 1926 he crystallized urease and showed that it

strated its clinical effectiveness against cocci in 1935. In

was a protein, determined its kinetic and chemical proper­

1936, English physician Leonard Colebrook and Meave

ties and found the reactive sulfhydryl groups on it. H e also

Kenny showed excellent results against puerperal fever and septic

abortion, which

were

both

previously

purified other oxidative enzymes, including monoamine

fatal.

oxidase. He shared the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1946.

Sulfapyridine was synthesized by Arthur James Ewins

See urease.

(1882—1957) and Phillips in England in 1937 and found to be more effective against pneumococci but also more toxic.

Sun Pythagorus (580—500 B C ) believed that it was one o f the

Sulfathiozole was introduced in 1940 and was found to

twelve spheres. His plan o f the solar system placed the Sun

be more effective than any previous sulfonamides for

in the center and described elliptical movements o f the

staphylococcal infections. The significance o f the structural

other planets around it. Hicetas o f Syracuse in 344 B C

resemblance

between

the

antibacterial

substance

suggested that the Sun and moon were motionless and the

sulfanilamide and para-aminobenzoic acid was noted

Earth moved around them.The distance between the moon

independently by Donald Devereux Woods (1912—1964)

and the Sun was calculated geometrically by Aristarchus in

and Paul Gordon Fildes (b 1882) in 1940.The Woods-Fildes

280

hypothesis contended that para-aminobenzoic acid was an

established the motion o f the Sun around its axis in 1696.

essential metabolite o f bacteria and that sulfonamides.

See sunlight, Sabaeism.

693

B C . The

English

astronomer Edmund

Halley

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SUNLIGHT

Sunlight Short wavelength rays that show least amount o f

in 1588 .They were shown to be essential for maintaining life

penetration o f tissues were identified as ultraviolet and

by Edouard Brown-Sequard (1817—1894) in 1856. The

English physician, Sir Arthur H enry Downes (1851—1938)

occurrence o f an active vital substance in the adrenal

and Thomas Porter Blunt in 1877 showed that they were

medulla was demonstrated in the same year by Edme Felix

capable o f killing bacteria. Danish physician, Niels R yberg

Alfred Vulpian (1826-1887) o f Paris. See Addison disease,

Finson (1861-1904) o f Copenhagen also demonstrated the

adrenal insufficiency, adrenaline.

bactericidal effect o f sunlight. Use o f ultraviolet light im­

Supraspinatous Tendon R upture [Latin: supra, above +

proved the photomicrographic study o f the structure o f

spina, spine] Diagnostic symptoms were described in 1906

bacteria and was also used for therapeutic purposes in the

by Ernest Am ory Codman (1869-1940), a Boston orthope­

19th and early 20th century. The effectiveness o f these rays

dic surgeon. He also pioneered application o f X-rays to

in curing rickets was demonstrated by Kurt Huldschinsky

orthopedics and wrote The use of X-rays in the Diagnosis of

(1883-1941) ofB erlin in ig ig . See Kantor string sign.

Bone Disease in 1905. A method o f operative treatment for

Sunstroke or Heat Stroke A description was given by Georg

rupture o f supraspinatous tendon o f the shoulder was

Horst in 1660. Sir Thomas Longmore (1816—1895), a British

described by him in 19 11.

army surgeon in India, gave a detailed description in 1859. Another EngHsh army surgeon, Alexander Barclay (1822— 1874), gave an account in 186o.The mechanism and pathology

Supraventricular Tachycardia See tachycardia. Suramin See Bayer 2 0 5 .

were explained in 1872 by a neurologist, Horatio Charles

Surface Tension Property used in the process o f emulsifica­

Wood (1841-1920) o f the University o f Pennsylvania.

tion and production o f soap. Known since Thomas Graham

Superego Sigmund Freuds (1891-1960) first work on the

did research on solutions in 1835.An early work in England

general theory o f personaHty, Ego and the Id, was published in

was done by Samuel Sugden (1892—1950), a chemist from

1923. He divided the mind into three parts: ego, id and super­

Leeds. A simple experiment to demonstrate it was devised

ego. He described superego as that which developed after ego

by van der Mensbrugghe in 1866 and apparatus to measure

as a result o f education and identification with parents.

it was devised by Röntgen and Schneider in 1886.The law

Superior Vestibular N ucleu s Found in the cranial nerve

describing the relationship between surface tension, molar

and described in 1885 by a Russian neurologist,Vladimir

volume and temperature o f liquids was proposed by

Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857—1927) from a small village.

Hungarian

Surah near the Ural mountains and educated at the Military

(1848-1919) o f Budapest around 1870. A chapter was

Medical Academy at St Petersburg.

devoted to it in William Maddock Bayliss’ Principles of

physicist,

Baron

Roland

von

Eotvos

Physiology published in 1918. See emulsification.

Suppository Frequently mentioned by Hippocrates (460— 377 B C ) in his works.John Zacharias Acturius,physician to

Surgery [Greek: cheir, hand + ergon, work] The oldest extant

the Court o f Constantinople in A D 1300, recommended

surgical treatise is the Edwin Smith Papyrus written around

mild purgatives and suppositories for obstruction in the

1600 B C , a copy o f an earlier treatise from 3000 B C . It

rectum. Paul o f Aegina (625—690) advocated suppositories

contains an account o f injuries to the head, nose and other

made o f salted honey and nitre. The Arabian physicians,

organs along with methods o f bandaging. Hippocrates

Avicenna (980—1037), Rhazes (AD 850—932) and others

(460—377 B C ) wrote on fractures and dislocations around

mentioned suppositories as treatment.

400 B C . Susruta, the Brahmin surgeon who lived around A D 500, described over 120 surgical instruments and wrote

Suprapubic C ystotom y Procedure performed by French

on operations such as amputation, cesarean section,

surgeon,Pierre Franco (1500—1561) in 1556.

rhinoplasty, lithotomy, excision o f tumors and cataract

Suprapubic P rostatectom y See prostatectomy.

extraction. Paul o f Aegina (625—690) devoted his sixth

Suprarenal Glands [Latin: supra, above + ren, kidney] Jean

book. Epitome, entirely to operative surgery. An important textbook,

R iolan (1580—1687) called these capsulae suprarenalis in

was written byAlbucasis around A D 980.

16 2 1.They were illustrated and described by Bartolommeo

Some important surgeons o f the Middle Ages include:

Eustachio

R o ger

(1520—1574), professor at R o m e

in

1564.

of

Palmero

(1200),

Guilelmus

da

Saliceto

Archangelus Piccolomineus (1562—1605) described them in

(12 0 1-12 77 ), Henri de Mondeville (1260-1320), Guy de

1586 and Caspar Bauhin (1560—1624) gave a further account

Chauliac (1300—1367) and John o f Ardane (1307—1380).

69 4

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SVEDBERG

Ambroise Paré (1510—1590) o f France and Andreas Vesalius

friend, and made several important contributions to

(1514-1564) were notable surgeons during the Renaissance.

treatment. He used blood transfusion and adrenaline in

Other eminent surgeons o f this period include Flildanus

treatment and advocated monitoring o f blood pressure

Fabricius (1560—1634) and Lorenz Heister (1683—1758) from

during surgery. His monograph was published in 1899, and

Germany. A German book, Bundt-Ertzney, was written by

his other works in the field include Blood Pressure in Surgery

Heinrich von Pfolspeundt in 1460. During the i8th and

(1903) 2LndAnemia and Resuscitation (1914).

19th centuries, Britain produced surgeons who made sig­

Sutherland, Earl Wilbur (1915-1974) American biochemist

nificant advances including: Percivall Pott (1714-1788),

from Burlingame who studied at Washington University

Benjamin Bell (1749-1806), John Bell (1763-1820), Sir

School o f Medicine in St Louis. He was director o f the

Charles Bell (1774—1842), John Abernethy (1764-1831),

pharmacology department o f the Western Reserve Univer­

Samuel Cooper (1780—1848), Sir Astley Paston Cooper

sity from 1953. He researched the conversion o f glycogen to

(176 8 -18 41), and James Syme (1799-1870). Not-able sur­

glucose and its stimulation by glucagon and epinephrine.

geons in Europe at this time were: Guillaume Dupuytren

He showed that cyclic A M P promotes activation o f

(1777-18 35),AlfredArmandVelpeau (179 5- 1867),Auguste

phosphorylase and suggested that glucagon and epineph­

Nelaton (1807—1873) o f Paris, and Theodor Billroth

rine induce the cell to produce cAMP. He discovered the

(1829—1894) o f Germany. In America, notable surgeons

‘second messenger’ principle o f hormone action. In 1971 he

include: John Collins Warren (1778-1856), Philip Syng

was awarded the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.

Physick (1768-1837) andEphriam M cDowell ( 17 7 1- 1830)

See A M P.

See surgical instruments, Barber surgeons, Royal College of

Sutton Law Application o f the most likely diagnostic test or

Surgeons.

procedure to give a positive result. Named after an

Surgical Instrum ents [Greek: cheir, hand + ergon, work]

American bank robber,W. Sutton (1901—1980) ofBrooklyn.

The state and practice o f surgery was more advanced and

Sutton P rize

scientifically based than other areas o f medicine during

Pathology prize at the London Hospital,

awarded in memory o f H enry Gawen Sutton (1837—1891)

ancient times. According to Pliny, the saw was designed after

who was a physician there.

the jaw o f serpent byTalos.The ancient Greeks used forceps to extract teeth and the antiquity o f surgical instruments has

Suture [Latin: sutura, seam] The ancients used bone needles

been revealed by the discovery o f flint saws in the Egyptian

for suturing and some have been found in Paleolithic

ruins o f Kahun dating back to 5000 B C . Aborigines o f

deposits in France. A n ingenious method o f bringing the

Darling R iver in N ew South Wales used fine bone needles

wound edges together using ants was practiced by ancient

for boring the septum o f the nose. Susruta, the Brahmin

Africans and Brazilians.The termites or ants bite the edges

surgeon, described over 120 surgical instruments in A D 500

together with their powerful jaws acting like modern-day

in his description o f operations including amputation,

clips. The Masai tribe o f Africa used thorns to suture

cesarean section, rhinoplasty, lithotomy, excision o f tumors

wounds. Galen (AD

and cataract extraction. Albucasis in Altasrif written in the

tendons with sutures. Absorbable sutures made from animal

129—200) recommended uniting

tenth century, gave a remarkable illustration o f an array o f

tissues were introduced during the i8th century by the

surgical instruments. His book also described surgical

American surgeon, Philip Syng Physick (1768—1837). N ew

operations

stone,

York surgeon, William Stewart Halstead (1852—1922),

gangrene and other conditions and remained a standard for

pioneered circular sutures for intestines in 1887. Benjamin

nearly 500 years.

Bell (1749—1806) suggested suturing the bladder for

for

fractures, dislocations, bladder

rupture in 1789, and the procedure was performed byWillet

Surgical H ernia Occurs following surgical incision o f the abdomen. A

method

o f closure

was

o f St Bartholomew’s Hospital. End-to-end suture o f the

described by

femoral artery was performed by John Benjamin M urphy

American surgeon, Arthur Marriot Shipley (b 1878) o f

(1857-1916) ofAm erica in 1896.The modern technique o f

Baltimore in 1925.

arterial suture was described by Alexis Carrel (1873-1944) in 1902. Catgut sutures treated with carbolic acid to

Surgical Shock [Greek: cheir, hand + ergon, work] Pioneer­

promote antisepsis were introduced by Lord Joseph Lister

ing work was done in 1888 by American surgeon and

(18 27-19 12) in 1869.

physiologist, George Washington Crile (1864—1943) o f Cleveland, developed his interest following the death o f his

Svedberg, Theodor (1884-1971) Swedish chemist who

695

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SWAINE

studied chemistry at the University o f Uppsala and

Swam p Fever (Syn: mud fever) Once widespread in Eastern

remained at the university for the next 45 years. He was

Europe in the early 20th century. Identified as due to

director o f the Gustav Werner Institute o f Nuclear Chem ­

Leptospiragrippotyphosa by G .K orth ofin 1932.

istry from 1949 to 1967. His early work was on colloid

Swan—Ganz C atheter Use o f a flow-directed balloon tip

chemistry and he then investigated radioactivity. He devel­

for cardiac catheterization was devised by Harold James

oped the ultracentrifuge as a means to follow sedimentation

Charles Swan (b 1922) andWilliam Ganz (b 1919) in 1970.

o f particles too small to be seen with an ultramicroscope. He received the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1926 for this

Sw eating Sickness Unexplained fatal iUness accompanied

work. He later worked on use o f the cyclotron in medicine.

by fever, sweating and prostration that first appeared amongst the troops o f King H enry VII in England in 1485,

Swaine, A. Clara (1834-1910) American medical missionary

followed by another epidemic in 1507. A third epidemic

who graduated from the Womans Medical College,

started in London in 1517 and spread to most parts o f

Pennsylvania in 1869. She went to India in 1870 and opened

England within 6 months. The illness claimed its victims

the first medical hospital for women in India at Bareilly in

within 24 hours and thousands o f people in London died

1874, known as Clara Swaine Hospital.

during the five outbreaks. Oxford University and several

Sw allow ing The reflex involved in the act o f deglutition was

other institutions had to close during these epidemics. A

described by a Germ an physiologist, H ugo K ronecker

treatise on the disease was written in 1529 by Euricius

(1839—1914) in 1880. The role o f the eustachian tube was

Cordus (d 1538), a botanist, poet and physician whose real

described in 1861 by Joseph Toynbee (1815-1866), the first

name was H enry Urban. A description in England was

aural surgeon to St M ary s Hospital in London. Fluoroscopy

given by John Caius (1510—1573) during the fifth and last

was used to study the act o f deglutition in animals by Walter

epidemic at Shrewsbury in 1552 in his book, A Boke of

Bradford Cannon (18 71—1945) o f Harvard University in

Conseill against the Disease commonly called the Sweat or

1898.

Sweating Sickness, and he attributed it to lack o f personal hygiene.

Swediaur D isease

Inflammation o f the calcaneal bursa.

Described by Austrian physician, François X . Swediaur (1748-1824) in 1790.

Sw ieten, Gerard van (1700—1772) See Van Swieten, Gerard. Swiss-Type A gam m aglob ulinem ia A few cases o f severe lymphopenia and extensive Candida infection in infancy were described in Switzerland in 1950. In 1952 a sex-linked familial condition o f agammaglobulinemia with recurrent infection was reported in an eight-year-old boy by American pediatrician, Ogden Carr Bruton (b 1908). Both were later classified under the name, ‘severe combined

..

................ - ■ -

- ■

immunodeficiency’ .

^

Sydenham S ociety

Founded by an English physician.

Sir John Forbes (1787-186 1).

Frontispiece fron Jan Swammerdam's De Respiratione. William Stirling, Some Apostles of Physiology 0 902). Waterlow & Sons, London

Sydenham , Thomas (1624-1689) Called the ‘English

Sw am m erdam , Jan (1637-1680) Dutch naturalist, born in

Hippocrates’ due to his observation and classic description

Amsterdam and graduated in medicine from Leiden,

o f diseases. He was born at Wynford Eagle on the family

although he never practiced as a physician. He observed the

estate and was sent to Oxford at the age o f 18 years. He

red blood cells under the microscope in 1658, and

interrupted his studies in 1642 to serve as an officer in the

discovered the valves in lymphatic vessels. He devised a

Parliamentary army during the Civil War. He returned to

system o f classification for insects and laid the foundation

Oxford in 1646 and was made bachelor o f medicine in

for the science o f entomology with Historia insectorum

1648. He also studied at Montpellier and began practicing

generalis, published in 1669.

in London where he commenced his observations on

696

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SYM PATHECTOM Y

diseases in i66i .An early work was Methodus Curandi Febres,

the age o f 51 years. He was appointed professor in Paris at

propriis observationibus superstructa. His other works include:

the age o f 72 years. He taught Andreas Vesalius (1514—1564)

Dissertano Epistolaris ad Gulielmum Cole (1682) which dealt

and described several anatomical structures which have

with smallpox and hysterical diseases, Tractus de Podagra et de

been named after him.

Hydrope (1683) essentially a treatise on gout and dropsy, and

Sylvius, James (1478-1550) Belgian professor o f medicine

Schedala Monitoria de Nove Febres Ingressa, published in

from Amiens at Paris. His Opera Omnia was published in

1686, in which he gave a description o f StVitus dance or

Cologne in 1630.

chorea (Sydenham chorea). His Processas Integri in morbis

Sylvius, Franciscus (1614-1672) See Le Böe, François de.

febre omnibas carandis, w hich he prepared for his son William Sydenham (1656—1738) to assist in his medical career, was

Sym e, James (1799-1870) Known as the Napoleon o f

published posthumously in 1693. Sydenham suffered from

surgery, he was born at 56 Princes Street in Edinburgh.

gout and renal calculi with progressive frequency and sever­

During his boyhood he spent much o f his time experi­

ity during his life and died at his house at Pall Mall. A book

menting in chemistry. A solvent for India rubber and a

on Sydenham’s work, Anecdota Sydenhamiana, Medical Notes

method to make it waterproof were discovered by him

and observations by Sydenham, taken mostly from his manu­

when he was 18 years. This was later patented by Charles

scripts from the Bodelian Library, was written by William

Macintosh (1766—1843), a chemist from Glasgow. He grad­

Alexander Greenhill (1814—1894) in 1845.

uated from Edinburgh University and succeeded R obert Liston (1794—1847) as lecturer in anatomy at the same institute. An early treatise. On Caries of the Bone, was published in 1821 and other publications were The Excision of DiseasedJoints (1831) and Principles of Sargery (1832). After attending the clinics o f Guillaume Dupuytren (1777—1835) at Paris in 1822, he returned to Edinburgh and performed several major surgical methods for the first time in Britain. He did the first amputation at the hip joint on a boy o f 19 years in 1825, and excised the head o f the humerus in a case o f tuberculosis in 1826. In 1828 he performed excision o f the lower jaw for sarcoma. After being denied a professor­ ship at the Royal Infirmary due to his disagreement with Liston, he established his own hospital at Minto House in Chambers Street. His student, John Brown, immortalized him and his hospital in Rab and his Friends .

Sym m ers, Douglas (1879-1952) American associate profes­ Thomas Sydenham. Title page of Sydenham's Opera Omnia (1696). Courtesy

sor o f pathology at the Bellevue Hospital. He described a

of the National Library of Medicine

new

Sydenham Chorea

disease

with

foUicular

lymphadenopathy

and

splenomegaly which was later named BriU—Symmers disease.

St Vitus dance, accompanied by

Sym ington A nococcygial B od y Fibromuscular mass found

involuntary irregular jerky movements occurring in by Thomas

between the coccyx and the anus in the perineum.

Sydenham (1624-1689) in Schedala Monitoria de Move Febres

Described by Scottish anatomist, Johnson Symington

children

and

young

adults. Described

(1851-1924), professor o f anatomy at Belfast in 1888.

Ingressa published in 1686. It is also named after Saint Vitus, patron saint for hysterical and nervous diseases.

Sym pathectom y

Performed for relief o f pain due to

vascular disease by Mathieu Jaboulay (1860—1913) o f Paris in

Sylvester, Sir John Baptist, o f Aquitaine (d 1789) Graduated

1900. It was tried as treatment for angina by Thomas

from Leiden in 1738 and was appointed physician to the

Joannesco (i860—1926) o f Rum ania in 1916. Lumbar

London Hospital in 1749, where he was the first member o f

sympathectomy was performed through an anterolateral

the staff to receive a knighthood (1774).

extraperitoneal approach by R en é Leriche (1879—1955) o f

Sylvius, Jacques Dubois (1478—1555) Scholar o f classical

Paris in 1933. Boston surgeon, Reginald Hammerick

languages who graduated in medicine from Montpellier at

Smithwick (b 1899), performed sympathetectomy for

697

SYMPATHETIC

NERVOUS

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SYSTEM

hypertension (1944) and Raynaud disease (1936).

was described as ‘epilepsy with slow pulse’ by Giovanni Bat­ tista Morgagni (16 8 2-1771) in 1761 and ‘a clear case o f

Sym pathetic N ervous System [Greek: syn, with + pathos,

syncopal attacks with heart block’ was presented by R obert

feeling] The term sympathetic was introduced by Danish

Adams (179 1-18 75) in 1827.

anatomist, W inslow (1669-1760) in 1732. See autonomic nervous system.

Syndrom e [Greek: syndrome, concurrence] The term refers to the clinical picture o f a disease made up o f several typical

Sym p hysiotom y [Greek: symphysis, a growing together +

symptoms and signs.

tome, to cut] Technique described in obstetrics by French obstetrician,Jean R en é Sigault (b 1740) o f Paris in 1777.

Synge, Richard Laurence Millington (b 1914) British bio­ chemist who studied at Cambridge. He developed partition

S ym p osiu m Heraclides o f Tarentum, a physician from the

chromatography and counter-current liquid—liquid separa­

school ofHerophilus around 75 B C , was one o f the first to

tion o f mixtures. He used powered potato starch packed

use the term to refer to his work on dietetics in the form o f

into columns to separate amino acids. He shared the Nobel

a dialogue.

Prize for Chemistry with Archer John Porter Martin

S ym p tom atology [Greek: symptoma, any thing that befalls

(b 1910) in 1952.

one + logos, discourse] A systematic and accurate descrip­

Synovia [Greek: syn, w ith + ovum, egg] Term used by

tion o f symptoms in various diseases was given by Hippocrates

(460—377

B C ).

Thomas

Paracelsus (1493—1541) in 1520, due its resemblance to an

Sydenham

egg white. M arie François Xavier Bichat (177 1—1802)

(1624-1689) was known for his accurate observations

devoted a chapter in his Traite des membranes en General et de

and description o f symptoms and signs. An attempt at

Diverses Membranes en Particulier published in 1799. London

classification o f diseases according to symptoms was made

anatomist, Clopton Havers (16 5 7 -17 0 2 ), considered it as

by Felix Platter (1536—1614) ofBasel in 1602.

mucus-secreting in nature. Synovectomy as a formal proce­

Synapse [Greek: synapsis, connection] Word introduced in

dure in surgery was introduced by M .Alfred M ignon

1897 by M. Foster and Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857— 1952) to describe the anatomical relationship between con­

(b 1854) o f Paris in 1899.

Synovial M em brane See synovia.

tiguous neurons. The structure was studied in detail by Ram ón y Cajal (1852—1954),in 1903. See synaptic transmission.

Synoviom a Tumor o f the synovial membrane described by R obert Fulton Weir (1838—1927), a surgeon from N ew

Synaptic Transmission [Greek: synapsis, connection] Found

York, in 1886.

in the nervous system and suggested to be more an electrical phenomenon than chemical mechanism by Sir

Synthalin The trypanocidal effect o f this compound was

John CarewEccles (b 1903), an Australian neurophysiologist

shown to be due to its action in reducing glucose concen­

at Sir Charles Scott Sherrington’s (1857—1952) department o f

tration at cellular levels by Jansco in 1935 .This led to a search

physiology at Oxford in the 1920s. Eccles also demonstrated

for similar trypanocidal compounds, and pentamidine was

the depolarization o f post-synaptic muscle in response to

discovered in 1937 as a result.

neural stimulus which he named excitatory post-synaptic

Synthetic Estrogen After the isolation o f natural estrogens

potential (EPSP). The chemical nature was demonstrated

it was noted that a 5-steroid group o f compounds also had

in 1921 by Otto Loewi (1873—1961), a German-born

estrogenic activity. A search for similar synthetic com­

pharmacologist.The chemical substance released was identi­

pounds was made by Sir Edward Charles Dodds (1899—

fied as acetylcholine in 1929 by British physiologist. Sir

1973) in 1933. Around the same time, a Harvard-trained

Henry HalletDale (1875-1968).

biochemist and Nobel Prize winner, Edward Adelbert

Syncope [Latin: syncopa, fainting fit] Cardiac passion is an

Doisy (b 1893),started investigating compounds which had

ancient Greek expression for syncope. Galen (AD 129—200)

estrogenic properties similar to oxidation products o f estro-

and other ancient physicians considered it a complication o f

diol. Stilbene, the first synthetic estrogen, was produced in

fever. Caelius Aurelianus described it under morbus cardia-

1936, followed by stilbestrol, synthesized by Dodds in 1938.

cus, and Aretaeus (81-138) used the term syncope for it and

The most potent oral estrogen, ethinyl estrodiol, was

recommended venesection as treatment. A report o f

prepared from estradiol by H .H . Inhoffen and W. H ohlweg

syncope due to cardiac arrest or heart block was given by

in the same year.A related chemical to the natural hormone

Marcus Gerbezius (1658—1718) in i692.The same condition

was prepared by K. Miescher in 1944. Total synthesis o f

698

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SZILY

estrone was announced by G.Anner and Miescher in 1948.

System ic Lupus Erythem atosus (SLE) A n early descrip­ tions was given by Laurent Theodore Biett (178 1—1840), a

See estrogens.

physician in Paris. M oritz Kaposi (1837—1902), a Hungarian

Syphilis Several statements in the AyurVeda suggest that vene­

dermatologist, described it in 1872 and it was recognized as

real disease was present in India in ancient times.

a disease entity by G. Pernet o f Paris in 1908. The cardiac

Venereal sores were noted in China before 600 B C and a spe­

manifestations were noted by N ew York physician,

cific name for it appears in writings from the time o f theTang

Emanuel Libman (1872—1946) in 19 11 (Libman—Sacks

dynasty around A D 618 to 906 .The first Spanish treatise on it

endocarditis) who published his findings with Benjamin

was written by Francisco Lopez de Villalobos, physician to

Sacks (1873^1939) in 1924. Nephritis as a common feature

King Charles I in 1498. A 15th century Spanish physician,

was observed by Norm an Macdonnell Keith (1885—1976) in

JuanAlmonder,published DeMarco Gallico in 1502.The term

1920 and confirmed by Libman and Sacks in i924.The wire

syphihs was coined by Fracastorius (1478—1533) in Syphilis

loop lesions o f the kidney were shown by George Baehr

sive morbus Gallicus published in 1530. It is said to have been

(b 1887) and co-workers in 1935. Diffuse collagen disease

brought to Europe by Columbus’ sailors when they returned

was

to Europe in 1493. Treatment with mercury was given by

described by Paul Klemperer

(1887—1964)

and

colleagues in 1942 and included disseminated lupus

Giorgio Sanmariva ofVerona in 1496. Potassium iodide was

erythematosus and diffuse scleroderma. The diagnostic

used as treatment o f secondary syphilis by Robert Williams

presence

o f St Thomas’ Hospital in 1831 and its use in tertiary syphilis

M acCallum Hargraves (b 1903) in 1948.

o f LE

cells was

discovered

by

Malcolm

was popularized by William Wallace (1791—1837) o f Dublin

Systolic B lo o d Pressure [Greek: systole, drawing together]

in 1835, who also published a treatise on venereal diseases in

A clinical method o f measuring it was devised by Samuel

1 833.The causative organism was discovered in 1905 by Fritz

Siegfried R itter von Basch (1837-1905) ofVienna in 1881.

Richard Schaudinn (1871-1906) from Germany, a protozo­

He applied external pressure to the artery and felt the pulse

ologist at the Institute o f Tropical Diseases in Hamburg.

beyond the site o f pressure, and is stiU in use today. Pierre

See Treponema pallidum, venereal disease, genitourinary medicine,

Carl

neurosyphilis. Lock Hospital.

Syringe [Greek: syringx, pipe] Dominique Anel (1679-1725)

modified

Basch’s

Systolic C lick W hen accompanied by a late systolic mur­

structed by French surgeon, Charles Gabriel Pravaz

mur, it was thought to be extracardiac in origin until 1913

(179 1-1853), in 1851. It was developed to give injections by

when L. Gallavardin proposed that pericardial adhesions

Scottish physician A lexander W ood (18 18 -18 8 4 ) in 1855.

were responsible. The suggestion that it came from the

He used it to give morphine injections to the site o f pain

mitral valve due to regurgitation was made in 1963 byJ.V.O.

or nerves supplying the painful area. It was introduced

R e id and John B. Barlow, professor o f cardiology at

into America by Foredyce Barker in 1856 and George

Witwatersrand, South Africa. It was later attributed to

Thompson Elliot in 1858.

mitral valve prolapse.

Syringom yelia [Greek: syringx, pipe + myel, nerve] Morbid

Szent-G yorgyi,

cavitation in the spinal cord, first observed by Charles in

1546.

Théophile

Albert

von

Nagyrapolt

(1893—1986)

Hungarian biochemist and N obel Prize winner (1937)

Bonet

from Budapest who emigrated to America in 1947. He

(1620—1689) noted it in 1688. Antoine Portal (1742-1832)

identified the role o f vitamin C or ascorbic acid in scurvy in

related the lesion to paralysis in 1804.The term was coined

1 928.Adenosine triphosphate was shown to be a key factor

by Ollivier d’Angiers in 1824.The central canal was shown

in supplying energy for muscle contraction in in vitro studies

to be a normal feature by Benedict Stilling (1810-1879) in 1859.

(1825-19 01)

measurement o f blood pressure in 1890. See blood pressure.

duct. A hypodermic tubular needle and syringe was con­

(1503-1564)

Potain

introduced the air cu ff which encircled the limb for

in 1712 devised a syringe for the injection o f the lachrymal

Estienne

Edouard

instrument in 1889 and Scipione R iva R o cci (1863-1939)

Before this time it was thought to be abnormal by

d’ Angiers and others.A description in England was given

by him in 1938 and he described A TP as a cogwheel in the mechanism o f muscle. In 1942 he showed that the proteins, actin and myosin, act together to effect muscle contraction.

by London physician, SirWiUiamWithey Gull (1816-1890)

He said ‘to see actomyosin contract for the first time was

in 1862. Important accounts were also given by Jacob

one o f the most exciting experiences o f my scientific career’ .

Augustus Lockhart Clarke (1817—1880) and Hughlings

Szily, Aurel von (1847—1920) German ophthalmologist who

Jackson (18 34 -19 11) in 1867. A more detailed and complete account was given by Otto Kahler (1849-1893) in 1888.

performed chemical cauterization o f the choroid in 1934.

699

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TADDEO

lesions were also shown by Sir William Richard Gowers (1845—1915) in 1886. Irregular pupils were described by

T

Austrian physician,Emile Berger (1855—1926) in 1889.

Tabetic Crisis Tabetic gastric crisis with paroxysms o f sev­ ere abdominal pain in patients with tabetic syphilis were described by Georges Delamarre o f Paris in 1866. Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893) and Henri Bouchard (18331899) described it later in the same year.

T Cells

T aboo

Suppresser lymphocytes o f the immune system.

A term o f Polynesian origin which refers to

certain practices both sacred and forbidden. Sigmund Freud

Identified and described by Richard K. Gerson (19 32-

(1856—1939)

1983) in 1970.

in

Totem and Taboo (1913)

proposed a

psychological theory for society as a whole.

Tabardillo Spanish term for Mexican or Spanish form o f

Taboparesis Neurosyphilis accompanied by symptoms and

typhus used by Francisco Bravo (1530—1594) o f M exico in his

signs o f both tabes dorsalis and general paralysis o f the

Opera Medicinalia pubHshed in M exico City in 1570. This

insane. See tabes dorsalis,general paralysis of the insane.

book was the first printed medical book in the N ew World.

Tabor, R obert Sir (1642—1681) English apothecary from

Tabari, Ali Ibn Rabban (r A D 600) Christian medical writer

Cambridge who became famous through his secret remedy

from eastern Persia who converted to Islam. Fie wrote

for malaria. He was appointed physician to King Charles II

Firdaus-ul-Hikmat (Paradise o f Wisdom), an early medical

and was later knighted. King Charles had to write to the

encyclopedia. He reported the appearance o f smallpox

Royal College o f Physicians asking them not to interfere

during the siege o f M ecca in 569.

with Tabor s practice. He became famous in France by cur­

Tabby Cat A ppearance Characteristic striping o f the heart

ing the son o f King Louis X IV o f malaria. After his death the

found during postmortem in patients with severe anemia.

active ingredient in his secret preparation was found to be

Described in 1824 by James Scarth Combe (1796—1883), a

the well known cinchona bark which was already in wide

physician in Edinburgh in his paper A Case of Anaemia read

use as a cure for malaria. His Account of the cause and cure of

before the M edico-Chirurgical Society o f Edinburgh in

Ague was published in 1672.

1822. This description was the first on pernicious anemia,

Tachycardia

32 years before Thomas Addisons (1793—1860) account

[Greek: tachys, speed + kardia, heart] Irish

physician, William Stokes (1804—1878), gave the first des­

in 1855.

cription o f paroxysmal tachycardia in 1854 and it was also

Tabes D orsalis [Latin: tabes, wasting away] (Syn: locomotor

described by Richard Payne Cotton (1820—1877), from

ataxia, Duchenne disease) The first account o f it involving

Kensington in London in 18 69. Austrian physician Wilhelm

the spinal cord was given by Sigismund Eduard Loewen-

Winternitz (1835—1917) showed that supraventricular tachy­

hardt (1796-1875) in i8i7.T h e symptoms and signs ofloco -

cardia consisted o f a series o f atrial extrasystoles in 1883. He

motor ataxia were described in 1847 by British physician,

demonstrated this with the aid o f his polygraph. The cur­

R obert Bentley Todd (1809—1860). Lesions in the spinal

rent name, atrial tachycardia, was given by Léon Bouveret

cord were shown by German physician, M oritz Heinrich

(1850—1929) in 1889. E C G changes were recognized by Sir

Rom berg (1795—1873) in 1851 and the symptomatology

Thomas Lewis (1881—1943) in 1909, and described in more

was described by Sir John Russell Reynolds (1828—1896),

detail by P. S. Barker and colleagues in 1943 .The occurrence

professor o f medicine at University College London, in

in digitalis toxicity was noted by G. R . Herrmann in 1944

Diagnosis of the Diseases of the Spinal Cord and Nerves in 1855.

and confirmed by Bernard Town (b 1921), an American

London physician. Sir William Whithey Gull (1816—1890)

electrophysiologist in 1958. See ventricular tachycardia.

presented a series o f cases in 1856 and microscopic wasting

Tactile Organs

o f the fibers was demonstrated around the same time by

[Latin: tactilis, pertaining to touch] See

Wagner corpuscle, Meissner corpuscle, Merkel corpuscle.

Viennese neurologist, Ludwig Türck (1810—1868). It was named locomotor ataxia by Guillaume Benjamin Amand

Taddeo, Alderotti (1223-1303) Italian physician at Florence

Duchenne (1806—1875) in 1858.Tabetic gastric crises were

who introduced a system o f case histories for teaching

described by Georges Delamarre o f Paris in i866.The spinal

clinical medicine.

701

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TAENIA

Taenia [Latin: taenia, tape] Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) divid­

Tokyo and Glasgow. He married an American and moved to

ed intestinal worms into round lumbricae (Ascaris) and

N ew Jersey where he established an industrial biochemistry

broad lumbrici (Taenia) and pomegranate was a popular

laboratory in 1890. He crystaUized pure adrenaline — the

treatment for both forms. Flatworms were grouped togeth­

first hormone to be obtained in a pure form, from extract o f

er as Taenia saginita and differentiated and described by John

adrenal gland in 1901. He also prepared a diastase ferment

Augustus Ephraim Goeze (17 31—1786) from Halle in 1782.

with the tradename Taka diastase.

Karl Asmund Rudolph! (17 7 1—1832) in 1810 divided tape­

Takayasu Syndrom e Generalized arteritis o f the medium

worms into adult and cystic forms. Taenia nana, a common

size and larger arteries was described by M ikito Takayasu

tapeworm, was discovered by Theodor MaximiUian Bilharz

(1860-1938) ofjapan in 1908.

(1825-1862) in 1852. Taenia echinococcus was described by

TaUafero, Valentine H. (1831—1888) See episeotomy.

Batsch in 1786 and later by Zeder in 1803. German zoologist, Carl Theodor Ernest von Siebold (1804—1865),

Talipes [Latin: talipes, club foot] See clubfoot.

demonstrated in 1854 that dogs could be experimentally

Tallqvist Scale A color lithographic scale for estimating the

infected with Taenia echinococcus and the complete life histo­

percentage o f hemoglobin in blood. Devised by a Finnish

ry and morphology were given by Karl Georg Friedrich

physician,TheodoreWaldemarTallqvist (18 71-19 27).

Rudolph Leuckart (1823-1898) in i860. Taenia nana

Talma D isease Form o f myotonia which develops in adult

infection in man was shown by Bilharz and named by

life following trauma or infection. Described in 1892 by

Thomas Spencer Cobbold (1828-1886) in 1876.

SapeTalma (1847-1918), a physician from Utrecht. Taenia nana [Latin: taenia, tape] Tapeworm infection in man

Talmud

was shown by Theodor MaximiUian Bilharz (1825—1862),

Ancient Rabbinical writings consisting o f the

Mishnah and the Gemara and the basis o f religious author­

German professor o f zoology at Cairo. The parasite was

ity for traditional Judaism. Two groups o f scholars, one in

named by Thomas Spencer Cobbold (1828—1886) in 1876.

Babylon, and the other in Palestine started to compile it. It is

It is also known as Hymenolepis nana.

also an important source o f knowledge o f Hebrew Taenia saginata

[Latin: taenia, tape; + sagitta, arrow] B e e f

medicine and contains some o f the earliest recordings o f

tapeworm was described in 1782 by John Augustus

animal anatomy, as human dissections were not permitted

Ephraim Goeze (1731-178 6 ), a German clergyman and

during that time.The earliest suggestion that a cesarean sec­

naturalist at HaUe.

tion could be performed in a live mother is made in the Mishnah. It also mentions contraceptive substances, blood

Taenia solium [Latin: taenia, tape; Syrian: schuscle, chains] Pork

letting and other medical practices.

tapeworm was described by Carl Linnaeus (1707—1778) in 1758.

T agliocozzi, Gaspare (14 91-1553) Italian plastic surgeon from Bologna whose work was opposed by Ambroise Paré (1510—1590)

and

Gabriele

FaUoppio

(1523—1562)

on

religious grounds. His body was exhumed and reburied in unconsecrated grounds by the church. His De Curatorum Chirurgiaper Infinitonem was published in 1597.

Tait, Lawson R obert (1845—1899) Surgeon from Edinburgh

Pericardium not distended (left);pericardium distended with 15 ounces of fluid (right). J.Russell Reynolds, A System o f Medicine (1877). MacMillan, London

who settled in Birmingham in 18 71. He performed a successful operation for ruptured tubal pregnancy in 1883. He introduced his method o f dilating the cervix in 1880 and the flap-splitting operation for plastic repair o f the

Tam ponade

[French: tamponner, to stop up] An early

perineum in 1879. He also performed the first hepatotomy

description o f cardiac tamponade caused by collection o f

in 1880.

blood in the pericardium secondary to cardiac rupture was given by Berlin physician, Edmund R ose (1836—1914).The

Takaki, Kanehiro (1849-1915) See beriberi.

Beck triad, low arterial pressure, high venous pressure and

Takamine, Jokichi (1834-1922) Japanese-born American

absent apex beat, was described by American surgeon

chemist ffomTakaoka who studied chemical engineering in

Claude Schaeffer Beck (1894-1971) o f Pennsylvania.

702

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TAYLOR

Tatum, Edward Lawrie (1909—1975) American biochemist

Tapew orm SeeTaenia.

from Boulder, Colorado. He worked with George Wells

Tanqueral, Planches des (1809-1862) See lead poisoning.

Beadle (1903—1989) on the bread mold, Neurospora, and

Tarantism Dancing mania, started in Apulia in Italy in the

showed the role o f genes in biochemical processes. They

latter part o f the 14th century. It was believed to have been

irradiated the spores with X-rays and examined growth o f

caused by the bite o f Apulian spider orTarantula. In the 14th

mutant spores and formulated the ‘one gene one enzyme’

and 15th centuries hundreds o f people who believed that

theory. He collaborated with Joshua Lederberg (b 1925) at

they had been bitten took to the streets, and their dancing

Yale in showing that bacteria reproduce by conjunction.

mania spread to many cities and villages in Italy A

All three shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine

description was given by Nicholas Perotti (1430-1480).

in 1958. He contributed to the subsequent development o f genetic engineering by H. Gruneberg, Conrad Hal

Tardi, Claude (1607—1670) French physician who proposed

Waddington (1905-1975) and others. See genetic engineering.

the theoretical basis for blood transfusion from man to man in 1667.

Taussig, Helen Brooke (1898—1986) American pediatrician

Tardieu Spots Ecchymosis seen on the pleura following

from Cambridge, Massachusetts and a pioneer in surgical

suffocation. D escribed by French physician, Auguste

intervention for congenital heart disease. She graduated

Ambroise Tardieu (1818-1879).

from Johns Hopkins in 1927 and became the first woman professor there. The Blalock—Taussig shunt was the first

Target Cells Present in iron-deficiency anemia. Observed

surgical operation for Fallot tetralogy and was performed

by Russell Landram Haden (1888—1952) o f Kansas, a

by Alfred Blalock (1899-1964) andTaussigin 1945.

hematologist and ED. Evans in 1937. A .M . Barrett named them in 1938.

Taussig O peration Iliac lymphadenectomy combined with irradiation in cases o f cancer o f the cervix. Described by

Tarin, Pierre (1725-176 1) French anatomist who studied the

American gynecologist, Frederick Joseph Taussig (b 1872)

brain. He described thickening o f the velum medulläre at

o f St Louis in 1934.

the vermis o f the cerebellum (Tarin valve) in 1750. He was also a medical historian.

Tavel Serum

One o f the first antistreptococcal sera.

Prepared by Ernst Tavel (1858—1912), a surgeon at Bern in

Tarnier Forceps Axis traction forceps for applying traction

Switzerland. He devised a method o f gastrostomy in 1906.

along the line o f the pelvic axis. Designed in i860 by French obstetrician, Etienne Stéphane Tarnier (1828-1897).

Tawara N o d e

Atrioventricular node o f the conducting

system o f the heart. Discovered in 1906 by Japanese

Tarsus [Greek: tarsos, broad flat surface] Term used to denote a variety o f flattened objects such as wings o f a bird, blade o f

anatomist, Sunao Tawara (1873-1952), a pupil o f Karl Albert

a saw or rudder o f a ship. Galen (AD 129-200) used the

Aschoff (1866—1942) in Germany.

term to refer to the flat parts o f the skeleton such as the foot,

Taxis [Greek: taxis, to put in order or arrange] There are sev­

hand or margin o f the eyelid.

eral uses for this word: (i) movement o f a motile organism

Tartaric A cid Its salts are used in food preparation and as

in response to an external stimulus; (2) manual replacement

a cathartic. Produced by Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742—1786) in 1770 and by Justus von Liebig

o f a displaced or injured organ or structure such as a fracture, dislocation or hernia.

(1803-1873) o f Germany in 1846. Stereochemistry origi­

Taxonom y [Greek: taxis, drawing up in rank or file + nomos,

nated from Louis Pasteur’s (1822—1895) work on three

law] Used for classification o f plants on a morphological basis

isomers o f tartaric acid in 1848. It was developed by Dutch

by Swiss botanist,Augustin Pyrame de Candolle (1778—1841)

chemist. Jacobus Henricus Van’t H o ff (1852—19 11) and

in 1813 and Carl Linnaeus (1707—1778) in Sweden.

French chemist Joseph Achille Le B el (1847-1930) in 1874.

Tattoo

Tay—Sachs D isease Amaurotic familial idiocy with ocular

[Tahitian: tatù, puncture] It was important to the

manifestations. Described by Warren Tay (1843—1927), a

primitive Piets.They, like the Goths, decorated their bodies

British ophthalmologist from Yorkshire at the London

with various figures using pigments applied with sharp iron

Hospital in 1880.The cerebral manifestations and its pathol­

instruments.The practice was prohibited for those under 18

ogy were pointed out by Bavarian physician, Bernard

in England, following the Tattooing o f Minors Act in 1969.

Parney Sachs (1858-1944) in N ew York in 1887.

It was identified as a mode o f transmission o f hepatitis B

Taylor, Alfred Swaine (1806—1880) English forensic scientist

virus in the 1980s.

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Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TAYLOR

and the first chair o f medical jurisprudence at G u y’s

Emilio Segre (1905-1989). He shared the N obel Prize for

Hospital in 1831. He wrote Elements of MedicalJurisprudence

Physics in i959.Technetium—99, a metastable isotope with a

in 1836, and Remarks on Death by Strangulation in 1852.

half-life o f 6.03 hours was introduced into nuclear medicine by P.V. Harper in 1962 and is the most commonly

Taylor, Alfred Simpson (1868—1942) N ew York surgeon who

used radionuclide in medicine.

described a method o f treatment for fracture dislocation o f the cervical spine 1924.

Tooth [Anglo-Saxon: toth, tooth] See dentistry, artificial teeth, dental caries, tooth transplantation.

Taylor, John Chevalier (170 3-1772) Traveling oculist from N orw ich and oculist to George II in 1736.

Teetotaller One who abstains from any form o f fermented

Taylor, Sir William (1843—1917) Medical graduate from

liquor. Word used by Richard Turner (d 1846) at a temper­

Glasgow who became an army physician and served in

ance meeting in 1833 where he stated ‘that nothing but

Canada, Burm a and India. He brought several reforms to

te-total will do’ .

the British Arm y after the South African War.

Teevan, William Frederic (1834—1887) See skullfracture.

Taylor Apparatus Steel support used in the treatment o f

Teflon Heat resistant material which prevents clogging and

Pott disease o f the spine. Devised in 1876 by N ew York

dust settling on it. Discovered by R o y J. Plunkett, an engi­

orthopedic surgeon, Charles Fayette Taylor (1827-1899).

neer in America in 1938. It is used in many medical appliances including canulae.

Taylor D isease Form o f idiopathic localized atrophy o f the skin described by American dermatologist, R obert William

T eichm ann Plexus Deep and superficial lymphatic plexus

Taylor (1842—1908).

found on the waU o f the stomach. Described in 1861 by

TB See tuberculosis.

Ludwig

Carl

Teichmann-Stawiarski

(1823—1895),

a

histologist and professor o f anatomy at Cracow.

Tea Taster Lung Caused by the fungus. Monilia, and found in Sri Lanka. Described by Marquis Aldo Castellani

Telencephalon [Greek: tele, far o ff + enkephalos, brain] Term

(18 79 -19 71) o f Florence in 1903.

for the anterior part o f the developing brain consisting o f cerebral vesicles and laminia terminalis.

Tea [Latin: thea] Infusion from the dried leaves o f Camellia sinensis, introduced into Europe from the East by the Dutch

Telengiectasis [Greek: tele, distant or remote + anggeon, ves­

in 1610. The English diarist Samuel Pepys (1633—1703)

sel + ekteneo, distend] See familial hemorrhagic telengiectasis,

mentioned his first cup o f tea in 1660. It was imported to

Campbell de Morgan spots.

England by the East India Company in 1669.The alkaloids

Telephone [Greek: tele, distance + phone, sound] The inven­

caffeine, tannic acid and theophyllin were identified as the

tor o f the telephone, Alexander Graham BeU (1847—1922)

active components.

o f Edinburgh, came from a generation o f vocal physiolo­

Teacher, John Hammond (1869-1930) Scottish pathologist

gists. His grandfather and father were interested in the

from Glasgow who reported a case o f sciatica due to

education o f deaf mutes. It was invented by him while he

rupture o f the intervertebral disc in 19 11. He also wrote an

was professor o f vocal physiology at Boston University and

early work on the human embryo.

patented on February 4th 1876. The first long distance

Used for culture o f Ducrey baciUus o f

telephone caU between BeU and Thomas A. Watson, from

chancroid. Devised by N ew York bacteriologist, Oscar

N ew York to San Francisco was made in 1915. The first

Teague (1878—1923) in 1922.

transatlantic caU between Arlington,Virginia and the Eiffel

Teague A gar

Tower in Paris also took place in the same year.

Teale, Sir Thomas Pridgin (1801-1868) English surgeon from Leeds who wrote a monograph on abdominal hernia in

Telephotography

1846. He also published other treatises on plastic surgery and amputation. See abdominal hernia

telephotography was done by Edmund Edward Fournier D ’Albe (1868—1933) o f London in 1923.

T C ell Suppressor lymphocytes identified and described by Richard K. Gerson (1932-1983) in 1970.

Technetium

[Greek: telos, distant + photos, light +

graphein, to write] The first transmission o f a portrait by

Tem in, Howard Martin (b 1934) American virologist from Philadelphia who was educated at Swarthmore CoUege and

Manmade metallic element with no stable

isotopes. Produced in 1937 by bombarding molybdenum

Caltech. He formulated the provirus hypothesis that genet­

with neutrons by American physicist o f Italian origin,

ic material o f an invading virus is copied by the host D N A .

