A Dictionary of popes [2 ed.] 9780192820853, 0192820850, 9780199295814, 0199295816

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OXFORD PAPERBACK REFERENCE

THE OXFORD DICTIONARY OF

POPES N. D. Kelly is a distinguished Church historian and former Principal of St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He is a Canon of Chichester Cathedral and a Fellow of the British Academy; since 1966 he has been a member of the Academic Council of the Ecumenical Theological Institute, Jerusalem. His publications include Early Christian Creeds, Early Christian Doctrines, The Epistles of Peter and of Jude, and

J.

Jerome.

The Oxford Dictionary of

Popes J.

N. D.

Oxford

KELLY

New York

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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British Library

Cataloguing in Publication Data

Kelly, J. N. D. The Oxford dictionary of popes. 1 Papacy History

—

.

I.

Title

262'. 1 3' og

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ISBN 0-1 g-282085-0 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Data available Set by

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To

Queen

s College,

and

Oxford, St

Edmund Hall,

Chichester Cathedral,

with gratitude

and affection

Oxford,

PREFACE This book has been written conscious for a great

to

fill

mid-thirties when, as part of

a gap of which

I

have been increasingly

My interest in the papacy came alive in the

many years.

my

first

piece of academic research,

I

began

Rome. It steadily grew as the years went by, reaching a personal high point in March 1 966, when exploring the obscure emergence of one-man episcopacy at

accompanied the archbishop of Canterbury (Michael Ramsey) on his Pope Paul VI. Throughout this whole span I have been disconcerted by the fact that, while there are full-dress biographies of a number of popes (fewer in fact than one would expect) and massive surveys of the papacy at particular epochs, it is almost impossible to come across a one -volume handbook in English containing systematic, concise accounts of all those who have been, or claimed to be, popes. There seems to be a real need for such a papal Who's Who, not least in view of the extraordinary popular attention the papacy has increasingly attracted since at any rate the election of Pope John XXIII; and I therefore decided, perhaps rashly, to I

historic visit to

attempt to supply one.

My aim has been to provide summary biographies not only of the officially recognized popes but also classified, rightly or

(a

I believe) of those who have been The list of pontiffs and, with minor

novel feature,

wrongly, as antipopes.

discrepancies, the dating of their reigns are in general agreement with the I have endeavoured, where information is of each pope's family background and pre-papal

1984 edition ofAnnuarioPontificio. available, to include details

career as well as of his activities in office. Each entry

is

furnished with a

minimum, normally includes specialized and more general

bibliography which, while necessarily cut to the references to primary sources as well as to studies.

My

original plan

was

to arrange the popes, as

is

the habit of

dictionary-makers, alphabetically, but the arguments of friends persuaded that a chronological order

would be more

me

helpful, enabling readers to view

each pope in his historical context; at the same time, the alphabetical list of popes and antipopes at the beginning makes quick reference to an individual just as easy. I

should

inevitable,

like to think that the

may prove

work, despite the high degree of compression

useful to scholars as well as general readers. Covering

such a vast field, it cannot lay claim to much originality, although I hope I have thrown fresh light on a few popes and presented some others in perhaps novel perspectives; my consistent object has been to portray them all with cool but not unsympathetic detachment. My reading over the past few years has been voluminous, multifarious, and exhilarating; while I could not mention all the scholars to whom I have been indebted, I must make an exception of Franz

Xaver Seppelt, whose five-volume Geschichte der Pdpste is surely the best informed and most balanced of papal histories. I owe heartfelt thanks to many friends, in Oxford and elsewhere, who have helped me (often unwittingly) either with encouragement or with the solution of problems which puzzled me. I have enjoyed working with the Oxford University Press for the first time, and am particularly grateful to my sympathetic and cooperative editor, Nicholas Wilson, and to my eagle-eyed and healthily sceptical copy-editor, Ena Sheen. The book is dedicated to three corporate institutions to which I have belonged for most of my life and which have contributed greatly to my happiness. All Saints, 1985.

J.

N. D. K.

CONTENTS Abbreviations

Note

to the

Reader

x xiv

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF POPES AND ANTIPOPES

I

THE POPES

5

Appendix: Pope Joan

329

Index

331

ABBREVIATIONS AAB

Abhandlungen der deutschen

1944) Akademie der Wis-

(preussischen to

senschaften (Berlin)

AAM ACO

Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Munich) Acta apostolicae sedis (Rome, 1909- ) Acta Sanctorum (Antwerp, 1643 ff«J Venice, 1734 ff.; Paris, 1863 ff.) Acta conciliorum oecumenicorum (ed. E. Schwartz, Berlin, 191 4 ff.)

ADRomana

Archrvio della Deputazione

AFrH

Archivum Franciscanum Historicum (Florence) Archiv fur Literatur- und Kirchengeschichte des

AAS AASS

ALKGMA

Romana

(Rome)

di Storia Patria

Mittelalters (Freiburg

i.Br.)

AnB

Analecta Bollandiana (Paris and Brussels)

AnGreg

Analecta Gregoriana (Rome)

ASRomana

Archrvio della Reale Societd

ASS

Acta sanctae

As tit

Archrvio storico Italiano (Florence)

Baluze-Mollat

S. Baluzius, Vitae paparumAvenionensium (ed.

Bertolini

O.

sedis

(Rome,

1

Romana

di Storia Patria

(Rome)

865-1 908)

G. Mollat,

Paris, 1914)

Roma difronte a Bisanzio e ai Langobardi (Bologna, 1 943) Roma e Vimpero medioevale 774-1252 (Bologna, 1947)

Bertolini,

Brezzi

P. Brezzi,

BSS

Bibliotheca

BullCang

Bulletin du

Sanctorum (Rome, 1961-70) Cange (Brussels)

BullInstHistRes

Bulletin of the Institute ofHistorical Research (Malta)

BullJRL

Bulletin of the John Rylands Library (Manchester)

Bullliteccl

Bulletin de litterature ecclesiastique (Toulouse)

BullRom

Magnum

bullarium

Romanum: Leo

X

to

Benedict XIII (Rome,

1733-62)

Romani

BullRomCon

Bullarii

BVM

Blessed Virgin

BZ

Byzantinische Zeitschrift (Leipzig)

Caspar

E. Caspar, Geschichte des Papstums von den Anfdngen

continuatio

(Rome, 1835-57; Prato, 1840-56)

Mary bis

zur Hohe der

Weltherrschaft (Tubingen,

CCL CE ChHist

CHJ

CHR CSEL

DA DACL

1930-3) Corpus Christianorum, series Latina (Turnhout, 1953- ) Catholic Engclopedia (New York, 1907-14) Church History (Philadelphia) Cambridge Historical Journal (Cambridge) Catholic Historical Review (Washington) Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum (Vienna, 1 866- ) Deutsches Archiv fur Erforschung des Mittelalters (Cologne and Graz) Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne

et

de liturgie (Paris)

DBI

Dizionario biografico degli Italiani (Rome, i960-

DCB

Dictionary of Christian Biography (London, 1877-87) Dictionnaire d 'histoire et de geographie ecclesiastiques (Paris,

DHGE DNB

Dictionary of National Biography'(London,

1

)

865-1 900)

DSp

Dictionnaire de spiritualite (Paris,

DTC

Dictionnaire de theologie catholique (Paris, 1903-50)

EB

Encyclopaedia Britannica

1937-

)

1

9 1 2-

)

ABBREVIATIONS EC EHR

Encidopedia

ELit

Ephemerides liturgicae (Rome)

ET FD

English translation

FM

A. Fliche and V. Martin, Histoire de I 'eglise depuis

cattolica

(Vatican City, 1949-54)

English Historical Review (London)

F. Dolger, Regesten der Kaiserurkunden dcs ostromischen Reiches von

565-1453 (Munich and jours (Paris, 1935

Grumel

V. Grumel, Les

Berlin,

1924-65) les

origines jusqu

'a

nos

ff.)

regestes des actes

du patriarcat de Constantinople (Kadikoi

JR

and Bucharest, 1932 ff.) J. Haller, Das Papstum (Stuttgart, 1948-54) Historisches jfahrbuch (Cologne and Munich) Harvard Theological Review (Cambridge, Mass.) Historische Zeitschrift (Munich) Journal ofEcclesiastical History (London) J. Richards, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages (London,

JRS JTS

1979) Journal ofRoman Studies (London) Journal of Theological Studies (Oxford)

JW

P. Jaffe, Regesta pontificum

Haller

HJ HTR

HZ JEH

Romanorum ah condita ecclesia ad annum post

Christum natum MCXCVIII, 2nd edn. by G. Wattenbach (Leipzig, 1885-8; photo-repr. Graz, 1956)

Lowenfeld

S.

Lowenfeld, Epistolae pontificum Romanorum

ineditae

(Leipzig,

1885)

LP

Liber Pontificalis (ed. L. Duchesne, Paris, 1886-92).

papal biographies from St Peter to Pius first

II (d. 1

A

collection of

464), compiled in

its

redaction in the middle of the 6th cent, and extended by later

hands. While

much

earlier section,

is

of the material embodied, especially in the

apocryphal, the work

valuable sources, and while

it is

is

in the

often biased

it is

main based on

indispensable for

the history of the papacy.

LPDert

J P. .

March, Liber Pontificalis

completus ex codice Dertusensi (Barcelona,

1925)

LThK

Lexikonfur Theologie und Kirch e (2nd edn., Freiburg, 1957-65)

MA

Le Moy en-age (Paris and Brussels) H. K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes

Mann Mansi

MC MelArchHist

MG

in the Early Middle Ages (London, 1902-32) J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio (Florence and Venice, 1759-98) M. Creighton, A History ofthe Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack 0/ Rome (London, 1897)

Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire (Paris) Monumenta Germaniae historica (Berlin, 1826-

AA

Auctores antiquissimi

Cap

Capitularia

Const

Constitutiones

Ep

Epistolae

Epsaec XIII

Epistolae saeculi XIII

Epsel

Epistolae selectae

Leges

Leges

)

ABBREVIATIONS Liblit

SS

Libelli de lite

Scriptores

MIOG

Mitteilungen des Instituts fur osterreichische Geschichtsforschung (Graz

MiscHistPont

Miscellanea historiae pontificiae

and Cologne)

MS Muratori;

Muratori 2

(Rome)

Medieval Studies (Toronto) L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum (Milan, 1723-71; 2nd

ab anno 500 ad 1500

scriptores

ser. Citta di Castello,

1900-

)

NA

Xeues Archiv (Hanover)

NCE NDB NRT

New

NS

NT

New New

OChP

Orientalia Christiana Periodica

ODCC

F. L. Cross and E. A. Livingstone (eds.), The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2nd edn. Oxford, 1974)

OT

Old Testament

P

L. Pastor, The History ofthe Popes from the Close ofthe Middle Ages (ET,

der

Gesellschaft

deutsche

dltere

Geschichtskunde

(New York, 1 967)

Catholic Encyclopedia

Neue Deutsche Biographie

fur

(Berlin,

1953-

)

Nouvelle revue theologique (Tournai, Louvain, Paris) series

Testament

(Rome)

PLSupp

London, 1891-1953) Migne's Patrologia Graeca (Paris, 1857-66) Migne's Patrologia Latina (Paris, 1844-64) Suppletnentum to Migne's Patrologia Latina (Paris, 1958-74)

Potthast

A. Potthast, Regesta pontificum

PG PL

Romanorum ng8-ij04

(Berlin

and

Paris)