704

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

T E N D O N

REFLEX

In 1970 he isolated reverse transcriptase that transcribes

George Elgie Brown (1885—1935) in 1934. A histological

R N A into double-stranded D N A enabling it to be inserted

picture o f biopsied temporal arteries was described by

into the host. Such viruses are known as retroviruses.

Horton and Magath in 1937. Severe permanent impairment

Reverse transcriptase is now used in genetic engineering

o f vision in temporal arteritis was described by E. W.

to copy specific genes. He was awarded the N obel Prize

Shannon andj. Solomon in 1945.

for Physiology or Medicine in 1975. See reverse transcriptase.

Tem poral B o n e

T em peram ent [Latin: temperamentum] Inherent predisposi­ tion to react to stimuli in a certain manner. Galen (AD

due to aging is first seen.

129—200) grouped human differences into nine entities or

Tem poral L obe [Latin: temporalis, temple] Auditory radia­

temperaments. Other writers proposed sanguine, nervous and

lymphatic

dispositions.

Four

[Latin: temporalis, temple] Cranial bone

derives its name due its site where the graying o f the hair

tion to it was traced by Richard L. Heschl (1824—1881) o f

temperaments,

Vienna in 1878. Its role as the center for olfactory and

melancholy, sanguine, choleric and phlegmatic, related to

gustatory sensations was demonstrated by John Hughlings

the four humors were illustrated in the Guild B ook o f Bar­

Jackson (18 35-19 11) in 1889. He also observed the abnormal

ber Surgeons dating from around 1500.

sensation o f smell and taste in a patient with a temporal lobe tumor.

Tem perance Abstinence from alcoholic beverages.The first temperance society in America was proposed in 1825 and

Tem poralis

established in 1826. One o f the first temperance movements

[Latin: temporalis, temple] Muscle o f the

cranium which derives its name from its site where the

in England was started by Joseph Livesey o f Preston, the

graying o f the hair due to aging is first seen.

editor o f Staunch Teetotaller, in 1832. The National Temper­

Tendo A chilles Bursitis Albert disease was described by

ance Society o f England was formed in 1842 and the

Eduard Albert (1841-1900). o f Austria in 1893.

. LondonTemperance League began in 1851.

Temperature See thermometer, clinical thermometry.

Tendo Achilles [Latin: tendere, to stretch] See Achilles tendon.

Tem ple M edicine A religious sanctuary from 12,000 B C

Tendon R eflex [Latin: tendere, to stretch] Term introduced

was found in El Juyo cave in Spain by archaeologists in

by Johan August Unzer (1727-1799) to describe the

1978. Babylonian physicians were priests and known as

sensorymotor reaction in 177 1. The role o f the spinal roots

Assipu priests. They used magic, incantations, religious

in the reflex arc was described by Sir Charles Bell

sacrifices and sometimes drugs. A temple in honor o f the

(1774—1842) in 18 11 and François Magendie (1783—1855) in

Greek god o f medicine, Aesculapius, was built at Epidaurus

1822. The term knee jerk to denote involuntary tendon

around 600 B C . The grounds contained large non-

reflex o f the knee was coined by Sir William Richard

poisonous yellow snakes which were allowed to lick the

Gowers (18 4 5-19 15),and the physical sign was named patel­

diseased parts o f the body to effect healing. This led to

lar tendon reflex by Wilhelm Heinrich Erb (1840—1921),

Aesculapius being depicted with a serpent around his staff.

and knee phenomenon by Karl Otto Friedrich Westphal

Early practice mainly consisted o f mysticism and magic but

(1833-1941). Erb demonstrated the loss o f knee jerk in

later gave way to physical medicine with mineral baths,

syphilis o f the spinal cord. Reinforcem ent o f the reflex was

massage, blood letting and therapeutics such as iron, milk

described

and honey. See Monastic Medicine.

(1829—1914) and M orris J. Lewis in 1886. Nobel Prize

independently

by

Silas

Weir

MitcheU

winner. Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (18 57-1952),in 1893

Tem plem an, Peter ( 17 11—1769) Physician from Dorchester

demonstrated that it was an inhabitable phenomenon, thus

who practiced in London. He was keeper o f the reading

establishing it as a genuine reflex. The segmental nature o f

room at the British Museum and secretary o f the Society

the spinal cord and its interface with the higher centers was

o f Arts.

demonstrated by English physiologist, Marshall Hall (Syn: H orton disease, giant cell

(1790—1857) in 1833.Their abolition in the lower extremi­

arteritis) Inflammation o f the temporal and other cranial

ties associated with lesions above the lumbar segment o f the

arteries manifesting as headache and tenderness over the

spinal cord was demonstrated by Henry Charlton Bastian

Tem poral Arteritis

superficial arteries with visual symptoms, mainly during the

(1837—1915) ofTruro. Further work was done by Edward

sixth and seventh decades o f life. Described by American

George Tandy Liddell (1895—1981), a neurophysiologist at

physicians, Bayard Taylor H orton (d i895),T.B.M agath and

Oxford, and Sherrington.

705

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

T E N D O N

[Latin: tendere, to stretch] An early reference to

Terrier Valve Gall bladder valve found between the gall

surgical repair o f severed tendons was made by Galen (AD

bladder and the cystic duct. Described in 1891 by Louis

129—200), physician to the R om an gladiators. A successful

Felix Terrier (1837-1908), professor o f surgery at Paris.

Tendon

tendon transplantation in a case o f paralytic talipes valgus

Terson Gland

was done by B. E Parrish o f America in 1892. A new method

Conjunctival gland described by French

ophthalmologist fromToulouse, Albert Terson (1867-1935),

o f tendon transplantation, using tendon sheaths to facilitate

in 1892.

gliding o f tendons, was devised by Leo Mayer in 1916. The

Tertian Fever

proprioceptors, highly specialized somatic sensory end

[Latin: tertius, third] Fever occurring

organs o f the muscles, tendons andjoints, were described by

every third day in malaria. Described by Hippocrates

Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857—1952) in

(460-377 B C ) .

1906.

See tendon ref exes.

Tesla C oil Produces a high voltage at high frequency. Inven­ ted by Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), an American electrical

Tenesm us [Greek: teinesmos,strún] Paul ofAegina (AD 6 25690) described it as ‘an irresistible desire for evacuation,

engineer ofYugoslavian origin, in 1891.

discharging nothing but some bloody mucus matter’ . He

Test Tube Baby Successful in vitro fertilization o f human

recommended injection o f honeyed water into the rectum.

gametes was showed by R obert Geoffrey Edwards (b 1925)

Galen (AD 129—200) stated that stones were sometimes

and Patrick Christopher Steptoe (1913-1988) in 1969. A

passed through the anus in such cases. Aulus Cornelius

human test tube baby was born in England in 1978.

Celsus (25 B C - A D 50) recommended tepid baths.

See in vitrofertilization.

Tennis E lbow See elbow.

Testaceae [Latin: testa, shell] Arcellinida, one o f the oldest

Tenon Capsule Fascia bulbi was named after French army

classifications in biology, includes shellfish, oysters and cray­

surgeon and professor o f pathology, Jacques R en é Tenon

fish. Pliny (AD 23-79) distinguished lower animals in water

(1724—1816) who specialized in ophthalmology, in 1816.

into three classes: Crustacea, testacea and moUusca. Their role in dietetics was discussed by Athenaeus o f Egypt in

T enotom y [Greek: teinein, to stretch + tome, to cut] A new

The Deipnosophists, written during the third century AD.

surgical method o f treatment for club foot involving subcutaneous section o f the tendo achilles was introduced

Testicles [Latin: testis] Their tubular nature was discovered

in 1816 by Jacques Mathieu Delpech (1777-18 3 2), professor

by Claude Aubrey who wrote Testis Examinatus in 1658.

o f surgery at Montpellier. It was applied as treatment for

An early account on the structure was given by R egnier

other deformities arising out o f muscular defects by

de Graaf (16 41-16 73) in 1668. A modern monograph on

German orthopedic surgeon, Georg Friedrich Ludwig

structure and diseases was published by Sir Astley Paston

Stromeyer (1804—1876) around 1836. It was advocated

Cooper (1768-1841) o f G u y’s Hospital in 1830. Evidence

in France by French surgeon,Amédée Bonnet (1802—1858)

for the presence o f a humoral substance in them which

in 1841.

T entorium C erebellum

effected an organ remote from its origin was presented by Arnold Adolph Berthhold (1803—1861) in

[Latin: tentorium, tent] Name

1849. He

transplanted testes to an emasculated rooster and demon­

derives from its tent-like appearance over the cerebellum.

strated normal resumption o f male sexual characteristics.

Teratology [Latin: teras, monster + logos, discourse] Term

Ley dig or interstitial cells were described in 1850 by Franz

coined in 1822 by Etienne Saint-Hilaire (1772-1844)

von Ley dig (18 21—1908), professor o f histology and a

to denote the study o f congenital malformations. He

comparative anatomist at Würzberg. Thomas Blizzard

attempted to produce congenital malformations by manip­

Curling (1811-1888) considered them to be controlled by

ulating chicken eggs. His son, Isidore Geofifey Saint-Hilaire,

the brain and sympathetic nervous system in A Practical

named and classified hundreds o f specific malformations.

Treatise on the Diseases of the Testis. Testosterone from the tes­

Experimental work on malformations especially in birds

ticular tissue was isolated by Dutch pharmacists, K. David,

eggs was done by Peter Ludwig Panum (1820—1885) o f

E. Emanse, F. Freud and E. Laqueur in 1933. See orchidopexy.

Berlin in i860.

Testicular R eflex Contraction o f abdominal muscles on

Term inal Care [Latin: terminus, end] See hospice.

compression o f testicles. D escribed by Swiss surgeon, Theodor Kocher (18 4 1-19 17) in 1874.

Terramycin See oxytetracycline.

706

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

THACHER

French surgeon, Edme Lesauvage

showed that it could be produced in guinea pig and rabbit

(1778—1852), gave an account o f spermatic cord tumors in

by inoculating them with contaminated earth. A bacillus

1845. Interstitial ceU sarcoma was described by German

was observed in a human case by Anton Julius Frederick

pathologist, David Paul von Hansemann (1858-1920) in

Rosenbach (1842-1923) in 1886 and it {Clostridium tetani)

Testicular Tum or

1895. Seminoma was described by French urologist,

was isolated by Shibasaburo Kitasato (1852-1931) in 1889.

M aurice Chevassau (b 1877) in 1906. German physician,

Vaccine was developed by Emil Behring (1854—1917) and

Ludwig Pick (b 1868), described arrhenoblastoma in 1905.

used during World War 1.A formaldehyde-treated toxin was

Radical surgery involving the removal o f lumbar lymph

introduced by P. Descombey in 1924. An alum-precipitated

nodes and spermatic vein was described by Philadelphia

toxoid was prepared by Alexander Thomas Glenny (1882—

surgeon, John Bingham Roberts (1852—1924) in 1902.

1965), a British bacteriologist in 1930 and used on humans

Gynecomastia associated with testis tumors was noted by

by Leon Gaston Ram on (1886-1963) and Christian Zoeller

Bennetjudson Gilbert (b 1898) in 1940.

(1888-1934) in 1933.

Testis [Latin: testis] See testicles. Testosterone

Tetany An account o f infantile tetany was given by John Clarke (176 1-18 15) in his treatise on pediatrics,published in

[Latin: testis, testicle; Greek: stear, suet]

1815. Spasm o f the glottis was described by English

See androgens.

physician, George KeUie in 1816. It was attributed to the

Tetanus Toxoid See tetanus.

parathyroid gland by Salmon Levi Steinheim (1789—1866)

TetanusVaccine See tetanus.

in 1 830. Armand Trousseau (1801—1867) named i t ‘tetanilla’ and François R em y Lucien Covisart (1824—1882) described it and introduced the term ‘tetanie’ in 1852.Trousseau sign o f tetanic spasm o f the hand on applying pressure to the arm was by described Trousseau in 18 6 1.The Chvostek sign where the facial muscles go into spasms on tapping the facial nerve, a diagnostic sign in tetany, was described in 1876 by Austrian surgeon, Frantisek Chvostek (1835—1884). Parathyroid hormone was used in treatment in 1925 by James Bertram CoUip (1892—1965), a biochemist at Alberta.

Tetracycline Antibiotic derived from Streptomyces aureofaciens from a Missouri farmyard by a retired botany professor,

'True opisthotonus'. Sir Charles Bell, The Anatomy and Philosophy of

Benjamin Duggar o f Wisconsin in 1948. Aureomycin

Expression (1890). George Bell & Son, London

became the most commonly prescribed antibiotic over the (Syn:

next decades. Oxytetracycline or terramycin was isolated

lock-jaw) Aretaeus (81—138) observed that the wounds o f

from Streptomyces rimosus by Alexander Carpenter Finlay

muscular or nervous part, abortion, and excessive cold

(b 1906) and co-workers in 1950.

Tetanus

[Greek: tétanos, stretched or stiffness]

caused it, and mentioned the first two causes as fatal. He

Tetralogy o f Fallot [Greek: tétras, four + logos, discourse]

classified three varieties o f spasms: emprosthotonus when

Outflow obstruction to the right ventricle, ventricular

the parts o f the body are bent forwards, opisthotonus when

septal defect, right ventricular hypertrophy and dextroposi­

bent backwards and tetanus when the parts are stretched

tion o f the aorta were described by Etienne-Louis Arthur

equally both ways. According to Hippocrates (460—377 B C )

Fallot (1850—19 11) o f France in 1888. The Blalock-Taussig

it was fatal within four days or recovery occurs. Some reme­

shunt, the first surgical operation for Fallot tetralogy, was

dies recommended by ancient physicians include: oil baths,

performed by Alfred Blalock (1899—1964) and Helen

cupping, purging and antispasmodics such as castor oil and

Taussig (1898-1986) o f Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1945.

asafetida. The French military surgeon Dominique Jean Larrey (1766—1842) saw numerous cases in the field and

Teutonic Order Military knights who attended the sick

wrote on the subject in 1812. He recommended amputation

and wounded o f the Christian army during the Crusades.

o f the limb. Its true cause remained obscure until Antonio

Established at Jerusalem in 1 1 9 1 .

Carle (1854-1927) and Giorgio Rattone o f Italy demon­

Texas C attle Fever See babesiasis.

strated the transferability o f the disease in animals in 1884. In the same year Arthur Nicolaier (b 1862) o f Gottingen

Thacher, James (1754-1844) See Bibliography in Medicine.

707

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

THACHER

hemoglobinopathy. Described independently by E Rietti

Thacher, Thomas (1620-1678) See American Medical books.

(1925) andE.G reppi (1928).

Thackeray, William Makepiece (18 11—1863) English novel­ ist, born in Calcutta, where his father was in the East India

Thales (624—545 B C ) Greek philosopher, astronomer and

Company. In Pendennis he described the life and practice o f

geometer from the city o f Miletus in Asia M inor was a

a typical early 19th century apothecary .

founder among Greek philosophers. He devoted his time to mathematics and measured the height o f a pyramid by its

Thackrah, Charles Turner (1795—1833) Pupil o f Sir Astley

shadow. He predicted the exact date o f the solar eclipse o f

Paston Cooper (176 8 -18 41) at G u y’s Hospital.A founder o f provincial medical education in England. He formed the

585 B C and determined the number o f days in a year as 365.

Leeds School o f Anatomy in 1826 which developed into the

He proposed water as the essence and origin o f all things

Leeds University School o f Medicine. He was also a pioneer

and the electrical properties o f amber when rubbed were

o f industrial medicine and wrote the first book in England

observed by him. Most o f his discoveries have been

on occupational medicine in 1832.

conveyed through Aristotle’s (384—322 B C ) works.

T halidom ide

Thaddeus o f F lorence (1223—1303) Physician who taught

Introduced as a hypnotic and sedative in

anatomy at Bologna where he encouraged dissections. He

Germany in 1958. Its use over the next three years was

helped translate some Greek medical classics into Latin.

associated with a form o f congenital abnormality called phocomelia, where limbs failed to develop in infants born

Thalam ic Syndrom e Contralateral spontaneous pain, trans­

to mothers who took the drug. It was withdrawn from the

ient hemiplegia, ataxia and choreoathetoid movements due

market.

to thrombosis or other lesions o f the thalamogeniculate

T hallium Scan Used for study o f myocardial perfusion with

artery. Described by Joseph Jules Dejerine (1849—1917) and

thallium-201

Gustave Roussy (1874—1948) o f Paris in 1906.

tracer. Introduced by E. Lebowitz and

colleagues in 1973.

Thalam us [Greek: thalamos, inner chamber] Pliny (AD 23—79) referred to the temple o f Apis as thalamus. Thalami

T hallium [Greek: thallos, green shoot] Metallic element

cordis for the chambers o f the heart and thalami penis for

discovered through spectral analysis by SirWilliam Crookes

the cavernous spaces o f the penis were used before the time

(1832—1919) in 1861 and by Belgian chemist, Claude August

ofAndreasVesalius (1514—1564). Galen (AD 129—200) used it

Lamy (1820—1878) in 1862. Its salts are active poisons and

for those chambers at the base o f the brain which he

the 201 isotope is used in diagnostics radiology.

thought supplied animal spirits to the optic nerves.Thalam­ ic nuclei were described by Henri de Mondeville (1260—

T hanatology

[Greek: thanatos, death + logos, discourse]

Medicolegal study o f death and conditions affecting dead

1320), an Italian anatomist who referred to it as anchee

bodies.

(buttocks). It was revived in a modern sense by Thomas Willis (16 21—1675) in 1664 and details o f the structure was

Thannhauser, Jo sef Siegfried (b 1885) German physician

elucidated in 1869 by Bernhard Alloys von Gudden

who

(1824-1886), a neuroanatomist and professor o f psychiatry

xanthomas, hypercholesterolemia and premature heart

at Zurich.

disease (familial hypercholesterolemia) in 1938.

Thalassem ia Major [Greek: thalassa, sea] Hereditary hemo­

described

familial

clustering

o f patients

with

Thayer, William Sydney (1864—1932) American graduate o f

lytic anemia first noted to mainly affect those o f

Harvard and professor o f medicine at Johns Hopkins Hos­

Mediterranean origin. Association with bone changes in

pital. He studied and described the third heart sound. He

children due to a hemoglobinopathy, was described by American

pediatrician,

Thomas

Benton

published a volume o f poetry, America 1917 and other perse .

Cooley

(18 71—1945) in 1925.A genetic defect involving deletion o f

Thaysen Syndrom e Paroxysmal intense pain in the region

a specific globin gene was shown by British molecular

o f the anus and the internal sphincter and o f unknown

biologist, Richard Anthony Flavell (b 1945), head o f the

etiology. Described in 1917 by Alexander MacLennan, a

Laboratory o f Gene Structure and Expression at the

lecturer in surgery at Glasgow University. It is named after

National Institute o f Medical Research at M ill Hill from

Danish physician Thornwald Einar Hess Thaysen (1883-

1979 to 1983.

1936) who described it as proctalgia fugax in 1935.

Thalassem ia M inor [Greek: thalassa, sea] Relatively mild

T hebesius, Adam Christian (1686—1732) German anatomist

anemia due to a heterozygous thalassemia trait for a specific

at Leiden who gave a description o f venarum minimarum

708

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

THERAPEUTICS

cordis (Thebesius veins) and the coronary sinus o f the heart

NaturalTheology by Paley (1802).

(Thebesius valve) in 1708.

T heophilus SeeJohann Gottlieb Walter (173A - Î 8 Î 8).

T heelin Estrone preparation obtained by a biochemist and

Theophrastus (372—287 B C ) Greek physician and philoso­

N obel Prize winner, Edward Adelbert Doisy (1893—1986)

pher from Eresus on Lesbos. He was a disciple o f Aristotle

o f Illinois and C. D.Valer in 1929.

(384—322 B C )

and Plato. He wrote several treatises

Space formed by the reflection o f the

including History of Plants, Treatise on Stones, and Moral

pericardium on the aorta and the pulmonary artery.

Characters of Men. He described the fundamental differences

Described by German anatomist, Friedrich W ilhelmTheile

between plants and animals and the effects o f various scents

T heile Canal

on body and mind and this formed the basis for aromather­

(1801-1879).

apy. He succeeded Aristotle as a teacher in the Lyceum at

Theiler, M ax (1899-1972) South African-born American

Athens and laid the foundations for botany through his

bacteriologist from Pretoria, who studied medicine at the

work on anatomy, physiology, systematics, pharmacognosy

University o f Cape Town, St Thomas’ Hospital Medical

and plant pathology.

School and the School ofTropical Medicine and Hygiene

Theophylline Methylxanthine compound in tea leaves that

at London University. He joined Harvard Medical School to work on amebic dysentery in 1922 and later worked

has antispasmodic effects on bronchial smooth muscles

on yellow fever. He moved to Rockefeller Institute and

was described by David Israel Macht (1882-1961) in 19 21.

then was appointed to the chair o f epidemiology and

Other salts are used as cardiac muscle and nervous system

microbiology atYale Medical School in 1964. He attenuated

stimulants,bronchodilators and anti-asthmatics.

live yellow fever virus in 1939, which led to the discovery

Theorell, Axel Hugo Theodore (1903—1982) Swedish bio­

o f 17D vaccine for yellow fever in 1939. He was awarded

chemist and director o f the N obel Institute o f Biochemistry

the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1951 for

in Stockholm. He crystallized myoglobin and determined

his work.

its molecular weight in 1932. He separated flavin mononu­ (b 50 B C ) Founder o f the

cleotide from protein and helped to identify vitamin B2.

Methodist school o f medicine and a physician and disciple

While at Uppsala University he purified diphtheria toxin,

T h em ison o f Laodicea

o f Aesculapiades o f Bythnia (110-40 B C ). He explained

characterized cytochrome C, established the linkage

disease on the basis o f a state o f relaxation or contraction o f

between heme and protein and later studied peroxidases

pores in the body. His followers named acute disease ‘status

and dehydrogenases. He was awarded the N obel Prize for

strictus’ to denote a state o f contraction, and chronic disease

Physiology or Medicine for his work in 1955.

‘status laxus’ to indicate a state o f relaxation.

T herapeutic Index [Greek: therapeutikos, inclined to serve]

[Greek: thenar, hand or palm] Aristotle (384-322

R atio o f dose tolerated by host to dose that cures the in­

B C ) defined it as that part o f the hand between the carpus

fection. Proposed by German bacteriologist, Paul Ehrlich

and fingers. Galen (AD 129—200) used the term to denote

(1854-1915), a pioneer in the field o f chemotherapy.

Thenar

the hollow o f the hand. Its current use denotes the fleshy

Therapeutic Substances A ct 1956 Controls manufacture,

ball o f the thumb and was introduced by Rufus o f Ephesus

import and sale o f drugs in England.

(AD 98-138).

Therapeutics [Greek: therapeutikos, incbnç^à to serve] Effec­ Thénard, Louis Jacques (1777—1857) French organic chemist

tive herbal remedies were known in China at the time o f

from Louptiere and a contemporary o f Joseph Louis

Emperor Shen N ung, 5000 years ago. Priests in the temple

Gay-Lussac (1778—1850). He did a scientific study o f the

o f Aesculapius practiced medicine through mysticism and

composition o f bile in 1803 and he used the w ord‘picromeF

magic, which later gave way to physical medicine with min­

to denote the sweetish bitter substance in it. His discoveries

eral baths, massage, blood letting and use o f substances such

include: Thenard blue for coloring porcelain, sodium and

as iron, milk and honey. Bizarre and unusual remedies

potassium peroxide, boron and silicon.

such as crocodile dung, burnt human bones, blood from a

[Greek: theos, god + logos, a. discourse] Summa

stabbed gladiator, urine o f an adolescent boy, owl blood,

Totius Theologicae, taken from the manuscripts o f Thomas

ass liver and similar substances were used by Greeks and

Aquinas, was printed in

early English

Romans up to the 17th century. Galen (AD 129—200) listed

books include: Analogy of Religion by Butler (1736) and

over 300 herbal medicines and Pedanius Dioscorides, a

T h eology

1596. Some

709

THERESA

OF

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

CALCUTTA

Greek physician from Anarzaba during the reign o f Nero,

consisting o f 60 to 70 different substances, was invented by

studied medicinal herbs and described over 600 plants in

Andromachus (AD 60) o f Crete, physician to Emperor Nero.

five books on materia medica. Paracelsus (14 93-154 1),

T h e rm o d y n a m ic s [Greek: t/zerme, heat + dy«05,power] The

physician, alchemist, philosopher and astrologer from

laws governing heat, named by Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) in

Switzerland, introduced chemical therapeutics, including

1850. French engineer, Sadi Carnot (1796—1832), proposed

mercurials.A landmark in therapeutics was the introduction

that aU perfect engines operating between the same

o f cinchona as treatment for malaria by a Spanish physician,

temperatures are equally efficient irrespective o f the work­

Juan delVego in 1639. M odern pharmacology began in the

ing substance. Rudolph Clausius (1822-1888), professor o f

early 19th century with the discovery and isolation o f plant alkaloids

such

as morphine

by

physics at Bonn, demonstrated the interconvertibility o f

Frederick Wilhelm

heat and work and postulated the second law o f thermody­

Sertuerner (178 3-18 4 1), emetine by Pierre Joseph Pelletier (1788—1842)

and quinine from

namics that heat cannot pass from one body to another o f

cinchona by Joseph

higher temperature. He also introduced the term ‘entropy’ .

Bienaime Caventou (1795-1877) in i824.Chem otherapeu-

Experiments on the relationship between heat and work

tics was established by Paul Ehrlich (1854—1915)with his

were published by Julius R obert Mayer (1814—1878), a

concept o f side chain theory. In 1910 he developed salvarsan

medical practitioner from Heilbronn, Bavaria in 1842.

or arsphenamine for treatment o f relapsing fever, syphilis

British natural philosopher, James Prescott Joule (1818—

and trypanosomiasis. The battle against bacteria was won

1889), showed the relationship between work done and

with the discovery o f protonsil by N obel Prize winner,

generation o f heat. American physicist H enry Augustus

Gerhard Johannes Paul Domagk (1895—1964) in 1935 and

Row land (1848—1901) improved on Jou le’s work in 1881.

penicillin by Sir Alexander Fleming (1881—1955) in 1929

The third law o f thermodynamics was verified experi­

and demonstration o f its clinical effectiveness by Sir Ernest

mentally by a German physicist. Sir Francis Eugene Simon

Boris Chain (1906-1979) in 1940. They shared the Nobel

(1893—1956) from Berlin, who worked at the Clarendon

Prize with Howard Walter Florey (1898-1968) in 1945 for

Laboratory in Oxford. The principles o f thermodynamics

their work on penicillin. Hydrotherapy is still used today.

were applied to chemistry by American theoretical

Psychotherapy began with Johann Christian R e il (1759-

physicist, Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839—1903), and his work

1813) and was established by Sigmund Freud (1856—1939),

contributed greatly to the development o f physical and

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-196 1) and others. Occupational

organic chemistry.

therapy was also known in ancient times and Seneca, who lived in 30 B C , recommended employment for treatment

T h e rm o m e te r [Greek: therme, heat + metron, measure] An

o f mental unrest. Application o f physical medicine to

air thermometer was invented by Galileo Galilei (1564—

diseases o f joints and bones was pioneered by French sur­

1642) in 1592 and others were invented by Pietro Sarpi

geon,

(1552-1623) in 1609 and Francis Bacon (1561—1626) des­

Amedee

Bonnet

(1802-1858)

around

1845.

Antimetabolites such as mercaptopurine, methotrexate, and

cribed his in Novum Organon (1620). The suggestion o f a

cyclophosphamide are used in cancer and immunosuppres­

liquid thermometer was made by French physician John

sive therapy. Alternative therapies such as aromatherapy,

R e y in 1632, and constructed in 1650 by Ferdinand II,

homeopathy and acupuncture are also still in use.

Grand Duke o f Tuscany and founder o f the Academia del Cimento at Florence. He used alcohol in a sealed glass tube

See chemotherapy,pharmacology, alternative therapy.

and this was introduced into England by R obert Boyle

T h e resa o f C a lc u tta (1910—1997) R om an Catholic nun in

(1627—1691). Proposals for two fixed points were made by

India, born in Yugoslavia to Albanian parents. She went to

workers such as Martini, Olaus R oem er (1644—1710 ),Boyle

India at 18 to jo in the sisters o f Loretto. She was ordained

and Sir Isaac N ewton (1642-1727). Swedish astronomer,

in 1937 and taught in a convent where she later became its

Anders Celsius (170 1-174 4), established his own scale

principal. In 1948 she left and went to work in the slums o f

in 1736 with zero as the melting point o f ice and 100 as

Calcutta and opened a house for the dying in 1952. She

the boiling point o f water, using a mercury thermometer.

underwent some medical training at Paris in 1948. She start­

German

ed her work with lepers in 1957 and continued it for nearly

instrument-maker

Daniel

Fahrenheit

(1686-1736), who settled in Amsterdam and produced high

40 years. She was awarded the N obel Peace Prize in 1979.

quality meteorological instruments, devised an accurate

T h e ria c a [Greek: therion, wild animal] Antidote to poisons

alcohol thermometer and a mercury thermometer. He

o f wild animals. A cure-aU remedy, Thericae Andromachi,

visited Roem er, who used the temperature o f melting ice

710

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

THOMAS

Thiouracil See antithyroid drugs.

and the human body as his set points, and set his scale at 32 and 96 degrees for these points.The scale o f 80 degrees

Third H eart Sound See cardiac sounds.

between freezing and boiling points o f water was introduced by R e n é Antoine de Réaum ur (1683—1757) in

Thiry Fistula Experimental intestinal fistula, used to obtain

1730 using a thermometer containing a mixture o f alcohol

intestinal juice for research. Developed with dogs by

and water. See Celsius,Anders, clinical thermometry.

Belgian physician, Ludwig Thiry (1817—1897).

T h o m a A m pulla Small terminal expansions o f the spleenic

Therm om etry See clinical thermometry, thermometer.

pulp o f the interlobar artery o f the spleen. Described by

Thessalus o f C os Son o f Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) and

German histologist, RichardThom a (1847—1923).

brother o f Draco. Both were physicians who established the dogmatic sect which proposed that investigations should

T hom as, Edward Donnall (b 1920) American physician and

cease as Hippocrates has already stated all the essentials.

hematologist from Mart in Texas. He studied chemistry and chemical engineering at the University o f Texas in Austin

Thiam ine Vitamin B i.T h e deficiency disease,beriberi, was

and obtained his M D from Harvard in 1946. He joined the

observed by Jacobus Bontius (1592—1631) and Nicolas Tulp

M ary Imogene Bassett Hospital in Cooperstown where

(1593—1674). It was eradicated in Japanese sailors by

he worked on bone marrow transplantation. In 1963 he

Kanehiro Takiki (1849—1915), Director-General o f the

moved to the Washington University School o f Medicine in

Medical Department o f the Navy, who supplemented the

Seattle where he developed tissue-typing and use o f

diet o f rice with fish, vegetables, meat and barley in 1882.

immunosuppressive drugs for treatment o f leukemia

The deficiency factor was discovered in alcoholic extracts

patients. In 1990 he shared the N obel Prize for Physiology

o f rice

or Medicine. See bone marrow transplant.

polishings

in

1897

by

Christiaan Eijkman

(1858-1930), a Dutch physician with the Dutch East India Company and N obel Prize winner. Association o f alcoholic polyneuritis with thiamin deficiency was noted by Patrick Manson (1844—1922) in 1898. A concentrate was obtained from rice by Polish-born American biochemist, Casimir Funk (1884-1967) in 19 11 and later named vitamin B i.T h e name aneurin was given to the anti-beriberi factor by Dutch chemist, Barend Coenraad Petrus Jansen (b 1884) and W illem

Frederik Donath (1889-1957) in Jakarta in

1935* The structure was elucidated by R obert Runnels Williams (b 1886) and co-workers who synthesized it in 1936. Its effectiveness in treating Korsakov syndrome was demonstrated by K. M . Bowm an and colleagues in 1939.

Hugh Owen Thomas (1834-1891). Courtesy of the National Library of

See beriberi.

Medicine

T hiersch, Karl (1822—1895) German professor o f surgery at

T hom as, Hugh Owen (1834—1891) B orn in Liverpool, was

Erlangen who described a method o f operative treatment

the father o f modern orthopedic surgery in England. He

for epispadias in 1869. He devised the Thiersch method o f

came from a family o f seven generations o f bone setters and

skin grafting where long broad strips o f skin o f one half its

devised various devices for treatment o f deformities and

full thickness are used.

fractures. The Thomas splint invented in 1876 caused a drastic fall in mortality in compound fractures o f the femur.

T h ioactazone [Greek: theion, sulfur] Thiosemicarbazide was shown to be active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in vitro

T hom as, Sir James William Tudor (1893—1976) London

by Peak and co-workers in 1944. Work was continued

surgeon who did pioneer experimental work on corneal

by Gerhard Johannes Paul Domagk

transplants on rabbits in 1930.

(1895—1964)

in

Germany and led to its introduction as a mainline drug

T hom as, Morgan Educated at Oxford and practiced as

against tuberculosis.

a physician in the i6th century. He wrote a book on preserving health. Haven of health, based on the works o f

Thiopental, sodium Used as an intravenous anesthetic by

Galen (AD 129-200) and Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) .

John Silas Lundy (b 1894) at the Mayo Clinic in 1934.

711

THOM AS

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

PESSARY

T h o m a s P essary Uterine pessary introduced by N ew York

T h o m p s o n H ip P rosth esis Devised in 1952 by American

gynecologist,Theodore GaillardThomas (1831—1903).

orthopedic

T h o m a s, R obert (1753-1835) Physician from Salisbury who wrote The Modern Practice of Physic and several other

Frederick

R o eck

Thompson

T h o m p so n , John Arthur (b 1899) Scottish zoologist, born in

treatises.

East Lothian. He was chair o f natural history at Aberdeen in 1899 and published several works on the evolution o f sex.

T h o m a s S p lin t Used for deformities o f the hip, knee and ankle joints. Devised in 1876 by Hugh Owen Thomas

T h o m p so n , John (1856—1926) Scottish pediatrician at the

(1834—18 9 1),English orthopedic surgeon from Liverpool.

R oyal Edinburgh Hospital for Sick Children. He wrote Guide to Clinical Study and Treatment of Children in which he

T h o m a s , Theodore Gaillard (1831—1903) American gyne­

dealt with characteristic differences o f diseases in early life.

cologist from Edisto Island, South Carolina. He practiced in

He also recognized congenital hypertrophy o f the pylorus.

N ew York and published an important treatise on disease o f women in 1868. He performed the first vaginal ovariotomy

T h o m p so n , Thomas (1773-1852) Physician and professor o f

in 1870.

chemistry at Glasgow University. He was the third editor to the Encyclopedia. Britannica and invented the oxyhydrogen

T h o m a y e r S ig n Inflammatory conditions o f pelvis where

blow pipe.

percussion showed tymphany on the right side and dullness on the left side with the patient lying on their back. Described

surgeon,

(1907-1983).

by

German

surgeon, Joseph

T h o m p so n , Sir St Clair (1859—1943) Laryngologist from

Thomayer

London who designed bayonet^shaped forceps (St Clair

(1853-1927).

Thompson quinsy opener) to drain peritonsillar abscesses. He wrote Cancer of the Larynx in 1930.

T h o m p so n , Allen (1809—1884) Professor o f anatomy at Marischal CoUege. He was professor o f physiology at Edin­

T h o m p so n , William (1833—1907) American ophthalmolo­

burgh University (1842-1848) and was appointed to the

gist from Philadelphia who recognized eye strain as a cause

chair o f anatomy at Glasgow University in 1877. He was

o f headache. He promoted prolonged rest as treatment for

the editor o f the seventh edition o f Quain's Anatomy.

functional neuroses.

See Thompsonfascia. T h o m se n , Asmus Julius Thomas (1815-1896) See Thomsen T h o m p s o n F a sc ia Yellow fibers covering the inner half o f

disease.

the external abdominal ring. Described by AUenThompson T h o m se n D isease (Syn: myotonia congenita) Inability to

(1809—1884) o f Edinburgh.

relax the muscles after contraction, occurring during early T h o m p s o n F a sc ia Iliopectineal fascia described in 1835 by

childhood. Described by Ernest von Leyden (1832—1910) in

Alexander Thompson (1802—1838), professor o f medical

1876. Asmus Julius Thomas Thomsen (1815—1896),a Danish

jurisprudence at London University.

physician who himself had the disease, gave a description in

T h o m p so n , Henry Alexis (1864-1924) Professor o f surgery

1876 o f 23 patients o f whom 20 were from his family. A

at Edinburgh University. He published two textbooks,

genealogical survey through seven generations o f his family

A Manual of Surgery and A Manual of Operative Surgery in

was published by Nissen in 1923.

collaboration with Alexander Miles in 1904.

T h o m so n ia n M ed icin e SeeThomson, Samuel.

T h o m p so n , Sir H enry (1820—1904) English surgeon who

T h o m so n , James (1822—1892) Irish—Scottish physicist and

described surgical treatment o f urinary bladder tumors in

engineer and elder brother o f Lord Kelvin. He became

1884.

professor o f civil engineering at Queen s CoUege Belfast and later at the University o f Glasgow. He studied the effect

T h o m p so n , H enry Teacher o f Blizard who is said to have been the first to amputate at the hip joint in England, while

o f pressure on the freezing point o f water, and wrote several

at the London Hospital around 1752.

papers on hydraulics.

T h o m p so n , Sir Henry (1820—1904) Founder and first presi­

T h o m so n , Sir Joseph John (1856—1940) English physicist,

dent o f the Cremation Society which was established in

Cavendish professor at Cambridge and the discoverer o f

1874. He was a urogenitary surgeon who performed

electrons. He graduated from Trinity CoUege, Cambridge

lithotrity on Leopold I and was professor o f clinical surgery

and was the first scientist to hold the post o f Master o f

at University College Hospital.

Trinity CoUege in 1914. He determined the ratio o f the

712

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TH O R N TO N

charge on a cathode particle to its mass in i88i and

head was turned to the affected side. It was described

discovered the new atomic particles which he called ‘cor­

as scalenus syndrome by American surgeon, Howard

puscles’ in 1897. These were later universally accepted as

Christian Naffziger (1884-1961) in 1937. Pressure from the

electrons. His work on positive rays in 19 11 led to the

scelenus

discovery o f isotopes.

neuritis o f the hands was described by British neurologist. Sir Francis Martin Rouse Walshe (1885-1973) in 1945.

T h om son , Samuel (b 1769) B orn in N ew England and self-

T horacic Surgery [Greek: thorax, chest] See cardiac surgery,

educated on his family’s farm where he learned about plants by

experimenting

on

anticus muscle, causing acroparesthesia and

cardiac transplant, coronary artery bypass surgery, cardiopulmonary

himself and his friends. He

bypass machine, aortic aneurysm,pneumonectomy.

proclaimed that disease was due to excess cold in the body and created the Thomsonian cult. He was tried on

T horacic Sym pathetic B lo ck [Greek: thorax, chest] Block

20 December 1809 in U S A for questionable methods o f

o f thoracic ganglia o f the sympathetic chain by paraverte­

treatment but found not guilty. He formulated Thom son’s

bral injection o f drugs was performed by M ax Käppis

remedies and patented them for various maladies.

(1881-1938) in 1900 and by Hugo Sellheimin 1905 .Alcohol

Thoracentesis [Greek: thorax, chest + kentesis, puncture]

was used to prolong the block by Swatlow in 1926.

(Syn: Paracentesis thoracis) It was suggested b y Hippocrates

T horacoplasty

(460-377 B C ). In cases o f collection o f fluid he recom­

[Greek: thorax, chest] Rem oval o f several

ribs to collapse the lung was performed as treatment for

mended making an incision into the chest. His method was

empyema by Ernest George Ferdinand von Küstner in

later considered dangerous by other physicians including

1889. Extensive rib resection for empyema was also done

Caelius Aurelianus (fifth century AD) who discouraged

by M ax Schede (1844—1902) in 1890. Decortication as

the practice. It was revived by Paul o f Aegina (625-690).

treatment for empyema was introduced by French surgeon

In modern times it was performed by H enry Pickering

Edmond Delorme (1847—1929) in 1894. It was performed

Bowditch (1840—19 11) o f Boston who carried out 325

in England by Morriston Davies in 1912.

procedures until 18 75 .The apparatus consists o f needle, tube and suction pump to draw fluid from the pleural cavity

T horax

[Greek: thorax, chest] The Greek term denotes

and was designed by Boston physician, M orill Wyman

armor or cuirass which protected the chest and abdomen.

(1812-19 03) around i860.

Aristotle (384-322 B C ) and Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) used the term to denote both the chest and abdomen. Plato

T horacic A neurysm See aortic aneurysm.

(428—348 B C ) restricted its use to the chest, and Galen

Thoracic D u ct

[Greek: thorax, chest] The receptaculum

(AD 129—200) introduced it into anatomy.

chyli, which is a dilatation o f the thoracic duct, was described in man by French anatomist Jean Pecquet (1622—

T horel, Christen (1868—1935) German physician in N urem ­ berg who described the myocardial bundle (Thorel bundle)

1674) while a student, in 1647. It was observed in the horse by Eustachio (1520—1574) in 1563. A description o f it

connecting the atrial and atrioventricular nodes beside the

and the lymphatic vessels was given by Thomas Bartholin

inferior vena cava. He reported talcosis o f the lung in 1896.

(1616—1680) a physician at Copenhagen, in 1652. Discovery

T h orium Rare metal obtained from a black mineral from

was also claimed by Swedish anatomist, O lo f R udbeck (1630-1702) in 1652.

the island o f Lovon in Norway by Jakob Berzelius (1778— 1848) who named it after the Scandinavian god, Thor, in

[Greek: thorax, chest] E.

1828. It was used parentrally in cancer treatment in

Bramwell pointed out th e’'i|rst cervical rib as a cause o f

the United States during the 1920s. Thorium nitrate was

pressure symptoms in 1903. A classic work on the subject

introduced as a contrast agent for pyelography by a Kansas

was written by WiUiam Williams Keen (1837—1932) o f

urologist,Jonathan Edwards Burns (b 1883) in 1915.

T horacic O utlet Syndrom e

America in 1907 and division o f the first rib as treatment

T horius, Raphael (d 1625) Physician during the reign o f

was performed by T. M urphy in 1910. Other symptoms due

James I who wrote a poem on tobacco, Hynnus Tabaci,

to compression o f the brachial plexus and blood vessels were

recognized by American

published in 1651 . He died o f plague.

neurosurgeon Alfred

WashingtonAdson (1887-1951) oflow aandl.Caffey.Adson

T h orn ton, John Roberts (1758-1837) Botanist and physi­

recommended division o f the scelenus anterior muscle for

cian at G u y’s Hospital. He wrote The Philosophy of Medicine

relief o f symptoms in 1947. He also described the Adson

or Medical Extracts on Nature and Health in 1798 on the

sign where the radial pulse became obliterated when the

Brunonian system o f medicine. He is known for his

713

TH O R N W A L D T

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

DISEASE

Temple of Flora or Garden of the Botanist, Poet, Painter,

developed it. Methods to detect platelet antibodies were

and Philosopher.

developed in early 1950, andW J. Harrington and colleagues demonstrated platelet agglutinins in 100 out o f 132 patients

T hornw aldt D isease Inflammation o f the Luschka tonsil

with it in 1956. Spleenectomy remained the first line o f

with formation o f a cyst containing pus, leading to pharyn­

treatment in severe cases in the 1950s and was superseded by

geal stenosis. Described by German physician, Gustavus

use o f high dose steroids in the 1960s.

LudwigThornwaldt (1843-1910).

Throm bokinase [Greek: thrombos, clot + kinesis, motion]

Thorpe,John (1682—1750) Physician from Penshurst in Kent

Term used by Paul Oskar Morawitz (1879-1936) o f Ger­

who wrote on curious ancient illustrations.

many to denote an important enzyme o f the blood clotting

T horpe, Sir Thomas Edward (1845—1925) English physicist

system which was later found to convert prothrombin to

and chemist from Manchester. He pioneered analytical

thrombin. Isolated from lung tissue by N ew York

chemistry and was appointed by the British Government to

biochemist and N obel Prize winner in 1986, Stanley Cohen

do analytical work on chemical hazards. He was professor

(b 1922).

o f chemistry at Anderson’s College, Glasgow and wrote

T hrom bolysis [Greek: thrombos, clot + lysis, dissolution]

Dictionary of Applied Chemistry in 1893.

Fibrinolytic substance isolated from group A beta-hemo­ lytic streptococcus by a Baltimore physician,William Smith

T h oth Mythical figure o f the ancient Egyptians, considered

Tillet (b 1892) and R .L . Garner in 1933, who called it

the inventor o f science and arts.

streptococcal fibrinolysin. The mechanism o f fibrinolysis

Threlkeld, Caleb (1646—1728) English physician from Cum ­

was elucidated by a microbiologist, L. Royal Christensen,

bria who qualified in medicine from Edinburgh in 1709 and

who renamed it streptokinase in 1945. Tillet and A.J.

became a divine and botanist. He wrote a book on plants

Johnson

o f Ireland.

demonstrated its effectiveness in

dissolving

intravascular clots in animals in 1947. A purified form was

T hreonine Amino acid isolated from hydrosylates o f fibrin

developed and experimentally tried by S. Sherry and A.P.

in 1935 by William Cum m ing (1887-1984), an American

Fletcher in 1958. Its use in dissolving clots in human veins

biochemist.

was demonstrated by Johnson andW. R . M cCarthy in 1959. Their experiments showed clearance o f experimental

[Greek: thrombos, clot +

T hrom boangitis O bliterans

thrombi in the forearm veins o f human volunteers. Similar

angeion, vessel + itis, inflammation; Latin: oblitaratus, erase]

results were obtained by Johnson using urokinase in 1963.

Obliteration o f the lumen o f most arteries o f the leg by a

The feasibility o f thrombolytic therapy in myocardial

chronic proliferative process was described by German

infarction was demonstrated by Fletcher and co-workers in

physician Felix von W iniwarter (1848-1917) in 1879. He

1959. The effectiveness o f plasminogen activators in clot

observed a new growth o f intima in the blood vessel and

lysis was shown by Sherry, Fletcher, and R .S . Lindermeyer

named it endarteritis obliterans. It was observed to

in the same year. Infusion o f streptokinase directly in to the

be caused by occlusion o f the blood vessels in secondary

site o f coronary thrombus was performed by P. Rentrop and

thrombosis

co-workers in 1979.

by

N ew York

physician,

Leo

Buerger

(1879—1943) who named it in 1908. He confirmed

T hrom boplastin G eneration Test [Greek: thrombos, clot

arteriosclerosis as the cause in 1926.

+ plassein, to form + genos, descent] Allows detection and

T h rom b ocytopenia [Greek: thrombos, clot + kytos, hollow

localization o f defects in clotting factors in the blood.

+ penia, poverty] See thrombocytopenic purpura.

T h rom b ocytop en ic Purpura kytos, hollow + penia, poverty;

Developed by R . Biggs and A. S. Douglas in 1953. It was developed into a quantitative method by Biggs, J. Eveling

[Greek: thrombos, clot +

and G. Richards in 1955.

Latin: purpura, purple]

Described as purpura hemorrhagica by German physician,

T hrom boplastin [Greek: thrombos, clot + plassein, to form]

Paul Gottlieb W erlhof (1699—1767). The autoimmune

Potent tissue extract with anticoagulant activity was found

nature o f it was realized when Ackroyd demonstrated

by F. Rauschenbach o f Dorpat in 1882 and Leonard

antiplatelet factors in patients who developed it after taking

Charles Woolbridge

(1857—1889) o f England. It was

Sedormoid in 1949.The autoimmune theory was advanced

called

in 1951 by G. Evans who observed that some patients with

(1879—1936), implying that it was an enzyme. It was

acquired hemolytic anemia with antibodies to red cells also

renamed by William Henry Howell (1860-1945) o f Johns

714

thrombokinase

by

Paul

Oskar

Morawitz

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

THYROID

Hopkins University in 1912.

T hrom bosis

Thym us [Greek: thymos, thymus] Galen (AD 129-200) used the word to describe skin. A n account o f the gland was

[Greek: thrombos, clot] Term used in 1848

given by Jacopo da Carpi Berengario (1470-1530), an Italian

by Rudolph Karl Virchow (18 21-19 0 2) to denote the

surgeon from Pavia in 1521 .William Hewson (1739—1774),a

formation ofblood clots.