PRE

Realencyklopddie fur protestantische

Theologie

und Kirche (Leipzig,

1898-1908)

Academy (London)

ProceedBritA cad

Proceedings of the British

PW

A. Pauly, Real-Encyklopddie der classischenAltertumswissenschaft, ed. G.

QFGG

Quellen und Forschungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte (Paderborn)

QFIAB

Quellen und Forschungen aus Italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken

RAC

Reallexikon fur Antike

RaccCon

A. Mercati, Raccolta di Concordati (Rome, 1954)

RBen

RQ_

Revue Benedictine (Maredsous) Revue beige de philologie et d'histoire (Brussels) Revue internationale de theologie (Berne) Revue des questions historiques (Paris) Revue des sciences religieuses (Paris and Strasbourg) Revue historique (Paris) Revue d'histoire ecclesiastique (Louvain) Rbmische Quartalschrift fur christliche Altertumskunde und fur Kirch-

RSR

Recherches de science religieuse (Paris)

RSTI

Rivista di storia della chiesa in Italia

RTAM

Recherches de theologie ancienne

SAB

Sitzungsberichte der deutschen

Wissowa

et al.

(Stuttgart,

1893-

)

(Rome)

Revbelge

RevIntTheol

RevQuestHist

RevSR

RH RHE

und Christentum

(Stuttgart,

1950-

)

engeschichte (Freiburg i.B.)

Wissenschafien zu Berlin

HI

et

(Rome)

medievale (Louvain)

(preussischen

to

1944) Akademie der

ABBREVIATIONS

SAM

Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen

SBHeid

Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften

SC

Sources chretiennes (Paris,

Schmidlin

J.

Akademie der Wissenschaften (Munich)

1940-

)

Seppelt

Schmidlin, Papstgeschichte der neuesten Zeit (Munich, 1933-9) F. X. Seppelt, Geschichte der Papste (Munich, 1954-9)

ST

Studi e Testi (Rome)

StGreg Thiel

Studia Gregoriana (Rome)

TRE

Theologische Realenzyklopadie (Berlin

TV

Texte

A. Thiel, Epistolae Romanorum pontificum genuinae a S. Hilaro usque ad

Pelagium II (Brunswick, 1858)

VC

and New York, 1976- ) und Vntersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur (Leipzig and Berlin) Vigiliae Christianae (Amsterdam)

Watte rich

I.

M.

Watterich, Pontificum

adfinem

Zi

saeculi xiii Vitae

Romanorum

.

.

ah exeunte saeculo

.

ix

usque

ah aequalihus conscriptae (Leipzig, 1862)

H. Zimmermann, Paps tabs etzungen

des Mittelalters (Graz,

Vienna,

Cologne, 1968)

Z2

H. Zimmermann, Das dunkle Jahrhundert (Graz, Vienna, Cologne,

ZKG

Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte (Stuttgart)

ZKTh

Zeitschrift fur Katholische Theologie (Vienna)

ZNTW

Zeitschrift fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

ZPR

H. Zimmermann,

1971)

Papstregesten gi

1-1024

(

(Giessen and Berlin)

m J-

F.

Bohmer's Regesta

Imperii: Vienna, Cologne, Graz, 1969)

ZSavRGKan

Zeitschrift

der

Savigny-Stiftung fur

Abteilung (Weimar)

Rechtsgeschichte,

Kanonische

NOTE TO THE READER The dates given in brackets after the names of prelates, monarchs, or other personages generally refer to their tenure of office, but sometimes to their life-span, or to the year of their death; the context should make it clear which is intended.

The feast-days of popes considered saints are generally the traditional ones, but they have been adjusted where appropriate to conform to the changes introduced into the church's general calendar in 1969. Cross-references to another entry within the text are indicated by the use of small capitals. Asterisks refer the reader to the index; an explanation of the

word or phrase there in

asterisked will be found

on the page whose number

is

printed

italics.

As they have

their separate entries,

popes and antipopes appear only

exceptionally in the index, although their original names, or family

where these are known,

names

are listed there as a general rule.

The enumeration of general or ecumenical councils is that accepted in the Roman Catholic church; in the view of most other Christian communions there has been no general council since the schism between east and west, the

Second Council of Nicaea (787) being the

last.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF POPES AND ANTIPOPES (names of antipopes

Adeodatus Adeodatus

I,

see

II

Deusdedit

(672-6)

in italics;

69 76

Adrian, see Hadrian

Agapitus Agapitus

I

(535-6)

58 125

(946-55)

II

Agatho (678-81) Albert (or Adalbert)

(1

101)

Alexander I (c. log-c. 116) Alexander II (1061-73) Alexander III (1 159-81) Alexander IV (1254-61)

V { 1409- 10)

Alexander

Alexander VI (1 492-1 503) Alexander VII (1655-67) Alexander VIII (1689-91) Anacletus (c. 79-c.gi) Anacletus II

Anastasius

(1

130-8)

(399-401) Anastasius II (496-8) Anastasius III (91 1-13) Anastasius IV (1 153-4) I

Anastasius Bibliothecarius (855) Anicetus (c. 1 5 5-f. 1 66)

Anterus (235-6) Benedict Benedict Benedict Benedict Benedict Benedict Benedict Benedict Benedict

I

II

(575-9) (684-5)

III (855-8) IV (900-3)

V

(964)

VI (973-4) VII (974-83) VIII (1012-24) IX (1032-44; 1045; 1047-8) Benedict ( 1 058-9) Benedict XI (1303-4) Benedict XII (1334-42)

X

77 162

page numbers

in bold)

Benedict XV (1914-22) Boniface I (418-22) Boniface II (530-2) Boniface III (607) Boniface IV (608-15) Boniface V (619-25) Boniface VI (896)

*5 2

Boniface VII (974; 984-5) Boniface VIII (1 294-1303)

176

Boniface IX

8

(1

389-1 404)

236 252 283 288 7

Callistus

I

Callistus

II (1 1

(217-22)

69 69

"5 130

208 230

Callistus (III)

13

19-24) (1168-78)

Callistus III (1455-8)

164 179 245 4i

169 36

Celestine

49 120

Celestine

II (1

Celestine

III

173 106

Celestine IV (1241) Celestine V (1294)

206

10

Christopher (903-4)

119

16

Clement Clement

64 79 105 117 128 130 131

139 142 150

210 217 232

I

(422-32)

Celestine (II) (11 24)

Clement

I

II

(1046-7) (1080;

167 170 184 191

(^.91-r. 101)

(III)

Clement Clement Clement Clement

143-4)

(11 9 1-8)

1

084-1 100)

111(1187-91) IV (1265-8)

7

145 156 183 196

V (1305-14) VI (1342-52) Clement (VII) (1378-94) Clement (VIII) (1423-9) Clement VII (1523-34) Clement VIII (1592-1605) Clement IX (1667-9) Clement X (1670-6) Clement XI (1700-21)

212 219 228 240 259 275 284 285 295 298 299

241

Benedict XIII (1724-30) Benedict XIV (1740-58)

293 296

Conon (686-7) Constantine (708-15)

3 94- 1 4 1 7)

57 68

Caius, see Gaius

Benedict (XIV) (1425-})

( 1

40

*93

Clement XII (1730-40) Clement XIII (1758-69) Clement XIV (1769-74)

Benedict (XIII)

3M

291

81

«5

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF POPES AND ANTIPOPES Constantine (767-8)

Gregory XVI (1831-46)

307 96 109 112

Dionysius (260-8)

69 22

Hadrian I (772-95) Hadrian II (867-72) Hadrian III (884-5) Hadrian IV (1 154-9) Hadrian V (1276) Hadrian VI (1522-3)

Dioscorus (530)

56

Hilarus (461-8)

Donus (676-8)

77

Hippolytus (217-35)

Cornelius (251-3)

93 17

Damasus Damasus

32

I

II

(366-84) (1048)

Deusdedit (later Adeodatus (615-18)

146 I)

Honorius

IOI

(625-38) Honorius (II) ( 1 06 1 -4) Honorius II (1 124-30) Honorius III (1216-27) Honorius IV (1285-7)

172 241

Hormisdas (514-23) Hyginus (c. 138-c. 1 42)

Eleutherius (or Eleutherus) (c

1

74-89)

11

Eugene I (654-7) Eugene II (824-7) Eugene III (1145-53) Eugene IV (1431-47) Eulalius (418-19)

Eusebius (3 1 0) Eutychian (275-83) Evaristus

(c. 1

00-c. 1 09)

Fabian (236-50) I (269-74) Felix // (355-°5) Felix III (II) (483-92) Felix IV (III) (526-30) Felix

Felix

V (1439-49)

Formosus (891-6) Gaius

(or Caius)

(283-96) (492-6) Gelasius II (1 1 18-19) Gelasius

I

Gregory I (590-604) Gregory II (715-31) Gregory III (731-41) Gregory IV (827-44) Gregory V (996-9)

75

39 26 23 8

16

23 3i

46 55 243 114

24

47 65

86 88 102 i34

Gregory (VI) (1012)

141

144 i54

Gregory (VIII) (11 18-21)

163 182

VIII

(1

187)

IX (1227-41)

189

X (1 271-6)

197 225 234 269 273 278

XI (1370-8) XII (1406-15) XIII (1572-85) XIV (1 590-1) XV (162 1-3)

I

(401-17)

130-43) Innocent (III) (1 179-80) Innocent III (11 98-1 2 16) Innocent IV (1243-54) Innocent V (1276) Innocent VI (1352-62) Innocent VII (1404-6) Innocent VIII (1484-92) Innocent IX (1591) Innocent X (1644-55) Innocent XI (1676-89) Innocent XII (1 691-1700) Innocent XIII (172 1-4) II (1

258 45 14

70 153 165 188

204 52 10

37 167 180 186 192 198 221

234 251 274 281 287 289 293

163

Gregory VI (1045-6) Gregory VII (1073-85) Gregory Gregory Gregory Gregory Gregory Gregory Gregory Gregory

Innocent Innocent

I

174 199

John I (523-6) John II (533-5) John III (561-74) John IV (640-2) John V (685-6) John VI (701-5) John VII (705-7) John (844) John VIII (872-82) John IX (898-900) John X (914-28) John XI (931-5/6) John XII (955-64) John XIII (965-72) John XIV (983-4) John XV (985-96) John XVI (997-8)

54 57 64 72 80 83

84 103

no 116 121 123

126 129 132 133 135

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF POPES AND ANTIPOPES John XVII (1003) John XVIII (1003-9) John XIX (1024-32) (John XX: no pope so

138 138

Nicholas I (858-67) Nicholas II (1058-61) Nicholas III (1277-80) Nicholas IV (1288-92)

141 styled held

Nicholas (10 (1328-30)

office]

John XXI (1276-7) John XXII (1316-34) John (XXIII) (1410-15) John XXIII (1958-63) John Paul I (1978) John Paul II (1978- ) (337-52) (1503-13) Julius III (1550-5)

Julius

I

Julius

II

Lando (913-14) Lawrence (498/9; 501-6)

Leo I (440-61) Leo II (682-3) Leo III (795-816) Leo IV (847-55) Leo V (903) Leo VI (928) Leo VII (936-9) Leo VIII (963-5) Leo IX (1049-54) LeoX(i5i3-2i) Leo XI (1605) Leo XII (1823-9) Leo XIII (1878-1903) Liberius (352-66)

Linus (c. 66-cjS) Lucius I (253-4) Lucius II (1 144-5) Lucius III (11 8 1-5)

Nicholas V (1447-55) Novatian (251-8)