London hematologist, demonstrated the origin o f white

T h rom b otic T h rom b ocytopenic Purpura [Greek: throm­

blood cells or leukocytes from lymphatic glands and thymus

bos, clot + kytos, hollow + penia, poverty; Latin: purpura,

in 1774. Sir Astley Paston Cooper (1768—1841) wrote

purple] Diffuse thrombotic vascular lesions in arterioles

The Anatomy of the Thymus Gland in 1832. The concentric

and capillaries was described by American physician,

corpuscles o f the thymus were described in 1846 by Arthur

Eli Moschcowitz (1879—1964) in 1925.

Hill Hassall (1817—1894), an English physician from

T hrom boxane [Greek: thrombos, clot + oxane,ring\ Inducer

Teddington.The presence o f multiple abscesses in it in cases

o f platelet aggregation, discovered by M . Hamberg and

o f congenital syphilis was described by Paul Dubois

co-workers in ig^s. See prostaglandins.

(1795—1871) o f Paris in 1850. An association between myasthenia and thymus was found by Karl Weigert

Thrush

Candidiasis was described by Hippocrates (460—

377 B C ) and Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C -A D 50)

(1845—1904) in 19 0 1.Thymectomy was performed as treat­ ment for myasthenia by Ernst Ferdinand Sauerbruch

mentioned it in his account on apthae. Samuel Pepys in his

(1875-1951) o f Germany in 1912 and revived by American

entry on 7 June 1665 has recorded it as one o f the terminal

surgeon, Alfred Blalock (1899-1964). Its immunological

symptoms o f Admiral Sir John Lawson. Scientific evidence

nature was demonstrated by French-born Australian immu­

for a fungal etiology was presented by David Gruby

nologist, Jacques Albert Francis Pierre M iller (b 1931) in

(1810-1898) o f Paris in 1 8 4 3 . candidosis.

1961. A syndrome (DiGeorge syndrome), characterized by congenital absence o f the thymus and parathyroid glands

Thucydides (469-391 B C ) Greek historian from Athens who wrote a history o f the Peloponnesian War, giving a

leading to recurrent infection, was described by American

detailed account o f a mysterious epidemic illness later

pediatrician, Angelo M ario DiGeorge

known as Athenian plague which struck Athens around 430

co-workers in 1967.

B C . It was present in the south o f Egypt and Ethiopia and

(b 1921)

and

T hyroglobulin [Greek: thyreos, shield; Latin: globus, ball]

later spread to Libya, Persia and Athens.

Chemical investigation was suggested by Hermann Lebert (1813—1878) in 1862. Thyroglobulin, an iodine-containing

T hudichum T est Detects creatinine using ferric chloride as reagent. Devised by John Lewis W illiamThudichum (1829—

protein, was isolated by English pediatrician. Sir R obert

1901), a German physician who practiced in London. He

Hutchison (1871-1960) in 1896.

was the first lecturer in chemistry at St Thomas’ Hospital in

Thyroid A ntibodies [Greek: thyreon, shield + anti, against]

1865 and a pioneer in biochemistry.

An unusually large amount o f circulating gammaglobulin

T hunberg, Carl Peter (1743-1828) Swedish botanist who

with abnormal flocculation tests in the sera o f patients with

studied medicine at Uppsala and was ship’s surgeon to the

Hashimoto thyroiditis was observed by G. A. Fromm, E. S.

Dutch Government in South Africa in 1770. He did botan­

Lascano and G. B urr o f Argentina in 1953. Their findings

ical studies in Japan and Sri Lanka and on his return was

were confirmed by R . W. Luxton and R . T. Cooke o f

professor at Uppsala. His FloraJapónica was published in 1784.

England in 1956. The suggestion that these may represent circulating antibodies to thyroglobulin was made by

Thurston, Louis Leon (1887-1955) Professor o f psychology

Deborah Doniach, R . Hudson and I. M . R o itt in the same

at Chicago University (1927-1952). His main interest was

year. A condition similar to Hashimoto thyroiditis was

intelligence testing and he devised several tests. He wrote

produced in rabbits by injecting extract o f thyroid by N. R .

Vectors of Mind (1935) and Multiple-factor Analysis in 1947.

R ose and E.W itebsky in 1956. The presence o f agglutinat­

T h ym ectom y [Greek: thymos, thymus + ektome, excision]

ing antibodies in 30% o f patients with hyperthyroidism was

See thymus.

demonstrated by S. G. Owen and G. A. Smart in i960.

Thym us Genus o f herbs native to central Europe.The name

Thyroid [Greek: thyreon, shield + eidos, form] Used by Galen

was used by Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) to denote a dry

(AD 129—200) to refer to the four-sided cartilage which

cough. The ancients referred to an aromatic plant which

made up the larynx. It was named in the present context by

was used in sacrificial burning o f the gland.

English physician, Thomas Wharton (1614-1673) in 1646.

715

THYROID

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

GOITER

The function was doubted by many physicians until the

T hyroidectom y [Greek: thyreos, shield + ektome, excision]

19th century They believed that it secreted lubricants

Partial thyroidectomy was done by Joseph Henry Green

for the trachea and served no useful function. In 1883 Emil

(179 1-18 6 3), a surgeon at St Thomas’ Hospital in 1825. His

Theodor Kocher (1841—1917), a Swiss surgeon and Nobel

patient died 15 days later due to sepsis. A total excision was

Prize winner, developed surgical treatments for thyroid

done by Paul Auguste Sick (1836-1900), a German surgeon,

disorders

in 1867. Another case was reported in 1874 by Sir Patrick

which

helped

elucidate

its

function.

He

also developed treatment with thyroid extract. A d olf

Heron Watson (1832—1907), a surgeon at the Edinburgh

Magnus-Levy (1869—1955), a Germ an physiologist in

Royal Infirmary. The pioneer in thyroid surgery was

A m erica, gave thyroid extracts from animals to men in

Swedish surgeon, Emil Theodor Kocher (1841—1917), who

1895 and found that their basal metabolic rate was elevated.

performed over 2000 operations.

Iodine, long known to have beneficial effects on cretinism,

Thyrotoxicosis [Greek: thyreos, shield + toxikon, poison]

was shown to be present in the thyroid by Eugen Baumann

(Syn: Graves disease. Parry disease) Exophthalmic goiter re­

(1846—1896) o f Berlin in 1896. American N obel Prize

sulting from thyrotoxicosis was described by Caleb Hillier

winner, Edward Calvin Kendall (1886—1972), isolated pure

Parry (1755-1822), a physician from Bath in 1786, who

extract from thyroid in 1914 and named it thyroxin.

published eight more cases later. R obert James Graves

See thyroxin, thyroid goiter, thyrotoxicosis.

(1796-1853), a Dublin physician, gave an account o f three cases in 1835, and Karl Adolph von Basedow (1799—1854) from Merseberg near Leipzig, described four cases in 1840. Albrecht von Graefe (18 28 -18 70),an eye surgeon in Berlin, described the stationary nature o f the eyelid (lid lag sign) in thyrotoxicosis, the Graefe sign.Julia and Cosmo Mackenzie o f Johns Hopkins Hospital identified the antithyroid properties o f thiourea in 1930 while experimenting with products to induce intestinal suppression o f bacterial flora.

Thyroid gland, drawn by Vesalius in the 16th century

Phenyl thiourea was discovered about the same time by Curt Richter. Effectiveness o f thiourea in humans was

Thyroid G oiter Pliny (AD 23-79), Juvenal,Vitruvius, and

established around 1940 by Edwin B. Astwood (b 1909) o f

Vulpian made statements which indicate that they were

Boston, who used thiourea and thiouracil as treatment for

aware o f the condition in people from the Alps who

hyperthyroidism in 1943. Radioiodine was used in the

presented with a stout neck. Marco Polo observed the same

study o f thyroid disease by M . P. Kelsey and co-workers in

condition in central Asia around 1270. Chinese used

1949 and introduced as treatment for thyrotoxicosis by

extracts o f thyroid gland to treat goiter in the 7th century.

G.W.Blomfield and co-workers in 1951.

A medical description was given by Arnold ofVillanova

Thyrotropic H o rm o n e [Greek: thyreos, shield + trophein, to

(1234—1311) who observed it in Lucca and advocated the

nourish] The relationship between the pituitary and thyroid

use o f seaweed. Surgical removal o f enlarged thyroid was

glands was suggested by N. Rogowitsch in 1888. Philip

recommended by G uy de Chauliac (1300-1367). The

Edward Smith (b 1884), o f California, established conclu­

definite relationship o f goiter and cretinism was shown by

sively that the thyroid depended on the stimulating action

Paracelsus (1493—1541) who observed it in Salzburg. A

o f the anterior pituitary in 1927. Harvey Williams Cushing

scientific inquiry was commenced by Michele Vincenzo

(1869—1939) in the same year noted that hypopituitary

Malacarne (1744—1816) who also wrote a book on it in

patients had a lower metabolic rate. Thyroid stimulating

1789. Endemic goiter in Africa was observed by M ungo

hormone which caused thyroid hyperplasia was discovered

Park (1771-18 06 ) in the mountains o f Congo and Niger.

in the anterior pituitary o f pigs independently by Loeb and

Iodine deficiency in air and water as the cause was proposed

Aron in 1929. The structure o f thyrotropin releasing

by Swiss physician Jean Louis Prévost (18 38 -19 27) and

hormone (TR H ) was elucidated by Lithuanian-born

Maffoni, and by Chatin in 1853. See thyroid, thyrotoxic goiter,

American biochemist and N obel Prize winner, Andrew

Basedow disease, cretinism.

Victor Schally (b 1926) atTulane University in 1969.

Thyroid Stim ulating H o r m o n e

(TSH) See thyrotrophic

Thyroxin The active extract o f the thyroid was isolated by

hormone.

Edward Calvin Kendall (1886-1972) o f Detroit who named

7 16

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TINNITUS

it while he was at the Mayo Institute in 1914.The structure

T ilingius, Matthias (d 1615) Physician from Westphalia

and empirical formula o f tetraiodothyronine and its

who wrote several medical treatises including De Febribus,

precursor, i-tyrosine, were determined in 1926 by Sir

De llaudano Opiate and Cinnabaris Mineralis.

Charles Robert Harington (1897-1972) o f University

T illet, William Smith (b 1892) See thrombolysis.

College Hospital Medical School. A synthetic preparation from coal tar was obtained by Harington during his work

Tilli, Michael Angelo (1655—1740) Physician and botanist

with George Barger (1878—1939) in 1927. Harington’s

from Florence. He was professor at Pisa and physician to the

The Thyroid Gland, its Chemistry and Physiology was

Duke. He wrote Catalogue Horti Pisani in 1723.

published in 1933. See thyroid, antithyroid drugs.

Tilney, Frederick (1875—1938) Father o f the N ew York School o f Neurology. He was educated at Yale University

T ibia [Latin, tibia, a pipe] The word originally referred to ancient musical instruments made o f shin bone o f animals

and studied medicine at Long Island College Hospital

and birds.The shin bone itself later acquired the name.

before he was elected professor o f neurology at Columbia University. His The Brain from Ape to Man is considered a

T ic D ou lou reu x See trigeminal neuralgia.

classic on modern evolution. He also wrote The form and

T ick -B orn e D iseases Several forms have been identified.

functions of the central nervous system with H enry Alsop R ile y

Aka mushi (Japanese: red insect), a seasonal fever occurring

(1887-1966) in 19 21.

along rivers o f certain regions in Japan, was one o f the first

T im aeus o f L ocria Greek philosopher and disciple o f

to be described by Palm in 1878. The trombeculoid tick

Pythagorus, who thought that there was a universal motion

was identified as the transmitter.The tick was shown to be

in nature. His treatise on the nature o f the soul and o f the

the vector in Texas cattle fever in 1893 by Theobald Smith

world is mentioned by Plato (428-348 B C ) .

(1859—1934), professor o f microbiology at Harvard Univer­ sity. The causative organism o f Q Fever, Coxiella burnettii,

Tinea cruris

[Latin: tinea, grub] Acute or chronic fungal

was recovered from ticks during an outbreak in Montana by

infection generally seen in males and affecting the groin,

Herald R ae C ox (b 1907) and G. E. Davis in 1938. Borrelia

perineum and perineal area. A description o f this fungal

duttoni, a spirochete causing African relapsing fever was

disease was given by Friedrich Wilhelm

identified by Joseph Everett Dutton (1877-1905) and John

Barensprung (1822—1864) in 1854.

LancelotTodd (1876—1949) in 1905. Ornithodorus, 2. genus o f

Felix von

Tinea imhricata [Latin: tinea, grub] Chronic tropical skin dis­

tick which cause relapsing fever by transmitting Borrelia

ease found in the Malay Archipelago and Southeast Asia.

recurrentis,w2is identified by two independent groups, Philip

Described in the Philippines by English navigator.

Hedgeland Ross (1876-1929) and A .D Milne in Uganda,

Sir WiUiam Dampier (1652—1715), during his voyages in

and Dutton andTodd in Congo in i904.The causative agent

1686. It was later noted in Polynesia and named Tokelau

o f R o ck y Mountain spotted fever was shown to be transmitted by ticks by Howard Taylor Ricketts (18 71— 1910),a microbiologist at Northwestern University in 1906.

disease. It was described as On Tokelau Ringworm and its Fungus by T. Fox in The Lancet in 1874. Patrick Manson (1844—1922) identified the causative fungus and named it

T idy Test Detects albumin in the urine using phenol and

in 1879. Another treatise, Le Tokelau et son parasite was

glacial acetic acid as reagents. Devised by English physician,

published by Bonnafy o f Paris in 1893. The fungus was

Charles M eym ottTidy (1843-1892).

renamed Trichophyton concentricum by Raphael Blanchard

T ied em ann N erve

(1857—1919) in 1896.

Plexus o f nerve fibrils around the

central artery o f the retina arising firom the central ciliary

Tinea rubrum [Latin: tinea, grub] The fungus was identified

nerves. Described by Friedrich Tiedemann (178 1—1861),

and named by Marquis Aldo CasteUani (1879—1971) from

professor o f anatomy at Heidelberg.

Florence while he was in Sri Lanka in 1910.

T ietze Syndrom e (Syn: costochondral junction syndrome)

T in el Sign

Painful swellings at the costochondral junction o f the

In carpel tunnel syndrome, tapping over the

carpel tunnel causes paraesthesia over the median nerve dis­

sternum, o f unknown etiology. Described by German

tribution o f the hand. Described by French neurologist,

surgeon,AlexanderTietze (1864—1927) ofB erlin in 19 21.

JulesTinel (1879—1952) from R ou en who practiced at Paris.

Tigerstedt, R obert A d olf Armand (1853-1923) See renin,

Tinnitus [Latin: ringing] Noise in the ear was discussed by

renal hypertension, cardiac output.

Galen (AD 129—200) who considered indigestion, excess o f

717

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TISELIUS

wine, violent vomiting, increased sensibility and improper

It is remarkable for its light weight and was initially used to

application o f medicines to the ear as some o f the causes and

make artificial teeth. It is currently a popular metal for

prescribed local injections o f the juices o f madragora and

spectacle frames and a fracture fixative.

poppy into the ear.Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D 50)

T itchener,

suggested special attention to diet and recommended injections o f castor oil with vinegar, oil o f iris, oil o f bay and myrrh with nitre. Haly Abbas

Edward

Bradford

(1867-1927)

American

psychologist, born in Chichester, England. He founded the Society o f Experimental Psychology in America

(930—994), an Arabian

in 1904 and wrote Experimental Psychology (1901—1905) in

physician, proposed that if all the above local measures failed,

4 volumes.

the cause was probably from the brain or auditory nerve.

T obacco A m blyopia Dimness o f vision due to tobacco

Tiselius, Arne W ilhelm Kaurin (1902—1971) Swedish chem­

smoking. Described by WiUiam Mackenzie (1791—1868)

ist from Stockholm who was educated and worked at

in England in 1835. A more accurate description was given

Uppsala. He developed a method o f determining diffusion

by Jonathan Hutchinson (1828-1913) in 1864, and an

constants o f proteins and introduced moving boundary

exhaustive account by Forster o f Germany in 1868.

electrophoresis for examining protein purity. He isolated several viruses and separated and identified amino acids,

Tobacco Derives its common name from the Haitian word

sugars and other molecules using activated charcoal, silica,

for the pipe in which it was smoked. The Latin name,

cellulose and ion exchange chromatography. He worked

Nicotiana tabacum, derives from the Portuguese, Joan Nicot,

with Frederick Sanger (b 1918) on insulin. H e was awarded

who introduced it to Europe. King James I realized the ill

the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1948. See gammaglobulin,

effects o f tobacco smoking and in 1602 and he issued Counterblaste to Tobacco in which he described the habit as ‘A

antibody, immunoglobulin.

custome loathesome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harme-

T issot, Simon August Andre (1747—1834) Physician from

ful to brain, dangerous to the lung, and in the black stinking

Lausanne who was professor o f medicine in his home town.

fume therof neerest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke

He wrote Avis au Peuple sur la Santé ou Traites des Maladies

o f the pit that is bottomless’ . Cultivation was prohibited by

in 1760, which went to 9 editions and was translated into

Charles II in 1684. Catherine de M edici introduced the use

many languages. Other treatises include: Variolation (1754),

o f tobacco snuff for headaches to her court. Inhalation

Treatise on epilepsy (1770), Nervous diseases (1782), Onanism

or smoking o f tobacco was learnt from the Indians and

(1760) and Diseases of men of the world (1770).

few people smoked it in England until the habit was popularized by Ralph Lane in 1586. See smoking.

T issue Culture Growth o f cells in vitro was shown by Am er­ ican biologist, Ross Granville Harrison (1870-1959) in

T obacco M osaic Virus First virus identified and studied

1907, who showed regeneration o f separated embryonic

by MartinusWilhelm Beijerinck (1851—1931) in 1898. It was

nerves o f a frog when they were preserved in lymph. Alexis

given the name mosaic as the infected leaves contain dark

Carrel (1873-1944) perfected the technique in 19 11 by

and light green mottling. It was isolated by American

growing embryonic heart muscle in culture for over 25

biochemist, Wendell Meredith Stanley (1904-1971) o f the

years. In 19 11 fibroblasts from chick embryos were taken at

Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research at Princeton in

the Rockefeller Institute and were maintained in culture until

1928.

(1850—1924)

German

physiologist

and Leo Loeb

W ilhelm

(1869—1959)

1935. The presence o f ribonucleic acid in the virus was

Roux

shown by an English botanist, Frederick Charles Bawden

did further

(b 1908) in 1937, and the infectivity was found to be due to

experiments and in England T. S. P. Strangeways o f

its R N A by Alfred Gierer and Gerhard Schramm in 1956.

Cambridge, and Albert Fisher o f London were pioneers.

Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat (b 1910), a German-born American

Tissue [French: tissu, woven] Twenty-one different tissues in

molecular biologist, proved that it could be reconstituted

animals, including bone, blood, and muscle were described

from protein and nucleic acid, thus raising the possibility o f

in 1797 by M aria François Xavier Bichat (177 1-18 0 2 ) o f

a ‘living chemical’ in molecular biology. See virus.

the Hôtel Dieu in Paris. He is considered a founder o f

Tobias, PhiUip Valentine (b 1925) South African anatomist

microscopic anatomy. See histology.

and physical anthropologist from Durban, who qualified in medicine

T itanium Element known in the 17th century from black

from

Witwatersrand

University

in

1950.

He described several hominid species and named Homo

sand or menakite and described by William Gregor, a priest at Menachen in Cornwall. Martin Henry Klaproth (1743—

habilis. He published over 800 papers on evolution and

1817) o f Germany studied it in detail and named it in 1795.

anthropology.

718

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TONOM ETER

T O C P See triorthocresylphosphate. Tod M uscle

Tom es Fibers

Dentinal fibrils described in 1850 by a

London dental surgeon. Sir John Tomes (1815—1895), father

Located at the posterior aspect o f concha

o f Charles Sissimore Tomes (1846-1928) o f the London

and described by London otologist,DavidTod (1794-1856),

Hospital.

in 1832.

T om es Process

Todd, Alexander Robertas (b 1907) Scottish chemist who

Ameloblast processes on the enamel

cells o f teeth. Described in 1897 by Charles Sissimore Tomes

synthesized vitamin B i or thiamin in 1937. He was born at

(1846—1928), an anatomist and dentist at the London

Glasgow in 1907 and was professor at Manchester (1938)

Hospital.

and Cambridge (1944) before he became the first chancel­ lor o f the new University o f Strathclyde in 1978. He was

Tom ography [Greek: tomo, cut + graphein, to write] Tech­

awarded the N obel Prize for his work on vitamins in 1957.

nique

for

recording

internal

body

images

at

a

predetermined plane using X-rays. Described by German

Todd, R obert Bentley (1809-1860) British physician at

physician D. L. Bartelink in 1933.

K ing’s College. He edited a Cyclopedia and Anatomy in 1833 and Physiological Anatomy and Physiology of Man from 1845 to

Tonegawa, Susumu (b 1939) Japanese molecular biologist

1859, which remained the standard textbook for many

who studied chemistry at the University o f Kyoto and

decades. He was also a co-worker o f Sir William Bowm an

received his PhD from San Diego in 1968. He then moved

(1816—1892) who described the capsule o f the kidney.

to the Institute for Immunology at Basel, Switzerland and worked on restriction enzyme and recombinant D N A

Todd Paralysis Epileptic hemiplegia affecting the epileptic

techniques in relation to the origin o f antibody diversity.

side. Described by R obert Bentley Todd (1809-1860) who

He confirmed that in formation o f antibody-manufactur­

was an English physician and professor o f physiology at

ing cells (B lymphocytes) genes undergo changes that allow

K ing’s College, in 1856.

them to produce a new and wide range o f antibodies. In

Toilet The Romans introduced the chamber pot around 300

1981 he was appointed professor o f biology at M IT and

B C and it remained in household use for two thousand

examined the workings o f T lymphocytes. In 1987 he

years. The water closet with mechanical means o f disposal

received the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.

was proposed by Sir John Harington (1561—1612), an

T ongue [Anglo-Saxon: tunge, tongue] The word ‘papilla’ to

English writer from Kelston near Bath. His water closet was installed at the Richm ond palace o f Elizabeth I, his

denote microprojections on the tongue was introduced

godmother. He described it in The Metamorphosis of Ajax

by Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) in 1670. The Webers

published in 1596.

glands, or the lateral glands o f the tongue, were described by Ernest Heinrich Weber (1795-1878), professor o f physiolo­

Tokelau D isease See Tokelau itch.

gy at Leipzig. M eyer glands beneath the tongue, in the

Tokelau Itch Tokelau disease was described from the island

hypoglossus muscle, were described in 1871 by Georg

o f Tokelau in the South Pacific by Sir William Dampier

Hermann von M eyer (1815-1892), professor o f histology at

(1652—1715) during his voyages in 1686 and later noted in

Zurich. Serous glands o f taste papiUae were described in

Polynesia. Patrick Manson (1844—1922) identified a fungus

1873 by Victor Ebner von Rofentein (1842-1925), Austrian

as its cause and named it Tinea imhricata in 1879. It was

professor o f histology at Innsbruck. Magenta-colored

renamed Trichophyton concentricum by Raphael Blanchard

smooth tongue devoid o f papiUae is a feature o f riboflavin

(1857-1919) in 1896.

deficiency and was observed by English physician, Hugh S.Stannus (b 1877) in 19 11.

T okology [Greek: tokos, birth + logos, discourse] See obstetrics. Tolbutam ide

T onic Pupils The term was coined by Gordon Holmes

Sulfonylurea compound introduced as

(1876—1965), who described it in 19 female patients as

treatment in diabetes by Helmut Maske o f Germany in 1956.

‘partial irridoplegia associated with other diseases o f the

Toledo Known as Toletum to the ancients, and capital o f

nervous system’ in 1931. An independent account o f

the Visigothic kingdom o f Athanagild in A D 554. The

pseudo-Argyll Robertson pupils with absent tendon

University at Toledo was founded in 1499.

reflexes was given in the same year by William John Adie (1886-1935).

T om m aselli D isease Pyrexia and hematuria due to exces­ sive use o f quinine. Described by Italian physician, Salvatore

T onom eter [Greek: tonos, tension + meter, measure] Appara­

Tommaselli (1834-1906).

tus for tuning musical instruments invented by H. Scheibler

719

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TO NSILLECTOM Y

o f Crefeld in 1834. An instrument to measure intra-ocular

(1560—1634). A modern tonsillotome was designed by

pressure using the lever principle was invented by N orw e­

American surgeon from Philadelphia, Philip Syng Physick

gian physician, Hjalmar Schiotz (1850—1927) in 1881 and

(1768—1837) in 1828. Rem oval o f tonsils by blunt dissection

introduced into clinical practice in 1905. Another with a

was introduced by George Ernest Waugh (1875—1940) in

spring, based on the aneroid principle, was introduced by

1909. Bernard Schlesinger (1896-1984) and Frederick John

J. M.Albarenque in 19 17.A mercurial tonometer, where the

Poynton

displacement o f the piston was measured in millimeters o f

arthritis following tonsillitis was due to an allergy to

mercury, was invented by M . Cohen in 19 21. A simple and

bacterial products rather than bacterial toxins, in 1931 .

practical instrument was designed by R Bailliart in 1923.

(1869—1943)

noted

that

post-streptococcal

T o o th ach e Galen (AD 129—200) wrote on diseases o f teeth

Several models were invented by Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst

in his fifth book and recognized that the tooth was a

Albrecht von Graefe (1828-1870), Franciscus Cornells

sensitive organ and described the throbbing nature and

Bonders (1818—1889), Hermann Snellen (1834-1908) and

intensity o f tooth pain. He prescribed strong applications o f

others.

vinegar as treatment. Archigenes, a Greek surgeon who lived around 100 AD, listed several treatments including spirit o f nitre, hot fermentation with vinegar and heated linseed. He recommended filling the hole in the tooth with hot wax. Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C - A D 50) advocat­ ed diet and food which did not require mastication and judicious use o f wine. Aetius ofAm ida (502—575) wrote on removing teeth using red arsenic. Eustachio (1520-1574) attributed the exquisite sensitivity o f teeth due to the abundant nerve supply. T o oth , Howard H enry (1856-1925) English physician, born in Brighton and educated at R u gb y and St Jo h n ’s College, Cambridge. He graduated in medicine from St Barthol­ om ew’s Hospital in 1880 where he became a physician in 1906. He described the peroneal form o f progressive muscular dystrophy

(Charcot—Marie—Tooth—Hoffmann

syndrome) in 1886. T o o th T ransp lan tation The practice was mentioned by Ambroise Paré (1510—1590) in 1564, and became a vogue in Bailliart tonometer. W. Stewart Duke-Elder, Opthalmology 0 927). J & A Churchill, London

Recent Advances

in

the 18th century. It was the first instance o f exploitation o f humans in organ transplantation.The poor and young were enticed to part with teeth in return for money.John Hunter

T o n sillecto m y

[Latin: tonsilla, tonsil; Greek: ektome,

(1728—1793) did numerous transplants and popularized the

excision] See tonsillitis.

practice. It was introduced into America in 1781 by French

[Latin: tonsilla, tonsil; Greek: itis, inflammation]

surgeon, Pierre le Mayeur. He advertised a fee o f two

Aretaeus (81—138) has given an accurate and detailed account

guineas for anybody willing to part with a tooth. In 1784

T onsillitis

he claimed to have done 123 successful transplants.

o f inflammation o f the tonsils and the uvula. He also noted the childhood predisposition to it, that was endemic in

T o p in ard , Paul (1830-1912) Anthropologist from Paris who

Syria and Egypt. Some o f his treatments include: bleeding

described the Topinard line and several other landmarks

from the arm, acrid clysters, purgatives, ligature o f the

in anthropometry.

extremities

and

astringent

local

applications. Aulus

T orek, Franz (1861—1938) See esophageal carcinoma, orhidopexy.

Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D 50) advocated the use o f cataplasms, fumigation and fermentation. Aetius ofAm ida,

T o rrice lli, Evangeliste (1608—1647) Italian mathematician,

around 600 AD, recommended opening o f the abscess

born in Faenza and worked with Galileo during the last

when the tonsils suppurate. Tonsillectomy was described

three months o f Galileo’s life. He developed the theory o f

by Ambroise Paré (1510 -159 0 ) and Fabricius Hildanus

atmospheric pressure, and discovered that the unit in each

720

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TRACE

ELEMENTS

column o f water or mercury in a tube was a measure o f

Tow nsend, Sir John Sealy Edward (1868-1957) Irish physi­

pressure exerted by the atmosphere. Based on his finding

cist from Galway who made the first measurement o f the

he worked withVivianni (1622-1703) and constructed the

electric charge in the electron in 1897. He was professor o f

first barometer in 1643.

physics at Oxford in 1900.

Torsade de Pointes ‘Fringe pointed tips’ was coined in

Tow nsend M ixture R em edy containing potassium iodide

1966 by F Dessertenne to denote a form o f atypical

and mercuric oxide prepared by an English physician and

ventricular tachycardia with altered polarity and varying

clergyman, Joseph Townsend (1740—1816).

amplitude o f the Q R S com plexes. H owever, its electro­

T oxicology [Greek: toxin, poison + logos, discourse] A trea­

cardiographic features had been recognized in 1922 by

tise was written by Nicander in Alexispharmaca around 150

L. Gallavardin.

B C which described various plant, mineral and animal

Torsus A orticus Prominence o f the medial wall o f the right

poisons and discussed the antidotes. The Persian king,

atrium o f the heart caused by the aorta. Described in 1929

Mithridates, is said to have self-experimented on poisons

byT.Walmsley in Quain’s Element of Anatomy.

and developed a state o f immunity by taking small nonlethal doses in 80 B C . Dioscorides (AD 40—90) also gave an

Torti, Francesco (1658—1741) Italian physician who intro­ duced cinchona into Italy. He used the term ‘malaria’ (bad

account on the subject.A printed book written by Petrus de

air) for ague (malaria) in his Therapeutica Specialis ad febres

Amano

quasdam pernisiosa published in 1712.

physician, Matthieu Orfila (1787-1853) a founder o f

Torticollis [Latin:

was published in

1472. French

modern toxicology, wrote Traité des Poisons in 1814 which

twisted + co//wm, neck] See wry-neck.

systematized the subject. An English book on the effects o f poison on the body was published by Thomas Addison

Total B od y Irradiation X-rays were shown to suppress antibody response by American

(1250—1315)

pathologist, Ludvig

(1793-1860) and John Morgan (1797-1847) in 1829. A

Hektoen (1863-1951) in 1915. See immunosuppressive agents.

Treatise on Poison was written in 1829 by Sir R obert Christison (1797—1882),professor ofjurisprudence at Edin­

Total G astectom y See gastrectomy.

burgh. He also self-experimented to study the poisonous

Total H ip R ep lacem en t See artificial hip joint.

effects o f calabar bean seed from tropical Africa in 1876 and,

Tourette D isease Violent muscular jerks o f the shoulders,

on finding it to be intensely poisonous, he recommended it

extremities and face, beginning in childhood with explo­

for official executions. An American book was written by

sive grunting or coprolalia.

Theodore GeorgeW ormley (1826-1897) in 1867.

Samuel Johnson is thought

to have suffered from it. Described in 1885 by French

Toxoid [Greek: toxico, poison + eidos, form] Resem bling a

neurologist, Georges Edouard Albert Brutus Gilles de La

poison. See tetanus.

Tourette (1855-1909).

Toxoplasm a [Greek: toxin, poison + plasmein, form] Genus Tourniquet [French: tourner, to turn] Instrument for stop­

o f coccidian protozoa. Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran

ping flow o f blood into a limb by applying pressure. Many

(1845-1922), a French parasitologist and N obel Prize

surgeons, including Fabricius Hildanus (1560—1624) and

winner, described it in 1900. It was suggested to be a human

James Yonge (1646—1721), were familiar with it. Morel

pathogen by Marquis Aldo Castellani (1879—1971) o f

devised one at the siege o f Besancon in 1674. The screw

Florence in 19 11. Human toxoplasmosis was established as

tourniquet was invented by Jean Louis Petit (1674-1750)

a disease by Abner W olf (b 1902) and David Cowen (b 1909)

o f France in 1718. One made o f rubber was invented by

in 1937.

German surgeon, Johannes Friedrich August von Esmarck

Toynbee, Joseph (1815-1866) Aural surgeon to St M ary’s

(1823—1908) in 1869. A modern tourniquet was devised by

Hospital, London in 1852. He described the corneal

English physician, L. Dougal Callander in 1940.

corpuscles (Tonybee corpuscles) in 1841, and explained

T ow neV iew See acoustic neuroma.

the role o f the eustachian tube during swallowing in man,

Tow nsend, Joseph (1740-1816) Physician and clergyman,

in 1861.

educated at Caius College, Cambridge and studied

TPHA

under WiUiam Cullen (1710—1790). He wrote Physician’s

Treponema pallidium hemagglutination assay, for

diagnosis o f syphilis was devised by Tara Rathlev in 1967.

Vade Mecum,A Guide to Health and other works on religion and travel.

Trace E lem ents

721

Elements important for growth and

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TRACHEA

function o f all life. In i860, Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

neurologist, Karl Wernicke (1848-1905). C. Hess and P.

demonstrated that yeast will grow only in a culture medium

R ö m er did the first transmission o f trachoma to animals

which contained such compounds. Julius von Sachs

in 1906. CeU inclusion bodies in conjunctival cells were

(1832—1897) and Wilhelm Knop demonstrated this in

shown by Germ an zoologist, Stanislaus Joseph Matthias

higher plants in the same year. Their importance in diet o f

von Prowazek (1875-1915) in 1907. Sulfanilamide was used

higher animals was established by Thomas B urr Osborne

in the treatment by Heinmann in 1937.

(1859—1929) and Lafayette Benedict Mendel in 1919. A

Trajan (AD 52—117) Rom an emperor who established an

review, Trace Elements in Plants and Animals, was published by

asylum and school for orphans in A D 105.

W. Stiles in 1946.

Trachea Aristotle (384-322 B C ) used the term to refer to

Trail, R . T (1812—1877) American writer on sex and related

arteries, in the belief that they contained air. ‘Arteria leia’

issues, such as contraception. He wrote Sexual Physiology

was used for arteries and ‘arteria trachea’ referred to the

(1866) 2Lnd Hydropathic Encyclopedia (1853).

wind pipe.

Tracheobronchoscopy

A lexander ofTralles (AD 525-605) Physician from Lydia, an Direct

bronchoscopy

ancient country in Asia Minor, practiced phlebotomy and

was

performed by German laryngologist, Gustav KiUian (i860—

treated gout with catharides. Some o f his medical treatises were printed in Basel and Paris centuries after his death.

- 1921) in 1898, and a book on endoscopy which included tracheobronchoscopy was written by Chevalier Jackson

Trallianus See Alexander ofTralles.

(1865—1958) in 1907. He removed an endobronchial tumor

Tranquilizer

using a bronchoscope in 1917.

[Latin: tranquillus, calm] In 1947, French

surgeon Laborit atVal de Grace at the Military Hospital in

Tracheoesophageal Fistula Described by Thomas Gibson

Paris investigated use o f antihistamines to inhibit the reac­

in 1697 in association with esophageal atresia in a two-year-

tion o f the autonomic nervous system to physical stress in

old baby. However,William Durston has been credited with

surgery. He was impressed by the effect o f promethazine in

the first description o f it in 1670. But his case was o f

calming and relaxing patients and started investigating the

conjoined females and the esophageal lesion only vaguely

phenothizine group o f drugs with the help o f Parisian anes­

resembled that described by Gibson. Occurrence o f it with­ out atresia was recognized by D. S. Lamb o f Philadelphia in

thetist, P. Huguenard, in 1949. Charpentier produced a

1873. Primary end-to-end anastomosis o f the esophagus as

phenothiazine, code named R P 4560, in 1950 and Laborit

treatment was performed by Cameron Haight (1901-1970)

found that this induced tranquillity without clouding

and Harry Townsley in 1941. P M . Engel and co-workers in

consciousness and persuaded a group o f psychiatrists,

1970 reported an unusual case in a woman who survived to

Hamon,Paraire andVeUuz atVal de Grace Hospital, to try it.

adulthood and gave birth to a daughter with an identical

The drug was evaluated by Jean Delay and Pierre Deniker at

lesion.

the nearby St Anne’s Hospital in 1952 and introduced as chlorpromazine into mental hospitals in France in the same

T racheostom y [Greek: tracheo + stomoun, to make an open­

year and England in 1953. Another early tranquilizer was

ing] Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau (1778-1862) ofTours,France

mephenesin, which was serendipitously discovered by F. M .

performed it for croup. Armand Trousseau (1801—1867) o f

Berger and Bradley o f England during their search for

the Hôtel Dieu, Paris pioneered intubation and performed

a preservative for injections in

a tracheostomy in 1851. It was used as treatment for a foreign

1946. Meprobamate

was synthesized by Berger around 1952. Librium was

body stuck in the glottis by John Hepworth o f England in

synthesized by Lowe Randall ofAm erica in i960.

1861. Friedrich Trendelenburg (1844—1924), a German surgeon, administered endotracheal anesthesia through a

Transaminase Enzymes that catalyze the transfer group o f

cannula after a tracheostomy in 1869.

an amino acid from a donor to an acceptor. See diagnostic enzymology.

T racheotom y Incision o f the trachea.

Transduction [Latin: transducere, to lead across] M ethod o f

T rachom a [Greek: trachoma, roughness] Form o f granular conjunctivitis known in ancient Greece and R o m e and

genetic recombination in bacteria where D N A is trans­

caused by Chlamydia trachomatis.The contagious nature was

ferred between bacteria by a bacteriophage leading to

noted by French military surgeon, Dominique Jean Larrey

reconstitution o f a second organism.This is basic to the field

(1766—1842) in 1800. Transmission o f the infective agent

o f genetic engineering and was discovered by American

from animals to humans was demonstrated by German

geneticist, Joshua Lederberg (b 1925) o f N ew Jersey who

722

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TRAUMATIC

TENOSYNOVITIS

shared the N obel Prize for Physiology or M edicine in 1958

Jean R iolan (1580-1657), professor o f anatomy at Paris

for his discovery.

in 1630. The molecular structure o f the transfer

Trapp Form ula Used to calculate the amount o f solids in

ribonucleic acid was worked out by American biochemist

a liter o f urine by m ultiplying the last two figures o f its

Transfer R N A

and N obel Prize winner, R obert William H olly (b 1922)

specific gravity by a constant (Trapp coefficient). Devised

o f Cornell Medical School, in 1965. The genetic code is

by Russian pharmacist, Julius Trapp (1815-1908).

involved in the assembly o f amino acids into proteins under

Traube, Ludwig (1818-1876) German pathologist and broth­

the direction o f R N A , and was decoded byYa-M ing H ou

er o f M oritz Traube (1826—1894). He became professor

and Paul Schimmel in 1988.

at the Berlin Friedrich-W ilhelm University and developed

Transfusion [Latin: transfusio, to pour over] See blood

experimental pathology using animals. He also worked on

transfusion, blood bank, A B O blood groups.

the pathology o f fever and effects o f drugs on muscular and nervous activity. He used digitalis in management o f heart

Transfusion o f P lasm a [Latin: transfusio, to pour over] Sub­

disease and described rhythmic variations in tone o f the

stitute for blood transfusion in cases o f emergency.

vasoconstrictor center (Traube—H erring waves). He also

Described by American surgeon, Walter Low Tatum

studied the part played by the diaphragm in respiration and

(b 1899) in 1939.

gave a clear description o f pulsus bigeminus in 1872.

Transient Ischem ic Attacks See apoplectiform cerebral congestion.

Traube, Moritz (1826-1894) German wine merchant from

Transistor Tiny electrical device which replaced the therm­

Rabitor, brother o f Ludwig Traube (1818—1876), was also a

ionic valve. Invented by John Bardeen (b 1908), Walter

plant physiologist and chemist. He worked on fermentation

Houser Brattain (b 1902) and William Bradford Shockley

and in 1858 proposed the idea o f an enzyme in yeast that was

(1910—1989) in 1947. It paved the way for the development

responsible. He studied various enzymes and showed the

o f implantable defibrillators for ventricular arrhythmias.

permeability o f a membrane containing cupric ferrocyanide to water but not other solutes in 1867.

Transpiration [Latin: trans, through + spirartio, exhalation] Discharge o f air, sweat or vapor through the skin. Shown

Traube Space Area over the chest where the resonance o f

in plants by a professor o f physick at Gresham College,John

the stomach could be ehcited. Described in 1868 by

Woodward (1665-1728), a pioneer in plant physiology. It

LudwigTraube (1818—18 76), professor o f medicine in Berlin.

was also described by Muschenbroeck, professor at Leiden, and French physician and botanist, Jean Etienne Guettard

Trauma See trauma surgery.

(1715-1786).

Trauma Surgery [Greek: trauma, wound] Galen (AD 129—

Transplantation [Latin: trans, across + plantare, to plant] See

200), physician to the gladiators o f R om e, managed trauma

organ transplantation, renal transplantation, rejection reaction,

by conservative methods. Ambroise Paré (1510—1590)

cardiac transplant, cadavers, tooth transplantation.

introduced ligature in trauma surgery, where amputation and cautery were the mainstay o f treatment for limb

Transposition o f Viscera [Latin: trans, across + positio,

injuries. Ambulances were introduced by Dominique Jean

placement] A complete transposition in the abdomen and chest in a woman o f 85 years, who was previously well,

Larrey (1766—1842) o f Paris, a military surgeon, to provide

was described at postmortem, by Edward Parker Young o f

carts drawn by the horses. M ining and industrial accidents

England in i860.

became an important cause o f trauma in the 19th century

first aid for the wounded. These were two or four wheeled

and road traffic accidents in the 20th century. A n accident

Transsacral B lock Use o f local anesthetics to block the sacral nerves through the posterior sacral foramina was

service was started in England with the establishment o f the

performed by Pauchet and A. La wen in 1909.

Birmingham Accident Hospital in 1941 which later expanded to include other emergencies. Reattachment o f

Transurethral P rostatectom y See prostatectomy.

a completely severed human arm was performed by Ronald A. Malt and Charles McKhann o f America in 1964.

Transversalis Fascia Described by Sir Astley Paston Cooper

See abdominal injuries.

(1768-1841) in 1807, who discussed the importance o f the fascia in relation to hernia.

Traum atic Tenosynovitis

Trapezius [Greek: trapezion, an irregular four-sided figure]

Observed by Alfred Armand

Louis M arie Velpeau (1795-1867) in 1818 and the French

Used to refer to the present muscle o f the upper trunk by

named it ‘cellulite peritendonitis’ around 1840.

723

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TRAVERS

Travers, Benjamin (1783—1838) Surgeon at St Thomas’

Trendelenburg O peration See embolectomy.

Hospital. He described bruit in auscultation o f the cranium

Trendelenburg Position Patient supine on a table tilted at

in a cases o f caroticocavernous fistula in 1809, and

45°, with feet and legs over the edge. Described by German

performed carotid artery ligation for berry aneurysm in

surgeon, Friedrich Trendelenburg (1844—1924) in 1880. It

i8 ii.H e wrote a m onograph on intestinal anastomosis,

was popularized in America by his pupil WiUy M eyer

A n Inquiry into the Processes of Nature in Repairing of the

(1859—1932) ofN ew Y ork ,in 1884.

Intestines in 1812.

Trendelenburg Sign

Travers, M orris William (1872—1961) English chemist from London and professor at Bristol University (1903-1937). He

Germany in 1895.

discovered the inert gases krypton and neon with Scottish

Trendelenburg Test Test for varicosity and incompetence

chemist, Sir William Ramsay (1852-1916) in 1898.

o f the valves by raising the leg above the level o f the heart.

Treatm ent See therapeutics.

D evised by Germ an surgeon, Friedrich Trendelenburg

Treitz H ernia Retroperitoneal hernia through the duode­

(1844-1924).

nojejunal recess. Described by Wenzel Treitz (1819-1872),

Trepanning See trephining

professor o f pathological anatomy at Prague.

Trepbine [Latin: trephina, a borer] A saw used for trepanning.

Treitz L igam ent Suspensory ligament o f the duodenum

See terephining.

described in 1853 by Wenzel Treitz (1819-1872), Czech

Trephining [Latin: trephina, a borer] SkuUs o f primitive man

professor o f pathological anatomy at Prague and Cracow.

found in various parts o f the world has shown that trepan­

Trelat Sign Small yellowish spots near tuberculous ulcers o f

ning is the oldest form o f neurosurgery. Studies by Pierre

the mouth. Described by French surgeon, Ulysses Trelat

Paul Broca (1824—1880) in 1876 showed evidence o f

(1828-1890).

healing in these skulls indicating that it was performed on

Trem atoda [Greek: trematodes, pierced] Seeflukes. Trench Fever

Congenital dislocation o f the hip,

described by Friedrich Trendelenburg (1844—1924) o f

live subjects. It was also an accepted form o f treatment by Hippocrates (460-377 B C ), Paul o f Aegina (AD 625-690)

Louse-borne rickettsial disease, common

and other ancient physicians. Studies amongst races from

during World War 1. A case was reported by John Henry

Melanesia and Algeria in the 19th century have shown that

Graham (1868—1957) in 1915 and it was named by Herbert

it was done to cure conditions such as epilepsy, head injury

Hunt (1884—1926) and Allan Coates Rankin (1877—1959) in

and demonic possession.

the same year. Outbreaks also occurred on the Russian and

Treponem a Im m o b iliza tio n Test Test for diagnosis o f

German fronts during World War U.The causative organism, Rickettsia quintana,w2LS isolated from the lice o f patients with

syphilis devised by R obert Armstrong Nelson (b 1921) and

trench fever by German physician Hans Töpfer (b 1876) in

Manfred Martin Mayer (b 1916) in 1949. The Treponema

1916 and from a patient in Yugoslavia in 1948 by H. M ooser

hem agglutination test was devised by Tara R ath lev in

and co-workers.

1967. See Treponema pallidum.

Trench F oot Caused by prolonged exposure o f feet to water

Treponema pallidum [Greek: trepein, to turn + nema, thread;

and described by French Arm y surgeon, Dominique Jean

Latin: pallidus, pale] Causative organism o f syphilis discov­ ered and named by Fritz Richard Schaudinn (18 71—1906)

Larrey (1766—1842) in 1812.

from Germ any and a protozoologist at the Institute

Trendelenburg, Friedrich (1844—1924) German surgeon who

o f Tropical

was professor o f surgery at Rostock, Bonn, and Leipzig. He administered

endotracheal

anesthesia

thorough

a

diagnosis for syphilis was devised in the same year by a

Caused by paralysis o f the gluteal Described

Hoffman

(1868—1943) in 1906, and the Wassermann serology test for

Trendelenburg test for varicose veins.

waddling.

Erich

detection o f the spirochete was devised by Karl Landsteiner

Trendelenburg sign for congenital dislocation o f hip and

causing

Hamburg.

led to the discovery in 1905. The dark field method for

the Trendelenburg position used in surgery and anesthesia,

muscles

at

Schaudinn, prepared the serum from a genital lesion which

tracheostomy with an inflatable cuff in 1869. He described

Trendelenburg Gait

Diseases

(1868—1959), a German dermatologist who worked with

by

German bacteriologist, August Paul von Wassermann

Friedrich

(1866-1925).The organism was isolated from the syphilitic

Trendelenburg (1844—1924) o f Germany in 1895.

aorta by Karl Otto Reuter (b 1873) in 1906, and a pure

724

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TR IC H O PH Y TO N

culture was obtained by Japanese pathologist, Hideyo

professor

Noguchi (18 7 6 -1 928), while working in N ew York,in 19 11.

intercellular spaces in tissues.

He

also

devised

the

Noguchi

test, using

human

at Bremen

and

Breslau, who

RUBRUM

discovered

Triad [Latin: trias, group o f three] Association o f three typical

corpuscles instead o f sheep corpuscles, as a modification o f

signs in syndromes. See Merseberg triad, Beck triad, Gregg triad,

theWasserman reaction.

Jacod triad, Francis triad, Charcot triad, Hutchinson triad.

Triassic P eriod [Greek; tria, three] Early part o f Mesozoic era in history. Identified and named by Friedrich August von Alberti in 1834.

Triboulet,

Henri

(1864-1920)

French physician who

isolated streptococci from patients with acute rheumatism in 1898. He also devised a fecal test for intestinal tuberculosis, which is now obsolete.

Tricarboxylic A cid C ycle See Krebs Cycle. Trichinella spiralis

[Greek: trichinos, hair; Latin: spira, coil]

Parasitic nematode found in meat. Calcified cysts in mus­ cles, later identified to be due to trichinosis, were described by Friedrich Teidmann in 18 21. Trichinella spiralis was A film of syphilitic material from the inguinal glands, prepared by E.

described by John Hilton (1804—1878) in 1833, and the

Hoffmann and photographed by Fritz R. Schaudinn. F. Schaudinn and E.

parasitic nature o f the worm was pointed out by Sir

Hoffmann, Selected Essays on Syphilis and Small-Pox (1906). New Sydenham

Richard Owen (1804-1892) in 1834. Sir James Paget

Society, London

(1814—1889) discovered it independently while a student at St Bartholomews Hospital. Rudolph Leuckart (1823-1898)

Treponema vincentii

described it in i860 and the clinical diagnosis o f trichinosis

Spirochete found in the throat o f

patients with Vincent angina and identified by Jean

was

HyacintheVincent (1862-1950) in 1898.

in 1862.

established by Nicholaus

Friedrich

(1825-1882)

Trichiniasis [Greek: trichinos, hair] See Trichinella spiralis.

Treves, Sir Frederick (1853—1923) Surgeon from Dorchester, England. He wrote several works on surgery and reported

Trichloroethylene Discovered by É. Fisher in 1864 and

a case o f true hemophilia in a female in 1886. His Manual

used as a fat solvent in dry cleaning. It was used to treat

of Surgical Anatomy (1881) was translated into several

trigeminal neuralgia by Herman Oppenheim (1858—1915)

languages. He received the Jacksonian Prize for an essay on

o f Berlin in 1915 and as an anesthetic agent by American

intestinal obstruction in 1884. He also wrote The Elephant

pharmacologist, Dennis Emerson Jackson (b 1878) o f

Man and other Reminiscences, the true story o f Joseph

Cincinnati, in 1934. Large-scale use as an anesthetic was doc­

M errick (1860—1890), a grossly deformed man suffering

umented by Cecil Striker in 1935.

from neurofibromatosis. In 1902 he saved the life o f King

Trichomonas vaginalis

George V by diagnosing and operating for appendicitis, for which he was appointed surgeon to the king and baronet.

urinary

See elephant man.

Treviranus,

[Greek: trichinos, hair + monas, unit]

Parasitic flagellated protozoan found in the vagina and male tract. It was

recognized by Alfred Donné

(1801-1878) ofParis in 1836.

Gottfried R einhold

(1776—1837)

German

Trichophyton concentricum [Greek; trichinos, hair + phyton,

biologist and anatomist from Bremen, and brother o f

plant] Fungus that attacks skin, hair and nails. Described

Ludolf Christian Treviranus (1779—1864). He studied

by Patrick Manson (1844-1922) in 1879 and named by

medicine and mathematics at the University o f Gottingen

Raphael Blanchard in 1896. SeeTokelau disease.

and became professor o f mathematics at Bremen. He wrote Trichophyton ruhrum [Greek: trichinos, hair + phyton, plant;

Biologie (1802-1822), all that was known at the time about living systems, and which

introduced the term

Latin: ruber, red] Fungus that attacks skin, hair and nails.

to

Epidermophyton rubrum was described by Marquis Aldo

the public.

Castellani (1879-1971) during his work in Sri Lanka

Treviranus, Ludolf Christian (1779-1864) German anatomy

in 1910.

725

TR IC H O PH Y T O N

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VIOLACEUM

Trichophyton violaceum [Greek: trichinos, hair + phyton, plant]

o f the trigeminal ganglion by a percutaneous method was

Fungus that attacks skin, hair and nails. D escribed by

described by W. H. Sweet and J. G. Wepsic in 1974.

E. Bodin o f Paris in 1902.

See Gasserian ganglion.

Trichuriasis [Greek: trichinos, hair + oura, tail] Caused by an

Triglycerides Hypertriglyceridemia was placed under type

intestinal nematode parasite, Trichura, described by Spanish

IV phenotype o f hyperlipoprotenemias by D.S. Frederickson

physician, Alexo de Abreu (1568-1630) in 1623. It was

and R .I. Levy in 1972. Diabetic and genetic forms were

identified and described by Johann Georg Roederer

differentiated by J .D Brunzell and co-workers in 1975.

(1727—1763) in Germany in 1760.

Familial hypertriglyceridemia o f autosomal dominant origin was described by H .N . Neufield and U. Goldbourt

Trichuris See trichuriasis.

in 1983.

Tricuspid In com p eten ce [Latin: tri, three + cuspis, point] Reference was made to it by Robert Adams (1791—1875) in

T riiodothyronine One o f the thyroid hormones, discov­

his treatise on diseases o f the heart, published in 1827. John

ered by Jack Gross (b 1921) and RosalindVenetia Pitt Rivers

Hunter (1728—1793) gave a classic description based

(bi907) in 1953.

on specimens o f diseased mitral and aortic valves in his

T rim ethylene See cyclopropane.

museum. Accentuation o f the murmur during inspiration (Carvallo sign) was noted by M exican cardiologist, J.M .

Trinitritin Nitroglycerin was prepared by Italian chemist

Rivero Carvallo. See tricuspid valve.

Ascanio Sobrero ofTurin in 1847. Alfred N obel o f Sweden

Tricuspid Valve [Latin: tri, three + cuspis, point] Terminolo­

attempted to use it as an explosive in 1864. It was introduced

gy for heart valves was established by William Cheselden

as treatment for angina by William Murrell (1853—1912) o f

in Anatomy of the Human Body published in 1713. He stated

University College, London, in 1879.

that ‘over the entrance o f auricles in each ventricle are

Trinity C ollege, C am bridge Founded by Henry V III in

placed valves to hinder the return o f blood, when the

1546.

heart contracts. Those in the right ventricle are termed

Trinity C ollege, D ublin A grant to the Augustine M on­

tricúspides and those in the left, mitrales’ . See tricuspid

astery o f All Saints was conferred by Queen Elizabeth in

incompetence.

1591 and the first stone was laid by Thomas Smith, mayor o f

T rigem inal N euralgia or tic doloureux [Latin: tri, three +

Dublin, in 1593. It received a new charter in 1637 and the

geminus, twin] Described by Quaker physician from York­

library was erected in 1732.

shire, John Fothergill (1712—1780) as ‘a painful affection o f the face’ in 1773 and it was known as Fothergill disease.

Trinity C ollege, O xford Founded in 1554 by Sir Thomas

Injection into the deep foramina o f exit o f the main fifth

Pope on the foundations o f a previous institution, Durham

nerve from the skull as treatment was performed by Jean

College.

Albert Pitres (1848-1927) and Henry Verger o f Paris in 1902

Trinity H ospital, Edinburgh Founded by Queen M ary in

and independently by Joseph Louis Irenée Abadie (1873—

memory o f her husband,James II,in 1466. It closed and gave

1946). Gabrielle Ferdinand Lévy (1886—1935) and A.

way to the railway in 1845.

Baudouin devised an approach for the injection from out­

Triorthocresyl P hosphate (TO CP) A plasticizer agent

side the cheek to the foramen ovale and foramen rotundum in 1906 and this became established over the previous route.

known as lindol in industry. Also used as an additive to

Alcohol injection o f the Gasserian ganglion through the

petrol for smooth performance o f automobile engines.

Harris

It was found to be a toxic contaminant in the food industry

(1869—1960) o f St M ary’s Hospital in 1910. Vascular

and in certain medications. Six cases o f neuritis were

compression as a cause was suggested by American neuro­

reported in patients who took it as treatment for tuberculo­

sigmoid

notch

was

performed

by Wilfred

surgeon, Walter Edward Dandy (1886—1946) o f Johns

sis,by C.Lorot o f Paris in i899.An epidemic occurred in the

Hopkins in 1930. He performed partial resection o f the

United States due to contamination o f Jamaica Ginger

sensory root o f the trigeminal ganglion

beverage in 1930. Out o f 316 cases admitted to Cincinnati

(Gasserian

ganglion) as treatment in 1934. The microvascular surgical

General Hospital, 60 men were permanently crippled by

method o f decompressing the vessel and replacement with

its neurotoxic effect. Since then several epidemics have

a piece o f teflon was devised by W. J. Gardner and M .V

occurred across the world. It was shown to be a

Miklos in 1959.Thermocoagulation o f the affected division

cholinesterase inhibitor by H. Block in 1941.

726

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TROPICAL

M ED IC IN E

hydroxide and copper sulfate as reagents. Devised by

Trismus [Greek: trismos, grinding] Tetanic spasm affecting

German chemist,Karl AugustTrommer (1806—1879) in 1841.

the muscles o f the jaw following tetanus. See tetanus.

Trisom y 18 Syndrom e Associated with soft tissue defects,

Tronchin, Theodore (170 9-178 1) Physician from Geneva

mental retardation and cardiac abnormalities. Described

who studied at Cambridge and later under Herman Boer-

independently by English medical geneticist at Oxford,

haave (1668—1738) in Leiden. He practiced in Geneva and

J.H .Edw ards (b 1928) and K.Patau,in i96o.The occurrence

Paris and published a dissertation on colica pictonum and

o f chromosome 18 in triplicate was demonstrated by Patau

other medical works.

in 1961.

Trophoblast [Greek: trophe, nutrition + blastos, germ] The Langhans layer, or cytotrophoblast, which covers the chori­

Trisom y 21 Chromosome abnormality and cause o f D own syndrome,

described

by Jerome

Lejeune

in

onic villi beneath the syncytial layer was described by a

1959.

German pathologist, Theodor Langhans (1839—1915) o f

See Down syndrome.

Bern, in 1870. The Rauber layer, an outer cell mass o f

Trobondeau, Adrian Louis Matthew Frederic (1872-1918)

trophoblastic

French naval physician who in 1906 proposed the theory

cells

o f the blastodermic

vesicle, was

described by a professor o f anatomy at Dorpat, August

(with Jean Bergonie, 1857-1925) that the sensitivity o f the

Antinous Rauber (18 4 1-19 17) in 1880.

cells to radiation varied according to reproductive capacity

Tropical D isease See tropical medicine.

and differentiation.

Trocar [French: trois quarts, three quarters] Sharp pointed

Tropical M edicine A European book on tropical medicine,

surgical instrument for piercing, used with a cannula and

mainly on India, was written by Garcia D ’Orta (15 0 1- 1568)

invented by Sanctorio Sanctorius (1561-1636) o f Padua.

in 1563, an English book by George Whetstone (1545-

H e also invented a thermometer and did work on human

1588) (published in 1598) and a Dutch book by Jacob de

metabolism.

Bontius (1592—1631), who described beriberi followed. A n Essay on Diseases Incidental to Europeans in Hot Climates

Trochanter [Greek: trochanter, a runner] Bony protuberance

was published by James Lind (1716—1794) in 1768, who also

below the neck o f the femur, derives its name due to its

introduced lemon juice as the cure for scurvy. Louis Daniel

motion in running. It was introduced into anatomy by the

Beauperthuys (18 0 3-18 71) from the West Indies and who

Rom an physician, Galen (AD 129—200).

graduated in medicine from Paris, is one o f the forgotten

T roichobezoar Concretion o f hairs formed in the intestine.

pioneers o f tropical medicine. He investigated virulent out­

See bezoar.

breaks o f yellow fever in Venezuela and the West Indies and pointed out the causal relationship o f mosquitoes in the

Troisier Sign Enlargement o f the lymph gland above the

marshes to such epidemics. Sir Patrick Manson (1844-1922)

clavicle in cases o f intra-abdominal malignancy. Described

from Fingask, Aberdeen made several important contribu­

by French physician, Charles Emile Troisier (1844-1919).

tions which have earned him the title o f father o f tropical

He is supposed to have observed it on himself.

Trojan War

medicine. He worked in Formosa and China and, on his

H om er’s Iliad, written around 900 B C , is

return, founded the London School ofTropical Medicine in

an important source o f knowledge on ancient Greek

1898. He proposed the extracorporeal life cycle for the

medicine, mainly through its description o f the Trojan war

malarial parasite in the mosquito in 1894 and described the

around

periodicity o f the filarial parasite and the Anopheles mosqui­

1200

BC.

It

contains

descriptions

of

141

war wounds o f the neck, chest, bladder, spinal cord and

to as its vector in 1879. N obel Prize winner. Sir Ronald

femur, including their treatment. Hom er also used 150

Ross (1857—1932), surgeon major in the Indian Medical

anatomical terms.

Services, while working at the Nilagri mountains in India, identified the mosquito as the carrier o f malarial parasite in

Troltsch Space Found between the two pouches o f the mucous membrane in the upper part o f the middle ear.

1897 and showed the transmission o f malarial disease to

Described by German aural surgeon, Anton Friedrich von

birds by bites o f infected mosquitoes in 1898. He was

Troltsch (1829-1890). He invented a modern otoscope in

professor o f tropical medicine at Liverpool in 1899. The

i860 and devised a new method o f mastoidectomy in 1861.

London School ofTropical Medicine was incorporated into the University o f London in 1905 and amalgamated with

T rom biculoid M ite See tsutsugamushi. Trom m er Test

the School o f Hygiene in 1925 to become the London School o f Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. William

Detects dextrose in urine using sodium

727

TROPICAL

PULM ONARY

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

EOSINOPHILIA

Whiteman Carlton Topley (1886-1944) was the first

Trousseau, Armand (1801-1867) Eminent physician and

professor o f bacteriology and immunology.

clinical teacher at the Hôtel Dieu, Paris. He performed a tracheostomy in 1865 and was a pioneer o f intubation. He

Tropical P ulm onary E osinophilia A syndrome o f cough

received the prize o f the Academy o f Medicine for his

and asthma accompanied by eosinophilia and X-ray changes

treatise on laryngeal phthisis in 1837. His lectures were

in the lungs. D escribed amongst the Indians, by

translated into English by Victor Bazire, and published in 5

R . J. Weigarten in 1943.

volumes in iS6^. See Trousseau sign.

Tropical Sprue (Syn: Indian sprue, chronic tropical diar­ Trousseau Sign

rhea, cachectic diarrhea) Mentioned by William Hillary

Indication for hypocalcemia involving

tetanic spasm o f the hand on applying sufficient pressure to

(1697—1763) in Barbados and described by Colin Chisholm

the arm. Described by Armand Trousseau (1801-1867) o f

(1755-1825) ofLondon in 1822.

Paris in 1861.

Trotter, R obert (1648—1727) Scottish physician who gradu­ Trudeau, Edward Livingston (1848-1915) N ew York physi­

ated from Leiden. On his return to Edinburgh he was

cian who was a pioneer in the study o f tuberculosis in

president o f the R oyal College o f Physicians on two

America.

occasions, in 1694 and 1700.

Trotter, Thomas (1760—1832) Scottish physician from R o x ­

Trueta, José (1897—1977) Spanish surgeon who worked in

burghshire who graduated in medicine from Edinburgh

the Military Hospital in Barcelona during the Civil War

University. He was physician to the R oyal Hospital at

(1936—1939). He emigrated to England in 1939 and

Portsmouth in 1793 and to the navy in 1794. He wrote

succeeded Herbert Seddon (1903^1977) as professor o f

Medica Nautica, or an Essay on the Diseases of Seamen, Essay on

orthopedics at the Nuffield Orthopaedic Centre in Oxford

Drunkenness, a Review of the Medical Department of British

in 1949. He developed the closed plaster method for

Navy and other works. He retired to Newcastle and

treating wounds and was one o f the first to use penicillin for

practiced as a physician.

osteomyelitis.

Trotter, Wilfred Batten Lewis (1872—1939) English neurolo­

Truncus A rteriosus [Latin: truncus, stem] A successful oper­

gist who studied the pathology and symptoms o f post-head

ation for truncus arteriosus was conducted by D. C. M cGoon

injury status and defined concussion in 1924. In 19 11 he

and G. C. Rastelli in 1967.

described Trotter syndrome, associated with deafness,

Truss One o f the first —a transverse spring truss for use in

palatal paralysis and facial neuralgia due to nasopharyngeal

hernia or ruptures —was invented and patented by R obert

carcinoma.

Brand in 177 1.

Trotter Syndrom e SeeTrotter, Wilfred Batten. Trypan B lue Introduced as treatment for trypanosomiasis Trotula (c 1125) M idwife from a noble family in Salerno dur­

by Maurice Nicolle (1862-1932) and Felix Mesnil (1868—

ing the medieval period. She is supposed to have written

1938) in 1906. Its effectiveness in the treatment ofbabesiasis

De passionibus mulierium.

was demonstrated by American physician, George Henry Faulkner Nuttall (1862-1937) and S. Hadwen in 1909.

Trypan R ed Paul Ehrlich (1854—1915), director o f the Insti­ tute for Experimental Therapy at Frankfurt and originator o f the side-chain theory, produced the first man-made chemotherapeutic agent, tryphan red, in 1904, which cured infected mice with trypanosomiasis. Trypanosoma cruzi Carlos Chagas (1879-1974), a physician at the Osvaldo Cruz Institute, R io de Janeiro, discovered the causative agent o f American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease), a pathogenic protozoan and its insect vector in the state o f Minas Geras in Brazil, in 1909.The life cycle o f the parasitic protozoan was described by Alexandre Joseph Emile Brumpt (18 77-19 51) in 1912.

Armand Trousseau (1801-1867). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

728

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TSUTSUG AM USH I

(1856—1915) andJ.D.Thompson in 1908.Bayer 205 (suramin, Germanin), a synthetic remedy, was first introduced in 1920 and tested by Ludwig Hadel and Wilhelm Jotten o f Ger­ many

in

the

same

year.

A

trial

on

human

trypanosomiasis was done by German physician, Peter Muhlens (1874-1943) and W. Menk on a German affected by Trypanosoma gambiense in 19 21. B R Compounds (B R 68,34), the prototype arsenic compounds linked to hetero­ cyclic rings, were introduced by A. Binz and C .R ath in 1927.

Trypsin

Alimentary enzyme discovered by Aleksander

Danilevsky (1838—1923) in 1862 and isolated by a German biochemist,Wilhelm Friedrich Kühne (1837—1900).Kühne also coined the term enzyme in 1878 to denote organic substances which activated chemical reactions.A crystalline form was obtained by American biochemist, John Howard

Agglutinated Trypanosoma lewsi in blood. Sir Patrick Manson,7rop/ca/

Northrop (1891—1987) o f N ew York in 1932. Chym otryp-

Diseases (1914). Cassell & Co, London

sinogen was isolated by Northrop in 1935, who wrote

Trypanosom iasis Sleeping sickness. Deaths in cattle fol­

Crystalline Enzymes in 1939.

lowing tsetse fly bites in Africa were noted in 1857 by the missionary

surgeon, David

Livingstone

Trypsinogen See trypsin.

(1813—1873).

English Naval surgeon, John Atkins (1685—1757), menfiohed’a'fly disease o f Afric^

Tryptophane The first essential amino acid to be identified

horses known as ^hagna’ in

was isolated by William Sydney Cole (1877—1952) ofTrinity

1 734.The first accurate description, called kondee in Africa,

. College Cambridge and Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins

was given by an English doctor, Thomas Masterman

(1861-1947) in 1901.

Winterbottom (1765—1859) who practiced in Sierra Leone. The causative agent was identified in the blood o f the diseased animals by Sir David Bruce (1855—1931) in 1894. The first trypanosome to be identified was in a salmon by Gabriel Gustav Valentin (1810-1909) in 18 4 1.The name for the genus o f the protozoal etiological agent was proposed by Hungarian mycologist, David Gruby (1810—1898), following his discovery o f the organism in the blood o f frogs in 1844.

British parasitologist, Tim othy Richard Lewis

(1841—1886), found Trypanosoma lewisi which infected rats in Calcutta in 1879. A case o f human trypanosomiasis was described by Joseph Everett Dutton (1877—1905) in 1902 and named Trypanosoma gambiense. Trypanosoma rhodisiense, cause o f sleeping sickness, was discovered by John William Watson Stevens (1865—1946) and Harold Benjamin Fanthom (1875—1937) in 1910. See Trypanosoma cruzi,

Illustration of tse tse fly, life size and magnified, and proboscis. David

trypanosomicidal drugs.

Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in Africa (1858). Harper, New York

Trypanosom icidal D rugs The African explorer, David Livingstone, used arsenic in the treatment o f African horse

T se T se Fly Deaths in cattle following tse tse fly bites in

disease and arsenic preparations were found to cure ‘Surra’ in

Africa were noted by the explorer, David Livingstone,

horses in India by Lingaard in 1899. Atoxl (p-amino-phenyl

in 1857.The intermediate host status o f the fly was demon­

arsenate)

strated by Friedrich Karl Kleine (1861—1950) in 1909.

was

shown

to

cure

human

African

See trypanosomiasis.

trypanosomiasis by Thomas and Breinl o f England in 1904. The effectiveness o f antimony tartrate in treating it in

experimental

animals

(maladie

du

sommeil)

T SH See thyroid-stimulating hormone.

was

demonstrated by London physician, George Henry Plimmer

Tsutsugam ushi Disease originally known as Shimamushi,

729

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TSWETT

or island insect disease. The trombiculoid mite, Aka mushi,

Bayle

(1774—1816), a physician from Provence who

was observed as its cause in Japan in 1878. Chinese Hterature

practiced at Paris, gave pathological findings in Recherches

from the i6th century describes a similar disease caused by

sur la Phthisie Pulmonaire published in 1810. Before the

the sand mite. Active research on the subject was com­

identification o f a bacterium, various remedies, such as sea

menced by Baron Shibasaburo Kitasato (1852-1931) in 1893

air and warm climate, were recommended as treatment.

and he successfully transmitted the disease to monkeys in

Induction o f artificial pneumothorax as treatment was

1918.

introduced by James Carson (1772-1843) o f Liverpool in

M.

The

rickettsial

cause

was

demonstrated

by

Nagayo and colleagues in 1930, who named the

organism, Rickettsia orientalis. It was renamed Rickettsia

1821 and used for the next 100 years. Other forms o f coUapse therapy, such as phrenic crush, apicolysis and thora­

tsutsugamushi by N . Ogata in 1931 .

coplasty, were also used. Secret remedies were common before the advent o f chemotherapy and included Tubercu-

Tswett, Mikhail Semenovich (1872—1919) See chromatography.

lozyme, Brompton Consumption mixture and Steven’s

Tubal L igation See sterilization.

Consumption Cure.The infectious nature was demonstrat­

Tubercle B acillus [Latin: tuberculum, small hump] The bacil­

ed by French physician, Jean Antoine Villemin (1827—1892)

lus o f mammalian tubercle was discovered by R obert Koch

who inoculated an animal with material taken from the

(1843-1910) in 1882 and was the first bacteria attributed to a

lung o f a patient with tuberculosis in 1865. A tuberculosis

human disease. The avian tubercle bacilli was discovered

dispensary was established at Edinburgh by Sir R obert

independently by several workers including Rivolta,

Wilham PhiUip (1857—1939) o f Edinburgh R oyal Infirmary

Angelo Maffucci (1847-1903), R o ger and Sibley in 1890.

in 1888. He pioneered study and control and established a tuberculosis dispensary in London at Paddington in 1909.

The peculiar property o f acid fastness o f the bacillus was demonstrated by Theodor Albrecht Edwin Klebs (1834— 1913)

in 1 896.Transmission to man through milk and meat

Creosote, obtained from wood, was a popular remedy for the next 50 years and was revived as a specific remedy by Charles Jacques Bouchardt (1837-1915) in 1877. The drug

was shown by French biologist, Edmond Isidore Etienne

Iproniazid was used in treatment in 1910 and streptomycin

Nocard (1850—1903). A seroagglutination test was devised

was introduced as first-line drug by Hortin Corwin

by French physician, SaturninArloing (1846—19 11) in 1898.

Hinshaw (b 1902) in 1946. Isoniazid was used by Edward

Tubercle [Latin: tuberculum, small hump] Gaspard Laurent

Robitzek in 1952 and given in combination with pyrazi-

Bayle (1774—1816), a physician from Provence who prac­

namide by Walsh M cDerm ott and colleagues in America in

ticed in Paris, established in 1810 the pathological nature o f

1954. Cycloserine was introduced by P. B. Storey in 1958,

the lesion, previously known as tubercle. Jean Antoine

and ethionamide was added by N oel R ist in 1959. Ethamb-

Villemin (1827—1892) used the term in his Etudes sur la

utol was used by J. P. Thomas and co-workers in 1961.

Tuberculose, published in Paris in 1868.

See B C G vaccine, collapse therapy, tubercle bacillus, tuberculous meningitis, intestinal tuberculosis. Chon focus.

Tuberculin Test For diagnosis o f tuberculosis. Devised by Austrian physician, Clemens Freiherr von Pirquet (1874— 1929) in 1907, who applied old tuberculin to the skin with

Tuberculous M eningitis Scientific study was done in 1764

a needle scratch. Subcutaneous injection o f a controlled

by RobertW hytt (1714—1766), a neurologist at Edinburgh.

amount o f tuberculin for the test was introduced by French

Drainage o f cerebrospinal fluid as a therapeutic measure

physician, Charles M antoux (1877—1947) in 1910.

was tried by Walter Essex Wynter (1860—1945) in 1889 who

Tuberculosis Disease affecting the lungs, known as phthisis

described four patients. Lumbar puncture was advocated by

or consumption before the discovery o f the tubercle bacillus, Mycobacterium

tuberculosis, by

R obert

Tuberculous Lym phadenitis See scrofula.

Heinrich Irenaeus Quincke (1842—1922) in 1891.

Koch

Tuberculous Spondylitis [Latin: tuberculum, small hump +

(1843-1910) in i882.PercivallPott (1714 -178 8 ),a surgeon at

sphondylos, vertebra + itis, inflammation] Affecting the

St Bartholom ews Hospital in London, described spinal

cervical vertebrae and known as R ust disease was described

caries in 1779 but probably did not realize its tuberculous

by Austrian surgeon, Johann, Nepomuk R ust (1775—1840)

nature. A description o f the pathological appearance o f the

o f Berlin in 1834.

tubercle in the lung was given by Matthew Baillie (176 1—1823) in Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important

Tuberous Sclerosis [Latin: tuberculum, small hump; Greek:

Parts of the Human Body published in 1793. Gaspard Laurent

5^/ero5, hard] (Syn: adenoma sebaceum, BourneviUe disease.

730

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TURING

T um or [Latin: tumere, to swell] See cancer.

Pringle disease) Condition associated with skin growths. Described by Désiré Magloire BourneviUe (1840-1909) o f

Tungsten

Paris in 1880 and English dermatologist,John James Pringle

[Swedish: heavy stone] Brittle metal element

isolated by Karl W ilhelm Schleele (1742—1786) in 1781 and

(1855-1922) .A detailed description o f these skin tumors and

obtained in pure form by the du Layart brothers o f France

their association with mental retardation and epilepsy

in 1786. It was used in construction o f the first X -ray fluoro-

(epiloia) was given by JohnThom pson in 1913.

scope by Alva Edison (18 47-1931), and exhibited at the N ew York City electrical exhibition in 1896.

TufEer, Theodore (1857-1929) See aortic stenosis, spinal anesthesia, lobectomy of lung, artificial respiration.

Tungsten Lam p Lamp filled with gas invented by Am eri­ can chemist, Irving Langmuir (1881—1957) o f Brooklyn,

Tuke, Daniel Hack (1827-1895) Great grandson ofW illiam

N ew York.

Tuke (1732-1822). He qualified in medicine from St Barthol­

Tuning Fork Instrument which gave a pure musical tone o f

omew s Hospital and specialized in psychiatry. He was a

constant pitch, invented by John Shore in 1 7 1 1 .

lecturer in mental diseases at Charing Cross Hospital from 1892. He wrote A Manual of Psychological Medicine (1852) and

TunniclifF, R u th (1876-1946) B orn in Chicago, she special­

Dictionary of Psychological Medicine (1892).

ized in bacteriology and researched on streptococci and anaerobes.

Tuke, Sir John Battey (1835-1913) A member o f the Tuke family o f psychiatrists, and lecturer in mental diseases at

Tupper, Sir Charles (18 21-19 15) Physician from Edinburgh

Edinburgh. He advocated abolishing physical restraint for

who settled in Canada and became a powerful figure in

the mentally ill.

Canadian politics. He was elected first president o f the Canadian Medical Association in 1867, but later devoted his

Tuke, Samuel (1784-1857) Grandson ofW illiam Tuke (17 32 -

time to politics. He was High Commissioner for Canada

1822). He published Description of the Retreat which

in London in 1884, and on his return to Canada he was

included a classic account o f moral therapy given at his

appointed as the Minister o f Finance.

grandfather’s Retreat atYork.

Tiirck Cell Abnormal leukocyte, resembling a plasma cell.

Tuke, William (1732—1822) Tea and coffee merchant from

Described by Austrian physician, W. Turck (18 71—1916).

York who became a great British philanthropist. He was a

Tiirck, Ludwig, (1810-1868)Viennese neurologist and laryn­

reformer o f the care for the mentally ill and founded the

gologist who devised a laryngoscope in 1857. He described

Retreat for the Insane atYork.

the micropathology o f the spinal cord in tabes dorsalis, the

Tularemia (Syn: Pahvant Valley fever, Ohara disease, deer fly

direct pyramidal tracts known as the Tiirck column in 1856,

fever) Plague-like illness amongst rodents was first observed

and observed the retinal changes in hypertension in 1850.

at Tulare in California by George Walter M cC oy (b 1876) in 1 9 1 1 . In the following year he and C .W Chapin isolated the

Turing, Alan Mathison (1912-1954) London mathematician who made an outstanding contribution to computer

causative organism o f the disease (named Francisella tularensis in 1921) from guinea pigs after inoculating them with infec­

science. He proposed the Turing Machine in 1936, a logical

tive material. It was observed in Norway by Collet in 1895, who called it the lemming fever. The first human case

machine capable o f calculating any calculable number. The first programmable computer was based on his concept.

transmitted by deer ticks was observed in California in 1914. The disease is known as Ohara disease in Japan where it was described by Japanese physician Shoichiro Ohara in 1930.

Tully Pow der Rem edy containing morphine, prepared by American physician,William Tully (1795-1859).

TulpValve See Tulp, Nicolas. Tulp, Nicolas (1593-1674) Dutch anatomist who is the central figure in Rem brandt’s painting, the Anatomy Lesson. He was the mayor o f Amsterdam and defended the city against the French in 1672. The iliocelic valve o f the large intestines bears his name.

Daniel Turner (1666-1741). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

731

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TURNER

Turner, Daniel (i666—1741) English physician who wrote a

described the subzonal membrane o f the amnion within

book on dermatology, De Morbis Cutaneis in 1717.

the chorionic vesicle in 1872, and wrote The Convolutions of the Human Cerebrum Topographically Considered in 1864.

Turner, Edward (1797—1837) B orn in Jamaica and graduated in medicine from Edinburgh University. He was professor

Turner, William (1510-1568) English naturalist from M or­

o f chemistry at University CoUege, London in 1828 and

peth, Northumberland who studied at Pembroke Hall,

wrote several treatises including Elements o f Chemistry

Cambridge. He wrote Libellus de Herbaria in 1538 and the

including recent Discoveries and Doctrines of the Science.

first printed monograph on birds in 1544, containing a description o f birds previously mentioned by Aristotle

Turner, George Grey (1877-1951) Surgeon from Newcastle-

(384-322 B C ) and Pliny (AD 23-79).

upon-Tyne who reported successful resection o f the thoracic esophagus in 1933. He wrote The Hunterian

Turyn Sign Patient feels pain in the gluteal region if the

Museum, yesterday and tomorrow (1946), and Rutherford Morison

great toe is bent, in cases o f sciatica. Described by Felix

and his Achievement (1948), a biography o f James Rutherford

Turyn (b 1899), a physician from Warsaw.

M orison (1854—1940) who was a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary

at

Newcastle. The

Turner

sign

is

Tuthill, Sir George (d 1835) English physician who confined

local

his practice to diseases o f the brain.

discoloration o f the skin o f the loin 2—3 days after an attack o f acute pancreatitis.

Tuttle P roctoscop e Rectal speculum with an electric light attached to its extremity and capable o f inflating the rectal

Turner, Henry Hubert (1892—1970) American physician

ampulla. Designed by N ew York surgeon, James Percival

from lUinois who studied in Vienna and London and

Tuttle (1857-1912).

became professor o f medicine at the University o f

Twilight Sleep Form o f narcosis induced by morphine and

Oklahoma. He was a founder o f the Endocrine Society and

scopolamine during labor. Introduced by Richard von

its first president. See Turner syndrome.

Steinbüchel in 1902. German physician, Carl Joseph Gauss (b 1875) advocated it in 1906. It was widely used in obstetric

Turner, Peter (1542-1614) Medical graduate o f Heidelberg

practice until the 1940s.

and physician at St Bartholomew s Hospital. His Plea for a madwoman (1606) to prevent her child being taken from her

Tw inning Pill Compound o f calomel and ipecacuanha for

because o f her melancholie (depression), was one o f the

gastrointestinal symptoms, introduced by British surgeon,

earliest recorded human approaches to psychiatric patients

William Twinning (1813—1848), who worked in India.

in England.

Twort, Frederick William (1877-1950) English bacteriolo­

Turner Sulcus Interparietal sulcus o f the brain described by

gist from Surrey who studied medicine in London and

SirWiUiamTurner (1832—1916) ofEdinburgh University.

became professor o f bacteriology in 1919. He developed

Turner Syndrom e X O syndrome, characterized by sexual

methods o f culturing acid-fast staining organisms and

infantilism, short stature and webbing o f the neck in

extracted vitamin K from dead tubercle bacilli. He also dis­ covered a ‘transmissible lytic agent’ which was later named

phenotypic females. Described by American endocrinolo­

by EH . D ’HéreUe as the bacteriophage, thus heralding the

gist, H enry Hubert Turner (1892—1970) o f Illinois in 1938.

beginnings o f molecular biology.

He included seven cases with the above features.The same condition, known as status Bonnieve—UUrich in Europe,

Twort—D ’H érelle

was described by Otto Ullrich (1894-1957) in 1930. A

P h en o m en o n

Lysis

o f bacterial

colonies in a culture and the agent responsible was first

sex chromosomal defect was shown to be the cause by

observed by Frederick William Twort (1877—1950), a British

C .E .F o rd in 1959.

microbiologist, and later observed by Félix Hubert D ’HéreUe (1873—1949), a Canadian bacteriologist working

Turner, Thomas (1793—1873) Surgeon to the Manchester

in France, in 1917, who named it the bacteriophage.

Infirmary who was a founder o f the Manchester School o f Medicine.

Twyne, Thomas (1543—1613) Physician from Canterbury who graduated from Cambridge. He practiced astrology,

Turner, Sir William (1832—1916) English surgeon from

wrote poetry and translated several books o f The Aeneid

Lancaster who qualified from St Bartholomew s Hospital in

into English.

London and succeeded Jo h n Goodsir (18 14 —1867) as professor o f anatomy at Edinburgh University in 1867. He

Tylor, Sir Edward Burnet (1832—1917) B orn in Camberwell,

732

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TYPHUS

London, he was a one o f the first British anthropologists

(1813—1883) in 1840. Pierre Fidèle Bretonneau (1778-1862)

who wrote Researches into History of Mankind in 1865. He

o f France gave a classic pathological description in 120

was the first professor o f anthropology at Oxford 1896 and

patients at autopsy and showed the characteristic features o f

regarded as the founder o f the systemic study o f human

Peyer patches. A clear picture in England resulted from

culture. His other important works include Primitive Culture

work on continued fevers (1849—1851) by Sir W illiam

(1871) 2ind Anthropology (1881).

Jenner (i8 i5-i8 9 8 ).W illiam Budd (18 11-18 80 ) o f Devon, brother o f George Budd (1808—1882), suggested excreta as

Tym panum [Greek: tympanon, drum] First used to describe

a source o f typhoid in Typhoid Fever: Its nature, mode of

the ear drum by Gabriele Falloppio (1523—1562) who was

spreading and Prevention published in 1873. Karl Joseph

a pupil ofVesalius.The theory that the tympanic membrane

Eberth (18 35-19 26 ) o f Würzberg, a pupil o f Rudolph

o f the ear, on receiving the sounds vibrated like a micro­

Virchow (18 21—1902) and professor o f pathology at Halle,

phone and imparted electrical impulses to the brain was put

showed that Salmonella typhi was the causative organism

forward in 1869 by William Rutherford (1839-1899), a

in 1880.

Scottish professor o f physiology at King s College London and pioneer in the study o f the mechanism o f hearing.

Typhoid Bacillus

Salmonella typhi, causative agent o f

enteric fever. Described by Karl Joseph Eberth (1835—1926)

Tym phanic M em brane See tympanum.

ofW ürzberg in 1880 and isolated by German bacteriologist,

Tyndall,John (1820—1893) Physicist,born in County Carlow,

George Gaffky (1850-1918) in 1884. See typhoid.

Ireland and moved to Preston in Lancashire around 1843, where he became a member o f the Mechanics Institute. He

TyphoidVaccine English bacteriologist. Sir Almroth Edward

studied in Marburg under R obert Bunsen (18 11—1899) for

W right (1861—1947), observed that inoculation with dead

three years and when he returned to England he succeeded

typhoid bacilli caused the patient to acquire immunity. He developed the first vaccine based on this. It was superseded

Michael Faraday (1791—1867) as president o f the Royal Institution in

1867. He

wrote

by

Radiant Heat in its

a mixed

prophylactic

vaccine, anti-paratyphoid—

typhoid vaccine (TAB) in the 1930s. Typhoid vaccine was

relation to Gases and Vapours and On the sounds produced by Combustion of Gases in Tubes. He later investigated acoustic

also used in conditions such as neurosyphilis to induce

properties o f the atmosphere and behavior o f light. He

protein shock therapy around 1900. It was previously

discovered the Tyndall effect o f scattering o f light by

used intravenously to induce fever and vasodilatation in

colloidal particles in solution and suggested that the blue

treatment ofthromboangitis obliterans.

color o f the sky was caused by such scattering. His contribu­

Typhus [Greek: typhös, stupor arising from fever] A n early

tion to medicine. The Floating Matter of Air in relation to

reference to the disease was made during an epidemic at the

Putrefaction and Infection,w2iS published in 1881.

monastery o f la Cava near Salerno in 1083. A description

Typhoid [Greek: typhodes,like smoke, delirious] A description

was given by Girolamo Fracastoro (1478—1553) in his

o f an epidemic typhoid fever was given by Thomas Willis

De Morbis Contagiosis who called it ‘lenticulae’ o r ‘peticulae’

(16 21—1675) in his De febribus in 1659. Early records in

in 1546. It was confused with typhoid until the middle o f

Europe were made by John R u tty (1697—1775) during an

the 19th century, when it was clearly differentiated by

epidemic at Dublin in 1739, and John Huxam (1692—1768)

Alexander Patrick Stewart (1813—1883) in 1840. The body

in England in the same year. A confirmed description

louse was identified as a transmitter by Charles Jules Henri

in German literature was given by R iedel in 1748 and an

N icolle (1886—1936)), a French physician, Nobel Prize

accurate description o f the intestinal lesions in typhoid in

winner and pupil o f Louis Pasteur (1822—1895) in 19 11.

France were given by Prost (1804) and by Petis and Serres in

It was the first rickettsial disease to be identified and named

1813. The name ‘fievre typhoide’ was coined in 1829 by

Rickettsia prowazekii after Howard Taylor Ricketts (18 71—

Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis (1787—1872), physician and

1910) and Stanislas Joseph von Prowazek (1875—1938), who

medical statistician in Paris, who also described the

died from the disease during their research, by Henrique

rose spots as a sign. The contagious nature was noted by

da R och a Lima (1879—1956) in 1916. Polish bacteriologist,

American

in

Arthur Felix (1887—1956), while working with Edmund

A Practical Essay on Typhus Fetter, published in i842.The term

Weil (1880—1922) in Eastern Galicia, devised an agglutinin

‘enteric fever’ was given by Charles Ritchie (1799-1878) o f

reaction for diagnosis in 1916. During their research they

England in 1846.A clear differentiation between typhus and

noticed the presence o f a proteus-like organism in the urine

typhoid

o f a patient and demonstrated that this organism, proteus X ,

physician, Nathan

was

made

by

Smith

Alexander

(1762—1829)

Patrick

Stewart

733

TYRELL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

FASCIA

agglutinated sera o f other patients with typhus.This formed the basis for the use o f the proteus test to differentiate various rickettsial diseases. See factory fever, murine typhus, scrub typhus.

Tyrell Fascia

Prostatoperitoneal aponeurosis. Described

by Frederick Tyrell (1793—1843), a surgeon at St Thomas’ Hospital and nephew o f Sir Astley Paston Cooper (17 6 8 -18 4 1),in 1824.

Tryon, Thomas (1634—1703) London merchant who called himself a student ofphysick and denounced the exposure o f patients at the Bethlem Hospital to the public. He wrote a treatise on dreams and visions in 1689 which pointed out the psychological factors leading to mental disease.

Tyrosine Amino acid observed as a product o f pancreatic digestion by Justus von Liebig (1803—1873) o f Germany in 1846. An inborn error o f metabolism o f the acid (tyrosinosis) was described by Grace Medes (1886-1967) in 1932.

Tyrothricin First commercially produced antibiotic obtain­ ed from the soil bacterium. Bacillus brevis. Discovered in 1939 by French-born American bacteriologist R ené Jules Dubos (1901—1982) o f the Rockefeller University, N ew York.

Tyson,

Edward

(1651—1708)

English

physician

and

anthropologist from Bristol who was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. He practiced in London and was appointed physician to Bridewell and Bethlehem Hospitals. He considered

that

comparative

anatomy

would

reveal

the underlying structural unity o f nature. He studied the anatomy o f an orang-utang and suggested that it was intermediate between man and ape and wrote The Anatomy of the Pigmy compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape and a Man (1698) and several other works.

734

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

UM BILICAL

CORD

U ltraviolet [Latin: ultra, beyond] Observed in the spectrum by William Hyde Wollaston (1766-1828) in 1802. Short

U

wavelength ultraviolet rays showed least amount o f penetration o f tissues and Sir Arthur H enry Downes (1851-1938) and Thomas Porter Blunt in 1877 showed that these were capable o f killing bacteria. Use o f ultraviolet light greatly improved photomicrographic study o f the structure o f bacteria and were also used for therapeutic purposes.Their effectiveness in curing rickets was demon­

Udransky Test

strated by Kurt Huldschinsky (1883-1941) ofBerlin in 1919.

Detects bile using furfurol as reagent.

See bacterial structure.

Devised in 1890 by Laszlo Udransky (1862—1914), a

U ltracentrifuge [Latin: ultra, beyond + centrum, center +

physiologist at Budapest.

UfFelmann Test

fugere, to flee] A centrifuge capable o f very high speed was

Detects lactic acid in gastric juice using

invented by Swedish physical chemist, Theodor Svedberg

ferric chloride and phenol as reagents. Devised by German

(1884-1971) in 1923 and used to study colloid particles. He

physician,Julius August Christian UfFelmann (1837—1894).

was awarded the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1926.

U hthofFSign Occurrence o f nystagmus in multiple sclero­

Ultrafiltration [Latin: ultra, beyond; French: filtrer, to strain]

sis. Described by German ophthalmologist,Wilhelm Uhthoff

Performed by Charles J. Martin in 1896 using a filter consist­

(1853-1927) from Breslau.

ing o f porous clay coated with gelatin. He fixed the filter in a gunmetal case and applied a pressure o f 30 atmospheres

U kam bine Crystalline alkaloid and constituent o f African arrow poison, similar to strophanthine but more potent. See

through a nozzle to effect the filtration. It was developed by

arrow poisons.

Bechold who named it ultrafilter in 1907. See artificial kidney.

Ultralente Insulin See insulin.

U lcer [Latin: ulcus, a sore] Defined as ‘a solution o f continu­ ity’ by Hippocrates (460-370 B C ). John Hunter (1728 -

U ltram icroscope [Latin: ultra,beyond; Greek: mikros, small +

1793) in his treatise on inflammation, noted that pressure,

skopein, to view] Devised by Siedentopf and Richard A dolf

irritation o f stimulating substances, weakness inutility o f

Zsigmondy (1866—1930) around 1848. Their instrument

parts or organs and the death o f tissue are causes o f ulcers. E.

projected light from a source on suspended particles in

Home (1756—1832) wrote a monograph in which he has

solution which were then viewed on a dark background

prescribed application o f hemlock, argentum and arsenic.

through the microscope. It was improved by EH . Wenham

See duodenal ulcer, Marjolin ulcer, rodent ulcer, gastric ulcer,

who added a dark-field condenser in 1850.

Helicobacter pylori.

U ltrasonic D opp ler See Doppler phenomenon. U lcerative C olitis [Latin: ulcus, a sore; Greek: kolon, colon + U ltrasonography

/hi, inflammation] Chronic relapsing condition o f the colon described as‘acute extensive ulcerations o f the colon’ by Sir

work in the Sound Navigation and R anging System

William H enry Allchin (1846—1912) ofL on donin i885.The first sulfonamide

derivative, sulfanilamide

(SO N A R ) during World War 1. Ian Donald, professor o f

(Protonsil),

obstetrics at Glasgow University, applied the principle to

was used in treatment by Bannick, Brown and Foster in

medicine by using it to examine a fetus in utero in 1961.

America in i937.Toxicity o f sulfanilamide led to a search for a safer compound and neoprotonsil was introduced in 1938.

U ltzm ann T est Detects bile pigments in urine using potas­ sium hydroxide as reagent. Devised by German urologist,

U lcerative G ingivitis See Vincent angina. U llrich Syndrom e

[Greek: ultra, beyond + sono, sound +

graphein, to write] Ultrasound was first applied to marine

R obert Ultzmann (1842-1889).

Congenital variant o f Oppenheim

U m b ilical Cord [Latin: umbilicus, navel] The vessels o f the

disease, consisting o f kyphoscoliosis, contractures o f the

umbilical cord which form valve-like projections were

large joints and immobility o f proximal joints with hyper­

described in 1669 by Nicolas von Hobokoen (1632—1678),

mobility o f distant joints. Described by Otto Ullrich

professor o f anatomy at Harderwick. French surgeon,

(1894-1957) in 1930.

Raphael Bienvenu Sabatier (1732—18 11) o f Paris proposed

U llrich—Turner Syndrom e See Turner syndrome.

that oxygenated blood from the placenta was brought by

735

UM BILICAL

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

HERNIA

the umbilical vein, passed through the heart without

(18 17 - 1881) in 1852. Sigmund Freud (1856—1939) studied

m ixing and supplied the head. Anatomical evidence to

and demonstrated unconscious phenomena between 1895

support this was provided by Caspar Friedrich W olf

and 1920 and developed psychoanalytic methods.

(1733—1794) in the i8th century.The study o f fetal physiolo­

U nd erw ood, Michael (1737-1820) London pediatrician

gy was advanced in 1927 by A. Huggett who showed that it

who

was possible to deliver the fetus while it was attached to the

established modern pediatrics in England. He

described a form o f paralysis following a b rief illness in

mother through an intact umbilicus. The canal for the

children in 1793 which was probably the first scientific

umbilical vein in the anterior wall o f the umbilical canal

account o f poliomyelitis. His A Treatise on the Diseases of

was described in 1855 by Didier Dominique Alfred Richet

Children also contained an account o f congenital heart

(1816—1 891), professor o f clinical surgery at Paris.

disease and was a standard work on pediatrics for 50 years.

U nderw ood

D isease

Scleroderma neonatorum was

described by Michael Underwood (1737—1820) o f London, a pioneer in pediatrics.

U ndescendedT estis See orchidopexy,cryptorchism. U ngulant Fever See brucellosis. Proposed by Christian

U ndulatory T heory o f Light Huygens (1625-1695) in Treatise in

published in 1690.

His theory was supported by R obert Hooke, and Isaac N ewton (1642—1727) proposed his corpuscular theory as an alternative. Huygen s theory was verified by a physician, Thomas Young, in 1802.

U n gu en tu m

N eap olitanu m

Ointment made from

mercury and used in treatment o f syphilis in Naples in the early i6th century.

U nipolar Leads See electrocardiography. Universalists Sect who believed in the final salvation o f all men, arose from the doctrine proposed in the Talmud by I

X ' l f A £ u ^

J itilria n t .

Origen in 230 AD. It was formed in Britain in 1760 by James

.

R elly and in America by John M urray in 1770. Frontispiece from Hobokoen's/Anatom/a Secundinae Humanae (1669)

U niversity

The Alexandrian

University, formed by

Alexander the Great in 331 B C , attracted scholars from all

U m b ilical H ernia A description o f a surgical procedure for

over the world, such as Euclid the mathematician,

treatment o f umbilical hernia was given by Sir Astley Paston

Archimedes the physicist, Herophilos the anatomist, and

Cooper (1768—1841) in 1807. A radical operation was

Erasistratos the physiologist. It had four departments: litera­

devised by William James Mayo (1865-1939) in 1901.

ture, mathematics, astronomy and medicine, and its library was the largest in the world with over 400,000 volumes.