200 214 237 320 3 25

Paschal (687) Paschal I (817-24)

326

Paschal

29

Paschal III

Paul Paul

255 262

52 43 78

123 127

I (c. 1

II

Pius VIII (1829-30) Pius IX (1846-78) Pius (1903-14)

X

19

Pius XI (1922-39) Pius XII (1939-58)

7I

Pontian (230-5)

180

Marcellus

Marinus Marinus

Mark

I

24 25

(1555) (882-4)

264

(942-6)

124 28

II

II

(336)

Martin I (649-53) Martin II, see Marinus I Martin III, see Marinus II Martin IV (128 1-5) Martin V (1417-31) Miltiades (or Melchiades) (311-14)

16

116

(897)

Sabinian (604-6) Sergius

(687-701) Sergius II (844-7) Sergius III (904-1 1) Sergius IV (1009-12) Severinus (640)

in

73

5

247 254 266 268 301 302 306 309 313 3i6 3i8

Pius VI (1775-99) Pius VII (1800-23)

6

265 277 322 62 65

10

42-^.15 5)

(1458-64)

III (1503) Pius IV (1559-65) Pius V (1566-72)

147

99 160

94

Pius

256 276 3°4 311 30

18

249

Philip (768)

Pius

244

261

II (579-90) Peter the Apostle (d. r.64)

Pius

205 216

178 92

Pelagius

97 I0 4 118 122

Romanus Marcellinus (296^304) Marcellus I (306-8)

164-8)

(757-67) II (1464-71)

I

Paul III (1534-49) Paul IV (1555-9) Paul V (1605-21) Paul VI (1963-78) Pelagius I (556-61)

121

I

{1

201

82

099-1 118)

II (1

107

I

Silverius (536-7) Silvester 1 (314-35)

68 82 103 119

'39 71

59 27

202

Silvester

II

(999-1003)

136

239

Silvester

III

(1045) (1 105-1

144 162

Silvester II

Simplicius (468-83)

26 3

1)

45

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF POPES AND ANTIPOPES

(1585-90)

42 250 271

166-c. 174)

11

Urban Urban Urban Urban Urban Urban Urban Urban

20

Ursinus (366-7)

34

Valentine (827)

102

Siricius (384-99)

35 85

Sisinnius (708) Sixtus I (c. 116-^.125) Sixtus

(257-8) Sixtus (or Xystus)

9 21

II

III

(432-40)

Sixtus IV (1471-84) Sixtus

Soter

V (c.

Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen

(254-7)

I

(II)

(752)

(752-7) (768-72) IV (V) (816-17) II (III)

III

(IV)

II

194 223 227

VII (1590) VIII (1623-44)

280

9i

95

Victor

I

99

Victor

II

148 157 170

(189-98)

"3 115 122

Victor IV (113$)

VIII (IX) (939-42) IX (X) (1057-8)

124

Telesphorus

Theodore

(c. 1

25-r. 136)

(642-9)

I

Theodore (687)

Theodore Theoderic

II

(1

(897)

100-1)

273

90

(VI) (885-91) VI (VII) (896-7) VII (VIII) (928-31)

V

15

158 181

(1362-70) VI (1378-89)

V

(1055-7) Victor III (1086-7)

Symmachus (498-514)

1

(222-30) (1088-99) 111(1185-7) IV (126 1-4) I

149 50 9 73 81

116 161

Victor IV

12

1

(1159-64)

Vigilius (537-55) Vitalian (657-72)

177 60 75

Xystus, see Sixtus

Zacharias (741-52) Zephyrinus (198/9-2 17) Zosimus (417-18)

\sAnnuario Pontificio (1984) notes, he should have been

Victor V,

89 12

38

but no account was taken of

the previous antipope so styled, perhaps because his resistance was short-lived and he spon-

taneouslv submitted.

THE POPES PETER, ST, APOSTLE through

papacy,

councils, has always traced title-deeds

to

(d.

successive its

unique

the

7

known support

and compassionate

tor the

more

policy.

COT-

NOVATI AN (antipope 251-8) was therefore difficult for was working energeti-

nelius's position

some

time. Novatian

cally

and

own

skilfully to get his

tide as

bishop recognized by the leading Christian centres, while in

Rome

a rigorist group of

clergy and laity refused to accept the overlenient

they judged him)

(as

Cornelius.

Cornelius was eventually able to overcome

when Cyprian of

these obstacles, especially

and came out on Carthage however,

that

annoyance,

felt

Dionysius his

side.

of Alexandria

It

Cyprian,

is

obliged to

significant,

Cornelius's

to

make

enquiries

great historical value, of the clergy of dif-

Roman church at When Emperor Gallus (251-3)

ferent grades serving the

the time.

June 252, Corwas arrested and banished to Cen-

restarted persecution in

nelius

now

tumcellae (Civitavecchia,

the port of

Rome), where he received a letter of warm congratulation from Cyprian; he died there following

in' the

The

June.

4th-cent.

Liberian Catalogue reports that he 'died

he was not

gloriously', but

at first

as a martyr in the strict sense

such in the 4th-cent. Depositio

as

listed

regarded

and was not

before reaching his decision. Cornelius was

martyrum.

greatly helped by Cyprian in winning over

Emperor Decius, recounted by LP, is borrowed from an apocryphal 5 th -cent, passion

the

rigorist

opposition

Rome, which

in

included some African confessors, and he

and has no

had Cyprian's full support when he finally Novatian excommunicated and his adherents. This he did in autumn 251 at a synod in Rome, attended by sixty bishops as well as other clergy, which also affirmed the

subsequently

policy, in line with Cyprian's decisions in

north

Africa,

of

readmitting

apostate

interred

supposed

His

trial

His body was

historical basis.

taken the

in

back

before

Rome and

to

of Lucina in the

crypt

cemetery of Callistus; the inscription on his tomb was the first papal epitaph to be in Latin. Feast (with St Cyprian) 16 Sept. Cyprian, Letters (esp. 44-55); Eusebius, Hist.