U m bilicus [Latin: umbilicus, navel] See umbilical cord.

Cambridge University is said to have been founded by King

U m ckaloaba Herbal medicine from Africa used in the early

Sigebert o f East Anglia in A D 630. Oxford University was

1900s as treatment for tuberculosis.

mentioned by Pope Martin in 802 .The three oldest Scottish

As a state in psychiatry, was suggested by

universities are: St Andrew s University founded in 14 11,

J. Moreau deTours (1804—1884). It was used by Karl Gustav

University o f Glasgow founded in 1451, and Aberdeen U ni­

Carus (1789—1869) to refer to a conscious mental compo­

versity founded in 1494.The University o f Bologna in Italy

nent from the past which later became unconscious to

began around A D 422 and is considered to be the oldest

the person. Unconscious and subconscious states o f the

university in Europe. The dates o f establishment o f other

mind were investigated by Rudolph Hermann Lotze

important universities: Naples, Italy (1224); Toulouse,

U nconsciou s

7 36

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

UREA

France (1229); Cologne, Germany (1385); Louvain,Belgium

that insanity is a disease o f the body; and William Murrell

(i426);Toledo, Spain (1499);Venice, Italy (1592);Montpelli­

(1853—1912) who introduced nitroglycerin as treatment

er, France (1289); Vienna, Austria (1365); Cracow, Poland

o f angina.

(1364), Geneva, Switzerland (1368); Heidelberg, Germany

U nna D erm atosis Seborrhoeic eczema described by Paul

(1386); Leipzig, Germany (1409); Florence, Italy (1439); Basel,

Switzerland

(1460); Uppsala,

Sweden

Gerson Unna (1850—1929),a dermatologist from Hamburg,

(1496);

in 1887. He also introduced the use o f icthyol, resorcin and

Strasburg, Germany (1538); Königsberg, Germany (1544); Leiden, Holland

(1575); Edinburgh, Scotland

zinc oxide paste into dermatology.

(1582);

Unsaturated Fatty A cids See essentialfatty acids.

Dublin, Ireland (1591); Dorpat, Germany (1632); Utrecht, Holland (1636); Halle, Germany (1694);Erlangen, Germany

U nverricht D isease A rare form o f familial epilepsy known

(1743); Berlin, Germany (1810); Bonn, Germany (1818);

as myoclonus epilepsy, where clonic spasm o f a group o f

Zurich, Switzerland (1832); Munich, Germany (1826); and

muscles occurred in paroxysms. Described by German

Bern, Switzerland (1834).

physician, Heinrich Unverricht (1853—1912) in 1891.

U niversity C ollege, L ondon Founded by Lord Brougham,

U nzer, Johan August (1727—1799) German physiologist

Thomas Campbell and others in 1826.The medical school

who introduced the term reflex in 1771 to describe the

opened in 1828 with Sir Charles Bell (1774—1842) as profes­

sensory-motor reaction.

sor o f surgery. The teaching hospital attached to the university was opened in 1834. It changed its name to

U r Chaldean town in Mesopotamia founded in 4000 B C .

University College London through a charter in 1836, and

Some o f the oldest known clay tablets have been found in

at the same time the University o f London was established

its remains.

through another charter. Names o f some o f the famous

U ranism Term for homosexuals in Europe, coined by Carl

medical men who taught at the University College include:

Heinrich Ulrich in 1850.

John Elliotson (1791—1868), professor o f medicine who

U ranium

described hay fever and asthma; Samuel Cooper (178 0-

German chemist, Martin Heinrich Klaproth

1848) author o f A Dictionary of Surgery, Sir Thomas Barlow

(1743—1817), purified uranium and named it in 178 1. Its

(1845—1945) who described infantile scurvy; and Sir

radioactivity was discovered by Antoine Henri Becquerel

William Richard Gowers (1845—1915),who gave the name

(1852—1908) in 1896. The isotope, uranium 235, was

knee jerk to the tendon reflex o f the knee and introduced

discovered by a Canadian, Arthur Jeffrey Demper (b 1896)

the colorimetric method o f estimation o f hemoglobin.The

in 19 35.See radium.

college has a strong tradition in physiology including:

U ranoplasty

Archibald Vivian Hill (1886—1977) who measured heat produced in

a muscle; Albert

Frank

[Greek: ouranos, palate + plassein, to mold]

Plastic surgery o f the palate. See plastic surgery.

Stanley Kent

Urates [Greek: ouron, urine] See uric acid.

(1863—1958) who described cardiac tissue at the atrioven­ tricular junction; Ernest H enry Starling (1886—1927) who

Urea C learance Test Test for renal functions devised by a

devised the heart—lung preparation and proposed the

Paris physician Leo Ambard (b 1876), American physician

concept o f hormones; Sir William Maddock Bayliss

Franklin Chambers M cLean (b 1888) and San Francisco

(1860—1924) who did classic experiments on physiology

physician Thomas Addis (b 1881), and further refined by

with Starling; Otto Loewi (1873—1961), German-born

Eggert Hugo Möller, J. F. McIntosh and Donald Dexter

pharmacologist who found the neurotransmitter, acetyl­

Van Slyke (1883-1971) in 1928.

choline; Sir Thomas Lewis (1881—1945), pioneer in the

Urea C oncentration Measure o f function o f the kidneys

application o f the electrocardiography; Sir Bernard Katz

devised by Hugh Maclean (1879—1957) and Owen Lambart

(b 19 11) who elucidated the mechanism o f release o f acetyl­

de Wesselow in 1920.

choline by nerve impulses; Sir Edward Sharpey-Schafer (1850-1935) who demonstrated the effects o f the extract o f

Urea [Greek: ouron, urine] End product o f animal metabo­

suprarenal gland; and Sydney R inger (1835-1910) who

lism described by English physician William Cruikshank

introduced thermometry in clinical medicine. Other grad­

(1745—1800) in 1773, and its properties were investigated by

uates include: Lord Joseph Lister (18 27-19 12), the founder

William Prout (1785—1850) in 1815. Synthesis o f urea from

of

Henry

potassium cyanate and ammonium sulfate by German

Maudsley (1835—19 18),psychiatrist who advocated the idea

chemist, Friedrich Wohler (1800-1882) in 1829 signaled the

the

antiseptic

system

of

surgery;

737

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

UREASE

beginnings o f organic chemistry. He qualified in medicine

designed

from Heidelberg in 1823 and specialized in gynecology

(1825-1905).

but never practiced. He became professor o f chemistry at

by American

surgeon, Nathan

Bozemann

Urethral Stricture Rhazes (850—932) from Persia, showed

Gottingen in 1837.

that hematuria was a symptom o f bladder disease and

Urease A crystalline form o f the enzyme was prepared by

he wrote at length on urethral stricture. French surgeon,

American biochemist and N obel Prize winner, James

Ambroise Paré (1510—1590) recognized their existence and

Batcheller Sumner (1887—1955) o f Canton, Massachusetts

called them ‘carnosities’ . He also devised two instruments

in 1926. He was a graduate o f Harvard and he became

introduced through the urethra to scrape o ff urethral granulations around the stricture. Urethrotomy, or internal

professor o f biochemistry at Cornell University in 1929.

longitudinal incision, was performed by American surgeon,

U rem ia [Greek: ouron, urine + haima, blood] Intoxication

Philip Syng Physick (1768-1837) o f Philadelphia in 1795.

due to poor kidney functioning was described by French

English surgeon, Claudius Galen Wheelhouse (1826—1909)

physician. Pier re-Adolphe Piorry (1794—1879) o f Poitiers in

designed a form o f external urethrotomy, where the stric­

1840. See azotemia,prerenal uremia, urea.

ture was identified with a probe before cutting the urethra

U rem ic Pericarditis [Greek: ouron, urine + peri, round +

in front o f it. Open urethroplasty was introduced by

kardia, heart + itis, inflammation] Occurs in cases o f renal

Johanson in 1953. Physick s method was revived with

failure and was studied by Heinrich von Bamberger (1822—

modifications and performed under direct vision through a

1888) ofVienna in 1857 and Ludwig von Buhl (1816—1880)

urethroscope by Sachse in 1971.

o f Stuttgart in 1878. M ore recent studies on the subject

U rethrotom y See urethral stricture.

were done by Alvan Leroy Barach o f N ew York in 1922.

U reter

[Greek:

oureter]

See

ureteric

calculi,

U ric A cid One o f the first substances to be linked to organic

ureteric

disease was discovered in 1776 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele

catheterization.

(1732—1786), a Swedish chemist. Accumulation o f uric acid

U reteric Calculi Demonstrated with the use o f X-rays and

or urates in the blood o f patients with renal disease was

an indwelling opaque catheter by Geza von lUyes (b 1870)

shown by Alfred Baring Garrod (1819—1909) using his

o f Budapest in 1901. Dilatation o f ureteral orifice as treat­

‘thread test’ in 1848. A colorimetric method o f measuring

ment was performed by a Baltimore urologist, Howard

uric acid in blood was devised by Otto Folin (1867—1934)

Atwood Kelly (1858—1943) in 1900. Sign o f maximal

and WiUey G. Denis in 1912. The rise o f uric acid in the

tenderness below the M cBurney point on both sides was

blood which precedes the rise o f urea in renal failure was

shown by Boston urologist, James Dellinger Barney

noted byVictor Carlyl Myers (b 1883) in 1916.

(b 1878) in i938.Lumbar ureterolithotomy as treatment was

U rinary Calculus Calculus in Greek means little stone or

described by Frederic Eugene Basil Foley (b 1891) in 1935.

pebble. Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) stated that stones in the

U reteric C ancer A case o f primary cancer o f the ureter

kidney are formed from phlegm which has been converted

established by microscopic diagnosis was reported by

to sand due to preternal heat in a bladder with a thick and

Swedish physician, P.Johann Wising (1842-1912) in 1878.

turbid state o f urine. He recognized that surgery was the only treatment for well formed stones. Lithotomy during

U reteric C atheterization Performed in a woman by Sir

his time was already established as a separate branch o f

John Simon (1816—1904) around 1850 and under direct

surgery. Galen (AD 129—200) thought that the only certain

vision by Joseph Casimir Grynfeltt (1840-1909) in 1876.

remedy for stones was lithotomy but advocated lithotriptics

Catheterization o f a male ureter was performed by James

such as pepper, galbanum, ammoniac, apronitrum, asarabaca

Brown (1854-1895) ofjohns Hopkins Hospital in 1893.

and herbs in the early stages.Aetius o f Amida (AD 527-165)

Urethral Catheter Ancient version were made o f silver

recommended goat’s blood as treatment. Hippocrates,

and bronze tubes. Rhazes (850—932) an Arabian physician,

Aetius and other ancient physicians observed that intake o f

devised bronze models with lateral holes to drain pus. He

milk predisposed to stone. Pierre Franco (1500—1561) o f

also used lead catheters whenever flexibility was needed.

France was one o f the best lithotomists o f the i6th century

Flexible catheters made o f woven silk covered with gum

who introduced a suprapubic approach, while Frere Jacques

were devised by M . Bernard, a silversmith from Paris in the

(16 51-17 14 ) performed over 5000 operations. William

second half o f the i8th century, and manufactured by Walsh

Cheselden (1688-1752), a famous lithotomist in England,

o f London. A double channeled urethral catheter was

was known for his precision and speed in such surgery.The

738

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

UTERINE

variable composition o f urinary stones was noted by

CANCER

H arry R ose (1906—1986) in 1927. A catheter, manometer

William Hyde Wollaston (1766-1828), in 1797. A kidney

and a moving strip o f bromide paper to measure and record

stone was visualized using X -ray by John McIntyre

bladder and sphincter behavior was designed by Derek

(1857-1928) at Glasgow in 1896.

Ernest Denny-Brown (19 0 1-19 8 1) and Robertson in 1933.

U rinary Cast

Stewart developed this into a cystometer in 1942.

Cylindrical structure o f microscopic size

observed in urine by Simon oWienna and Hermann Nasse

U rogenital Surgery See urology.

(1807—1892) in 1843. They were shown to arise from

[Greek: ouron, urine + kinein, to move] See

Urokinase

the kidneys, from postmortem by Gustav Jakob Henle

thrombolysis.

(1809- 1885) o f Germany in 1844.

U rology [Greek: owron, urine + /o^o5, discourse] Lithotomists

Urinary D iversion A n operation where the ureters were implanted into the rectum in ectropia vesicae. First

were the earliest surgeons and were well established during

performed by Sir John Simon (1816—1904) in 1852.

Hippocratic times. Ammonius (283-247 B C ), a surgeon o f Alexandria, described the method o f extraction o f stone.

U rine E xam ination Cryoscopic analysis o f urine was intro­

Rhazes (850—932), an Arab physician, devised bronze and

duced by Hungarian physician, Alexander von Sandor

lead catheters with lateral holes to drain the pus. Urological

Koranyi (b 1866) in 1895. Chicago surgeon, Malcolm

surgery was established as a specialty around 1790 by Pierre

LaSalle Harris (1862—1936) described a method for obtain­

Joseph Desault (1744—1795) and François Chopart (1743—

ing urine samples separately from each kidney in 1898. A

1795) o f Paris. Leopold R itter von Dittel (1815-1898),

method o f estimating specific gravity o f small amounts o f

professor o f surgery at Vienna, specialized in urology, and

urine was described by N ew York physician, George

described enucleation o f the enlarged lateral lobes o f the

Alexander de Santos (1876—19 11) in 1903. A quantitative

prostate through an external incision in i860. Joaquin

method o f estimating urinary sediments was devised by San

Dominguez Albarrán (1860—1912), Cuban-born French

Francisco physician, Henry Gibbons (b 1906) in 1934. See

professor o f medicine, wrote on surgery o f urinary passages

albuminuria, bacteriuria, glycosuria.

in 1909. An electrically-lit cystoscope was invented by M ax

U rin e O sm olarity See osmolarity.

Nitz (1848-1906) ofB erlin in 1877, and use o f anesthetic in

U rine [Greek: ouron, urine] The urine o f diabetics was noted

urology (cocaine) was introduced by Fessenden N ott Otis

to attract insects due to its sugar content by ancient

(1825—1900) in 1884. Jean Casimir Felix Guyon (1831—

Brahmins who called it honey urine. Hippocrates (460—377

1920),professor at Paris,published his lectures on urology in

B C ) noticed the ‘white clouds’ in urine which are now

1881 and a treatise on the surgical diseases o f the bladder and

known to be albumin. Uroscopy, a chart containing various

prostate in 1888. James Brown (1854—1895) o f Johns

colors and conditions o f urine in disease with written

Hopkins Hospital catheterized male ureters in 1893 .A dou­

advice for physicians for each finding, was used during the

ble channeled urethral catheter, Bozemann catheter, was

Middle Ages. Urine o f humans and animals has been used as

designed

medicine since ancient times. It was taken after childbirth

(1825-1905).

for constipation. The Arabian physician Haly Abbas

by American

surgeon,

Nathan

Urquhart, Patrick (1642—1725) Aberdeen clinical teacher

(930—994) advised a draught containing lentils, fennel and

and successful medical practitioner who also practiced

the urine o f a boy not come to puberty as treatment for

embalming.

jaundice. Greeks differentiated between the urine o f

U rso o f Calbaria Physician who lived in the 13 th century

prepuberty and adolescence and this has been proved with the isolation o f sex hormones which are now in use in

and

treatment o f various hormone-sensitive cancers such as

Qualitatum and De Effectibus Medicinae.

those o f the prostate and breast.

wrote

several

treatises

including

De

Effectibus

U rticaria [Latin: urtica,nettle] See angioneurotic edema.

U rodynam ics A study o f the mechanics and pattern o f

U rticaria P igm en tosa

urine flow was done by the Italian physiologists, Angelo

[Latin: urtica, nettle] Nettleship

disease, chronic urticaria leaving brown stains on the skin.

Mosso (1846—1910) and Pellcani in 1881. They devised a

Described by London ophthalmologist, Edward Nettleship

manometer capable o f recording the intravesical pressure at

(1845-1913) in 1869.

rest and during micturition. A clinical cystometer for measuring the intravesical pressure was

Bozemann

devised by

U terine C ancer See carcinoma of cervix.

739

UTERINE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

FIBROID

U terine Fibroid Seefibroid. U terine Inversion See inversion of the uterus. U terine Prolapse [Latinipro, in front + laps, to slip] An early method o f surgical treatment was devised in 1919 by an American obstetrician and gynecologist, Alfred Baker Spalding (1874-1942). He was educated at Columbia U ni­ versity and became professor o f obstetrics at Stanford University in 19 12 .The Manchester operation, where high amputation o f the cervix is done with repair o f the anterior and posterior vaginal walls, was devised by Archibald Donald (1860—1937) and William Edward Fothergill (18651926) o f Manchester in 1890 and modified by Fothergill in 1915. The Gilliam operation o f ventrosuspension was devised in 1900 by David Todd Gilliam (1844-1923) o f America.

U terine Sound

Instrument for exploration, dilatation

and measurement o f the cavity o f the uterus. Invented by James M arion Sims (1813—1883) a gynecologist from South Carolina.

U terosacral L igam ents

[Latin: uterus, womb + sacrum,

sacred + ligamentum,h^md] Posterior round ligaments o f the uterus, described by Antoine Petit, professor o f anatomy at Paris in 1760. The posterior aponeurosis o f the broad ligament was described in 1897 by French gynecologist, Paul Petit. Named after the Rom an goddess, Uterina, who

Uterus

guarded the womb. The Ebers Papyrus refers to it as an independent animal within the body. Aristotle considered it to be the most important organ in the body. Mondino de Luzzi (1276-1328), professor o f anatomy at Bologna, described it in 1315 .An accurate anatomical description was given by Bartholomew Eustachio (1520—1574), professor at R o m e in 1552. An accurate description o f the innervation was

given

by

Scottish

gynecologist,

R obert

Lee

(1793-1877) in 1841.

Uvea The choroid, iris and ciliary body were together called ‘chiton rhagoides’ by Galen (AD 129—200) because o f their resemblance to a grape with the stalk torn off. The present term is derived from the Greek w ord ‘uva’ , a grape.

U veoparotid Fever

Heerfordt syndrome, a form o f

sarcoidosis involving the parotid glands, was described by Christian Frederik Heerfordt (1872-1953) in 1909.

U vula [Greek: little grape] Term used by Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C - A D 50) to denote the structure.The present term for the distal fleshy part o f the soft palate came into use in 1695.

740

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VAGINAL

SPECULUM

Described by Edward Headlam Greenhow (1814—1888) o f London in 1876.

V

Vagabond See vagrant. Ancient Hindu book which deals with

Vagadasastir

demonology and medicine. It describes the human body as having 100,000 parts and 17,000 vessels.

Vagal S yncope See carotid sinus syndrome. V accination in A m erica

Vagbbata

Boston physician, Zabdiel

Hindu Brahmin physician who lived in the

seventh century.

Boylston (1680—1766), inoculated his son in 1721 with the material taken from the pustule o f a person with smallpox.

Vagina [Latin: vagina, a scabbard or sheath] The term was

Benjamin Colman (1673—1747) o f Boston wrote a book on

coined by GabrieUe FaUoppio (1523—1562), a pupil o f

smallpox vaccination in the same year. Other American

AndreasVesalius (1514 -1564 ).He also described the tubes o f

treatises include those o f Coleman (1722), Increase Mather

the ovaries which are named after him.

(1721), Benjamin Franklin (1706—1790) in 1759 and

Vaginal A genesis Two cases o f congenital absence o f vagina

Benjamin Rush (1745—1813) in 178 1. Benjamin Waterhouse

treated by plastic surgery were reported by American

(1754—1846), professor o f medicine at Harvard, inoculated

gynecologist, Carl Henry Davis (b 1883) o f Milwaukee in

his four children in 1800 with a smallpox obtained from

1928.

a physician named Haygarth o f Bath, England.The Vaccine

Vaginal C ontraceptive D evices Vaginal pessaries made

Institute was established at Baltimore by James Smith

o f pomegranate seed were mentioned as contraceptives

in 1802.

by Aetius ofA m ida (AD 527—165).Various other forms o f

V accination [Latin: vacca, cow] Term coined by Louis Pasteur

vaginal caps and diaphragms were used in the 19th century.

(1822—1895) in 1881. The R oyal Jennerian Institution was

The douche and vaginal sponge were advocated as contra­

founded in 1803 and vaccination was made compulsory in

ceptives by a physician, George Drysdale, in his treatise on

England in 1853, in Ireland and Scotland in 1863. Papers on

sex education. Elements of Social Science, published in 1854.

the History and Practice of Vaccination was edited by John

See birth control, contraceptive devices.

Simon and was published by the Board o f Health in 1853. See inoculation, immunology.

V accine Therapy

Vaginal H ysterectom y

[Latin: vagina, sheath; Greek:

hystera, womb + ektome, to cut out] Performed in 1507 by

Following the introduction o f fever

Italian surgeon,Jacopo Berengario da Carpi (1470-1530) o f

therapy for syphilis and other diseases by Austrian psychia­

Pavia. A successful operation was performed by Sauter in

trist, Julius Wagner-Jauregg (1857—1940) in 1877, several vaccines, such as tuberculin, typhoid and rabies, were

1822, and the modern surgical method o f removing the

introduced as shock therapy for syphilis in the early 1900s.

uterus for cancer through the vagina, was introduced in 1878 by Vincenz Czerny (1842—1916), Czech professor o f

[Latin: mcca, cow] See typhoid vaccine, antirabies

surgery at Heidelberg. His procedure was further devel­

vaccine, B C G , cholera vaccine, measles vaccine, pneumococcal

oped by Christian Albert Theodor Billroth (1829-1894),

Vaccine

vaccine,polio vaccine,smallpox, inoculation.

V acuum

German professor o f surgery in Austria, and Polish surgeon, Johann

[Latin: vacuus, empty] Aristotle studied it and

von

M ikulicz-Radecki

(1850—1905). Radical

conclude that it did not exist. Torricelli (1608—1644),

vaginal hysterectomy for uterine carcinoma was introduced

Galileo s assistant, was the first to create a vacuum around

by Friedrich Schauta (1849-1919) in 1902.

1644. A practical way o f producing a vacuum became possi­

Vaginal Speculum Use o f the speculum to visualize inter­

ble with the invention o f the air pump by Otto van

nal organs such as the rectum, vagina and ear, was known

Guericke (1602-1686), the mayor o f Magdeburg in Prussia,

in the time o f Hippocrates (460-377 B C ) and Soranus o f

in 1656. His device was developed by R o bert Boyle

Ephesus (AD 98—138), an early gynecologist, used it.James

(1627—1691) for his experiment on gases.

M arion Sims (1813-1883) o f South Carolina used a bent

Vagabond D isease Discoloration and excoriation o f the

spoon to visualize a vesical fistula in 1845. His device was

skin caused by scratching secondary to human pediculosis.

later developed into Sims duck-billed speculum. Another

741

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VAGINISM US

was designed around the same time by Joseph Claude

Caesars and Egypt. His son, John Francis, was also an

Anthelme Recam ier (1774—1852) o f Paris. Sir William

physician who wrote a treatise on use o f coffee.

Fergusson (1808—1877), a Scottish surgeon and a pupil

Vaillant, Sebastian (1669—1722) French botanist and surgeon

o f R obert Knox (179 1—1862), devised several surgical

from Vigny. He was physician to Louis X IV and director

instruments,including a vaginal speculum around i860.

o f the Royal Botanical Gardens at Paris. He wrote

V aginism us Condition o f painful spasm o f the vaginal mus­

Botanica Pariense.

cles during sexual intercourse described by James M arion

Valence [Latin: valere, strong] Capacity o f every element to

Sims (1813-1883) in 1861. He recommended removal o f the

combine with other elements was proposed by an organic

hymen, incision and subsequent dilation o f vaginal

chemist. Sir Edward Frankland (1825—1899) o f Church-

orifice as treatment.

town, Lancashire in 1852. He was a pupil o f Baron Playfair

Vagrant [Latin: mgari, to wander] In the Middle Ages they

(1819—1898) in London, R obert W ilhelm Bunsen ( 18 11-

were marked with the letterV. In 1530 they were whipped

1899) in Marburg and Justus von Liebig (1803—1873) in

and returned to the place where they were born or last lived

Giessen. He was professor o f chemistry at O w en’s College,

for over three years.

Manchester and later became lecturer at St Bartholom ew’s Hospital, London in 1857. Further research was done by

Vagus [Latin: mgor, wandering] The nerve derives its name from the observation that it supplied an array o f organs.

American physical chemist, Gilbert N ewton Lewis (1875—

Thomas Willis (16 21—1675) described a branch o f the vagus

1946) o f Weymouth, Massachusetts. He was educated at

supplying the aorta as a wandering nerve, in 1664. Inhibi­

Harvard and worked with Wilhelm Ostwald (1853—1932) at

tion o f the heart by stimulating the vagus nerve was

Leipzig and Walther Hermann Nernst (1864—1941) at

demonstrated by Alfred W ilhelm Volkmann (1800—1877) o f

Gottingen, before his appointment at the University o f

Dorpat in 1838, and redescribed by Eduard Friedrich Weber

California, Berkeley. He wrote Valence and the Structure of

and Ernest Heinrich Weber (1795-1878) in i845.Volkmann

Atoms and Molecules in 1923.

experimentally induced bronchospasm by stimulation in

Valentin Cords Linear arrangement o f female sex cells in

1844. Other inhibitory nerves in the autonomic nervous

the developing ovary described by a pupil o f Johannes

system were discovered by German physiologist, Edward

Evangelista

Friedrich W ilhelm Pflüger (1829-1910) in 1864. In 1869

Purkinje

(1787—1869)

and

comparative

anatomist, Gabriel Gustav Valentin (1810—1883) in 1838.

Friedrich Leopold Goltz (1834—1902) experimented on

Valentin was professor o f physiology at Bern for 45 years.

decerebrated frogs and showed that their heart could be

Valentin

stopped by tapping the stomach. Experimental research on

G anglion

On the superior dental nerve.

the action o f vagus and cervical sympathetic nerves on the

Described by a professor o f physiology at Bern, Gabriel

heart, respiration, stomach, ear, and pupils was done by

GustavValentin (1810—1883) in 1839.

Auguste Desire Waller (1856—1922) in 186 1.The neurogenic

Valentine, Basil Pseudonym for a German Benedictine

reflex arising in the lung which controls the rate and depth

monk who wrote on alchemy in the 17th century, including

o f respiration via the vagus nerve was described by Jo sef

Currus Triumphalis Antimonii (1671), and other treatises. He

Breuer (1842—1925) and Karl H ering (1834-1918) in 1868.

obtained alcohol completely free o f water.

Germ an-born N obel Prize winner, pharmacologist and o f Strasburg,

Valentine, Michael Bernard (1657—1929) Professor o f medi­

demonstrated in 1921 that a substance liberated from the

cine at Giessen who published several works including

stimulated vagus nerve ending, when perfused on to a

Cynosura materiae Medicae and Medicina Nova-Antiqua.

physiologist, Otto

Loewi

(18 73-19 6 1)

second heart, was capable o f slowing the rate o f heart beat.

Valentine P osition Patient supine at the edge o f the table

This substance was the first neurotransmitter to be isolated

with legs hanging down, used for irrigating the urethra.

and it was later identified as acetylcholine. The suggestion

Described by N ew York surgeon, Ferdinand C. Valentine

that secretions o f the pancreas depended on a reflex

(1851-1909).

between duodenal mucosa and vagus was made by Russian

Valerius Cordus See Cordus Valerius.

N obel Prize winner, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849—1936) in 1910.

Valine Amino acid isolated by Gorup-Besanez from extract o f pancreas in 1856. It was isolated from the hydrolysate o f

Vaillant, John Foy (1632—1706) French physician and histo­

casein by Fischer in 1901.

rian from Beauvais who published history on R om e,

742

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VAN

Surgical Journal in 1923. Sir Henry

Valium See benzodiazepine.

DER

WAALS

Sessions Souttar

(1875—1964) pioneered a procedure by introducing his

Valla, George (d 1460) Italian physician and professor at

fingers through the left atrium and splitting the mitral

Venice who wrote De Expetendis et Fugiendis rebus in two

commisures in a case o f mitral stenosis in 1925 .Valvotomy

volumes.

through the right ventricle in a case o f pulmonary stenosis

Valleix Points Tender points in a nerve causing neuralgia.

was performed by Russell Claude Brock (b 1903) o f G u y’s

Described by French physician, François Louis Valleix

Hospital in 1948.

(1807-1855).

Valvular H eart D isease See rheumatic fever, aortic stenosis,

Valli, Eusebius (1762-1816) Italian physician from Pistroia

mitral stenosis, valvotomy, subacute bacterial endocarditis.

who was well known for his self experimentation on

Vanadium Element discovered in 1801 by Spanish mineral­

disease. He tried the efficacy o f plague vaccine on himself

ogist, Andrés Manuel Del R io (1764-1849) o f Madrid.

and survived, but succumbed to yellow fever in Havana.

Swedish physician and chemist. Nils Gabriel Sefstrom

Vallisnieri, Antonio (1661—1730) Tuscan naturalist and

(1765-1829) in 1830 named it after the Scandinavian

professor o f medicine at Padua. He studied the reproductive

goddess, FreyaVanadin. It was isolated in Cheshire mines by

system o f insects and wrote treatises on the ostrich (1712)

English chemist. Sir Henry Enfield R oscoe (1833—1915)

and chameleon in 1715.

in 1865. It is used to make a steel alloy. Its anhydride was shown to be a strong respiratory irritant by F. M olfino in

Valsalva, Antonio Maria (1666-1723) He succeeded Marcello

1938. Vanadium poisoning due to its toxic dust was

Malpighi (1628-1694) as professor o f anatomy at Bologna.

described by H. Synmanski in 1939.

Several anatomical structures including, the aortic sinuses, anterior ligament o f the auricle and the muscle o f tragus, are

Van Burén D isease

named after him.

Valsalva M aneuvre

Hardening o f corpora cavernosa,

described by American surgeon,William Holme Van Burén (1819-1883).

Inflation o f the eustachian tube by

closing the nose and the mouth during forcible expiration.

Vandale, Anthony (1638-1708) Dutch trader who studied

Described by a professor o f anatomy at Bologna, Antonio

medicine and became professor at Harlem. He published on

Maria Valsaiva (1666-1723).

a variety o f subjects outside medicine.

Valverda, John de Spanish physician in the i6th century

Van D ee n Test Test for blood in gastric juice, using guaiac

who accompanied the cardinal o f Toledo to R om e. He

acid and glacial acetic acid as reagents. Devised by a Dutch

wrote a treatise on anatomy which was published in Venice

physician, IzaakVan Deen (1804-1869).

in 1589.

Van D en BerghT est Detects unconjugated bilirubin using

Valves [Latin: valvae, fold] Described as outgrowths o f the

diazo reagent. Described in 1900 by Dutch physician, A .A .

veins by Jacques du Bois (1473—1555) in 15 55.Their function

Hymans Van Den Bergh (1869—1943).

in maintaining a unidirectional flow o f blood in veins was

Vander-M onde, Charles Augustine (1727-1762) Physician

observed by Fabricius (1533—1619), a teacher o f William

born in Macao to European parents. He practiced in Paris

Harvey (1578—1657). See artificial valves, mitral valves, tricuspid

and wrote a dictionary on health, a treatise on surgery and

valves.

on methods o f perfecting the human species.

V alvotom y [Latin: valva, fold; Greek: tome, cutting] Sir Laud­

Van D er Waals E quation Defines the physical state o f gas

er Brunton (1844—1916) proposed the idea o f splitting open

and liquid. Proposed by Dutch professor o f physics at

the commisures o f the mitral valve to relieve symptoms o f

Amsterdam, Johannes DiderikVan Der Waals (1837^1923)

severe mitral stenosis in 1902. A valvotomy for stenosis was

in 1873. He also proposed the concept o f weak attraction

done on the pulmonary valve by E. Doyen (1859—1916) in

between molecules (Van Der Waals force) and was awarded

1913 but was unsuccessful. Elliot Carr Cutler (1888—1947) o f Western Reserve

the N obel Prize for Physics in 1910.

University o f Cleveland, Ohio

performed one for a severe mitral stenosis through the

Van D er Waals, Johannes (1837—1923) Dutch physicist who

transventricular approach in 1923. Cutler and Samuel

graduated from Leiden in 1865 and did extensive studies on

Levines (1891—1966) w o r k ‘Cardiotomy and Valvulotomy

the nature o f gases. He proposed his equation on tempera­

for Mitral Stenosis’ was published in the Boston Medical and

ture, volume, and pressure relationship o f gases in 1873. His

743

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VANE

The Continuity of the Liquid and Gaseous States was published

Vaquez—Osier D isease See polycythemia vera.

in the same year and he was made professor o f physics at

Varenius, or Bernhard Varen (1622—1650) Dutch physician

Amsterdam University in 1877.

and geographer who wrote Geographia Generalis, a standard work in geography for more than a century. It was improved

Vane, Sir John R obert (b 1927) English biochemist and

and enlarged by Isaac New ton in 1672.

co-winner o f the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1982. He studied pharmacology at Birmingham and St

Varicella [Latin: variegated or spotted] Chicken pox was dif­

Catherines CoUege Oxford, and taught atYale (1953—1955)

ferentiated from scarlet fever by Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia

and London. He studied adrenergic receptors o f the

(1510—1580) o f Italy in 1553. A gangrenous form was

nervous system and the role o f the lung in drug uptake and

described by Sir Jonathan Hutchinson (1828—1913) in 1882.

metabolism. He described the inhibition o f prostaglandin

Occurrence through contact with Herpes zoster was obser­

synthesis by aspirin and similar drugs with his co-workers

ved by J. von Bokay o f Germany in 1892. The presence o f

in 1970. He also discovered prostacyclin, the short-lived

inclusion bodies in skin lesions o f variceUa were observed

antagonist o f platelet aggregation which is crucial for the

by Ernest EdwardTyzzer (1875—1965) in 1905.

control o f thrombus formation.

Varices [Latin: enlarged] Hippocrates (460—377 B C ) recom­

Van G ehuchten M ethod Fixing method for histologic tis­

mended puncture o f a vein in the leg as treatment. Paul o f

sue in a mixture o f glacial acetic acid and chloroform.

Aegina (625-690) ligated the affected veins and Aetius o f

Devised by Belgian anatomist, Arthur Van Gehuchten

Amida (AD 527—165) andAlbucasis (936—1013) described

(18 6 1-19 14).

operations. See esophageal varices, varicose veins.

V aricocele

Van G ieson Stain Histological staining method for tissues,

[Latin: varix, dilation; Greek: kele, tumor] A

using alum-hemotoxylin. Devised by neuropathologist,

method o f subcutaneous ligation o f veins for varicocele

Ira Van Gieson (1865—1913) ofN ew Y ork.

was devised by French surgeon,AugusteTheodore Vidal de Cassis (1803—1856). Another operative method for radical

Vanquelin, Louis Nicholas (1763-1829) French analytical

cure was described by H. Lee in The Lancet in 1861. George

chemist and professor o f chemistry at Paris. He isolated the

Heaton (1808-1879),a Boston surgeon,described a surgical

amino acid asparagine from asparagus in 1806.The elements

cure in 1877. English surgeon. Sir WiUiam H enry Bennett

chromium and beryUium are two o f his other discoveries.

(1852-1931) published a monograph in 1891.

Van Slyke, Donald Dexter (1883-1971) American bio­

V aricose Vein [Latin: varix, dilation] Surgical treatment was

chemist at the RockefeUer Institute and pioneer in the

described by Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C -A D 50).

study o f the acid—base balance. He devised an early appara­

Ligation o f veins as treatment was described by Aetius o f

tus for analysis o f blood gases in 1924. He also proposed a

Amida (AD 527—165), physician to Emperor Justinian.

minimal pH level o f 6.95 below which coma occurs. He

Ambroise Paré (1510—1590), the legendary French surgeon,

demonstrated in 1934 that urea clearance paraUeled blood

considered that varicosity was associated with conditions

flow though the kidneys, which later formed the basis for

such as melancholia and disturbance o f menstruation and he revived ligation o f the veins below the knee as treatment.

the urea clearance test for kidney function.

Van S w ieten , Gerard (1700—1772)

John Hunter (1728—1793) in 1786 and Sir Everard Home

Pupil o f Herman

(1756—1832) in 1803 practiced ligation o f veins above the

Boerhaave (1668—1738) at Leiden who founded theVienna

knee. Injection o f sclerozing agents was introduced by

School o f Medicine and prevailed on the government to

Charles Gabriel Pravaz (179 1—1853) in 1851 and Paul Linser

rebuild Vienna University. He wrote Commentary on the

(b 1871) ofTübingen used mercurial chloride in 19 11.

Aphorisms of Boerhaave.

Varmus, Harold Ehiot (b 1939 American molecular biolo­ Van’t H off, Jacobus Henricus (1852—1911) Eminent chemist,

gist, born in N ew York and educated at Amherst CoUege,

born in Rotterdam and graduated from Utrecht in 1874. He

Virginia, Harvard University and Columbia University. He

was professor o f chemistry at Amsterdam in 1878 and moved

was appointed professor o f microbiology and immunology

to Berhn in 1896. He is considered the founder o f stereo­

at the University o f California Medical Center in 1979. He

chemistry and physical chemistry and proposed the

received the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in

tetrahedral structure o f carbon in 1874. He also pointed out

1989 (together with Michael Bishop, b 1936) for his discov­

that solutions and gases behaved similarly and proposed the

ery o f oncogenes, which have been o f vital importance

dissociation theory related to electrolytes in solution in 1877.

in understanding the mechanisms o f cancer. See oncogenes.

744

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VEDA

Varolio, Constanzo, orVarolius (1543—1575) Italian professor

in 1817. See pollen, hayfever.

o f anatomy at Bologna and R om e. He described the fluid in

Vasopressin See antidiuretic hormone.

the brain and the pons (pons varoli) in 1573.

Vater, Abraham (1684—1751) Professor o f botany, anatomy,

Vas D eferens Chicago surgeon, William Thomas Belfield

pathology and therapeutics at Wittenberg. In 1720 he

(1856-1929) performed vasotomy as a therapeutic proce­

described the duodenal papillae and the ampulla o f the bile

dure in 1884. Ligation o f it was experimentally performed

duct which are named after him. He also described the

for impotence by Eugen Steinach (1861—1944) in 1920.

pacinian corpuscles.

Excision o f whole or part o f the vas deferens (vasectomy) was commenced to induce male sterility in the 1930s.

Vascular Surgery

Vatican Founded on the Mons Vaticanus hill o f R om e. Its palace containing 7000 rooms was built by Liberius, and its

[Latin: vas, vessel] See aortic aneurysm,

library containing valuable books and manuscripts was

cardiac surgery, cardiac transplant, embolectomy, coronary artery

founded by Pope NicholasV in 1448.

bypass graft, valvotomy.

Vascular System

Vattier, Pierre (1623—1667) French physician from Orleans

[Latin: vas, vessel] See blood circulation,

who wrote historical works on Muslims and a medical

capillary circulation, heart, cardiology, veins, arteries.

work, Avicennae de morbis mentis, in 1659.

V asectom y See vas deferens. Vaughan, William English medical writer who lived during Vasovesiculography Used to visualize the male reproduc­

the latter half o f the i6th century. He wrote Directions for

tive organs on X-ray. Devised by Chicago surgeon,WiUiam

Health, with an apology for not being a physician in 1608.

Thomas Belfield (1856—1929) in 1905. He also described

Vectius, VaUens R om an physician and follower ofThemison

vasotomy in 1884.

{c 100 B C ) . He improved the Methodist system o f medicine

V asoconstriction [Latin: vas, vessel + constringere, to draw

proposed byThemison.

tight] A study o f nervous control o f the circulatory system

Vector [Latin: vehere, to carry] The culex mosquito was iden­

was performed by Claude Bernard (1813—1878) around 1843.

He was convinced that contraction o f the arteries was

tified as the vector in filaria by Sir Patrick Manson (1844-

under nervous influence. In 1851 he cut the sympathetic

1922) and Sir Joseph Bancroft (1836—1894) in 1878. A tick

nerve on one side in a rabbit and observed dilation o f blood

was shown to be a vector in Texas cattle fever in 1893 by

vessels on the same side. This led to discovery o f the

Theobald Smith (1859—1934), a professor o f microbiology

vasomotor nerves in 1858. Charles Brown-Sequard (1817—

at Harvard University. Xenopsylla cheopsis, a genus o f flea,

1894) performed a similar experiment and demonstrated

was shown to be a vector o f plague by Masanori Ogata

vasoconstriction o f blood vessels by stimulating the cut

(1852—1919) in 1897. Italian physician, Amico Bignami

peripheral sympathetic trunk in 1852.

(1862—1929), while working with Ettore Marchiafava (1847-1935), identified the role o f the Anopheles mosquito

V asodilation [Latin: vas, vessel + dilatus, separate] Claude

as a vector in transmission o f malaria. The mosquito, Aedes

Bernard (1813—1878) extended his studies on nervous

aegypti, was shown to be a vector in transmission o f dengue

control o f blood vessels in 1858 and discovered the vasodila­

fever by Thomas Lane Bancroft (1860—1933) in 1906.

tor fibers in the chorda tympani. B y stimulating this nerve

Vectorcardiography [Latin: vehere, to carry; Greek: kardia,

he demonstrated an increase in blood flow to the area.

heart + graphein, to write] The concept o f representing the

See vasoconstriction.

electrical forces o f the heart by recording the vector forces

V asom otor N erves [Latin: vas, vessel + movere, to move]

from the surface o f the body was proposed by Willem

See vasoconstriction.

Einthoven (1860—1927) and G. Fahr in 1913. The vector loop cardiogram was developed by Hubert Mann (1895—

V asom otor R eflex [Latin: vas, vessel + movere, to move] Discovered by Russian physiologist, Elie de Cyon (18 4 2-

1975) while a medical student in 1920. The vectorcardio­

1912) and German physiologist, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm

gram was introduced into clinical medicine by Fritz

Ludwig (1816—1895) in 1866.

ScheUong o f Germany in i939.The term vectorcardiogram was suggested by Frank Norman Wilson (1890—1952) and

V asom otor R hinitis or hay fever (Syn: Bostock catarrh,

ED. Johnston in 1938.

catarrhus aestivus, allergic rhinitis, vasomotor rhinitis) Described by John Bostock (1773—1846) o f G u y’s Hospital

Veda

745

Ancient Brahmin (Sanskrit) term for learning or

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VEDDAHS

knowledge. The Vedas, or the sacred book o f the Hindus,

thoracic portion o f the inferior vena cava was given in 1862

was written in Sanskrit around looo B C . See rigveda,

by Hubert von Luschka (1820—18 75), professor o f anatomy

ayurvéda.

at Tübingen.

Veddahs Sri Lankan, pre-Dravidian tribe who have features

Venel, Jean Andre (1740-1791) See orthopedics.

common to Australian aborigines, suggesting a common

Venereal D isease A ct 1917 Prohibits unqualified persons

ancestral origin since the Stone Age. An early account is

from treating sexually contacted diseases in England.

given in K n ox’s A n Historical Relation of Ceylon published in i6 8 i. Further ethnic studies were done by J. Bailey in 1863

Venereal D isease

Morbus venereus was used to denote

and later by Davy and Sir James Emerson Tennant. They

syphilis and gonorrhea by French physician, Jacques de

were considered to be barbarians on the basis o f their

Berthencourt o f R o u en in 1527. The Ebers Papyrus

personal hygiene, had no names and did not bury the dead.

contains a description which suggests that gonorrhea exist­

Studies done by Fritz and Paul Sarasin revealed quartz

ed around 2500 B C . Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 B C —A D

implements comparable to those o f the Paleolithic age, and

50) and Galen (AD 129—200) also described gonorrhea.

their findings were described in polia Zeyandica (1919).

Syphihs was only described in the 15th century and two

The veddas (Ceylon) was published by English anthropolo­

theories exist, one proposing that it was endemic in Europe,

gist and physician from London, Charles Gabriel Seligman

and the other that it was brought from America after the

(1873-1940) in 19 11.

discovery o f the N ew World. French physician, Jean

Vegetarian D iet Porphyry ofTyre (AD 233-3 04) ^^ disciple

François Fernel (1497—1558) suggested that gonorrhea and

o f Plotinius (203—270), protested violently against use o f

syphilis were two distinct diseases, whereas John Hunter

meat as food in Concerning Abstinence from Animal Food.

(1728-1793) believed them to be the same and tried to

The book is addressed to Firmus Castricius who was a

prove it by inoculating himself. Unknown to him, the

vegetarian, and it suggested that murderers and tyrants were

inoculum contained both gonorrhea and syphilis and he

flesh eaters.The Vegetarian Society in England was founded

contacted syphilis and falsely confirmed his original belief.

in London in 1847.

Hunter published A Treatise on Venereal Diseases in iy86.The difference between syphilis and gonorrhea based on the

Vein [Latin: vena, vein] The Greek physician Erasistratus dis­

response to mercurial treatment was shown by Benjamin

sected human bodies around 300 B C and postulated that

BeU (1749—1806) o f Dumfries, a pupil o f Hunter, in 1793.

arteries contained air or ‘breath o f life’ and veins carried

The two diseases were shown to be definitely different by

nutrients. He believed that the valves o f the heart directed

Phillipe R icord (1799—1889) o f Paris in 1838. Condylomata

blood towards veins. Fabricius (1533—1619) in 1608 noted

acuminata, or genital warts, have been known for 2000

that valves in veins opened towards the heart, but he offered

years. Condylomata lata, or syphilitic warts, were differenti­

no explanation. In 1628 William Harvey (1578-1657)

ated from genital warts by Gabrielle Falloppio (1523-1562).

observed that these valves prevented venous reflux and John Hunter (1728—1793) in 1785 noted that veins accommodate

See Contagious Diseases Act, genitourinary medicine, syphilis,

the excess blood when arteries contracted.

herpes genitalis.

Vella Fistula Artificial fistula created by dividing the intes­

V enesection [Latin: ven a,Y A n + sectio, cutting] Established as

tine in two places and fixing both pieces to the abdominal

a remedy during the time o f Hippocrates (460—377 B C ). It

wall. Described by Italian physiologist, Luigi Vella (1825—

continued to be practiced for over 2000 years until questioned in the 19th century. In England much o f the

1886).

battle against venesection was fought at Edinburgh, and

Velpeau, Alfred Armand Louis M arie (1795-1867) Professor

Hughes John Bennett (1812-1875) produced scientific

o f clinical surgery at the Paris Faculty. Several anatomical

evidence against it in 1856. See bloodletting.

structures have been named after him including: the inguinal canal, ischiorectal fossa, and tela subserosa around

Venidad [Persian: law against devils] Volume in the Persian

the kidney. H e wrote a comprehensive surgical treatise and

philosophy Zendevesta. It describes three groups: doctors,

attempted operative treatment o f aneurysm.

surgeons, herbalists and magicians, and deals with demonic aspects o f disease. See Persian medicine.

Vena Cava [Latin: vena, vein + cavus, hollow] Described in 1850 by John Marshall (18 18 -18 9 1), professor o f surgery at

Venner, Tobias (1577-1660) English physician from Pether-

University College London. A precise description o f the

ton in Somerset, and educated at Oxford. He practiced at

746

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VERNEY

Bridgewater and later at Bath. He wrote Vis recta ad Vitum

in 1954. See congenital heart diseases.

longam and a treatise on Bath waters.

Ventricular Tachycardia Experimentally demonstrated in 1862 by Danish physiologist Peter Ludwig Panum (1820—

V enom [Latin: t'enenwm, poison] See ophidism.

1885) by injecting tallow into coronary arteries. A n E C G

Venous P ulsation Tracings o f the jugular vein were record­

recording was made by George Robinson (b 1922) and

ed by French cardiologist, Pierre Carl Eduard Potain

G. Herrmann in 19 21.

(1825-19 01) in 1867 and in 1892 by Sir James Mackenzie

V entriculography

(1853—1925) with his ink polygraph.

Introduction o f air into the cerebral

ventricles to visualize them radiologically was practiced by

Venous Throm bosis See deep vein thrombosis.