6,39, 156,46,3;

7, 2; Jerome,

Devir.

ill.

eccl.

66;LPi,

Christians after they had done appropriate

ccviii-ccix;

penance.

Cavaliere, 'La persecuzione di Gallo in Roma',

ironical that, after

It is

complaining about

Cyprian's hesitation in recognizing his elec-

summer

Cornelius should, in

tion,

have given a hearing

to the

252,

ST

4-6 (Liberian

33 (1920),

3,

57

f.

1

DCB, 689 f. (G. H. 891-4 (G. Bardy); LThK

8 1-2 10;

DHGE

iMoberley);

Cat.); 150-2; P. F. de'

13,

(G. Schwaiger);

NCE4, 333

f.

(J.

Chapin).

envoys of an

whom

opposition bishop, Fortunatus, by

NOVATIAN (antipope Mar.

25 1-8). Born

was at Carthage. Cyprian troubled Although Cornelius repulsed them,

received, as his writings demonstrate, a

Cyprian was understandably

first-rate literary

irritated

and

sent the pope a sharp rebuke. Cornelius

known in the

to

have written a number of

main making

is

letters,

his position about the

he

c.200,

tion.

was

intellectually

gifted

and

and philosophical educa-

A late report that he was a Phrygian is a

mistake

arising

between

his

from

the

resemblance

moral rigorism and that of

When

*Montanism.

schism clear to other churches; two of these,

Phrygian

Cyprian, survive as nos. 49 and 50 in the Cyprianic correspondence. In

appears, in 250, he was a leading presbyter

addressed

to

Eusebius

addition

(c.

has

260-^.340)

preserved portions of a letter he sent to Fabius, the rigorist bishop of Antioch, urging

him

to

suspend support of Novatian and

accept the fact that the consensus of the

churches

favoured

a

moderate

towards the lapsed. This unattractive,

even

it

able

Roman

treatise

nelius, depicted him as a tive

personal

qualities,

opposition of clergy and

portrait

of

malicious gossip.

little

credit,

also provides detailed statistics, of

man of unattracwho had been

uncanonically ordained despite the strong

an

libellous,

first

church, author of a remarkon the Trinity which has earned him the title of founder of Roman theology. His contemporary, Pope Cor-

in the

letter paints

Novatian which does Cornelius but

policy

he

laity,

Not only

but

this

was

did Cornelius's

predecessor, Fabian, judge Novatian suitable

for

ordination,

but

during

the

LUCIUS

historian Socrates (d. 450) reports that he died a martyr, or at any rate as a confessor,

fourteen-month vacancy following Fabian's death he was accepted as leader and spokes-

man

Roman

of the

college of presbyters,

entrusted with drafting important letters to

other churches in in

its

name. His

Mar. 25 1 when the ,

clergy, taking

advan-

tage of the slackening of the persecution of

Emperor Decius (249-51), proceeded last to elect a

pointed,

and

also

5th-cent.

mentions

a

Roman

1932 on the Via Tiburtina

at

in

Rome with

an

inscription honouring 'the blessed martyr

but the absence of the

Novatian'; 'bishop'

makes

He was

pope.

and

a prolific writer: St

names nine of his works, adding

Italy

title

uncertain whether either

it

refers to Novatian the schismatic

disapproving of their

choice, Novatian had himself consecrated

bishop by three bishops from southern

of St Jerome

martyrs on 29 June, and a tombstone was discovered in

disap-

Personally

The

(253-60).

Novatian among

successor to Fabian and chose,

Cornelius.

of Emperor

persecution

the

in

Martyrology

by an overwhelming majority, his fellowpresbyter

258

in

Valerian

came

crisis

(253-4)

I

Of these,

anti-

Jerome

that there

and, with a small band of like-minded

were many

adherents, went into schism. Cornelius and

two, or possibly three, letters addressed in

he held sharply opposed views on the proper treatment of Christians who sought to

name of the Roman clergy to Cyprian of On the Trinity, On Jewish Foods, On Shows, and On the Excellence of

resume communion after apostatizing under persecution, the new pope favouring their readmission after suitable penance and Novatian their permanent exclusion. His attitude seems to have hardened after the split, for letters drafted by him during the vacancy suggest that his stance was then a moderate one. He now took energetic and

Carthage, only

Modesty survive. Internal evidence shows

support

at

absent from

and

in CCL 4 (crit. edn. by G. F. Diercks, 1972); Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 6, 43, 1-21; 6, 45; 6,

46, 3; 7, 4-5, 2; 7, 7, 618; Jerome, Devir.

Cyprian, Letters (passim); Socrates, Hist.

Early 1

977),

ii,

at

Christian 1

25 f;

816-29

Quasten);

Rome

which excommunicated Novatian and

ill.

eccl.

70;

4, 28;

A. d'Ales, Novatien (Paris, 1924); J. N. D. Kelly,

initial

pope was not long delayed. Soon

bishops as well as other clergy

great

(d. c.225).

Works

Cornelius was able to convene a synod of sixty

owed much to the

north African writer Tertullian

hesitation, the recognition of Cornelius as rightful

reveal their author as an acute theolo-

gian and pastor who

like the

famed Cyprian of Carthage, showed

Rome for his community there.

composed in elegant rhythmic prose,

All are

but while he found

Antioch, and while some,

were written when he was

that the last three

of the validity of his position and circulated letters to their bishops;

in addition to

the

convince the great churches

skilful steps to

others.

i,

Doctrines

(5th

London,

edn.,

DCB 4, 58-60 (G. T. Stokes); DTC (F-

NCE

Amann); 10,

534

f.

LThK (P.