Walter Edward Dandy (1886—1946) in 1918. A special

Ventilator Stephen Hales (16 77-176 1) described his inven­

technique to minimize the air introduced, using 12

tion to the Royal Society in 1741. N eil A rnott (1788—1874)

projections, was designed by Erik Lysholm (1891-1947) in

an English inventor and physician wrote a treatise on

1935. See air ventriculography.

them in 1838, and a commission on ventilation and

[Latin: ventriculus, a small belly + quism,

V entriloquism

warming was appointed to prepare a report in England in

speak] Some famous ventriloquists o f the i8th and 19th

1859. See artificial respiration.

centuries include: Baron M engen and M . St Gille o f France

Ventricle [Latin: ventriculus, small cavity] The R om an physi­

(1772), and Thomas King (1716) and Charles Matthews

cian Galen (AD 129-200) proposed that blood from the left

(1824) o f England.

ventricle reached the right side o f the heart via pores in the

Verapamil Calcium channel blocker that dilates coronary

interventricular septum. His teaching was accepted for

arteries and decreases myocardial oxygen demand.

over a thousand years until William Harvey (1578—1657)

See calcium channel.

announced his discovery o f the circulatory system in 1628. He calculated the volume o f blood ejected from the left

Verdier, Caesar (d 1759) French surgeon from Avignon who

ventricle into the aorta by estimating the change in size.

practiced in Paris. He wrote treatises on anatomy, surgery and midwifery.

Ventricular A neurysm Result o f myocardial infarction. Treated surgically by Denton Cooley and co-workers in

Verga, Andrea (18 11-18 9 5) Italian neurologist from Milan

1959-

who in 1856 described a small tunnel in the petrous tempo­ ral bone which now bears his name. It is a space between the

Ventricular Fibrillation A n account o f death due to ven­ tricular

fibrillation

was

given

by

corpus callosum and the body o f Fornix.

Alexander John

MacWilliam (1857-1937), a professor at the University o f

Verheyen, Phillippe (1648-1710) Belgian theologian who

Aberdeen in 1889. Swiss physicians Jean Louis Prévost

became interested in anatomy after amputation o f his foot

(1838—1927) and L. Batelli induced ventricular fibrillation

following an accident. He became professor o f surgery at

in a dogs heart in 1899 by applying a small current and

Louvain in 1693 and wrote De Corporis Humani Anatomia

terminated the arrhythmia by giving a larger dose o f the current.

These

studies

were

followed

by

W.

and De Febribus.The venae stellata o f the kidney are named

B.

Verheyen stars.

Kouwenhouven, D R . H ooker and O. R . Langworthy in 1932.

Induction o f sinus rhythm by countershock was

V erm iform A ppendix [Latin: vermis, worm + forma, shape]

demonstrated by the same workers in 1933. Countershock

Called the worm o f the bowel by physicians in ancient

to a fibrillating human heart leading to recovery was per­

Egypt and cecum intestinum around 1600. A description

formed in 1945 by Claude Schaeffer B eck (1894-1971) and

was given in 1521 by Italian surgeon,Jacopo Berengario da

colleagues o f America. Paul Maurice Zo ll (b 19 11) and

Carpi (1470—1530) o f Pavia. See appendicitis.

co-workers terminated it in four patients in 1956 by apply­

V erm ifuge

ing alternating countershock current. The advantage o f direct current (DC) was noted and a D C capacitor discharge

capable

o f depolarizing

the

[Latin:

vermis,

worm

+

fuge,

expel]

See antihelmintics.

Verneuil D isease

myocardium

Syphilitic involvement o f the bursae.

Described by French surgeon, Aristide August Stanislaus

transthoracically was developed by B. Lowen and R .

Verneuil (1823-1895). He founded the Revue de Chirurgerie

Amarasingham in 1962.

in 1881 and introduced iodoform as treatment for cold.

Ventricular Septal D efec t Treatment by surgical closure was demonstrated by Herbert Edgar Warden and colleagues

Verney, Ernest Basil (1894-1967) See antidiuretic hormone.

747

VERNIER

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SCALE

Vernier Scale Subdivision o f ordinary scale designed to give

developed his interest as a child by dissecting a variety o f

a more accurate reading. Invented by French instrument

animals. He studied medicine at the University o f Paris but

maker, Pierre Vernier (1584-1638) in 1631.

was dissatisfied with the lack o f dissection o f human bodies.

Veronal

He then started dissecting bodies which he recovered from

Barbiturate synthesized by Emil Fischer (1852—

executions and burial grounds and observed that many o f

1919) and Jo sef von M ering (1849-1908) in 1902 and

Galen’s (AD 129—200) statements were incorrect. Vesalius

named after the Italian city ofVerona.

returned to his home town Louvain in 1536 and taught

Veronensis, Antonins Fumanellus Italian physician in the

anatomy in the University where he obtained permission to

i6th century. He virote a book on preservation o f health,

dissect human bodies. He moved to the University o f Padua

Defenum regimine, in 1540.

in Italy as professor o f anatomy at the age o f 23 years and, after ten years o f hard work, he published his seven books o f

Verruga Peruana (Syn: bartonellosis, Oroya fever, Carrion disease, Peruvian wart) Infection with Bartonella bacilliformis,

De Fabrica Humani Corporis in 154 3.Disillusioned by oppo­

transmitted by sandflies and found in small areas o f Peru,

sition to his work, he abandoned his academic pursuits and

Ecuador and Colom bia. A description was given by

became personal physician to King Charles V in Brussels.

Augustin Zarate, Chancellor o f Lima, in his history o f the

W hen the King retiredVesalius left the Court and traveled

conquest o f Peru published in 1543. A medical description

extensively. He was shipwrecked on a Greek Island and

was given by Archibald Smith o f Edinburgh in 1842,

died o f exhaustion.

Tschudi (1846), Oriosola (1858), Salazar (i860), Dounon

V esicovaginal Fistula [Latin: vesica,bladder + vagina,she2ith

(1871), Fournier (1874) and Bourse (1871). See Oroya fever,

+ fistula, pipe] Surgical treatment was pioneered by Johann

Carrion disease.

Friedrich Dieffenbach (1792-1847), professor o f surgery at Berlin. Montague Gosset (1792—1854) used a silver gilt wire

Vertebra See astragalus, atlas, axis.

to repair it in 1834. An early successful operation was

Vertebrata [Latin: verto, I turn] Subphylum o f the Chordata

performed by John Peter Mettauer (1787—1875) in 1840.

containing all animals with a true backbone. Classified by a

The operative treatment was popularized by James M arion

lecturer on animal morphology, Francis Maitland Balfour (1851-1882)

o f Edinburgh in

Sims (1813-1883) in 1852 and Washington Lemuel Atlee

Treatise on Comparative

(1808-1878) in i860.

Embryology published in 1880.

Vertebral D isease See ankylosing spondylitis. Calvé disease, Pott

Vesling, Johann (1598-1649) Professor o f anatomy at the University o f Padua. The linea media scroti, described by

disease, sciatica, Kümmell disease. Rust disease, intervertebral disc

him in 1641 is named for him.

prolapse, caries of the spine, Scheurmann disease, spinal injuries, spondylolisthesis.

Vestibular N erve [Latin: vestibulum, passage] The superior nucleus o f the vestibular nerve was described by Vladimir

Vertebral D efo rm ity See kyphosis, scoliosis. Vertebrobasilar InsuflSciency A description was given by Galen (AD 129—200) in his treatise on old age. He stated

Beckhterev (1857—1927) in 1898.

Vestigeal

that those suffering from giddiness must not take any exercise in which they must bend often or turn around.

[Latin:

vestigium,

footprint]

A

Vesuvius The cities o f Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed by the eruption o f mount Vesuvius in A D 79.

Vertigo [Latin: vertigo] Galen (AD 129—200) in his treatise on

200,000 people, including Pliny the Elder, died.

old age stated that those suffering from giddiness must not take exercise in which they must bend often or turn around.

O rgan

phylogenetically redundant organ.

Veterans A dm inistration

Formed as the result o f a

Vertigo as a symptom o f brain disease was described by

program to look after former members o f the military who

Jason Pratensis (1486—1558) o f Zealand in 1549. Irritation o f

took part in the American War o f Independence. Initially it

the semicircular canals as a cause was shown by German

provided homes to care for the elderly and disabled. The

physiologist Friedrich Leopold Goltz (1834-1902) in 1870.

Veterans Hospitals were established in the early 20th

It was studied in detail on a physiological basis in 1906 by

century. The multiple agencies responsible for care o f

Austrian physician and N obel Prize winner, R obert Barány

veterans were amalgamated in 1930 to form the Veterans

(1876-1936).

Administration.

Vesalius, Andreas (1515-1564) Father o f anatomy who

Veterinary M edicine [Latin:

748

diseases o f beasts]

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VIGNEAUD

In Arab medicine animals are treated with the same methods

Gallico, a treatise on diseases o f children and several other

as humans. R o ck inscriptions in Girnar, near Junagarh in

works.

India, attributed to the Aryan kingAsoka (273-232 B C ) con­

Vidal D isease Neurodermatitis was described by French

tain an edict on medicine for animals. Paintings from the

dermatologist,Jean Baptiste EmilVidal (1825—1893) ofParis.

Middle Ages show maladies o f dogs being treated by humans.

V idal O peration

A book devoted to animal anatomy and veterinary medicine

Subcutaneous ligation o f the veins in

was written by Carlo R u in i (1531-1598) o f Italy in 1598.An

varicocele. Devised by French surgeon, Auguste Theodore

early veterinary school in Europe was established by a French

Vidal de Cassis (1803-1856).

veterinary surgeon Claude Bourgelat (1712—1799) at Lyons

V idian Artery SeeVidianus.

in 1761. The first veterinary school in London was estab-

V idian N erve See Vidianus.

Hshed in 179 1, and Charles Vial de St Bel, a graduate o f the Lyons school was appointed first principal. The second vet­

Vidianus (1500—1569) Also known as Guido Guidi. B orn in

erinary school, was established at Edinburgh in 1818 by

Florence and was professor o f medicine at the University

WiUiam Dick, son o f a farrier. The Veterinarian was founded

o f Pisa. He described the nerve o f the pterygoid (Vidian

in 1828 and continued until i902.The first veterinary school

nerve) and its artery (Vidian artery) in 16 11. He published

in America was founded by a Frenchman,Alexandre Liautard

a large volume on health.

at N ew York in 1875. The leading institute for veterinary

V ienna The University ofVienna was founded in 1365.The

research in America, the U S Bureau o f Animal Industry, was

Vienna School o f Medicine was founded by Gerard van

established in 1883 and was responsible for the discovery o f

Swieten (1700—1772) whose efforts prevailed on the

the causative organism ofTexas cattle fever in 1888.

government to revive the university.

V i A ntigen Antigen o f the typhoid bacillus discovered by

V ierordt, Karl (1818—1884) German clinician who made

Arthur Felix (1887—1956) and Margaret Pitt in 1934.

several important contributions to medicine including: discovery o f a method o f calculating circulation time o f

V ibration Injury A case o f vascular lesion due to use o f

blood in 1842; invention o f the hemacytometer for

vibration tools was recorded by Loriga in 19 11. Alice

determining the number o f corpuscles in a given volume o f

Hamilton (1869—1970) described it in 1918 amongst Indian

blood in 1852; discovery o f a practical method o f frequently

workers who used pneumatic tools to cut stones.

measuring

Vibrio [Latin: vibrare, to vibrate] Genus o f bacteria responsible for cholera and paracholera, classified by

blood

pressure

in

humans

by

applying

counter pressure to the artery in 1854; and invention o f

Christian

sphygmograph in 1854.

Gottfried Ehrenberg (1795-1876) in 1838. The causative

V iesseux, Gaspard (1746-1814) Physician in Geneva who

organism o f cholera. Vibrio cholerae, was discovered by an

described cerebrospinal meningitis in 1805.

Italian professor o f anatomy at Pisa, Filippo Pacini

V ieussens, Raym ond de (16 4 1-17 15) French anatomist from

(1812-1883) in 1840.

Montpellier, described the pathological state o f the diseased

Vicary, Thomas (1495-1561) Surgeon from Maidstone who

mitral valve in 1705. He made an antemortem diagnosis o f

revived St Bartholomew s Hospital under the patronage o f

an aortic aneurysm around 1700, and described several

King Henry V III in 1548. He is featured in a painting by

structures including: the anterior meduUary velum, ansa

Holbein illustrating the Act o f Incorporation o f the

subclavia o f the sympathetic nerves, and the central canal o f

Company o f Barber—Surgeons by H enry in 1541. He wrote

cochlea columella, all o f which are named after him.

an early anatomy book, A Treasurefor Englishmen, containing

V ignal, Guillaume (1852—1893) French histologist who

the Anatomie of Man's Body in 1548.

studied

under William

Rutherford

(1839—1899)

at

V icq D ’A zyr, Félix (1748—1794) French physician and

Edinburgh and later worked at the histological laboratory

comparative anatomist in Paris and physician to M arie

o f the College o f France in Paris for most o f his life. Vignal

Antoinette. He described the mammilothalamic tract in

cells are embryonic connective tissue on the axis cylinders

1786 which bears his name. He succeeded Louis Leclerc de

o f the fetal nerve fibers described by him in 1889.

Buffon (1707-1788) as secretary to the French Academy.

V igneaud, Vincent du (1901—1978) American biochemist,

V ictorias, Benedict (148 1-1520) Italian physician and

born in Chicago and studied in the U SA , Berlin and

professor o f medicine at Bologna. He wrote De Morbo

Edinburgh. He was head o f the George Washington School

749

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VIGO

o f Medicine and departmental head at Cornell Medical

V inson, Porter Paisley (1890-1959) See Plummer-Vinson

College. He studied amino acid interconversion, dietary

syndrome.

requirements o f sulfur amino acids and discovered the

V iom ycin A ntibiotic isolated from Actinomyces vinaceus,

metabolic pathway from methionine to homocysteine. He

Streptomyces puniceus and S.floridae. It was introduced as first

found the relationship between choline, lecithin and

line treatment for tuberculosis by Alexander Carpenter

methionine and showed the dietary importance o f thiamin.

Finlay (b 1906) and colleagues in 1951.

He was awarded the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1955. See oxytocin.

Viral H epatitis An epidemic following parentral transmis­ sion o f the virus occurred during inoculation o f workers for

V igo, de Johannis (1460-1520) Italian surgeon from Genoa

smallpox at Bremen, Germany in 1883, where 191 shipyard

who came to R o m e during the time o f Michelangelo and

workers

was surgeon to Pope Julius II in 1503. He gave an account o f

developed jaundice

due

to

hepatitis. The

nonparentral form o f infective hepatitis A was shown by

the first epidemic o f syphilis in Europe in Practica in arte

W.P. Havens, R.W ard andV.A. Drill in 1944.

chirurgica copiosa printed in 1515 and running to 52 editions.

Virchow, Rudolph Ludwig Karl (18 21-19 02)

Villaret Syndrom e Unilateral paralysis o f the 9th, loth,

Eminent

n th and 12th cranial nerves following lesions in the

German pathological anatomist, born in Schievelbein,

retro-parotid

Pomerania and graduated in medicine from Berlin. He

space.

Described

by

Maurice Villaret

established cellular pathology and coined pathological

(1877-1946) o f Paris in 1916.

terms such as: leukocytosis

(1858), leukemia (1845),

V illem in, Jean-Antoine (1827-1892) French surgeon and

neuroglia (1854),thrombosis (1848) and amyloid (i854).The

medical graduate from Paris (1853) demonstrated the

analysis o f diseased tissues on the basis o f cell formation and

infectious nature o f tuberculosis by transferring it from man

cell structure was given by him in Die Cellularpathologie,

to rabbit in 1868.

published in 1856. He was also a politician and administrator and proposed a sewer system for Berlin in 1866.

V illem in Sphincter Sphincteric fibers at the termination o f the duodenum were described by French professor o f

Virus [Latin: virus, poison] Viral diseases such as smallpox

anatomy at Bordeaux, FernandVillemin in 1922.

were known in 1700 B C in China. Scientific evidence for the existence o f living particles smaller than bacteria was

V illerm e, Louis R en e (1782-1863) Parisian physician and public health reformer. He investigated the causes o f

presented by Dmitri losofich

Ivanovski (1864-1920)

premature death in humans and wrote Tableau de Vetat

in 1892. He investigated the tobacco mosaic virus and

physique et moral in 2 volumes, on vital statistics, in 1840.

discovered that the sap o f the diseased plant was capable o f transmitting the disease despite filtration through a bacteri­

Vollm er, Herman (1896-1959) N ew York pediatrician who

al filter. His finding was not taken seriously until Martinus

devised a tuberculin patch test in 1937.

Willem Beijerinck (1851—1931) revived interest in 1898

V inblastine Alkaloid o f periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus,w2LS

in his Ueber ein Contagium Vivum Fluidum which provided

introduced as treatment for Hodgkin disease by Irving

further evidence o f the filterability o f the virus. Friedrich

Stanley Johnson (b 1925) and colleagues in 1963.

Löffler

(1852-1915)

and

Paul

Frosch

(1860-1928)

demonstrated the filterability o f the organism producing

V in ca A lkaloids See vincristine, vinblastine.

foot-and-mouth disease and this was the first instance

V in cen t A ngina Treponema vincentii, a spirochete found in

where a virus was demonstrated to be the cause o f animal

the throat o f patients withVincent angina was identified by

disease. Yellow fever was the first human disease to be

French bacteriologist,HenriVincent (1862—1950) in 1898.

identified as caused by a virus.

V in cen t, H enri (1862-1950) French bacteriologist in the

Viscera [Latin: viscera, organs in the abdomen] Illustrations

M ilitary Service, born in Bordeaux and graduated in medi­ cine from Paris in 1887.

were given by Magnus Hundt (1449—1519) in his Anthro-

was posted to Algiers in 1891

pologium

and isolated the causative organism ofmadura foot, Nocardia

de Homis Dignitate, natura, et propriatatibus,

published in 1501.

madurae, v/hile he was there in 1894. See Vincent angina.

V iscosity See blood viscosity.

V incristine Alkaloid o f periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus, was

V ision [Latin: videre, to see] Ancient Greeks considered the

introduced as treatment for acute leukemia in children by

lens o f the eye was the center o f the ‘pneuma’ or visual

Irving Stanley Johnson and colleagues in 1963.

750

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VITAMIN

B

COMPLEX

spirit. They also postulated that the eye emitted rays by

when fed only with protein, fat, carbohydrates, water, and

which the objects were perceived.The Arab scholars Hunain

salt. In 1881 Nikolai Ivanovic Lunnin (1853-1937) proved

ibn Ishak (809-877) and Alhazen, around A D 900, advanced

that adding milk to their diet increased survival. Sir

other theories. The mechanism o f accommodation o f the

Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861—1947) extended the

lens was explained by English physician, Thomas Young

studies in 1912 and proved the existence o f accessory food

(1773—1829), in 1792. The link between rhodopsin in the

factors, later named vitamins. The first was identified by a

retina and vitamin A was established by American bio­

Polish chemist, Casimir Funk (1884-1967), in 19 11 and

chemist and N obel Prize winner, George Wald (b 1906)

prevented beriberi. He named it ‘vitamine’ .The second, a fat

in 1933. Understanding o f color vision was developed by

soluble product which prevented eye changes, was discov­

American,

Edwin

Herbert

Land

(1910—1991)

ered by Elmer Verner M cCollum (1879-1967) from the

of

Bridgeport, Connecticut in i947.Work on the neurophysi­

University ofWisconsin in 1913 and named‘fat soluble A ’ .

ology o f vision was done by Torsten N ilsW iesel (b 1924),

V itam in A The ancient Chinese and Egyptians recommend­

RogerW olcott Sperry (b 1913) and David Hunter Hubei (b

ed liver for eye problems around 1600 B C . Jacques

1926), for which they were awarded the N obel Prize for

Guillemeau (1550—1613) o f France described night blind­

Physiology or Medicine in 1981. See visual cortex.

ness and recommend liver in the i6th century. Cod-liver oil

Pierre Jean M arie Flourens (1794-1867)

was used to treat juvenile conjunctivitis by M .M o ri in Japan

established that vision depended on the integrity o f the

in 1904. A deficiency o f a fat-soluble factor was recognized

cerebral cortex, in 1823. Bartolomeo Panniza (1785—1867)

as a cause o f conjunctivitis by American biochemistThomas

localized the visual function to the posterior part o f the

B urr Osborne (1859-1929) and Lafayette Benedict Mendel

Visual C ortex

cerebrum in 1855. German neurologist, Eduard Hitzig

(1872—1935) in 19 13 .Elmer Verner M cCollum (1879—1967)

(1838-1907) did further work on the localization in 1874.

and N. Simmonds recognized the similarity o f xeroph­

The occurrence o f unilateral homonymous hemianopia in

thalmia in rats and conjunctivitis in children with a deficient diet. Carotene was shown to be the main source o f

monkeys following experimental unilateral ablation o f the

vitamin A byT. M oore in 1930. Further research led to the

occipital cortex was demonstrated by E.A . Schafer (1850-

conclusion that vitamin A gave protection against infection

1935) in 1888.The visual pathway was further clarified by Lithuanian

physician, Oskar

Minkowski

and reduced morbidity and mortality. The chemical struc­

(1858—1931)

ture and function was established by Russian-born Swiss

working in Breslau in 1917.

chemist and N obel Prize winner, Paul Karrer (1889—1971) The first book. Natural and Political

in 1931. Synthesis was achieved by German chemist and

Observations Upon the Bills of Mortality, was published by

N obel Prize winner, Richard Kuhn (1900—1967) and C J .

John Graunt (1620—1674) o f Hampshire in 1662, and a life

O .R . M orris in 1937 and a more pure form from fish liver

V ital Statistics

table for life insurance was published by Edmund Halley

oil was obtained by Harry Nicholls Holmes (1879—1958)

(1656—1742) in 16 9 3.Sir WiUiam Petty (1623-1687) studied

and R u th E. Corbet later in the same year. Its presence in

mortality rates and his work was advanced by Gregory King

the retina was shown by N ew York biochemist, George

(1648-1712). French mathematician,Pierre Simon Marquis

Wald (b 1906) in 1933 and led to the discovery o f a link

de Laplace (1749-1827) o f Norm andy wrote

Theorie

between rhodopsin in the retina and vitamin A. He shared

analitique desprobabilitis in 1812, which was another impor­

the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Ragnar

tant landmark.The study o f vital statistics was established on

Granit (b 1900) and Haldan Hartline (1903-1983) in 1967.

a scientific basis by physician and statistician, William Farr

The daily requirement was established by American

(1807—1883) o f Kenley, Shropshire,in 1839. See mortality.

biochemist,

Vital! Test Used for detection o f alkaloids with the reagents, potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid. Devised by Italian

Clapp

Sherman

(1875-1955)

of

V itam in B C om p lex Vitamin B was believed to be a single entity until M .I. Smith and E.G . Hendrik showed in 1926

physician,DioscorideVitali (1832—1917).

that it consisted o f two factors, a thermolabile antineuritic

V italism Concept o f the existence o f a vital energy o f psy­

factor and a thermostable growth promoting factor. These

chological or spiritual nature in aU living organisms.

were called vitamins B and F in America and B i and B 2 in

Proposed by German zoologist and philosopher, Hans

England.The thermolabile factor was discovered to contain

A d olf Eduard Driesch (1867-1941).

V itam in

Henry

Columbia University in 1934.

riboflavin (later known as vitamin B2), vitamin B6 or

In 1873 Forster demonstrated that animals died

Ademin (1935), nicotinic acid (1937), pantothenic acid

751

VITAM IN

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

BI

(1939), folic acid (1942),biotin (1940) and inositol (1940).

Vocal Cord Paralysis due to recurrent laryngeal nerve lesion was studied by Berlin physician, Carl A d olf Christian Jacob

V itam in B l See thiamin, beriberi.

Gerhardt (1883—1902) in 1863. American surgeon, Jacob

V itam in B2 See riboflavin.

DaSilva Solis-Cohen (1833—1927) used a laryngoscope to remove a polyp on the vocal cord in 1867. German

V itam in B6 See pyridoxine.

physician, Ottomar Rosenbach (1851—1907) explained the

V itam in B12 See pernicious anemia.

mechanism o f paralysis in 1880. An operation to restore its

V itam in C See scurvy, ascorbic acid.

function was described by American surgeon in Seattle, Brian Thaxton King (b 1886) in 1939 and a N ew York

V itam in D Rickets was demonstrated to be a deficiency

otorhinologist, Joseph Dominic Kelly (b 1888) in 1941.

disease by Sir Edward Mellanby (1884—1955) in 1913 and

Pittsburgh surgeon, John Wesley Shirer (b 1899) modified

shown to be curable with sunlight by Kurt Huldschinsky

King s operation in 1944.

(b 1883) o f Germany in 1919. H. Chick o f London demon­ strated that sunlight and cod-liver oil cured rickets during

Voelcker, Friedrich (1872—1955) See esophagectomy.

his work on post-war famine in Vienna in 1928.The active

Vogt, Peter (b 1932) German-born American microbiolo­

substance was detected by ElmerVerner M cCollum (1879—

gist, educated at the University o f Tübingen and moved to

1967) at the Johns Hopkins School o f Hygiene in 1922.

the University o f Colorado as an assistant professor, later

Activation o f ergosterol by sunlight forming vitamin D2

becoming professor. He also worked at the Universities o f

was discovered by German chemist and Nobel Prize

Washington

winner, AdolfW indaus (1876—1959). See rickets, cod-liver oil.

oncogene transduction by retroviruses and showed two

Discovered by Herbert M cLean Evans (1882-

ways in which the oncogene could be activated by

V itam in E

and

Southern

California.

He

studied

alteration in the genetic sequence. See oncogenes.

1971) o f California and K. J. Scott in 1922. Its antisterility property was demonstrated by Evans and Katherine Scott

V ogt A ngle Found between the nasobasilar and alveolonasal

Bishop (1889—1976) in the same year.

lines. Defined by German neurophysiologist, Karl Vogt (1817-1895).

V itam in K A hemorrhagic disease in chicks fed on a diet poor in fats was observed in 1929 and a vitamin deficiency as

V ogt P oint

In the skull where trephination can be

a cause was proposed by Danish professor o f biochemistry at

performed for traumatic meningeal hemorrhage. Defined

Copenhagen and N obel Prize winner, Carl Peter Henrik

by German surgeon, Paul Frederick Emmanuel Vogt

Dam (1895-1976) in the same year. The fat-soluble nature

(1847-1885) o f Griefswald.

o f this factor was shown by W.D. McFarlane in 19 31, and Dam named it vitamin K in 1934. A progressive fall in prothrombin in blood o f chicks fed with a vitamin K defi­ cient diet was observed by Armand Jacques Quick (b 1894) in 1937. Deficiency in man was shown in 1939 and it was obtained in pure form by Russian-born Swiss chemist and N obel Prize winner, Paul Karrer (1889—1971) and Dam in the same year.

ViteUo (1220-1270) See optics. V itruvius, Markus PoUio R om an architect who designed R o m e at the time o f Augustus just before the Christian era. He wrote a book on architecture titled DeArchtectura, Libri Decern, in ten volumes.The gold amalgam, a preparation o f gold

in

mercury, was

first

described

by Vitruvius

in A D 27.

V itus, St See St Vitus Dance.

Cécile Vogt (1875-1962). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

V ivisection [Latin: i/iVw5, living] See antivivisectionists.

Vogt Syndrom e Athetosis, emotional lability and rhythmic

V M A Vanilmandelic acid. See pheochromocytoma.

oscillation o f the limbs due a lesion in the corpus striatum.

752

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

VULVECTOM Y

detailed description was given by S. van Creveld in 1932.

Described by French physician, Cécile Vogt (1875—1962) and German neurologist, Oskar Vogt (1870—1959) in 1920.

Von Graefe See Graefe, Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst Albrecht von.

V oigt, Christian August (1809—1890) Austrian professor o f

Von Jaksch D isease Form o f pseudoleukemia in children

anatomy at Vienna who described the hair tracts known as

described by R u d o lf von Jaksch (1855-1947) in 1889.

Voigt lines in 1857.

Von R ecklinghausen D isease Multiple tumors o f the nerve Voit, M ax (b 1876) German embryologist and professor o f

with cafe-au-lait-spots in the skin, known as neurofibro­

anatomy at Gottingen. A branch o f the ramus anterior o f

matosis. Described by Robert William Smith (1807—1873), a

the acoustic nerve,Voit nerve, was described by him in 1907.

surgeon at Dublin in 1849. A classic description was given in 1882 by Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen (1833-1910),

Voit N ucleus Cerebellar nucleus accessory to the corpus

professor o f pathology at Königsberg. See elephant man.

dentatum. Described by German physiologist, Karl vonVoit (1831-1908) o f Munich. He was also a pioneer in animal

Von W illebrand D isease Congenital hemorrhagic disease

metabolism.

characterized by epistaxis and bleeding from gastrointesti­ nal tract with normal platelets. Described by Finnish

Volhard, Franz von (1872—1950) See pale hypertension.

physician, Erik A. von Willebrand (1870—1949) in 1933.

Volkm ann Canal Found in bones which carry blood vessels Ger­

V oronoff, Serge (1866-1951) Russian physiologist, educated

man professor o f physiology and anatomy, Alfred Wilhelm

in Paris and became director o f experimental surgery at the

Volkmann (1800-1877) ofDorpat.

College o f France. He developed a theory connecting

from

the periosteum. Described

in

1873

by

glandular

Volkm ann Contracture In fingers and wrists following

secretions

to

longevity

and

pioneered

endocrinological surgery. See rejuvenation.

ischemia secondary to injury at the elbow or im proper

V ries, Hugo M arie de (1848—1935) Dutch physiologist and

application o f tourniquet. Described in 1881 by a German

geneticist, born at Haarlem. He studied osmosis in 1877.

surgeon, Richard von Volkmann (1830—1889), professor o f

The theory that a new species can arise by a single mutation

surgery at Halle. He also identified industrial tar and

was put forward by him while he was professor o f botany at

paraffin as carcinogens in 1875 and performed an excision

Amsterdam in 1890. He attained worldwide recognition as

o f the rectum for cancer in 1878.

a pioneer in the study o f mutation with his work

Volt Unit o f electricity named after the Italian inventor o f

Die Mutationstheorie,puhlish&d in 1901 .See mutation.

electric battery,Alesandro Volta (1745—1827).

V oltolini D isease

V rolik Syndrom e Form o f rapid fatal congenital osteogen­

Acute purulent inflammation o f the

esis imperfecta. Described by Dutch anatomist, Willem

internal ear leading to violent pain, delirium and uncon­

Vrolik (18 01-18 63) in 1854.

sciousness. Described by Friedrich Edward R u d o lf VoltoHni

V ulcanization

(1819—1899),an otorhinolaryngologist at Breslau.

Process o f molding rubber by treating it

with sulfur, discovered independently by Charles Goodyear

Volvulus [Latin: where, to twist around] A n operation for it

(1800—1860) in America, and Thomas Hancock (1786-

was performed by A d olf Frederick Linstedt (1847—1915)

1865) in England, in 1844.Their invention helped to bring

and Johann Anton Waldenstrom (1839-1879) in 1878. A

in large-scale use o f condoms, rubber catheters, tourniquets,

successful operation in England was performed by Henry

air mattresses and other surgical appliances.

Edward Clark (1845—1909) in 1883.

Vulpian, Edmé Felix Alfred (1826-1887) Physician in Paris

V om iting [Latin: wmitare] Originates from the word for a

who demonstrated the presence o f an active vital substance

Rom an plow which threw up the earth to either side.

in the adrenal glands in 1856, later named adrenaline. Also

Twenty causes were described by S.O. Habershon o f G u ys

remembered in Vulpian atrophy, a progressive muscular

Hospital in 1861. He published a book in gastroenterology.

dystrophy. See nerve regeneration.

Diseases of the Stomach, the Varieties of Dyspepsia, their

Vulva According to Isidorus,in A D 600, the external female

Diagnosis andTreatmentin 1 8 6 5 . emesis.

Von Gierke D isease

genitalia were named due their likeness to the wings o f a folding door.

(Syn: hepatomegalia glycogenica)

Caused by an inborn error o f glycogen storage and

V ulvectom y Total surgical removal o f vulva was done by

accompanied by hepatomegaly. Described in two children

French surgeon,Antoine Basset (1882—1941) in 1912.

by Edgar Otto Konrad von Gierke (1877—1945) in 1929. A

753

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

WAITZ

Wafer, Lionel English naval surgeon and an explorer in the 17th century. D uring his travels with Dampier they

W

quarreled and he was left at Darien where he managed to survive amongst the Indians due to his medical skills. He was rescued by an English vessel and published his experiences in 1690.

Wagener, Henry Patrick (b 1890) American ophthalmologist from Rochester, Minnesota who described various grades o f hypertension based on the funduscopic appearance o f

Waage, Peter (1833—1900) Norwegian chemist who studied

the retina.

medicine at Christiana University, Oslo in 1854, but chang­ ed to science. He established the Law o f Mass Action

Wagner, Ernest Leberecht (1829—1888) German physician

governing the effects o f reactant concentration on rate o f

who wrote a treatise on uterine cancer in 1858. He

reaction, with

described dermatomyositis in 1863.

his brother-in-law, Cato

Maximillian

Guldberg (1836-1902) in 1864.

Wagner, John James (1641—1695) Swedish physician and city librarian at Zurich. He wrote Historia Naturalis Helvetiae

Waalich, Nathaniel (1786—1854) Danish botanist graduated

Curiosa.

in medicine from Copenhagen and became surgeon to the Danish colony at Serampore in India. He was superinten­

W agner C orpuscle Tactile nerve endings described in 1852

dent o f botanical gardens in Calcutta in 1815. He brought

by Georg Meissner (1829—1905) and RudolfW agner (1805-

back over 8000 botanical specimens from India.

1864), professors o f physiology and comparative anatomy,

Waardenburg Syndrom e (Syn: Vogt syndrome) Parrot-

respectively, at Göttingen.

beaked nose, hypertelorism, cleft palate, and congenital

W agner O peration

heart defects. Described by Swiss ophthalmologist Alfred

Osteoplastic resection o f the skull.

Described by German surgeon, Wilhelm Wagner (1848-

Vogt (1879-1943) in 1933 and by Dutch physician, Petrus

1900) in 1889.

Johannes Waardenburg (1886—1979) in 1934.

Wagner Spot Nucleolus o f the ovum. Described in 1836

W achendorf M em brane Membrana pupillaris. Described

by RudolfW agner (1805—1864), professor o f comparative

by Bernard Albinus in 1737 and in 1758 by Eberhard Jacob

anatomy and physiology at Göttingen.

Wachendorf (1703-1758), professor o f surgery at Utrecht.

W agner-Jauregg, Julius (1857-1941) Austrian neurologist

Waddell, Laurence Austin (b 1854) Glasgow physician in

and psychiatrist, educated in Vienna. He investigated the

India who edited the Indian Medical Gazette for several

relationship between cretinism and goiter and treated late

years. He published The Buddhism of Tibet (1895), TheTribes

stage paralysis in syphilis by inducing malarial fever. He

of Bramaputra Valley (1900), Excavations at Paliputra (1903)

received the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in

and several other works.

1927. See artificialfever.

W addington, Conrad Hal (1905-1975) English embryolo­

W agstaffe Fracture

gist and a pioneer in genetic engineering. He was professor

Causing separation o f the internal

maUeolus. Described by English surgeon,William Warwick

o f animal genetics at Edinburgh University (1947—1970). He

Wagstaffe (1843-1910).

studied the effects o f chemical messengers on embryonic cells during development and examined the effects o f genes

Wahl Sign Distention o f the proximal portion o f obstructed

and environment. He published Organizers and Genes

bowel. Described by German surgeon, Eduard von Wahl

(ig^o), Principals of Embryology (igs6). Ethical Animal (i960),

(1833-1890). He described the systolic murmur over an

and Biologyfor the Modern World (1962).

injured artery in 1885.

Oxford college founded by Nicholas

W aitz, Theodor (1821-1864) German anthropologist and

(1536-1610) and Dorothy Wadham in 1613. It was the

psychologist. He was professor o f philosophy at Marburg

W adham C ollege

regular meeting place for the founders o f the Royal Society

and published on psychology and education, including

prior to 1658.

Anthropologie der Naturvölker (1859—1871).

75 5

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

WAKLEY

Wakley, Thomas (1795—1862) British physician and founder

porphyria in 1934.

o f the longest surviving weekly medical journal, The Lancet. He was the member o f Parliament for Finsbury (1835— 1852) and a coroner. His work on analysis o f food led to the

Selman

Abraham

(1888-1973)

drome) Aseptic necrosis o f the epiphysis o f the femoral head. Described independently by Jacques Calvé (1875—

Adulteration o f Food and Drink Act in i860.

W aksman,

W aldenstrom Syndrom e (Syn: Calvé—Legg—Perthes syn­

1954) and Arthur Thornton Legg (1874—1939) in 1910. Stockholm surgeon, Henning Waldenstrom (b 1877)

American

described it in 1909.

biochemist, born in the Ukraine. He moved to America in 1910 and became a citizen in 1917 and graduated from

Waldeyer R in g R in g o f lymphoid tissue in the pharynx.

Rutgers University in the same year. He spent most o f his

Named after its discoverer, Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried

working life at Rutgers and was professor o f microbiology.

von Waldeyer (1836 -19 21), a German anatomist.

He worked on breakdown o f organic substances in the soil

W aldeyer-Hartz, Heinrich W ilhelm Gottfried (1836-1921)

by microorganisms, and their classification. From 1939 he searched for antibacterial substances o f medical importance

German histologist and anatomist who made several

and discovered streptomycin in 1944, neomycin in 1949

contributions to medicine. He was the professor o f

and

pathological anatomy at Breslau (1868), Strasburg (1872),

stretocin.

He

received

the

N obel

Prize

for

Physiology or Medicine in 1952. His published works

and Berlin (1883). He did histological classification o f can­

include Enzymes {1^26) .Principles c f Soil Microbiology (1938),

cers showing that carcinomas come from epithelial cells and

and an autobiography titled M y Life With Microbes (1954).

sarcomas from mesodermal tissue. He suggested the terms ‘chromosome’ and ‘neuron’ and discovered the germinal

See antibiotics.

epithelium in 1870. See motor neuron, Waldeyer ring.

W album , John Julius (1724—1799) German physician and Walker,

naturalist who practiced at Lubeck and wrote on natural

Sir James

(1863—1935)

Scottish professor o f

chemistry, born in Dundee and pioneer in the study o f

history.

amphoteric electrolytes and ionization.

Walcher P osition A position in obstetrics with legs hang­ Walker, John (1759—1830) English physician and geographer,

ing down during delivery. Described by Arab surgeon,

born in Cockermouth, Cumbria. He was head o f the

Albucasis (936-1013) and revived by German gynecologist

London vaccine institution and wrote several works on

in Stuttgart, Gustav A d o lf Walcher (1856—1935) in 1889.

geography.

Wald, George (b 1906) American biochemist from N ew York Walker,J.T.Ainsley (1868-1930) See Rideal—Walker test.

who studied in N ew York and Berlin. He was professor o f biology in Harvard and worked on visual purple in the

Walker, M ary Edwards (1832-1919) American surgeon,

retina and its conversion on illumination to vitamin A. He

educated at the Syracuse Medical College, N ew York in

established the relationship between night blindness and

1855 and was a surgeon for the U nion Arm y during the

vitamin A deficiency and shared the 1967 N obel Prize.

Civil War. She was the first woman to be appointed Assistant

See vitamin A .

Surgeon to the United States Arm y in 1864, and she is commemorated in a postage stamp issued by the United

Walden Inversion Optical activity o f a compound in which

States Postal Service in 1982.

substitution occurs on an enantiomer causing inversion o f the configuration. Discovered in 1895 by Latvian chemist,

Walker, M ary Broadfoot (1888—1974) See myasthenia gravis.

Paul Walden (1863—1957).

Walker, Sir Norm an (1862—1942) Scottish dermatologist

W aldenstrom D isease Acute thyrotoxic encephalopathy.

who succeeded William Allan Jamieson (1839—1916) at his

Described by Swedish professor o f medicine at Uppsala,Jan

school o f dermatology in 1916. He translated Paul U nna’s

GostaWaldenstrom (b 1906) in 1945.

(1850—1929) work on dermatology in 1896.

W aldenstrom , Johann Anton (1839—1879) See volvulus.

Wall, John (1708—1776) English physician, born at Powick in Worcestershire and educated at M erton College, Oxford.

W aldenstrom M acroglobulinem ia Dysproteinemia with

He wrote a treatise on Malvern waters.

raised IgM paraprotein in the serum, and systemic effects o f hyperviscosity o f blood. Described by Swedish professor o f

Wallace, Alfred Russel (18 23-19 13) Welsh naturalist and

medicine at Uppsala, Jan Gosta Waldenstrom (b 1906) in

pioneer o f the theory o f evolution, born at Usk in M on­

Acta Medica Scandinavia

mouthshire. He commenced his study o f species with his

in 1944. He described acute

756

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W ANG EN STEEN

Edinburgh and spent most o f his career as an army physician

first exploration to the Amazon in 1848. He corresponded with Darwin on his discoveries and was inspired by his

in the West Indies, Europe and Canada. He published

Origin of Species and called his own book on the subject

A Narrative of the Expedition to Holland.

Darwinism which was followed in 1870 by Contributions to

Walshe, Walter Hayle (1812-1892) London physician who

theTheory of Natural Selection. He has also made a remarkable

recognized fragments o f malignant tissue in sputum in

comparative study o f the flora o f the Malay peninsula where

1843. He also described the presystolic component o f the

he spent eight years and published The Malay Archipelago in

murmur o f mitral stenosis.

1869.

Walshe, Sir Francis Martin R ouse (1885-1973) British neu­

Wallace, William (1791—1837) See lymphogranuloma venereum.

rologist at the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases,

W allenberg Syndrom e Ipsilateral loss o f pain and tempera­

Q ueens Square, London (1921) and later at University

ture sensations in the face, with contralateral hypoesthesia

College Hospital. In 1945 he described the symptoms

for pain and temperature o f the trunk due to occlusion o f

o f acroparesthesia and neuritis o f the hands caused by

the posterior inferior cerebellar artery. Described in 1895 by

pressure from the scalenus anticus muscle in thoracic outlet

German neurologist, A d olf Wallenberg (1862—1949) at

syndrome.

Berlin.

Walter, Friedrich Augustus (1764-1826) Son o f German

Waller, Augustus Desire (1856—1922) Son ofAugustusVolney

anatomist, Johann Gottlieb Walter (1734 -18 18 ). He was

Waller (1816—1870) and an eminent English physiologist,

director o f the anatomical museum at Berlin and in 1805 the

born in Paris and graduated from Aberdeen University in

first medical counselor.

1 878. W hile working at St M arys Hospital London he con­

Walter, Johann Gottlieb orTheophilus (1734-1818) Profes­

ceived the idea o f measuring the variation in action

sor o f anatomy at Frankfurt and later at Berlin. He dissected

currents in the living heart using electrodes attached to

over 800 cadavers and collected over 3000 anatomical

moist skin and connected to a galvanometer that measured

specimens which he sold to the King o f Prussia. The

the movements in a fine column o f mercury and were pho­

smallest branch o f the splanchnic nerve passing through the

tographed on a moving plate in 1887. This principle was

renal plexus bears his name.

later developed into the electrocardiograph.

Walter N erve See WalterJohann Gottlieb.

Waller, Augustus Volney (1816—1870) English physiologist who graduated from Paris. H e did research at Bonn (1851—

Walther Canal

Duct o f the sublingual salivary gland.

1856) and Paris (1856-1858) before he was appointed profes­

Named after August Friedrich Walther (1688—1746),

sor o f physiology at Birmingham in 1858. He demonstrated

professor o f pathology at Leipzig, who described it in 1724.

in 1850 that the axis cylinder, i f cut o ff from the nerve cell,

Walther, Phillip Franz von (1782—1849) German physician

will undergo degeneration while the central stump will

who described corneal opacity in 1845.

remain viable for a longer time. This was based on experi­

advocated the

application o f physics, chemistry and natural sciences to

ments on the glossopharyngeal and hypoglossal nerves and

medicine.

is known as the Law ofWallerian degeneration.

W alton, George Lincoln (1854—1941) American surgeon

Wallerian D egeneration A sequence o f events in the distal

who described a method o f reducing dislocation o f cervical

portion o f a severed nerve described by Augustus Volney

vertebra in 1895.

Waller (1816-1870) in 1850.

Wanley, Nathaniel (d 1690) Clergyman from Coventry who

Wallgren, ArvidJohan (1889—1973) See aseptic meningitis.

was was educated at Trinity College Cambridge, and wrote

Wallis, John (1616—1703) English mathematician and Savil-

General History of Man, collected from the writings o f

lian professor at Oxford, born in Ashford, Kent and

historians, philosophers, and physicians o f all ages and

graduated from Cambridge. He was a founder o f the Royal

countries.

Society, and made several important contributions to math­

W angensteen, Owen Harding (1898—1981) American sur­

ematics. He made a general statement on logarithms.

geon at Minneapolis who in 1932 devised a suction

His Arithmetica Infmitorum, which contained the essence o f

technique via a nasal catheter for management o f intestinal

differential calculus, was published in 1655.

obstruction. He described a technique for intestinal

Walsh, Edward (d 1832) Irish physician, educated at

anastomosis in 1940.

757

WAR

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

INJURIES

War Injuries See abdominal injuries, army medicine and surgery,

Warfarin See dicumarol.

Geneva Convention,gunshot wounds.

W aring, Edward John (1819—1891) British physician who

Warburg, Otto Heinrich (1883-1970) German biochemist

compiled the Indian pharmacopoeia in 1868. He also

from Freiberg and professor o f biochemistry in his home

published a bibliography o f therapeutics in 1879.

town and in 1931 director o f Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for

Warren, Jonathan Mason (18 11—1867) American surgeon

cellular pathology in Berlin. He discovered the role o f iron

and son ofjohn Collins Warren (1778-1856). He revived the

in oxidase enzymes leading to the discovery o f the heme

Hindu method o f rhinoplasty in the United States in 1837.

protein, and developed the gas manometer. He was awarded the N obel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1931. He

Warren, John Collins (1778-1856) American surgeon, born

was prevented from accepting it by Hitler as he was a Jew.

in Boston and graduated from Harvard where his father was

See riboflavin, cytochrome oxidase.

professor o f anatomy and surgery. He succeeded his father to the chair and was dean to the medical school in 1816. He

Ward, Frederick Oldfield (1818—1877) Sanitary reformer

performed an operation for strangulated hernia in 1846 and

who graduated from K ing s College Hospital. He published

removed a tumor in the neck o f a patient after administering

Outlines of Human Osteology while a medical student. The

ether, at the suggestion o f Morton, on 17th October 1846

triangular area which intervenes amongst the trabeculae o f

which was one o f the first demonstrations o f ether as an

the cancellous tissue o f the neck o f the femur is named after him. He was appointed commissioner o f sewers in London

anesthetic. He was a founder o f the New England Journal of

in 1854.

Medicine and Surgery in 1812.

Warren,John (1753-1815) See Harvard Medical School.

Ward, James (1843—1925) English psychologist from Hull who popularized psychology by publishing several articles

Warren, Samuel (1807-1877) Medical student from Edin­

in the Encyclopedia Britannica from 1886. He was professor o f

burgh who gave up his studies to become a lawyer. He

Philosophy at Cambridge in 1897, a post he held until his

became Q ueens Counsel in 1851 and was the member o f

death. He

Parliament for Midhurst from 1865 to 1869. He was also a

wrote

Naturalism and Agnosticism

(1899),

Psychological Principles (1918), A Study of Kant (1922) and

novelist, and wrote Passage from the Diary of a late Physician

several other works.

which fictionalized the experiences o f a pompous and ineffective doctor.

W ard,Joshua (1685—1761) See quackery.

Warren T h eory

Ward, Nathaniel Bagshaw (1791—1868) London physician

Lymphatic spread o f carcinoma o f the

known for his contributions to botany. He invented the

prostate to the bones. Proposed by American physician.

Wardian case for transporting live plants on long voyages. He

Shields Warren (b 1898) in 1936.

wrote On the Growth of Plants in closely glazed cases in 1842.

Ward, Seth (1617—1689)

W artenberg Sign The little finger is held in adduction in ulnar paralysis. Described by Germ an-born American

B orn in Hertfordshire, he was

neurologist, R obert Wartenberg (1887—1956).

Savillian professor o f astronomy and a founder o f the Royal Society. He was the bishop o f Exeter from 1662 to i667,and

Warthin Sign Exaggerated pulmonary sounds in cases o f

later o f Salisbury.

acute pericarditis. Described by American pathologist, Aldred Scott Warthin (1867—1931) from Indiana and

Ward Triangle See Ward, Frederick Oldfield.

professor o f pathology at Michigan.