7, 1062-4 0H. Weyer); Seppelt

48-51; 55-7.

his

adherents. Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria,

LUCIUS I, ST (25 June

wrote to him urging him to make his peace

A Roman by birth (according to LP), he was

The

253-5 Mar. 254).

Novatianist

banished from the capital by the persecuting

church spread apace, with an organization modelled on that of the official church.

emperor Gallus (251-3) almost immedi-

Orthodox in doctrine but teaching there was no forgiveness for serious

that

not known, but he was soon able to

sins

way back with numerous Christians

with the pope, but in vain.

after baptism,

Spain

in

it

the

Mesopotamia

ately after

with

established itself as far as

west

Armenia

and

in the east;

it

and

him,

since

the

newly

make

is

his

exiled

proclaimed

emperor, Valerian (253-60), was at first favourably disposed towards Christians. On

persisted into

the 5th cent, and, in isolated communities,

much

being elected. His place of exile

he received an enthusiastic letter from Cyprian, the influential bishop of Car-

his return

later.

Meanwhile Novatian himself had to leave because of renewed persecution; the

thage, congratulating

Rome

him on

his

willing

suffering for the faith, and suggesting that

19

STEPHEN

I

(254-7)

perhaps the Lord had recalled him so that

the rigorist views of Antipope

he might undergo actual martyrdom in the midst of his flock. Virtually nothing is

much debated

and was refusing even deathbed reconciliation to Christians who had lapsed in persecution. The local bishops had written to Stephen urging him to have Marcian deposed, but he had taken no action. They turned therefore to Cyprian, who took up the case and called on the pope to excommunicate Marcian, arrange for a new bishop to replace him, and inform the African episcopate of his name so that they might know with whom they were in communion. The third clash was more important theologically, being over the question whether baptism administered by heretics was valid.

during his successor's reign. Despite LP's

Cyprian, with the churches of north Africa

report that he was martyred by beheading, 4th-cent.

(except for some doubters), Syria, and Asia Minor generally, was positive that it was not:

Liberian Catalogue suggests that he died a

baptism could only be bestowed within the

directly

known about

his activities, but

one

letters implies that, in dealing

of Cyprian's

with Christians

who had

apostatized during

persecution, he maintained Cornelius's policy of restoring

them to communion

He

after

made no concessions to Antipope Novatian and his adherents, who were still active during his suitable penance.

reign.

It is

therefore

further reported that he received

a letter from Bishop Dionysius of Alexandria

on the validity of *baptism by heretics,

subject which was to be

the

of

tradition

earlier

natural death.

He was

the

a

church, and heretics seeking reconciliation

interred in the papal

where a portion of the epitaph on his tomb, in Greek letters, has been recovered. Feast 4 Mar. crypt in the cemetery of Callistus,

7, 10, 3;

LP

1,

xcvi-xcviii; ccxlviii; 6

66-9; 153;

Cat.);

cuzione di Gallo 210; Caspar

LThK (E.

6,

1

1,

70;

ST 33

Roma',

DTC 9,

1056

176 (G. Schwaiger);

f.

needed

be

to

rebaptized.

and

heretical

was adamant that was valid: to be heretics and schismatics

Palestine,

reconciled,

'La perse-

be baptized afresh (which he

needed, not

to

Amann);

regarded as

illegitimate),

NCE

8,

i.e.

Stephen,

baptism

(1920), 181— (E.

baptism,

catholic

representing the tradition of Rome, Alexan-

7, 2;

(Liberian

f.

P. F. de' Cavaliere, in

eccl.

needed

therefore

dria,

Cyprian, Epp. 61 and 68; Eusebius, Hist.

Novatian

1059

but only to receive

absolution by the laying on of hands.

G. Weltin).

question was a burning one

at the

The

time in

north Africa, and Cyprian held two synods

STEPHEN 257).

ST

I,

(12

A Roman by birth,

succeeded Lucius sixty days.

I

May 254-2

Aug. of \he gens Julia, he

after a

in

impose the Roman view everywhere, wrote to the churches of Asia Minor declaring that he could no longer hold communion with them since they rebaptized heretics; and when Cyprian sought to apprise him of the decisions of his synods, he refused to receive his envoys or even offer them hospitality. Rebaptism, he argued, was an innovation which violated tradition, and could not be accepted. An open breach between Rome and large sections of Christendom now threatened; it is not surprising that Bishop Dionysius of Alexanwhile sharing his view of the dria,

vacancy of some

A pope of some importance in the

development of the holy

known from

see,

he

certain clashes he

is

chiefly

had with

Cyprian, the influential bishop of Carthage.

The

first

arose out of the deposition of two

who had apostatized under One of them went to Rome

Spanish bishops persecution.

and persuaded Stephen to rehabilitate him and his colleague. The Spanish churches then appealed to Cyprian, and he, having convened a council of north African bishops, published a synodical letter conit excused Stephen he had been deceived The second concerned

firming the deposition;

on the ground about the

that

facts.

Bishop Marcian of Aries,

255 and 256 which reaffirmed his posMeanwhile Stephen, determined to

ition.

who had adopted

impropriety of rebaptism,

felt

write to Stephen imploring

him

more 20

pacific line.

The

situation

obliged to to

adopt a

might have

SIXTUS become desperate had not Stephen died on 2 Aug. 257 and Cyprian, as a martyr, a year

up the practice of *rebaptizing heretics and who wished to be reconciled to the church. He upheld as firmly as Stephen

schismatics

later.

incidents throw light on the grow-

These

11(257-8)

the

Roman

view that baptism properly

ing recognition, in the middle of the 3rd

administered by heretics was valid, but

as a court of appeal at any rate for

pre-eminent position of Rome, Gaul and

with Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, with

Spain, and as the see with which other sees

whom

cent., of the

deemed

it

appropriate to be in

communion.

seems

Stephen had sharply clashed, and How he did this remains unclear, but he probably drew back from Stephen's posture of confrontation and quiedy accepted the coexistence of

with the Asiatic churches.