Wardrop, James (1782—1869) Scottish surgeon fromTorbane who graduated in medicine from Edinburgh University

Wart [Dutch: wrie, wart] Produced in humans through exper­

and settled in London in 1809. He resected the lower jaw

imental inoculation by Josef Jadassohn (1879—1921) in 1896.

and advocated distal ligation o f an artery (Wardrop

Filterable agents were shown to be the cause by Guiseppe Ciuffo o f Italy in 1907. Kingery in 1921 used extract o f wart

operation) for aneurysm. See keratitis.

passed through a Berkefeld filter to produce warts in

Ware, James (1756—1815) British surgeon and oculist from

humans, thus confirming the role o f filterable agents.

Portsmouth. He was a demonstrator at Cambridge before establishing his own practice there in 1791. He wrote

W asserman, August Paul von (1866-1925) German bacteri­

Observations on Ophthalmy, Remarks on Fistula lachrymalis and

ologist born in Bamberg and graduated in medicine from

Chirurgical Observations.

Strasburg in 1888. He was director o f the Institute o f

758

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W ATERSON

Experimental Therapy in Berlin and discovered the com­

the water hammer principle.

plementation test for diagnosis o f syphilis (Wasserman test)

Water Thales (624-545 B C ) ofM iletus, a Greek philosopher,

in 1906.

proposed water as an essence and origin o f aU things. Empedocles ofAgrigentum (r450 B C ) andAlcmaeon {c 520

W asserman R eaction See Treponema pallidum, Wasserman, August.

B C ), pupil o f Pythagorus (580—500 B C ) and a physician, enunciated the doctrine o f the four elements: earth, water,

Waste Water See sewers.

fire and air. It continued to be considered an element until

W asting Palsy See amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

English

Water Cure Established by a Silesian patient calledVincent

demonstrated that it is a compound.

chemist,

H enry

Cavendish

(17 31-18 10 ),

Priessnitz (1799—1851). He recovered completely from injuries sustained in an accident by applying wet compress­ es and drinking large quantities o f water. It became a popular form o f remedy in the 19th century.

Water E xcretion Test Devised as a test for adrenal function by L.J. Soffer and J.L . Gabrilov in 1952. Water excreting power is estimated before and after a loading dose o f oral cortisone. In cases o f adrenal insufficiency impaired water excretion was improved after taking cortisone.

Water LoadTest SeeAlbarran test. Water Pollution Sewers for draining water from marshes and low lying areas were constructed in England during the reign o f King H enry V III and later opened into the R iver Thames, making it a cesspool. Such poor sanitary conditions in London were addressed by Sir Edwin

Benjamin Waterhouse (1754-1846). Courtesy of the National Library of

Chadwick (1800-1890) in a report in 1842. In 1848 the City

Medicine

Sewers Act was passed and the post o f medical officer o f

W aterhouse, Benjamin (1754-1846) American physician

health was created. The idea that disease could be

who studied medicine at Edinburgh and Harvard Universi­

waterborne was developed by John Snow (1813—1858), an

ties. He was the first professor o f medicine at Harvard in

English physician fromYorkshire.

1803. He introduced inoculation for smallpox in America and his book. History of Kinepox (1800), is a classic on the

Water P urification Chlorine was used to purify water by William

Cruikshank

o f England

in

subject.

1800. William

Thompson Sedgwick (1855-1921) o f Massachusetts, a

W aterhouse-Friderichsen Syndrom e Circulatory col­

pioneer o f public health in America, advocated the treat­

lapse in cerebrospinal meningitis. Described by Arthur

ment o f drinking water with chlorine and has become a

Francis Voelcker (1861—1946) in 1895. Suprarenal apoplexy

standard worldwide. Use o f charcoal filters to purify water

as the cause was shown in 19 11 by English physician, Rupert

to prevent the spread o f cholera was described by English

Waterhouse (1873-1958) at the Royal National Hospital for

surgeon,John Parkin (1801—1886) in 1832. American army

Rheum atic Diseases at Bath. It was redescribed by Danish

surgeon, Carl Rogers Darnall (1867—1941) devised a filter

pediatrician, Carl Friderichsen (b 1886) in 1918.

for drinking water in 1908. A bacterial system o f sewage and water purification was described Joseph William Dibdin

Waters, Ralph M ilton (b 1883) American anesthetist from

(1850—1925) o f London in 1897. Another method was

Madison,Wisconsin who described a closed circuit method

described by American army surgeon, WiUiam John L.

for cyclopropane anesthesia in 1934.

Lyster (1869-1947) in 1917.

W aterson, John James (18 11-18 83) Scottish natural philoso­

Water H am m er Pulse Characterized by a sudden impact

pher and engineer. He studied science and medicine at

and rapid fall in aortic insufficiency (Corrigan pulse).

Edinburgh and served in India as an engineer. He proposed

Described by Sir Dominic Corrigan (1802—1880) in

the basis for kinetic theory o f gases to the Royal Society in

1832 and named after a Victorian toy, which worked on

1845, but his findings were ignored until revived by Lord

759

W ATKIN

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

OPERATION

Rayleigh in 1892. Waterson also did research on the

president o f the faculty o f physicians and surgeons at

physiology o f mental processes.

Glasgow. He compiled Bibliotheca Britannica (1819) and a Catalogue of Medical Books (1812) and wrote several medical

Watkin O peration Used for prolapse o f the uterus where

treatises.

the bladder is separated from the anterior wall o f the uterus so that the uterus is left in position to support the entire

Watts, James (1736—1819) English scientist and pioneer o f

bladder. Designed in 1899 by Chicago gynecologist,Thomas

pneumotherapy withThom as Beddoes (1760—1808).

James Watkins (1863—1925).

Watts, James Winston (b 1904) See prefrontal leucotomy.

W atson, Francis Sedgwick (1853—1942) Boston surgeon who

Weale, Job Apothecary from Kingston-upon-Thames in the

described median perineal prostatectomy in 1889.

17th century who became a licentiate o f medicine and

W atson, Henry (1702-1793) Lecturer in anatomy and a

member o f the London Society in 1637.

surgeon to the Westminster Hospital. He wrote a treatise on

W eatherall, Sir David John (b 1933) English molecular gene­

the bladder.

ticist who worked at the Johns Hopkins Medical School,

W atson, James Dewey (b 1928) American biologist from

the University o f Liverpool and became Nufrield professor

Chicago who worked with Francis Harry Crick (b 1918)

o f clinical medicine at Oxford in 1974. He studied

and discovered the structure o f D N A at the Cavendish

thalassemias and his work greatly improved the cHnical

Laboratory in Cambridge, England in 1953. He and Crick

outcome and prediction.

received the N obel Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 1962. He wrote a personal account o f the discovery. The

W ebbed Fingers See Zeller operation.

Double Helix in 1968. See deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Weber, A d olf (1829-1915) Ophthalmologist from Darmstadt in Germany who described the blockage o f the Schlemm

Watson, John Broadus (1878-1958) American psychologist

canal as a cause o f glaucoma in 1877.

from Greenville, South Carolina. He was a professor at the Johns Hopkins University where he did research on

Weber, Ernst Heinrich (1795—1878) German physiologist

behaviorism. His An Introduction to Comparative Psychology

and one o f the three brothers who were professors at

was pubhshed in 1913.

W atson, John

(1807—1863)

Leipzig. He showed that digestive juices are products o f N ew York

glands and opened this as an area ofresearch.The inhibitory

surgeon who

action o f the vagus nerve on the heart was demonstrated by

performed esophagotomy for esophageal stricture in 1844.

him and his brother Friedrich Weber (1806—1871) in 1845.

Watson, Sir Patrick Heron (1832-1908) British surgeon who

His other brother,Wilhelm EduardWeber (1804—1891), was

graduated from Edinburgh (1853) and served in the Crimea.

a pioneer in electromagnetism.

He returned to Edinburgh and was a lecturer in miHtary surgery and venereal diseases. He served on the General

Weber, Frederick Parkes (1863—1962) American professor

Medical Council for 25 years and was also a member o f the

o f applied therapeutics at Temple University, Philadelphia.

University Commission. He was a pioneer o f thyroid surgery.

He described O sler-Rendu-W eber syndrome o f multiple

W atson, Sir William (1715-178 7) English scientist, born in

telengiectasis o f the skin and mucous membranes in 1907;

London and educated at the Merchant Taylors School. After

Weber—Christian

disease o f non-suppurative

nodular

his apprenticeship under an apothecary, he set up his own

panniculitis associated with phagocytic ingestion o f fat cells

practice in London. He studied electricity and discovered

by macrophages in 1925; and the Sturge—Weber syndrome

insulating conductors for use in increasing charge and

with right sided congenital hemiplegia accompanied by left

investigated the passage o f electricity through a rarefied gas,

side brain lesions in 1922.

for which he was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal

Weber, Sir Herman (1823—1918) London physician o f Ger­

Society in 1745. He was given an M D by the University o f

man origin who graduated from Bonn in 1846. He

Halle in 1757 and was physician to the Foundling Hospital

described the syndrome o f hemiplegia with contralateral

in London in 1762. He was admitted to the Royal College

paralysis o f the oculomotor nerve secondary to lesion in the

o f Physicians in 1784 and knighted in 1786.

cerebral peduncle (Weber syndrome) in 1863.

W atson-C rick M odel See deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Weber, Wilhelm Eduard (1804-1891) Physicist at Gottingen and brother o f Ernst Weber. He built his own laboratory at

Watt, R obert (1774-1819) Physician from Ayrshire who was

760

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

WEIR

M ITCHELL

DISEASE

the University o f Leipzig, invented an electrodynometer

and best staining methods for studying bacteria and

and made several contributions to electromagnetism.

histological tissues, such as the myelin sheath (1884) and elastic fibers (1898). He showed the association between

W eber Artery External auditory artery arising from the

myasthenia and the thymus in 1901 and gave an account

tymphanic branch o f the external carotid. Described in

o f myocardial infarction in 1880. A classical description

1845 t)y a professor o f anatomy at Bonn, M oritz Ignaz

o f pathological anatomy in Bright disease was given by

Weber (1795-1875) from Bavaria.

him in 1879.

Weber—Christian D isease See Weber, Frederick Parkes.

Weil D isease Leptospirosis was described by Jeffrey Alen

Weber Glands Lateral glands o f the tongue named after

Marston (18 3 1-19 11) in 1863. German physician,AdolfWeil

Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795-1878), professor o f physiology

(1848-1916), published four cases o f infectious jaundice

at Leipzig.

with hemorrhage in 1886. The causative agent, Leptospira icterohemorrhagia, was identified independently in 1915 by

Weber Syndrom e See Weber, Sir Herman.

R yukichi Inado (1874-1950) andYutaka Ido (1881-1919) o f

Weber Test Test for deafness using a tuning fork. Devised by

Japan.

German otologist,Friedrich EugenW eber (1832—1891).

Weil Test Obsolete test for hemolysis. Based on the observa­ Webster,John Clarence (1863—1950) American gynecologist

tion that erythrocytes o f syphilitic patients are resistant to

born in Shediac, N ew Brunswick in Canada and qualified

the hemolysing effect o f cobra venom. Devised in 1915 by

in medicine from Edinburgh University in 1896. He was

N ew York physician, Richard Weil (1876-1917).

professor o f obstetrics at the R ush Medical College, Chicago in 1899, before returning to Canada in 1919.

Weil—Felix R eaction Agglutinin reaction for diagnosis o f

He described an operation for retroversion o f the uterus

typhus devised by Prague bacteriologist, Arthur Felix

in 1901.

(1887—1956) and German physician, Edmund Weil (18801922) in 1916. They noticed the presence o f a proteus-like

Wechsler—B ellevue Test See intelligence tests.

organism in urine o f a patient with typhus and demonstrat­

W eed, Lewis Hill (1886—1952) American neurologist who

ed that this (which they named ‘proteus X ’) agglutinated

advanced the theory o f cerebrospinal fluid circulation

sera o f other patients with typhus. Their test was later

proposed by Gustav Retzius (1842-1919) and showed that

applied to differentiate between various rickettsial diseases.

the fluid was absorbed by arachnoid villi, in 1914.

W eill S ign Absence o f expansion in the subclavicular region o f the affected side in infantile pneumonia. Described by

Weeks, John Elmer (1853-1949) N ew York ophthalmologist

French pediatrician, Edmond Weill (1858—1924).

who discovered the bacillus (Koch-Weeks bacillus, Hijemophilus aegyptius)

o f epidemic

mucopurulent bilateral

W einberg, R obert Allan (b 1942) American biochemist from

conjunctivitis (pink disease) in 1886, independent o f

Pittsburgh who was educated at M IT and became associate

R obert Kochs (1843-1910) description (1883).

professor o f the Department o f Biology and Center for

Described by H. Klinger o f

Cancer Research and then professor o f biochemistry there.

Germany in 1931. German pathologist, Friedrich Wegener

He works on causes o f cancer due to acquisition o f cancer-

(b 1907) described the pathological and clinical aspects as

susceptible genes and loss o f tumor suppresser genes and

a variant o f polyarteritis nodosa in 1936. It was further

discovered the R b i suppresser gene responsible for a rare

described b yj. Churg and G .C. Godman in 1954.

childhood cancer which affects the retina.

W egener Granulom atosis

W egner D isease Osteochondritic separation o f the epiphy­

W einberg Test A diagnostic serology test for echinococcus.

ses due to secondary syphilis. Described by German

D escribed by Paris physician, M ichel W einberg (1868-

pathologist, Friedrich R u d o lf Georg Wegner (1843—1917).

1940) in 1909.

W eingarten Syndrom e See tropical pulmonary eosonophilia.

W eichselbaum , Anton (1845-1920) Austrian pathologist who isolated meningococcus or Diplococcus intercellularis

Weir M itchell D isease Erythromelalgia. Silas Weir Mitchell

meningitides from the cerebrospinal fluid o f patients with

(1829-1914),

meningitis, in 1887.

a

leading

American

neurologist

at

Philadelphia, described erythromelalgia associated with

W eigert, Karl (1845-1904) German pathologist and a cousin

painful feet in 1872. He also established a rest cure for

o f Paul Ehrlich (1854—1915). He devised some o f the earliest

psychoneurosis which became popular in the 19th century.

761

WEIR

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

M ITCHELL

Weir M itchell, Silas (1829—1914) B orn in Philadlphia, he

in 1889. He identified the causative organism {Clostridium

was a graduate o f Jefferson Medical College (1851). On

welchii) o f gas gangrene in 1892.

graduating, he went to Europe and studied in Paris with

Welcker, Hermann (1822-1897) Austrian physician and

Claude Bernard (1813—1878). He did extensive work on

anthropologist who was professor o f anatomy at Giessen.

arrow poisons and snake venom with William Hammond

He was director o f the Anatomical Institute at Heidelberg

(1828—1900), William Williams Keen (1837—1932) and

for a short period before he succeededVolkman at Giessen.

Simon Flexner (1863—1946). He was also a leading neurolo­

The angle o f the basicranial axis, described by him in 1882,

gist who proposed ‘rest cure’ for psychoneurosis, and

bears his name.

identified eye strain as a cause o f headache. During the

Welfare State The concept o f providing a complete preven­

American Civil War he worked at the Turner’s Lane Hospital in Philadelphia and wrote Gunshot Woulds and

tive and curative facility to the people on a national scale

Other Injuries of the Nerves which included data on phantom

was proposed by Johan Peter Frank (1745—1821), a German

limbs. He also described erythromelagia, post-paralysis

physician and medical reformer. He outlined his ideas in System of Complete Medical Police published between 1779

chorea and the role o f the cerebellum.

and 1825.

Weiss, Soma (1898-1942) See carotid sinus syndrome.

W ellco m e In stitu te for th e H isto r y o f M e d icin e

W eism ann, August Friedrich Leopold (1834—1914) German

Established by Sir Henry Wellcome. Systematic purchasing

zoologist from Jena who proposed the chromosome theory

for the library started in 1897

o f heredity. He observed, in 1892, aggregation o f self-prop­

its museum was estab­

lished in 1903. It purchased the William M orris collection

agating hereditary materials which are transmitted to

o f incunabula in 1898, and the library o f J. F. Payne, a

offspring through germ cells.

medical historian, in 19 11. It opened its doors to the public

Weiss R eflex Curved reflex seen with the ophthalmoscope

in 1949. The library and museum were transferred to the

on the nasal side o f the disk in the fundus. Described by

Wellcome Trust

Viennese physician, Nathan Weiss (1851—1883).

administration in 1964. The trust was converted to the

in

i960

and

reunited

under

one

Wellcome Institute for the History o f Medicine in 1968.

Weiss, R o b in (b 1940) English molecular biologist and head

The library at Euston R o ad is one o f the largest on History

o f the Imperial Cancer Research Chester Beatty Laborato­

o f Medicine in Europe.

ry. He works on the role o f retroviruses in causing cancer

W ellcom e, Sir H enry Solomon (1853—1936) American phar­

and on the H IV virus and its mechanism o f entry into the

macist and founder ofW ellcom e Foundation. In 1880 he

cell.

and M . Burroughs started Burroughs Wellcome in London.

W eitbrecht, Josias (1702—1747) German professor o f anato­

Burroughs died in 1895 and Wellcome became naturalized

my at St Petersburg in Russia. He described several

as a British citizen in 1910. He formed the Wellcome

anatomical structures which now bear his name:Weitbrecht

Foundation in 1924 and was knighted in 1932. He endowed

fibers, retinacular fibers o f the neck o f femur; Weitbrecht

the profits o f his company in his will to the Wellcome Trust

foramen o f ovale which is a gap between the capsule o f the

for promoting research in medicine.

shoulder joint and the glenohumeral ligament; and the

Weller, Thomas Huckle (b 1915) American virologist from

Weitbrecht ligament or the oblique radioulnar ligament.

Ann Arbor in Michigan. He studied zoology at Michigan

Welander U lcer Chancroid or chancre found in the vulva

and did research at Harvard on cell cultivation. He worked

but o f nonvenereal etiology. Described by Edward Wilhelm

at the Children’s Hospital in Boston on Schistosoma and

Welander (1840—1917), a physician at Stockholm.

poliomyelitis cell cultivation. He shared the N obel Prize for

W elch, Francis H enry (1840-1910) English physician who

Physiology or Medicine in 1954 for his work on the

described syphilitic aortitis in 1876.

chickenpox and shingles virus. Seefilterable viruses.

W elch, William Henry (1850-1934) American pathologist

Wells, Horace (1815-1848) American dentist at Hartford,

who graduated from Columbia University in 1875 and

Connecticut who introduced nitrous oxide as an anesthetic.

worked in Europe before his appointment as a pathologist

He

at Bellevue Hospital, NewYork. He was the first professor o f

Massachusetts General Hospital on December 12, 1844

pathology at the medical school at Johns Hopkins Hospital

which failed and he was subject to ridicule. He continued

762

arranged

a

demonstration

o f the

gas

at

the

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W ERNICKE

to use it with success for a few years but became addicted to

AREA

W enzel, Joseph (1768—1808) German professor o f anatomy

chloroform and joined a touring troop with performing

and physiology at Mainz. He described ventriculus cerebri

canaries.

primus,Wenzel ventricle.

Wells, Sir Thomas Spencer (1818-1897) British surgeon and

Wepfer, Johann Jacobus (1620-1695) German physician

gynecologist who worked in Malta and the Crimea as a

from Schafihausen and father-in-law o f Johan Brunner

naval surgeon (1841—1848). He joined the Samaritan Hos­

(1653—1727) whose name (Brunner glands) is associated

pital in 1854 and performed his first hysterectomy for

with the duodenal glands. Wepfer practiced at Basel and

myoma in 1861. A spleenectomy was performed by him in

was physician to several German princes. He showed in

1865 and his patient lived for six days. H e performed a

1658 that cerebral hemorrhage was a cause o f apoplexy

complete ovariotomy in 1858 and by 1880 he had done over

(stroke) in four cases at postmortem.

1000. Forcipressure, a method o f crushing blood vessels by

Werder, Xavier Oswald (1858-1919) American surgeon who

forceps to arrest bleeding during surgery, was devised by him using forceps invented for the purpose and later named

described a radical method o f hysterectomy for cancer o f

Spencer Wells forceps. He was surgeon to the royal

the cervix in 1898. His method involved the total removal

household in 1863 and knighted in 1883.

o f vagina and uterus by suprapubic approach.

W erdnig-HofFm an Syndrom e Infantile familial form o f

Wells, William Charles (1757-18 17) American scientist and physician from Charleston, South Carolina. He graduated

progressive

from Edinburgh University and practiced in London where

independently by Austrian neurologist, Guido Werdnig

spinal

muscular

atrophy.

Described

he was physician to StThom as’ Hospital from 1800 to 1817.

(1844—1919) at Berlin and German neurologist Johann

His important contributions include: an essays on dew in

Hoffmann (1857-1919) in 1891.

1814; a treatise on vision; and suggestions on the theory o f natural selection. H e also showed that the coloring matter

W erew olf See lycanthropia.

in blood was a complex organic substance o f iron in 1797,

W erlhof D isease Thrombocytopenic purpura. Described as

demonstrated the presence o f albumin and blood in the

purpura hemorrhagica by German physician, Paul Gottlieb

urine o f patients with renal dropsy in 1812 and described

Werlholf (1699-1767) in 1735. See purpura.

rheumatic nodules in 1810.

W erlhof, Paul Gottlieb (1699-1767) A medical graduate o f

W ellwood, Thomas (1652-1716) Scottish physician from

the University o f Helmstedt in 1723 who became physician

Edinburgh, educated at Glasgow. He became KingW illiam ’s

to the court o f Hannover in 1760. He also composed poetry

physician in Scotland and practiced in Edinburgh.

and hymns. See Werlhof disease.

Welsh M edicine Initially the practice,like most other nations,

W erm er Syndrom e Multiple adenomatous hyperplasia o f

was in the hands o f the priests or Gwyddoniaid (old Welsh for

the anterior pituitary gland, parathyroid glands, thyroid

men o f knowledge). During the reign o f Prydain,

the Gwyddoniaid were divided into three orders, Bards,

gland and multiple tumors o f the islands o f Langerhans.

Druids, and Ovates. Ovates were mainly concerned with

Described

the study o f natural sciences. Medicine, commerce and

(1898-1975) in 1954.

by

N ew

York

physician,

Paul Wermer

navigation were the three civil arts in the laws o f Dyvnwal Moelmud.

Werner, Alfred (1866—1919) Swiss inorganic chemist who

Welsh Cells Cells o f the parathyroid glands were described

chemistry. He received the N obel Prize for Chemistry in

demonstrated

by Scottish professor o f pathology at Edinburgh, David

isomerism

in

inorganic

and

organic

1913. See isomerism.

Arthur Welsh (1875-1948) in 1898.

Werner Syndrom e Hereditary disorder consisting o f catar­

W enckebach P h en om en on A form o f progressive atri­

act, osteoporosis, premature graying o f hair, short stature

oventricular heart block until a drop in ventricular beat

and sexual underdevelopment. Described by German

occurred. Described by Dutch physician working in

physician C.W. Otto Werner (1879-1936) in 1904.

Vienna, Karel Frederick Wenckebach (1864—1940) in 1899.

Werner Syndrom e Disorder characterized by polydactyly,

He also wrote on the beneficial effects o f quinine in

absence o f thumbs and tibia and reduced knee movements.

arrhythmias.

Described by P.Werner in 1919.

W enzel, Carl (1769-1827) German surgeon who used artificial induction o f premature labor in 1804.

W ernicke Area Sensory speech center in the posterior third

763

W ERNICKE

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ENCEPHALOPATHY

o f the gyrus temporalis superior. Described by German

remained on duty at StThom as’ Hospital in London during

neuropsychiatrist and professor o f psychiatry at Breslau,

the great plague o f 1666. He studied at Oxford and

Karl Wernicke (1848—1905) in 1881.

Cambridge and obtained his M D from Oxford in 1647. He discovered the duct o f submaxillary glands (Wharton duct)

W ernicke E ncephalopathy Ophthalmoplegia, nystagmus

and gave a description o f the thyroid gland in 1656. He also

and confabulation due to thiamin deficiency. Described by German neuropsychiatrist and professor o f psychiatry at

described the mucoid connective tissue which forms the

Breslau, Karl Wernicke (1848—1905).

basic substance o f the umbilical cord (Wharton jelly). His Adenographia, sine glandularum totius corporis descriptio was

W ertheim , Ernst (1864—1920) German gynecologist and

published in 1656.

director o f the gynecology department o f the Elizabeth Hospital in Vienna. He devised the method o f radical panhysterectomy for cervical cancer in 1898.

W erthheim O in tm en t Used for chloasma and contains ammoniated

mercury

and

bismuth.

Formulated

by

Viennese physician, Gustav Werthheim (1822—1888).

W esbrook C lassification Applied for diphtheria bacilli. Proposed by American physician, Frank FairchildWesbrook (1868-1919) ofM inneapolis in 1900.

West, Charles (1816-1898) See Great Ormond Street Hospital. W estergren M ethod sedimentation

rate

Used for determining erythrocyte (ESR)

and devised by

Swedish

physician,AlfWilhelmWestergren (b 1891) in 19 21. Founded in 1716 by public

W estm inster H ospital

subscription and initially situated opposite Westminster Abbey and moved in 1939. Thomas Wharton (1616-1673). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

Westphal,

Carl

Friedrich

neuropsychiatrist born

Otto

(1833-1890)

in Berlin

where

he

German

W harton D u c t See Wharton, Thomas.

studied

medicine before he became professor o f psychiatry there in

W harton Jelly See Wharton, Thomas.

1874. He described agoraphobia in 18 71, and demonstrated

W heatstone,

the absence o f knee jerk reflex in tabes dorsalis with

Sir Charles

(1801—1875)

Physicist from

Wilhelm Erb (1840—1921) in 1875.The nucleus o f the third

Gloucester. He was professor o f philosophy at K ing’s

cranial nerve (Edinger—Westphal nucleus) was described by

College in 1834, and he invented a sound magnifier, for

him in 1887. His son, Alexander Westphal, was a professor o f

which he coined the term microphone. He invented the

neurology at Heidelberg and Berlin.

Wheatstone bridge, a device that enabled the galvanometer to measure large electrical current.

W estphal Syndrom e See periodic paralysis.

W heeler, Claude Lamont (1864—1916) Editor o f N ew York

Westphal—Strüm pell D isease Pseudosclerosis o f the brain (probably Kinnier-W ilson

MedicalJournal which was published from 1865 to 1925.

disease) was described by

Carl Friedrich Otto Westphal (1833—1890) in 1883 and

W heeler,John Martin (18791—938) NewYorkophthalm olo­

Ernst A d olf Gustav Gottfried Strümpell (1853—1925)

gist who described several procedures for various eye

in 1898.

conditions including glaucoma and ectropion.

Weyer,Johan (1516-1588) See witchcraft.

W heelhouse, Claudius Galen (1826—1909) See urethral stricture.

W eyleTest Detects creatinine using sodium nitroprusside as reagent. Devised by French chemist, Theodor Weyle

W herry, William Buchanan (1874—1936) American bacteri­

(18 51-19 13).

ologist who isolated the causative organism o f tularemia in a

W harton, Thomas (1616—1673) English physician who

human in 1914.

764

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W H ITLO W

W hiplash Injury Noticed in the 19th century with the

President

Eisenhower

for

a

myocardial

infarction.

introduction o f high speed railway travel and described in

W olRParkinson-W hite syndrome (W PW syndrome) due

1866 by Sir John Eric Erichson (1818—1896) o f University

to an accessory conduction pathway which predisposes to

College, London.

cardiac arrhythmia was described by him in

1930.

See Wolf—Parkinson-White syndrome.

W hipple, Allen Oldfather (1881—1963) N ew York surgeon who did a pancreatoduodenectomy for cancer o f the

W hite, William Hale (1857-1949) Physician at G uy’s

pancreas in 1935.

Hospital in 1890 who wrote treatises on materia medica, pharmacy, pharmacology and therapeutics {Hale- White) that

W hipple, George Hoyt (1878—1976) American pathologist

ran to 26 editions. He also wrote Great Doctors of the nineteenth

from N ew Hampshire who graduated from the Johns

century in 1935 and

Hopkins University where he later served for 9 years. He

as a Doctor and patient in 1938.

was appointed professor o f pathology at the University o f

W hite D isease Keratosis follicularis was described in 1889

California in 1914. He showed that iron was an important

by Boston dermatologist, James Clark White (1833-1916).

component o f red blood cells in 1925 and that eating liver could

cure

pernicious

anemia

(with

Frieda

W hite O peration

Saur

prostate. Devised in

Robscheit-Robbins, b 1893) and increase hemoglobin in 1925.

Castration for hypertrophy o f the 1894 by Philadelphia surgeon,

J. William White (1850-1916).

He shared the N obel Prize for Physiology or

Medicine with George Richards M inot (1885—1950) and

W hitechapel H ospital See London Hospital.

William Parry M urphy (1892-1987) in 1934.

W hitehead, John (1740—1804) Lancashire physician who

Characterized by deposit o f fats and

graduated from Leiden in 1780 and practiced in London.

fatty acids in the intestinal lymphatic tissues. Described as

He attended John Wesley during his last illness and wrote

W hipple D isease

‘Intestinal lipodystrophy’ in 1907 by American physician,

his biography. He also wrote A Report of a new, easy and

George Hoyt Whipple (1878—1976) o f Rochester, N ew

successful method o f treating Child-bed or Puerperal Fever, made

York.

use of by M . Doulcet in 1783.

W hitehead O peration A one stage procedure for extensive

W hippleTriad Hyperinsulinemia with fasting hypoglycemia and recovery after administration o f glucose and recurrence

cleft o f the hard and soft palate. Devised by N ew York

o f the attack on fasting. Described by N ew York physician,

surgeon, William Riddick Whitehead (1831—1902) in 1871.

George Hoyt Whipple (1878-1976).

W hitehead, Walter (1840-1913) English surgeon who described a method o f total removal o f the tongue with

W hipw orm See trichuris.

scissors in 1877.

W histler, Daniel (1619-1684) See rickets.

W hitfield O in tm ent Benzoic and salicylic acid, used for

W hitby, Sir Lionel Ernest Howard (1895—1938) R egius pro­

treatment o f fungal infections. Formulated by London

fessor o f medicine at the University o f Cambridge. He

dermatologist,ArthurWhitfield (1867-1947).He graduated

proved the efficacy o f sulfapyridine in treatment o f

from K ing’s College in 1892 where he was professor o f

pneumococcal pneumonia in 1938.

W hite,

Anthony

(1782-1849)

London

dermatology in 1906. surgeon

who

W hitley C oun cil Takes its origin from the Committee on

described the excision o f the femur for disease o f the hip

the Relations between Employers and Employed set up in

joint in 1838.

England in 1916 under the chairmanship o f J.H . W hitley who was later speaker at the House o f Commons.

W hite B lo o d Cell C ount See leukocyte count.

W hitlow ‘A n abscess forming about the root o f the nail’

W hite B lo o d Cell See leukocytes.

according to Paul ofA egin a (625-690). Aetius, Oribasius

W hite, Charles (1728—1813) See dislocation o f shoulderjoint.

(325—403) and other ancient physicians also described it and

W hite, Paul Dudley (1886—1973) American cardiologist who

recommended application o f astringents such as arsenic,

graduated from Harvard. He studied for a year with Sir

quick lime and flakes o f copper. Avicenna (980—1037)

Thomas Lewis (1881—1945) in London. Almost his entire

described it in detail and recommended immersing the fin­

career was spent at the Massachusetts General Hospital and

ger into hot vinegar during its early stages. W hen it is fully

he wrote his first book on heart diseases in 1931. He treated

formed he advised incision o f the abscess.

765

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W H ITM AN

W hitm an, Royal (1857—1946) A n orthopedic surgeon at the

microbiologist and professor o f pathology at Paris who was

Hospital for Ruptured and Crippled in N ew York City

born in Algeria. He devised the Widal test for typhoid fever

who described an operation for ununited fracture o f the

based on the agglutination reaction observed previously by

neck o f the femur in 19 21. He was also well known for his

Austrian bacteriologist. M ax Franz Maria von Gruber

work on flat-foot.

(1853-1927) and Herbert Edward Durham (1866—1945) in 1894. Acquired hemolytic anemia, previously described by

Causative organism o f melidiosis.

W hitm ore B acillus

Georges Hayem (1841—1933) in 1898, was redescribed by

Described by Alfred Whitmore (b 1876) and Indian

Widal in 1907.

physician, C.S. Krishnaswami in 1912.

W idal Test See Widal, Georges Ferdinand Isidore.

Found on the zygomatic bone and

W ^itnall Tubercle

described by Samuel Ernest Whitnall (1876—1950) from

W ieland, Heinrich Otto (1877-1957) German chemist who

Manchester while he was professor o f anatomy at M cGill

studied at the universities o f Munich, Berlin and Stuttgart

University in Canada in 1 9 1 1 .

and received his PhD from Munich, where he spent much

W h oop in g C ough

o f his career. He studied bile acids which aid digestion o f

Described as ‘tussis quintana’ by

lipids and received the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1927

Guillaume de BaiUou (1538—1616) in 1578. A clear account

for this work. See bile.

where convulsive cough occurred was given by Thomas Willis (16 21—1675) in

W iener, Alexander Solomon (b 1907) See erythroblastosis

1675. The causative organism,

Bordetella pertussis, was discovered by Belgian N obel Prize

fetalis.

winner, Jules Jean BaptisteVincent Bordet (1870—1961), and

Wiener, Norbert (1894-1964) See cybernetics,feedback mechanism.

French bacteriologist. Octave Gengou (1875-1957) in 1906.

Work on a vaccine was done by Patrick Holt Leslie

W iesel, Torsten Nils (b 1924) Swedish neurophysiologist

and Arthur Duncan Gardner (b 1884), and an effective

who graduated in medicine from the Karolinska Institute,

vaccine was introduced by Pearl Kendrick (b 1890) and

Stockholm. He joined the Johns Hopkins Medical School

Grace Eldering in 1939.

in 1955 and became professor o f neurobiology at Harvard Medical School in 1968. He shared the N obel Prize for

W hytt, Robert (1714 -176 6) Scottish professor o f medicine at

Physiology or Medicine for his work on neurophysiology

Edinburgh and a pupil o f Monroe. He described tubercu­

o f vision, with R o ger Wolcott Sperry (b 1913) and David

lous meningitis in children in Observations on Dropsy o f the

Hunter Hubei (b I926)in 1981.

Brain published in 1768. He was appointed physician to the

W iesel Paraganglion Situated in the cardiac plexus o f the

king o f Scotland and was president o f the Royal College o f

nerves and described in 1902 by JosefW iesel (1876—1928),

Physicians, Edinburgh.

professor o f medicine atVienna.

W hytt D isease Hydrocephalus due to tuberculous menin­

W igand M aneuvre Used in breech delivery, described by

gitis. Described by R obert Whytt (1714 -176 6), professor o f

German

medicine at Edinburgh.

W hytt R eflex See pupillary reaction. W iart N o tc h

Wigand

Dublin and was appointed surgeon—oculist to Queen

Wiart (b 1870) in 1899.

Victoria in Ireland in 1853. He described the optical appear­ ance on the external aspect o f the membrana tymphani

W ichm ann A sthm a Laryngismus stridulus. Described by

(Wilde cone) in 1853. He wrote Epidemics o f Ireland in 1851.

German physician, Johann Ernst Wichmann (1740—1802).

W ilder, Russel Morse (1885-1959) See insulin secreting tumors

Arsenic trioxide, alcohol and

glycerin mixture used for preserving anatomical specimens.

o f pancreas, adrenal insufficiency.

Devised by German anatomist, J. Wickersheimer (18 32-

Wiley, Harvey Washington (1844-1930) American physician

1896) o f Berlin. Otto

Heinrich

and father o f Oscar Wilde. He was an ophthalmologist at

duodenum. Described by French anatomist at Paris, Pierre

W ickm an,

Justus

W ilde, Sir William R obert Wills (1815—1876) Irish surgeon

Impression on the pancreas made by the

W ickersheim er Fluid

gynecologist,

(1766-1817).

from Indiana and food chemist who worked towards the Ivar

(1872—1914)

See

acute

Pure Food and D rug Act o f 1906. He published N ot by Bread

anterior

Alone in 1915.

poliomy-elitis.

Widal, Georges Ferdinand Isidore (1862-1929) French

W ilkie A rtery Supraduodenal artery, described by Scottish

766

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W ILLIA M SO N

professor o f surgery at Edinburgh, David Percival Dalbreck

Diseases, in 1796 which was completed after his death by

W ilkie (1882—1938). He also described stenosis o f the same

Thomas Bateman (1778—1821). He classified different kinds

artery complicated by duodenal ulcer (Wilkie syndrome)

o f eczema and other skin diseases.

in 19 11.

W illebrand,

W ilkins, John (1614—1672) English clergyman from Daven-

Erik

A d olf

von

(1870-1949)

See

von

Willebrand disease.

try and a founder o f the Royal Society He married a

W illiam o f Saliceto (12 0 1-12 77 ) Salicet was an Italian sur­

widowed sister o f Oliver Cromwell and was master ofTrin-

geon who wrote an important work on surgery and

ity College in 1659. In Discovery of a World in the Moon,

practiced dissections. He was born in Saliceto and studied

published in 1628, he discussed the possibilities o f traveling

medicine at the University o f Bologna. He was chief o f the

to the moon on a flying-machine and inhabitants in the

local hospital in Verona in 1275 and completed his Chyrurgia

moon.

in the same year, dedicated to his teacher the physician,

W ilkins, Maurice Hugh Frederick (b 1916) N ew Zealand-

Dino del Garbo.

born British physicist who is known for his w ork on D N A

W illiam s, Elkanah (1822—1888) American professor o f oph­

X -ray crystallography. He was educated at Birmingham

thalmology at Miami Medical College, and younger

and St Joh n ’s College Cambridge and was director o f the

brother o f Henry Willard Williams (18 21—1895). He made

Medical Research Council’s Biophysics unit at K ing’s

several significant contributions to his field.

College from 1970 to 1972. He shared the N obel Prize for his elucidation o f the structure o f D N A with Francis H enry

W illiam s, Francis Henry (1852-1936) American physician

Crick (b 1918) and James Dewey Watson (b 1928) in 1962.

who estimated the heart size using a fluoroscope in 1896. This was the first application o f X-rays to cardiology.

Wilks, Sir Samuel (18 24 -19 11) English physician at G u y’s Hospital, London. He was president o f the Royal College o f

W illiam s, H enry Willard (18 21-18 95) American ophthal­

Physicians from 1866 to 1899, appointed physician-extraor­

mologist at Boston and professor at Harvard in 18 71. He

dinary to Queen Victoria in 1897 and was knighted in the

designed a special lantern to test color vision. He

same year. Some o f his contributions to medicine include: a

introduced the method o f suturing the flap after cataract

definite account o f (Wilks syndrome) myasthenia gravis

excision in 1865.

(1877); the relationship between renal conditions and

W illiam s, John Whitridge (1866-1931) Boston obstetrician

nephrotic syndrome (1853); the causes and effects o f pyemia

who reported a case o f choriocarcinoma in 1895. He

or septicemia (1861); and a an account on alcoholic

published a textbook o f obstetrics for students and

paraplegia (1868). Generalized hypertrophy o f superficial

practitioners in 1903.

and deep lymphatic glands, previously described by Hodgkin, was named Hodgkin disease by Wilks in 1856.

W illiam s Sign Dull tymphanitic resonance over the second intercostal space in cases o f large pleural effusion. Described by English physician, Charles Williams (1805—1889).

W illiam son, AlexanderWilliam (1824-1904) London chem­ ist who studied at Heidelberg and Giessen before being appointed professor o f chemistry at University College, London in 1849. His main research was on the relationship between alcohol and esters, and catalysts. See catalysis.

W illiam son, Hugh (1735—1819) Pennsylvania physician who studied medicine at Edinburgh and Leiden. He returned to Philadelphia and served in the revolutionary army after which he was elected to Congress. He wrote Observations on the Climate o f America and several other works.

W illiam son, William Crawford (1816-1895) English pale-

Robert Willan (1757-1812). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

R obert

(1757—1812)

Quaker

physician

obotanist and surgeon, born in Scarborough and became

from

professor o f geology and natural history at O w en’s College,

Yorkshire who wrote an early monograph. On Cutaneous

Manchester in 1851. He investigated plant fossils in coal and

W illan,

767

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W ILLIS

is regarded as father o f paleobotany in England.

acid (aspirin) and has been used as an analgesic for thousands o f years.

W illis, Francis Lincolnshire physician who treated mental disorders in the i8th century. He obtained his M A from

W ilm s Tum or Embryonic tumor o f the kidney described

Oxford in 1740 and entered holy orders before he took

by German professor o f surgery at Leipzig, M ax Wilms

medicine. He established a private asylum for the mentally

(1867-1918) in 1899.

ill at Greatford in Lincolnshire. He treated King George III

W ilson, Samuel Alexander Kinnier (1877-1937) B orn to

during his illness and predicted a good prognosis for

Irish parents in America and graduated from Edinburgh. He

the king. His son, R o bert Darling Willis (1760—1821) and

was neurologist to K ing’s College Hospital and founded the

grandson, Francis Willis (1792—1859) were also physicians

Journal o f Neurology and Psychopathology in 1920. See

who practiced psychiatry.

KinnierWilson disease. lliK r m

v e d

io i-

t ln 'l'iiiw

i- la l

W ilson, Charles M cM oran (1882—1977) Physician and dean

.

o f St M ary’s Medical School from 1920 to 1945. H e was physician to Winston Churchill and wrote Winston Churchill, The Strugglefor Survival in 1966.

W ilson, Charles Thompson Rees (1869—1959) Scottish pio­ neer o f atomic and nuclear physics from Glencorse near Edinburgh. He developed the cloud chamber for studying atomic particles in 1897. He was professor o f natural philoso­ phy at Cambridge from 1925 to 1934. He shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927 for his work on ionization o f water.

W ilson, Edmund Beecher (1856—1939) American zoologist and embryologist from Geneva, Illinois. He studied at Yale and Johns Hopkins Universities and was professor o f zoology at Columbia University, N ew York. He pioneered microdissection and described androgenesis or male parthenogenesis in 1928. Thomas Willis (1621-1675). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

W ilson, Edward Adrian (1872—1912) English physician and W illis, Thomas (16 21—1675) English physician, Sedleian pro­

explorer from Cheltenham. He took part in the Antarctic

fessor o f natural philosophy at Oxford (1660), and a founder

expedition with Scott in the Discovery from 1900 to 1904.

o f the R oyal Society, born at Great Bedwyn in Wiltshire.

He died with the other crew members on their return

He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford and took his

journey from the South Pole.

medical degree in 1660. He made several important contributions to medicine including his description o f the

W ilson, James (1765—1821) English surgeon and teacher at

arterial supply to the base o f the brain (circle ofWillis) in

Hunter’s school o f anatomy at Great Windmill Street,

Cerebri anatome nervorum que descriptio et usus, published in

London. In 1812 he described the muscle fibers derived

1664; a description o f epidemic typhoid fever in De febribus

from the levator ani surrounding the urethra found above

in 1659; and o f the symptoms in achalasia cardia and its

the triangular ligament (Wilson muscles).

treatment in Pharmaceutica Rationalis in 1674. He introduced

W ilson, Sir James Erasmus (1809—1884) London dermatolo­

the concept o f ‘involuntary’ and ‘voluntary’ or ‘volitional’

gist who described dermatitis exfoliativa in 1890. He

movements in 1664.

established dermatology as a specialty in England and classi­

W illow Members o f the plant genus Salix, used since the

fied cutaneous disorders. He wrote Treatise on Diseases o f the

time o f Dioscorides (AD 40-90) who described it in his

Skin (1842), a dermatological atlas (1847) and a dissector’s

Materia medica. He prescribed leaves mixed with pepper and

manual in 1838. He donated

wine in cases o f diseased intestines; fruit for blood spitting;

Surgeons to create a chair o f dermatology. He paid for the

to the Royal College o f

burnt bark with vinegar for warts; and a decoction or

transport o f the obelisk known as Cleopatra’s needle from

fermentation for gout. The bark is a rich source o f salicylic

Egypt to London.

768

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W ISEM AN

Hepatolenticular degeneration due to

W interbottom , Thomas Masterman (1765-1859) English

abnormality o f copper metabolism. Described by British

physician from South Shields who graduated from Glasgow

neurologist, Samuel Alexander KinnierW ilson (1874—1937)

University in 1792 and practiced for 4 years in Sierra Leone,

in 1912. See Kayser—Fleischer ring.

Africa. He described African trypanosomiasis or sleeping

W ilson D isease

sickness in 1803 which he observed during his travels.

W ilson, Louis Blanchard (1866—1943) American physician from Rochester, Minnesota who devised a method o f

W inthrop, John (1588-1649) Governor o f Massachusetts,

staining sections o f live tissue.

medical reformer and father o f paper currency in America.

W ilson M uscles See Wilson James.

W inthrop, John (1714—1779) Descendant o f John Winthrop (1588—1649) and professor o f mathematics at Harvard who

W inckel D isease Characterized by icterus, bloody urine

founded the first laboratory for experimental physics in

and hemorrhage with a fatal outcome in neonates.

America at Harvard in 1746.

Described in 1879 by M unich gynecologist, Franz Karl Ludwig von Winckel (18 37-19 11).

W intrich Sign A change in pitch o f the percussion note

W indaus, A d olf (1876—1959) Berlin-born German chemist

when the mouth is opened or closed in cases o f pulmonary

known for his work on the structure o f cholesterol, for

cavity. Described by German physician, Anton Wintrich

which he was awarded the N obel Prize in 1928. He also

(1812-1882).

discovered that light activates ergosterol, converting it to

W intringham , Sir Clifton (1710—1794) Son o f a physician

vitamin D 2. He also did research on cardiac poisons.

W ine

from York with the same name who resided in Hammer­ smith. He wrote A n Experimental Inquiry concerning some

Fermented liquid, generally produced from grapes.

Pliny the Elder described 116 different types o f wine around

parts o f the Animal Structure (1740),

A D 50. Plutrach (AD 46-120): said it was the most palatable

o f the Human Body (1743) and other works.

table medicine. Nicander in 100 B C advocated undiluted

Inquiry into the Exility

W introbe Tube Measures erythrocyte sedimentation rate.

wine as a remedy for poisoning by hemlock. It was also used

Devised by Canadian-born American hematologist. Maxwell

as a stimulant, aphrodisiac, analgesic and anesthetic for

M yer Wintrobe (1901—1986) who graduated from the

centuries. Mandrake wine was used as an anesthetic to per­

University o f Manitoba in 1926.

form surgery by Dioscorides (AD 40—90) and was the most

W irsung D u ct Ductus pancreaticus described by Johann

popular anesthetic during Middle Ages. Paul o f Aegina (625-690) recommended wine for several medical condi­

Georg Wirsung (1600—1643) o f Bavaria who was professor

tions. Arnold ofVillanova in the 13 th century discussed the

at Padua in 1642. He was assassinated in 1632 at Padua over

role o f wine in diet and its use as medication. Brandy

the priority o f the discovery o f the pancreatic duct.

obtained by distillation o f wine was called the elixir o f life by him and he introduced it into pharmacopoeia. See alcohol.

Winiwarter, Alexander (1848—1916) See cholecystenterostomy. W iniwarter, Felix von (1852-1931) See Buerger disease. W inslow, Jacob Benignus (1669—1760) Danish anatomist who became professor o f physick, surgery and anatomy at the University o f Paris and wrote a book in 1733 on descriptive anatomy which disregarded previous hypothet­ ical explanations. The foramen between the greater and lesser sac is named after him. He gave the name ‘grand

Richard Wiseman (1622-1676). Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine

sympathetic’ to the ganglion chain and called the smaller branches ‘lesser sympathetic’ .

W ise,

W inston, Thomas (1575-1655) English physician who was

Thomas Alexander

(1802—1889)

Graduated

in

medicine from Edinburgh in 1824 and wrote The Pathology

educated at Cambridge and received his M D from Padua.

o f Blood, The Hindu System o f Medicine, Diseases of the Eye,

He established himself in practice in London and was

Cholera m d History o f Medicine.

professor o f physick at Gresham College. His anatomical lectures were printed in 1650.

W isem an, Richard (1622-1676) British surgeon to the

769

W ISEM AN

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

SYNDROM E

Dutch N avy (1643) who became surgeon to James I and

Wellington, Shropshire who graduated from Edinburgh

Charles II. He was known as the Pride o f England and

with a thesis ‘Malignant Putrid Sore Throat’ in 1765. He was

published Several Chirugical Treatises in 1676 and published

a great botanist and he wrote A Botanical Arrangement of all

the first recorded postmortem in the same year, on a patient

the vegetables Naturally Growing in Great Britain in 1776. He

from the Bethlem Hospital.

learnt the value o f digitalis in dropsy from a female patient and herbalist, Mrs Hutton from Shropshire, and tried it on

W isem an Syndrom e Primary splenic anemia related to

patients around 1770. He was a junior physician to

congenital hemolytic anemia. Described by American

Birmingham Hospital in 1775 and continued to use

physician, Bruce Kenneth Wiseman (b 1898) o f Ohio in

digitalis. B y 1779 his cure for dropsy with digitalis became

1942.

well known and he wrote A n Account o f the Foxglove, and

W isk ott-A ldrich Syndrom e Disorder characterized by

Some o f its Medical Uses, with Practical Remarks on Dropsy, and

thrombocytopenic purpura and susceptibility to staphylo­

other Diseases in 1785.

coccal infection due to antibody deficiency. Described by

W its Defined by Spanish philosopher,Juan Huarte in 1594 as

German pediatrician, Alfred Wiskott (1898-1978) in 1937.

man’s ability for one science but incapability for another.

The familial nature o f the disorder due to X-linked reces­

Goncerning the different wits o f men was written by Walter

sive trait was shown by American pediatrician, R obert

Charleton (1619-1707) o f London who was physician to

Anderson Aldrich (b 1917) in 1954. He was son o f another

Charles I and II.

pediatrician (C.A. Aldrich) at the Mayo Clinic and was

W ittgenstein, Ludwig (1889-1951) Professor o f philosophy

professor o f pediatrics at the University o f Colorado,

at Cambridge who left Nazi Germany in protest at the Nazi

Denver in 1970.

genocide. He gave up his position as a professor at

Wistar Institute Named after American anatomist, Caspar

Cambridge and worked as a dispensary porter at G uy’s

Wistar (1760—1818), who wrote an early book on anatomy.

Hospital during the aerial bombings in 1941. He wrote

W itchcraft

several works on the Nuremberg trials.

Superstition and magic prevailed in medical

practice for thousands o f years until Hippocrates (460—377

W itzel O peration

M ethod o f gastrotomy through a

B C ) established medicine on a rational basis. Insanity was

thoracic incision. Described by German surgeon, Friedrich

confused with witchcraft during medieval and earlier

OskarWitzel (1856-1925).

times, and the insane were subjected to whipping, starving

W olfler Gland

and execution. R eginald Scott (1538—1599), a politician

Accessory thyroid gland described by

German professor o f surgery at Graz, Anton W olfler

from Kent, identified insanity and depression (melancholy)

1850- 1917) in 1880.

in 1584 amongst those accused o f witchcraft in England. A notorious book on witch h unting. Malleus Maleficarum, was

Wohler, Friedrich (1800-1882) See urea.

written by Johann Sprenger and Heinrich Kraemer in

Wohlgemuth,Julius (1874—1948) See amylase.

1497. Although it contained absurd theories it was accepted

W oillez D isease Form o f acute idiopathic congestion o f the

by the church and was used at the faculty o f theology at the

lung described by French physician, Eugene Joseph Woillez

University o f Cologne. In 1515 about 500 people accused o f

(18 11-18 8 2).

witchcraft were burnt in Geneva and thousands were sent

W olcot, Erastus Bradley (1804—1880) American surgeon

to death in France. One o f the first medical persons to publicly oppose witchhunting was Belgian physician,Johan

o f Benton, N ew York who was the first to perform

Weir or Weyer (1516—1588) who published De Praestigiis

nephrectomy in 1861.

Daemonum et incantationibus ac Veneficiis in 1563. An early

WolfF, Julius (1836-1902) German orthopedic surgeon in

treatise on witchcraft was by English physician, William

Berlin who proposed the W olff law in 1892 which states that

Drage (1637—1669) o f Hitchin, Hertfordshire in 1665.

all changes in the functions o f the bones are accompanied

Witchhunting continued into the i6th and 17th century

by definite alteration in their internal structure.

and thousands were killed. In America, Cotton Mather

W olfF-Parkinson-W hite Syndrom e (W PW syndrome)

(1663—1728) also believed in the evils o f witchcraft and 19

Electrocardiographic changes o f W PW syndrome were

were hanged in Salem, Massachusetts.

described by Paul Dudley White (1886-1973) o f Massachu­

W ithering, William (1741-1799) English physician from

setts General Hospital in 1930. Other symptoms were

770

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W O O D

VINEGAR

described by American cardiologist Louis WolfF (b 1898)

rhodium in 1804. The occurrence o f bladder stones in

and English physician Sir John Parkinson (1885—1976).

patients with cystinuria was noted by Wollaston in 1810.

M . Holzmann explained that the short P R interval and

W om b [Anglo-Saxon: iT'ijm/), belly] See uterus.

delta wave found in the E G G was due to preexcitation o f

W om en P ioneers In M edicin e Gleopatra is supposed to

the ventricle through an accessory or aberrant pathway in 1932. His explanation was based on previous anatomical

be the first woman to have practiced midwifery and

findings o f an atrioventricular pathway by Alfred Frank

medicine. Queen Shubad o f U r ,who lived around 3000

Stanley Kent (1863-1958). In 1967 D. Dürrer devised a

B G , was found buried with surgical instruments and pre­

method

scrip tions.Agnodice, a physician and pupil o f Herophilus in

o f intraoperative

epicardial mapping which

provided the electrophysiological evidence for preexcita­

300 B G , practiced disguised as a man. A famous women

tion through an accessory pathway. H .B. Burchell, in the

surgeon during the Middle Ages was Trotula who lived

same year, injected procaine into the atrioventricular

around A D 1050. Several works on midwifery, known as

groove and temporarily abolished ventricular preexcita­

Trotula written in the n th century, have been attributed to

tion. A leap in treatment was made in 1968 by W. G. Sealy

her. Abella was a surgeon from the School o f Salerno

when he surgically divided the accessory pathway and abol­

around the same time. In England about 66 women were

ished the E G G abnormalities, preventing further attacks o f

known to have obtained licenses to practice medicine

arrhythmia. Electrical ablation o f the accessory bundle by

around 15 11. In the following two centuries there was non­

transvenous catheter was described by R . Gonzalez in 1981

uniformity on the role o f women as doctors. They were

and by Scheinman in 1982. See ablation catheter.

forbidden to be apothecaries in 16 15 ,and in France a decree in 1755 excluded them from practicing surgery. The most

WolfF, Harold George (1898-1962) Professor o f physiology

famous French woman in midwifery was Louyse Bourgeois

at Gornell University who published a study o f gastric

(1553-1638) who was a pupil ofAmbroise Paré (1510-1590).

function in 1943 from a man who had had a gastric fistula

She published several books based on midwifery. Maria

since the age o f 9 years. A treatise on pain was jointly

della Donne (1776-1842) was the first woman to obtain a

published by him and Stewart George W olff (b 1914), an

medical degree in France in 1799 and was appointed

assistant professor at the same university, in 1946.

professor o f obstetrics by Napoleon in 1802. The first

Wolffian B od y

woman medical graduate from Glasgow University was

R e n primordialis, described by Kaspar

M arion Gilchrist who obtained her M B G M in 1894.

Friedrich W olff (1733—1794) ofBerlin, who was professor o f

See Anderson, Elizabeth.

anatomy at St Petersburg in 1759.

Wolffian D u ct

W ood, Alexander (1817—1884) See hypodermic injection.

Ureter primordialis described by Kaspar

Friedrich W olff (1733—1794) ofBerlin, professor o f anatomy

W ood, Horatio Gharles (1841-1920) See sunstroke.

at St Petersburg. In 1759 he also proposed the theory o f

W ood, John (1827—1891) Surgeon from Bradford,Yorkshire

epigenesis which states that new structures arise in the

who contributed several papers on myology while a

course o f development, as opposed to preformation theory.

surgeon at King s Gollege Hospital, London.

W ölfler O peration An opening between the stomach and

W ood, Paul Hamilton (1907—1962) One o f the greatest mod­

the distal part o f the duodenum is created in cases o f pyloric

ern cardiologists o f England, born in Goonoor India where

obstruction. Devised by Anton W ölfler (1850—1917), a

his father was in the Indian civil service. After schooling in

surgeon at Prague.

Tasmania and completing his resident post in N ew

W olfring Glands Glands o f the lower eyelid conjunctiva.

Zealand, he returned to England and became house

D escribed in 1872 by Polish ophthalmologist Em ilij

physician at Brompton Hospital in 1933. He was resident

Franzevic von Wolfring (1832—1906), professor at Warsaw.

medical officer at the National Heart Hospital and Dean o f the Institute o f Gardiology in 1947. In 1949 he became

W ollaston, William Hyde (1766-1822) British chemist

cardiologist to the Brompton Hospital and contributed to

qualified in medicine from Gambridge in 1793 and

the study o f congenital cardiology with his work on atrial

practiced in London (1797) before turning in 1800 to

septal defect in 1950. He wrote Diseases of the Heart and

chemistry. He demonstrated the presence o f various

Circulation in 1950.

substances, including uric acid, calcium and ammonium, in urinary stones in 1797. Ultraviolet rays were observed by

W oodV inegar (Syn: acetum pyrolignosum crudum) Made

him in 1802 and he discovered, palladium in 1803 and

by heating wood in large iron cylinders connected to

771

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W OODALL

condensers producing a distillate o f wood spirit, acetic acid,

W oodward, Sir Arthur Smith (1864-1944) See Piltdown man.

water and tarry substances which is further distilled to leave

W oolner, Thomas (1825-1892) English sculptor and poet

the tarry, creosote-containing substances. It was used in the

who drew the attention o f Charles Darwin to the tubercle

19th century as a disinfectant and for cesspools and drains.

on the helix o f the auricle, commonly known as Darwin

Justinius Kerner experimented with it on animals in 1820

tubercle.

and creosote was isolated and named by K. Reichenbach in 1 832.This became a popular remedy for consumption and

W oolsorter D isease See anthrax.

digestive disorders for over 50 years.

W oorali See curare.

W oodall, John (1556—1643) British naval surgeon who wrote

Word A ssociation Pioneering work was done by Francis

a book on naval medicine in 1617, The Surgeons mate, during

Galton (1822—19 11) in 1879 and by Carl Gustav Jung

his service with the East India Company. He made the first

(1875-1961) in psychology. Jung developed the word

suggestion that lime juice could be used to prevent and cure

association test where the subject responds with another

scurvy. The circular method o f amputating the limbs was

word to a given word and wrote Studies on Word Association

described by him in 1617.

in 1906.

W oodbridge Treatm ent An intestinal antiseptic contain­

W orkm en C om p en sation A ct Safeguarded workers in

ing calomel used to treat typhoid by American physician,

1897 in England and replaced by the National Insurance

John Elliot Woodbridge (1845-1901).

(Industrial Injuries) Act in 1946.

W oodhead, Sir Sims German (1855—1921) British pioneer in

World H ealth O rganization Established by the United Nations in 1948.

establishing pathology laboratory services in England. After graduating from Edinburgh University he became superin­

World M edical A ssociation Coordinates work o f various

tendent o f the laboratory services o f the Royal College o f

National Medical Associations and was founded at Ferney-

Physicians there in 1897. He was appointed to the chair o f

Voltaire, France in 1947. Its publications include: Declaration

pathology at Cambridge in 1899. He wrote a book on microbiology

in

1885,

Pathological

Mycology,

o f Geneva (1948), International Code o f Medical Ethics (1949),

with

Computers and Confidentiality (1973) and Declaration o f

Arthur W Hare, assistant professor o f surgery at the

Helsinki (1964).

University o f Edinburgh. His Practice o f Pathology was

W orm , Ole (1588—1654) Danish anatomist and brother-in-

published in 1883 and he was the first editor o f the Journal o f

law o f Casper Bartholin Primus (1585—1629) whom he

Pathology and Bacteriology for 30 years.

succeeded as professor o f anatomy at Copenhagen in 1624.

W oodville, William (1752—1805) British physician from

He described the Wormian bones or ossa suturalia o f the

Cockerm outh who graduated from Edinburgh University.

skull.

He practiced in London and was a physician to the

W orm ian B on es Sutural bones. See Worm, Ole.

Middlesex Dispensary and Smallpox Hospital. He wrote

W orm w ood See absinthe.

Medical Botany and History o f Smallpox Inoculation.

W oodward, John (1665—1728)

W orth, Claud (1869—1936) See amblyoscope.

British physician from

Derbyshire who was professor o f physick at Gresham

W otton, Edward (1492—1555) Physician and zoologist from

College in 1692 and wrote Essay towards the Natural History

Oxford who wrote a Latin treatise. On the difference of

o f Earth in 1696.

Animals in 1552, giving an account o f the animal kingdom and the animal organism and its parts. He was physician to

W oodward, R obert Burns (1917—1979) American organic

H enry V III.

chemist from Boston, Massachusetts. He was professor o f chemistry at Harvard University in 1950 and worked on the

W ound D ressing Wine as a lotion for ulcers was mentioned

antimalarial drug, quinine, and penicilli». He synthesized

in a Hippocratic treatise. Arsenic, copper and hellebore

cortisone in 1951, cholesterol, lysergic acid, reserpine,

were also recommended as cleansing agents for ulcers by

chlorophyll and colchicine and was awarded the Nobel

Hippocrates (460-377 BC).Aetius ofAm ida (AD 502—575)

Prize for Chemistry in 1965. He went on to synthesize

used dried plantain, ashes o f wood o f fig and juice o f

vitamin B 12 and is considered one o f the greatest synthetic

calamint to treat ulcers containing worms. Applications o f

organic chemists.

bandages for simple ulcers were described by Paul o f Aegina

772

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W U C H ER ER IA

BANCROFTI

malarial parasite (1902) and Treponema pallidum (1918).

(625-690) as well as wound dressings or ‘agglutinants’ o f juice o f plantain, papyrus soaked in wine and pounded new

W right, Thomas (156 1-16 23) Jesuit priest in England who

cheese. For larger ulcers he used horsetail and for hollow

wrote The passions o f the minde (1601) in which he raised

ulcers he applied extract o f snail, aloe and other herbs.

fundamental issues in psychology and neurophysiology

See wound.

which were later recognized as phantom limb syndrome,

W ound Galen (AD 129—200) gained considerable experi­

localization

of

cerebral

function,

coordination

of

ence in treating wounds through his attendance on the

movement and memory in relation to learning. A fifth

gladiators o f R om e. He

edition o f this appeared in 1630.

recommended conservative

treatment, but for cut tendons he recommended, uniting

W rist See carpus. Collesfracture, median nerve compression.

them with sutures. See wound dressing, trauma surgery.

W PW

W rist D islocation

Syndrom e See Wolf—Parkinson—White Syndrome;

White, Paul Dudley.

W reden Sign

German professor at Strasburg, Otto

W ilhelm Madelung (1846—1926), described congenital dislocation o f the wrist in 1878.

Gelatinous material found in the external

W rist E xcision Lord Joseph Lister (18 27-19 12) performed

auditory meatus in infants who are born dead. Described as

the operation for caries o f the wrist joint in 1865. Scottish

a test for live birth in 1868 by Robert Robertovich Wreden

surgeon from Edinburgh,James Donaldson Gillespie (1823—

(18 37-18 93),an otologist at Petrograd in Russia.

1891), described an operation for excision o f the wrist

W ren, Sir Christopher (1632—1723) English architect,astron­

in 1870.

omer and scientist, born at East Knoyle,Wiltshire. He was a

W riters’ Cramp A classic description was given by Berna-

member o f the Invisible College at Oxford which later

dini Ramazzini (16 33-1714 ) in 1713, and another by Sir

became the Royal Society. He inaugurated intravenous administration

of

drugs

by

injecting

opium

Charles Bell (1744-1842) in 1830. Sir WilHam Gowers

and

Crocus metallorum into the veins o f dogs using a quill and

(1845-1915) gave an account o f the condition in 1893 and

a bladder in 1656. He was president o f the Royal Society

Haupt wrote On Writer's Cramp with respect to pathology and treatment (i860) and associated it with squinting, stuttering

from 1680 to 1683.

and other neuroses.

W riesberg, Heinrich August (1739-1808) German gynecol­ ogist and professor o f anatomy at Gottingen. He described

W roblewski, Felix (b 1921) See diagnostic enzymology.

several anatomical structures including: internal cutaneous

W ryneck Nicolas Tulp (1593—1674), a physician from Ams­

nerve to minor brachi (Wriesberg nerve); cuneiform

terdam, gave a detailed description o f a 12-year-old boy

cartilage o f the larynx (Wriesberg cartilage); and a band

whose head was drawn towards his left shoulder due to

attached to posterior cruciate ligament o f the knee

contraction o f the scalenus anterior muscle. After failing to

(Wriesberg ligament).

treat the condition medically, he approached a surgeon

W right, Sir Almroth Edward (1861—1941) English bacteriol­

named Minnius who successfully divided the muscle in

ogist from Yorkshire and a graduate o f Trinity College,

several stages. Meckren, another surgeon in Amsterdam,

Dublin who also studied in Leipzig, Strasburg and Sydney.

recommended

He was appointed to an army medical school where he

(1700—1778), a British surgeon, recommended the division

similar

operation. muscle.

A

Sharp

developed a typhoid vaccine. He became professor o f

of

describing over 300 cases was published by Jean R ené

worked on parasitic diseases and the protective power o f

Cruchet (1875—1959) o f Paris in 1907.

monograph

Wuchereria bancrafti The embryonic form o f the filarial

Douglas (18 71—1936) led to the discovery o f a thermolabile

worm was observed by a German physician working in

substance in serum which acted on bacteria during the

Brazil, Otto Eduard Heinrich Wucherer (1820—1873) in

process o f phagocytosis and which was named ‘opsonin’

1868, and was shown to be the cause o f elephantiasis by

in 1903.

W right Stain

sternocleidomastoid

Samuel

pathology at St M ary’s Hospital, London in 1902 where he blood against bacteria. His work with Stewart Rankin

the

a

British physician Sir Joseph Bancroft (1836-1894) in Brisbane in 18 78. The organism was named after Wucherer

Used for megakaryocytes and platelets.

Devised by Boston pathologist, James H om er W right

and Bancroft. The culex mosquito was identified as the

(1871-1928) in 1910. He also prepared special stains for the

vector

773

by

Scottish

physician.

Sir

Patrick

Manson

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

W U N D E R L IC H

(1844-1922) in 1878. Seeftlariasis.

W underlich, Carl Reinhold August (1815-1877) Professor o f medicine at Leipzig who pioneered the application o f thermometry to clinical medicine in Das Verhalten der Eigenwarme in Krankeiten published in 1868. An English translation by Bathhurst W Woodman (1836-1877) o f Stroud, physician at the London Hospital, was published in 1871.

W undt, Wilhelm M ax (1832—1920) See experimental psychology. W urtz, Charles Adolph (1817—1884) See bonds. Wyeth O peration M ethod o f amputation at the hip joint using elastic cords and needles to control bleeding. Devised in

1894 by N ew York surgeon, John Allan Wyeth

(18 45- 1922).

Wylie O peration

Shortening the round ligaments by

folding them on themselves and suturing. Used as treatment for uterine retroflexion by a N ew York gynecologist,W. Gill Wylie (1848-1923). W yllie,Joh n (i 844-1916) Graduate from Edinburgh (1865), pathologist to the R oyal Infirmary in 1875, and a physician there in 1882. He succeeded Sir Thomas Grainger Stewart (1837-1900) as professor o f medicine at Edinburgh and wrote Disorders o f Speech.

W ym an, M orrill (18 12-19 03) See paracentesis thoracis. W yndham , Sir Charles (18 4 1-1919) British physician and actor, born in Liverpool and educated at Edinburgh. He obtained his M D from Giessen and was a surgeon in the American Civil War. During his stay in America he acted on the N ew York stage as Charles Wyndham. He returned to England in 1865 and gained fame on the comedy stage. He opened the Wyndham Theater in 1899 and received his knighthood in 1902.

Wynter, Walter Essex (1860—1945) See lumbar puncture.

774

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

X-RAY

SPECTROSCOPY

photograph in America was taken by Michael Idvorsky Pupin (b 1858) o f Columbia University in 1896. A proto­ type o f the modern X -ray vacuum tube (Coolridge tube)

X

was invented by American physicist, William David C ool­ ridge (1873—1975) in 1916. He replaced the cold aluminum cathode by a hot tungsten cathode.

X -R ay Crystallography German physicist. M ax Theodor Felix von Laue (1879—1960), discovered that X-rays were diffracted by the three-dimensional array o f atoms in

X C h rom osom e See accessory chromosomes.

crystals, for which he received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1914. Australian-born British physicist, SirWilliam Bragg (1862—1942) and his son Sir William Lawrence Bragg (1890—1971), used X-rays to discover the positions o f atoms in crystals. They established X-ray crystallography which proved to be o f immense value in research in many branches o f science and they shared the N obel Prize for Physics in 1915. Powdered crystals in X -ray crystallography were used by Dutch—American physicist Peter Joseph Wilhelm Debye (1884-1966) in 1916, who was awarded the N obel Prize for Chemistry in 1936.

X -R ay D iffraction The method for analyzing the structure o f organic crystals was discovered by William Bragg (1862— 1942) An early portable X-ray installation.Robert Knox, Radiography, X-Ray Therapeutics and Radium Therapy (1915). A & C Black, London

X -R ay

and his son SirWilliam Lawrence Bragg (1890—1971).

T h ey constructed the first X -ra y spectrometer. Dame Kathleen Lonsdale (i9 0 3-i9 7 i),a n Irish crystallographer at

In 1858 German physicist, Julius Pflücker (1801—

University College London and co-worker with Bragg,

1868) used Heinrich Daniel R u h m k orfs (1803-1877)

used the method to elucidate the structure o f hexamethyl-

induction coil to show that w hen a voltage was passed

benzene and hexachlorobenzene in 1929. D. Crowfoot

through two metal electrodes sealed in a glass tube under

determined the structure o f penicillin in 1949. X -ray

reduced pressure, sparks were produced. On further reduc­

diffraction photography o f D N A molecules was done by

ing the pressure a number o f dark spaces appeared. In 1869

Rosalind Elsie Franklin (1920-1958) o f K ing’s College,

German physicist, Johan W ilhelm H ittorf (1824-1914)

London in 1953. She shared the N obel Prize for Physiology

demonstrated that the dark spaces near the cathode were a

or Medicine posthumously in 1962.

form o f ray. These cathode rays were investigated by Sir

X -R ay Injury See radiation injury.

William Crookes (1832-1919) using a high vacuum tube in 1872 and explained by Joseph John Thomson (1856—1940)

X -R ay P rotection Transparent lead glass windows for pro­

in 1897. German physicist Wilhelm Konrad von Röntgen

tection from X-rays was introduced in 1900 and aprons,

(1845-1923) o f Würzberg investigated the properties o f

gloves and jackets were invented in 1903 .The British X -ray

cathode rays using a Crookes tube and discovered X-rays

Units Committee was set up under the chairmanship o f Sir

for which he was awarded the N obel Prize for Physics in

William Bragg (1862-1942) during-the first International

1901.

He discovered their ability to penetrate human tissue

Congress o f Radiology held at London in 1925. The International Committee on Radiological Protection was

and leave an image on a photographic plate quite acciden­

formed in Stockholm in 1928. See radiation injury.

tally. His wife placed her hand between the tube and a photographic plate leaving the first such image. It was found

X -R ay Spectroscopy Developed by Swedish physicist, Karl

that the rays could penetrate many substances. Progress on

Manne Georg Siegbahn (1886-1978), who was director o f

the nature o f X-rays was made by Charles Glover Barckla

the Nobel Institute for Physics at Stockholm. He produced

(1877—1 944), professor o f physics at K ing’s College in Lon­

X-rays o f various wavelength and penetrating power and

don, who established their wavelength. A diagnostic X-ray

was awarded the N obel Prize for Physics in 1924. In the

775

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

X A NTH INE

same year he showed that they could be refracted by a prism in the same way as light.

Xanthine

[Greek: xanthos, yellow] Naturally occurring

nucleotide discovered in 18 17 by Alexander John Gaspard Marcet (1770—18 22),a physician and chemist from Geneva.

X anthom atosis [Greek: xanthos, yellow] See Niemann—Pick disease.

X en ocrates o f C halcedon (395-314 B C ) Philosopher and a pupil o f Plato and contemporary o f Aristotle, who wrote on natural phenomena, philosophy and astronomy. He taught at Athens and proposed the concept o f mind, body and soul.

X en on [Greek: xenos, stranger] Inert gas discovered by Sir William Ramsay (1852—1916) and M orris William Travers (1872—1961) in 1898. Surgical anesthesia using 80% xenon and 20% oxygen was produced by S.C. Cullen and E.G. Gross in 1951. X enon in metallic form was obtained by Arthur L. R u o ff o f Cornell University in 1979.

X en oph anes o f C olop h on (530 B C ) Greek philosopher who was exiled from Ionia after the Persian conquest. He considered the Earth to be fundamental material and made observations on fossils, speculating that the Earth must have been inundated. Xenopsylla cheopis Genus o f fleas some o f which were shown to be plague vectors by Masanori Ogata (1852-1919) in 1897.

X eroderm a P ig m en to su m

[Greek: xeros, dry + derma,

skin] Rare inherited disease characterized by hypersensitiv­ ity to ultraviolet light and skin cancer. Described by Hungarian dermatologist M oritz Kaposi (1837-1902) in 1874. The m etabolic defect leading to a deficiency in repair mechanisms to D N A in sunlight was demonstrated b yJ.E . Cleaver in 1968.

X erophthalm ia See vitamin A. X erostom ia [Greek: xeros, dry + stoma, mouth] See Sjögrens syndrome.

X O Syndrom e See Turner syndrome. X X Y Syndrom e See Klinefelter syndrome. X ylocaine See lignocaine. X ylose E xcretion Test Measure o f renal function devised by Ella S. Fishberg and Friedfeld in 1932. -

X ylotherapy

[Greek: xylon, wood + therapia, to treat]

Obsolete form o f medical treatment where certain woods are applied to the body.

776

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

YELLOW

FEVER

it in the East Indies in 1722, and it was named Tramboesia’ (raspberry) by François Boissier de Sauvages (1706—1767) in

Y

1759. The causative organism. Treponema pertenue, was discovered by Marquis Aldo Castellani (1879-1971) in 1905.

Yearsley, James (1805—1869) First physician to practice otorhinology as a specialty in London. He pointed out that deafness may arise from diseases o f the nose and throat and developed the artificial tympanum. The Metropolitan Ear and Throat Hospital at Fitzroy Square was founded

Yale University

by him in 1838. He was an originator o f the Medical

Third oldest university in America,

Directory in 1845.

originated from the Collegiate School o f America estab­ lished at Saybrook, Connecticut with a donation from

Yeast The role o f yeast as a live microorganism in fermenta­

English administrator, Elihu Yale (16 4 9-1721) in 1701 .Yale

tion was shown by Charles Cagniard de Latour (1777-1859)

was born in Boston, Massachusetts and educated in London

o f Paris in 1838. Louis Pasteprs (1822—1895) work on fer­

from 1652. He worked for the East India Company and was

mentation commenced around 1855 put an end to the

governor o f Madras in 1687. His donation for the college

theory o f spontaneous generation. German wine merchant

was realized through sale o f his effects in America. The

and chemist, M oritz Traube (1826-1894) o f Rabitor,

Collegiate School was namedYale College in his honor in

proposed the concept o f an enzyme within yeast in 1858.

1718 and expanded into Yale University in 1887.

Eduard Buchner (1860—1917), professor o f chemistry at

Yalow, Rosalyn née Sussman (b 1921) American biophysicist

Berlin and N obel Prize winner, extracted zymase from

and the first woman to graduate in physics from Hunter C ol­

yeast and demonstrated that fermentation o f sugar could be

lege, N ew York in 1941. She collaborated with Solomon

effected with it in the absence o f living yeast cells in 1897.

Berson (1918-1972) in research on diabetes which led to her

Yeki Japanese name for bubonic plague.

development o f radioimmunoassay (RIA) for measuring minute amounts o f biologically active substances, such as

Yelloly, John (1774-1842) Born in Alnwick, graduated from

hormones and enzymes in blood,in the 1950s. She shared the

Edinburgh University (1796) and was physician to the

N obel Prize for her work on R IA in 1977. She has used her

London Hospital in 1807. He moved to N orwich in 1818

method to investigate insulin, leukemia, neurotransmitters

and became physician to the N orwich Hospital in 1820. He

and peptic ulcers. See insulin antibodies.

founded the R oyal M edico-Chirugical Society o f London with John Gaspard Marcet (1770-1822) in 1805. See Royal

Yam agiva, Katsulsaburo (1863—1930) See carcinogenesis. Yang and Y in

Society o f Medicine.

In Chinese cosmology, the two forces o f

Yellow A trophy See acute yellow atrophy.

nature controlling everything. The feminine, passive and warm, yin determines the outcome by its combination with

Yellow E n zy m e Seeflavoprotein.

the cold, moist yang.The principle orTao (the way) controls

Yellow Fever Vaccine The live virus was attenuated in 1939

the proportion o f yin and yang in everything including health. See acupuncture.

by M axTheiler (1899—1972), a South African-born Am eri­ can virologist. Theilers work led to the discovery o f 17D

Yard The word in ancient times denoted the distance from

vaccine for yellow fever for which he was awarded the

the tip o f the nose to the end o f the fingers when the right

N obel Prize in 1951.

arm was outstretched. The modern yard is defined on the

Yellow Fever

basis o f the length o f a pendulum with a period o f one

Reported in the Antilles by Father J.B .

Dutertre in 1635.A n epidemic occurred in Spain in 1700 at Cadiz and in Lisbon in 17 2 3.The most virulent epidemic

second at Greenwich, in England, placed by R oyal decree in 1824.

was in the i8th century in America, involving 132 towns

Yaws [Caribbean Indian name for the disease] The first refer­

where 16,000 people died. One o f the first investigators

ence to it in Europe under the name ‘bubas’ was made by

in America was by Baltimore physician, Nathan Potter

Gonchio Fernandez de Ovideo y Valdes (1478-1557) who

(1770-1843). He repeatedly inoculated himself with body

observed it on St Domingo in 1525. It was described in

secretions taken from patients with yellow fever in 1797,

Brazil by Willem Piso (16 11-16 78 ) in 1648 and by Jacobins

but failed to contract it. Italian physician, Eusebius

Bontius (1592—1631) in the East Indies. Peter Labat described

Valli

777

(1762—1816)

from

Pistroia,

died

during

self

YEO

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

TREATMENT

Yorke, Warrington (1883-1943) British parasitologist at the

experimentation in Havana. Louis Daniel Beauperthuy (1803—1871) from the West Indies v^ho graduated in medi­

Liverpool School ofTropical Medicine. He experimented

cine from Paris, investigated virulent outbreaks inVenezuela and the West Indies, and pointed out the relationship with

with Bayer 205 on a patient with Trypanosoma rhodesiense in 19 21.

mosquitoes. Aedes aegypti mosquito was suggested to be the

Young, Hugh Hampton (1870—1945) American urologist.

carrier by Carlos Finlay (1833—1915) o f Cuba in 1881.Walter R eed

See prostatectomy.

(1851—1902), an American army surgeon from

Virginia, headed a Medical Commission in Cuba in 1898 to

Young, John Richardson (1782—1804) See saliva.

study it with his associates James Caroll (1854—1907),

Young, John Zachary (b.1907) English zoologist appointed

Aristede Agramonte (18 68 -1931), and Jesse William Lazear (1866-1900). Lazier deliberately allowed himself to be

as the first non-medical anatomy professor in Britain, at

bitten and died. R e ed s work was subsequently responsible

University College, London in 1945. He was born in Bristol

for the eradication o f yellow fever in Cuba. William Cedric

and studied zoology at Oxford and Naples. He studied

Gorgas (1854—1920), an American army surgeon from

the large nerve fiber o f the squid which proved useful in

Mobile, Alabama investigated the spread o f yellow fever in

neurophysiology research.

Havana in 1898. He improved sanitation which resulted in

Young O peration Used for correction o f hammer-toe and

virtual eradication o f malaria and yellow fever from

claw-toe. Devised by American surgeon, Charles Stephen

Havana. In 1919 Hideyo N oguchi (1876—1928) isolated a

Young (b 1892) o f Los Angeles in 1938.

virus which he thought was responsible and in 1926 M ax

Young, R obert Bruce (1883-1927) Anatomist who qualified

Theiler (1899-1972) developed a vaccine.lt was the first

from Glasgow in 1883. He studied the knee joint and des­

human disease to be identified as caused by a virus.

cribed the trapezometacarpel ligament (Young ligament)

Yeo Treatm ent Used for obesity by giving large amounts o f

between the 3rd and 4th metacarpals and the trapezium.

hot drinks and withholding carbohydrates. Formulated by

Young, Thomas (1773-1829) Quaker physicist and physi­

London physician, Isaac Burney Yeo (1835-1914).

cian, born in Milverton, Somerset and studied medicine in

Yerkes Scale Used for testing intelligence. Devised by Amer­

London, Edinburgh and Gottingen before qualifying in

ican psychologist, R obert MearnsYerkes (b 1876) in 1918.

1800. He was physician to St George’s Hospital in 18 11 and

Yersin, Alexandre Emile John (1863—1943) Swiss-born French

held the post until his death. He demonstrated the

bacteriologist who worked at the Pasteur Institute at Paris

mechanism o f accommodation o f the lens in vision in 1792.

and isolated the bubonic plague bacillus. Yersiniapestis,from

He is considered to be one o f the great men o f science and his

humans in H ong Kong at the same time as Baron Shiba-

contributions include: classification o f diseases in his Introduc­

saburo Kitasato (1852-19 31) in 1894. He developed an

tion to Medical Literature in 1813; an essay on consumption in

antiserum for plague and established two Pasteur Institutes

1815; discovery o f the wave theory o f light in 1802; physical

in China. He also introduced the rubber tree into China.

concepts o f energy and work; theory o f capillary attraction in 1804; and Young modulus o f elasticity. He was also an

Y in andYang See yang and yin.

Egyptologist and deciphered some hieroglyphics.

Yoga [Sanskrit: yoking] Hindu discipline to train the uncon­ scious to achieve spiritual insight. Founded by Patanjali, an

Younge, William (1762-1838) See Sheffield Royal Infirmary.

Indian philosopher in the third century AD. His four books

Y ttrium

on Yoga sutra deal with mental discipline to bring about

R are metal found in a quarry at a town called

Ytterby by Swedish physical chemist Svante August

freedom w ith oneself. A system o f exercises, hatha yoga,

Arrhenius (1859—1927) who named it. See pituitary ablation.

were developed to promote this state o f being.

Yudin, Sergey Sergeevich (b 1891) See blood bank.

Yonge, James (16 4 7-1721) Naval surgeon from Plymouth

Yule, George Udny (1871—1951) British pioneer in modern

who described the use o f turpentine to arrest hemorrhage.

statistics. He was a lecturer at University College and

He improved the method o f flap operation in amputation.

York R etreat

Cambridge University and wrote Introduction to Theory of

Founded by British philanthropist and

Statistics in 19 11.

reformer o f the care o f the insane, William Tuke ( i 7 3 2 - i 8 2 2 ) . A classic account o f moral therapy given at the

Y vonT est Detects acetanilide in urine with chloroform and

Retreat atYork, Description of the Retreat was published by his

mercurous nitrate as reagents. Devised by French physician,

grandson, Samuel Tuke (1784—1857).

PaulYvon (1848—1913).

778

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ZIEGLER

Z eem an Effect

Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman (1865-

1943) demonstrated the splitting o f spectral lines into two or three components by observing a sodium or lithium

Z

flame in a strong magnetic field in 1896.The theory behind the phenomenon was later elucidated by his teacher, HendrikAntoon Lorentz (1853-1928).

Z eis Glands Sebaceous glands in the eyelids, described by a professor o f surgery at Marburg, Eduard Zeis (1807-1868) in 1835.

Zacchias, Paolo (1584—1659) Physician to Pope Innocent X

Zeiss, Carl (1816—1888) Pioneer in the development o f micro­

at Rom e. He wrote on medical jurisprudence, injuries to

scopes and lenses. He was born in Weimar, Germany and

the eye, insanity and other medical subjects.

opened his firm for making optical instruments at Jena in

Zacharias, Jansen Dutch spectacle maker from Middelburg

i846.Ernest Abbe, a physicist and a partner o f Zeiss, helped

in Holland in the i6th century, who developed the first

to modernize and produce the microscope on a commer­

compound microscope in 1590 consisting o f a double

cial scale. Their company made the first ground spherical

convex lens object piece and a concave eye piece.

contact lenses for Sulzer in 1892 and in 1936 they started making contact lenses from individual casts o f the eyes.

Zacutus, Lucitanus (1575-1642) Portuguese physician o f Jewish origin who practiced at Lisbon for 20 years and

Zeller O peration Used in the treatment o f webbed fingers.

had to leave the city due to a decree against Jews issued by

Devised by Viennese surgeon, Simon Zeller (1746—1816) in

Phillip II. He lived in Amsterdam before his death and

1810.

wrote several medical treatises.

Zend-Avesta Ancient sacred books o f the Parsees, only 3

Zaglas Ligam ent [ L a t i n : b a n d a g e ] Extends from

out o f 2 1 are extant.

the posterior superior iliac spine to the second piece o f

Zenker D egeneration Necrosis and hyaline degeneration

the sacrum. Named after John Zaglas, an assistant to John

o f striated muscle. Described by Friedrich Albert Zenker

Goodsir at Edinburgh from 1851 to 1853.

(1825-1898), German professor o f pathological anatomy at

Zahn Lines Corrugations on the free surface o f a thrombus

Leipzig (1855) and Erlangen (1862).

formed by the projecting edges o f the lamellae o f blood

Zenker D iverticulum Diverticulum o f the upper esopha­

platelets. Described by German pathologist, Friedrich

gus, common in elderly males. Described by German

Wilhelm Zahn (1845-1904).

professor o f pathological anatomy, Friedrich Albert Zenker

Z am beccari, Guiseppe (16 55-17 21) See spleen.

(1825-1898) at Leipzig.

Zander Apparatus Machine to give physiotherapy and apply manipulation

to

the

body.

Designed

in

1886

Z en o o f C itium (362-264 B C ) Cypriot founder o f the

by

Stoic sect. He committed suicide by strangling. See Stoics.

Swedish physician,Jonas GustavWilhehn Zander (1835-1920).

Zerfas, Leon Grotius (b 1897) See amytal sodium.

Z a n g Space Area between the two tendons o f the origin o f the sternomastoid in the supraclavicular fossa. Described by German professor o f clinical surgery at Wurzburg,

Zernike, Frits (1888-1966) Dutch physicist who invented the phase contrast technique in 1935, for which he was awarded the N obel Prize for Physics in 1953.

Christoph Bonifacius Zang (1772-1835) in 1813.

Z angem eister M aneuvre Used during face presentation

Zero [Arabic: cipher, zero] Symbol used in India in 876 B C

in delivery and described by German gynecologist,William Zangemeister (b 1871).

and the goose egg sign for zero appeared in Cambodia and

Zanichelli, John Jerome (1662-1729) Italian physician and

Z eugm atography Method o f coupling two fields to an

Sumatra in A D 680.

natural philosopher, born in Modena. He studied fossils and

object to produce a magnetic resonance image in radiology.

shells and published several treatises on a variety o f subjects.

Described and named in 1973 by Paul Lauterbur, professor at the University o f Illinois, Chicago.

Zannoni, James (d 1682) Italian physician and botanist from Bologna who discovered several plants and wrote Historia

Ziegler,

Botanica (1675).

Alexander

Obstetrician

at

Edinburgh

who

practiced with his son,William Ziegler. He invented (1830)

779

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ZIEGLER

obstetric forceps in which the Smellie lock was replaced by

200 persons who ate apples stewed on a galvanized plate

splitting the shank o f one o f the shoulder blades to allow

were affected. It was estimated that each affected person had

passage for the other blade.

consumed a zinc equivalent to 20 grains o f zinc sulfate.

Ziegler, Ernst (1849—1905) Professor o f pathological anato­

Z in c P rotam ine Insulin See insulin.

my at Zurich (1881) and Tübingen (1882). He founded

Zinder, N orton David (b 1928) American geneticist from

Beitrage zur pathologischen Anatomie while he was professor

N ew York who studied at Columbia University and

o f pathology at Freiberg in 1886. He published an important

Wisconsin. He was professor o f genetics at Rockefeller

work on pathological anatomy in 1881.

University. He studied mutants o f Salmonella and described

Z iegler Forceps See Ziegler,Alexander. Z iegler O peration

bacterial transduction via a phage. See genetic engineering.

V-shaped iridectomy for creating

Zinjanthropus Hominid fossil skull nearly 1.75 million years

artificial pupils. Designed by an ophthalmologist from

old was found in Tanzania by the English archeologist, M ary

Philadelphia, Samuel Louis Ziegler (1861—1926).

Douglas Leakey (b 1913) in 1959. It was initially named Zinjanthropus, but was later reclassified as Australopithecus.

Z iehl, Franz (1857—1926) See acidfa st bacteria. Z iehl—N eelsen Stain See acidfa st bacteria.

Zinke, George Gottfried See rabies.

Z iem ssen Treatm ent Treatment for anemia using subcuta­

Zinn, Johann Gottfried (1727—1759) Professor o f medicine

neous injections o f defibrinated human blood. Advocated

and director o f the botanical gardens at Göttingen. He

by Munich physician, Hugo Wilhelm von Ziemssen

described the annulus tendineus for the origin o f ocular

(1829-1902).

muscles (Zinn ligament) in 1755.

Z inn Artery

Zieve Syndrom e Jaundice, hyperlipidemia, fatty fiver and

Central artery o f the retina described by

hemolytic anemia related to alcohol intake. Described by

German anatomist,Johann Gottfried Zinn (1727—1759).He

American physician,Leslie Zieve (b 1915) in 1958.

completed an anatomical study o f the eye in 1755.

Z im m erm an , Eberhard Augustus William von (1743-1815)

Zinsser, Hans (1878—1940) American bacteriologist and

German naturalist who studied at Göttingen and Leiden.

immunologist and graduate o f Columbia University (1901)

He published Geographical History o f Man and Quadrupeds

who was head o f the department o f immunology at

and other works related to politics.

Harvard in 1923. He worked on allergy, virus size, typhus

Z im m erm an ,

Gustav

Heinrich

Eduard

and causes o f rheumatic fever. He differentiated epidemic

(1817-1866)

from endemic rickettsial typhus. He wrote Rats, Lice and

Graduate o f the Medico-surgical Academy at Berlin who

History on typhus fever in 1935.

described blood platelets (1855) previously observed by Bizzozero in 1852.

Z ittm ann D ec o ctio n A preparation o f sarsaparilla root

Z im m erm an n , John George (1728—1795) Swiss physician,

introduced into Europe in the first half o f the 17th century

born at B rug in Bern. He studied under Albrecht von HaUer

and a popular treatment for chronic syphilis for nearly two

(1708—1777) at Göttingen. He wrote a physiological

centuries.

dissertation on irritability, an essay on solitude, a treatise on

Z oll, Paul Maurice (b 19 11) See ventricularfibrillation.

dysentery (1767) and other works.

Z ollinger—Ellison Syndrom e Recurrent peptic ulcera­ Z inc Element discovered and extracted by Indians in the

tion associated with non-insulin secreting islet cell tumors

14th century. The name ‘zinkum’ was used by Paracelsus

o f the pancreas. Described by two American surgeons at the

(1493—1541). Zinc salts have mild antiseptic and astringent

Ohio

properties and are used in various medical lotions and

(1903—1992) and Edwin Hom er Ellison (1918—1970) in

applications. See spelter, zincalism.

State

University,

R obert

M ilton

Zollinger

1955.They later presented a collection o f 75 such cases at the proceedings o f the World Congress o f Gastroenterology at

Z in c C arbon Cell Forerunner o f the dry cell and battery, invented by French chemist, Georges Leclanche (1839— 1882) in 1868.

Washington in 1958.

Z öllner Lines A set o f peculiarly arranged fines for testing the eye designed by Dutch physicist,Johann Karl Friedrich

Z incalism R are condition with fever, chills, headache and

Zöllner (1834-1882).

vomiting. An outbreak occurred in Surrey in 1922 where

780

Dictionary o f the History o f Medicine

ZYMASE

Touch,Tickle and Pain, 2. tw o -v o lu m e autobiography.

Z on a Pellucida [Greek: zona, girdle; Latin: pelluceo, shine through] Clear zone surrounding the ovum described and

Z sigm ondy, Richard A d olf (1865-1929) Austrian chemist

named for its transparent nature by Carl Ernst von Baer

and inventor o f ultramicroscope. He was also a pioneer in

(1792-1876) in 1827.

the study o f colloidal solutions. His findings were used by

Z on a R adiata [Greek: zona, girdle; Latin: radius, ray] Part o f

Carl Lange (1883—1953) to develop the Lange coUoidal gold

the mammalian ovum described in 1884 by Theodor

test for cerebrospinal fluid in 1912. Zsigmondy received the

Ludwig W ilhelm

N obel Prize for coUoidal chemistry in 1925.

Bischoff (1807—1882), professor o f

anatomy and embryologist at Heidelberg.

Zuckerkandl Fascia Retrorenal fascia described in 1883 by Hungarian-born anatomist Emil Zuckerkandl (1849—

Z on dek, Bernhard (1891—1966) Israeli gynecologist and

1910), professor o f anatomy at Graz and later atVienna.

endocrinologist, born in Germany who graduated from Berlin Charite and Berlin-Spandau Hospitals. He designed

Z uckerm an, SoUy, Baron (1904-1993) South African-born

the first reliable pregnancy test w ith Selm ar Aschheim

British zoologist, joined Oxford University as a tutor in

(1878—1965) in 1928.They also discovered the gonadotro­

1932, and was made professor o f anatomy at Birmingham in

phins. He left Germany due to Nazi persecution and was

1946. He was a pioneer in the study o f origin o f human

professor o f obstetrics and. gynecology at the Hebrew

behavior in animals and wrote The Social Life of Monkeys and

University Hadassah Medical School at Jerusalem from 1934

Apes in 1932.

to 1961.

Zuelzer, Georg Ludwig (1870—1949) German research Z oogeograp hy Study o f distribution o f animals across the

chemist at Berlin. While he was internist in Berlin in 1906

world.The first map was published by a German naturalist,

he gave the first subcutaneous injection o f the pancreatic

Eberhard Augustus William von Zimmerman (1743-1815)

extract to a 50-year-old diabetic patient and produced a

in 1777.

temporary recovery. After publishing his results in 1908, he

Z o o lo g y [Greek: zoon, animal + logos, discourse] Aristotle

took out a patent on his ‘Pancreas preparation suitable for

(384—322 B C ) can be considered the first zoologist due to

the treatment o f diabetes’ in 1912. However his product was

his study o f various animals. Galen (AD 129—200) dissected

abandoned due to convulsions after its administration

apes and pigs and based his knowledge o f anatomy and

which, at that time, were not recognized to be due to

physiology on these dissections. John R a y (1628-1705) an

hypoglycemia.

English biologist from Essex, attempted to classify the plant

Zw inger, James (d 1610) Swiss physician born in Basel who

and animal kingdoms. Zoology became an established

compiled a new edition o f his father’s Theatre of Human Life

science during the i8th century and several chairs were

around 1600. His son Theodore Zw inger (d 1696) was also

created.

an eminent physician who published several treatises on medicine and philosophy.

Z oon osis [Greek: zoon, animal + nosos, disease] A disease o f an animal which can be transmitted to man. See parasitology.

Z w inger, Theodore (1536—1588) B orn in Bishofftzel in

and

Turgau and became professor o f medicine and philosophy

pro-phet o f Persia, who proposed the doctrine o f good or

in his home town in 1563. He wrote Theatre o f Human Life in

Zoroaster

(628-551

BC)

Physician, philosopher

Ormazd, and evil or Ahrim an.The Zendevesta on good and

1556 which was enlarged by his son James and published

evil is based on his philosophy.

around 1600.

Z ygote [Greek: zygotos, yolked together] Fertilized ovum.

Z oster See herpes zoster.

Seefertilization.

Z otterm an , Yvunge (1898—1982) Swedish neurophysiolo­ Z ym ase [Greek: zyme, leaven] Enzyme extracted from yeast

gist, educated at the Karolinska Institute and the University

by Eduard Buchner (i860—1917) in 1897.

o f Uppsala. H e was attached to the Swedish R oyal N avy and spent time each year after his national service in researching problems o f deep sea diving. He worked at Cambridge with Edward Douglas Adrian (1889—1977) on recording and analyzing nerve impulses and continued this research on his return to Sweden in 1927. He examined the thermal and pain sensations o f the skin and taste. He wrote

781