Stephen emerges as an imperious and uncompromising prelate, fully aware of his special prerogative; his rival bishops did not

blame for splitting the church on him. It is interesting that he was accused of 'glorying in his standing as bishop and of claiming to hold the succession from Peter, on whom the foundations of the church were laid'. He was in fact the first pope, so far as is known, to find a formal basis for the Roman primacy in the

divergent practices. In adopting this policy

hesitate to put the

he owed much

to advice given to him, and to Dionysius and Philemon, by Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, who had vainly tried to induce Stephen to be less intransigent, and who now continued to

his presbyters

write as a mediator, setting out (although

himself opposed to rebaptism) consider-

Lord's charge to the Apostle Peter cited in

ations

LP

in its

Matt. 16: 18. Later legend reflected in treated

him

as a martyr, but the

which might reasonably be advanced defence. Sixtus owed even more, however, to his own irenic temperament, for he was (as Cyprian's biographer noted) 'a good and peace-loving priest'. Some scholars used mistakenly to

*Roman

calendar of 354 names him only in its list of deceased bishops (not in that of martyrs).

He was

buried in the papal crypt in the

cemetery of Callistus on the Appian Way. Feast 2 Aug. Cyprian, Letters 67-75; Eusebius, Hist.

attribute to Sixtus a short treatise attacking

Antipope Novatian; while cent, he

eccl.

have restored friendly relations

to

7, 2;

in the late 4th

was credited by Rufinus, equally

4-5. 6; LP i, 68 f.; 154; Caspar 1, 70 f.; 79-83; 86-92; and index; DCB 4, 727-30 (J. Barmby); DHGE 15, 1 183 f. (B. Botte); LThK 9, 1038 (G. Schwaiger); NCE 13, 694 (E. G. Weltin); K. Baus, Handbook 0/ Church History (ET,

erroneously, with the authorship of the edi-

London, 1965)

previously been a philosopher. In fact his

7> 3i 7>

i,

of ethical and religious aphorisms known as The Sentences ofSextus. His presumed connection with this latter fying collection

prompted

358-63; Seppelt 1,51-3; 56-8.

LP

to describe

only surviving production

him a

is

SIXTUS II, ST (Aug. 257-6 Aug. 258). Of Greek extraction, as LP states and his name

ment,

(more correctly Xystus) makes probable, he

validity of heretical

baptism

if

name of the

Trinity.

I

was elected

at

the

moment when Emperor

in the

attitude,

Christians, ordering state religious

them

to

began

them

was brought

persecuting

in the cemeteries.

For

to

letter

defending the administered

lis

brief reign

an abrupt close by the publi-

more drastic, summary execution of

cation of Valerian's second, edict ordering the

to take part in

ceremonies and forbidding

assemble

minute frag-

an Armenian translation, of a

to Dionysius of Alexandria

Valerian (253-60), abandoning his earlier tolerant

in

as having

Christian bishops, priests, and deacons, as well as draconian penalties on Christian

a

On

time he was able to escape police vigilance

laymen.

and devote himself to repairing the breach which Stephen I had created between Rome and the churches of north Africa and

surprised him at divine service, seated in his

Asia Minor because of their refusal to give

private burial place in

6 Aug. 258 the authorities

episcopal chair addressing the congregation,

21

in

the cemetery of Praetextatus,

which he and

a

his flock

DIONYSIUS

(260-8)

had probably hoped to escape detection it was not watched by the police. Here he was beheaded, and with him four of his deacons who were in attendance. Two of the remaining three deacons were executed the same day, while the seventh, Lawrence, suffered four days later. Sixtus's body was

because

communion

with churches which on rebaptizing heretics and schismatics, but seems to have softened his off

insisted

attitude by Sixtus IPs time; the bishop at any

him Once pope

rate regarded

as 'erudite

able'.

himself, he received a

and remark-

further letter from Bishop Dionysius on the

later transferred to the papal crypt, in the

same

cemetery of Callistus, and the four dea-

involved in another correspondence with

cons

who had

shared his martyrdom were

The

interred near by.

bloodstained chair on

which he had been sitting was placed behind the altar in the chapel. A century later

Damasus

ponderous

I

composed an epitaph

hexameters

describing

in

the

drama of his execution, and this was set up over his tomb. Sixtus II became one of the

him,

and before long became

subject,

time about the relations of the

this

Father and the Son in the Godhead.

him with Son from the Father, even speaking of him as a creature, and refusing to describe him as one in essence with the their bishop to the pope, charging

separating the

Father.

Dionysius of

church's most venerated martyrs, and his

convened

name was

expressions complained

included in the canon of the mass.

Aug.

193

420

eccl.

1),

(1735), 124-42, and Nov.

II

3-6;

7, 5,

II (pt. 2,

Cyprian, Letter So; Eusebius, Hist.

f.;

7, 6; 7, 9,

1-6; 7, 14;

7,

27,

1;

A.

Ferrua, Epigrammata Damasiana (Vatican City,

LP

1942), 123-6;

1,

martirio di S. Sisto

Caspar

6

f.;

11;

68

f;

'Un recente studio

Cavaliere,

II',

ST 33

155

f.;

P. F. de'

luogo

sul

del

(1920), 145-78;

43546; 48; 71 f.;9i;DQ?4,

1 197—9 (J. 2194-6 (E. Amann); DACL 15, 1 501-15 (M. Combet-Farnoux); LThK 9, 809 (B. Kotting); NCE 13, 271 (E. G. Weltin).

1,

Barmby);

Rome

straightway

synod which condemned the

a

of,

sent the Alexan-

drian community an impressive exposition

Feast 7 Aug.

AASS

Some

Christians in Alexandria had denounced

DTC

of the

Roman

tactfully

theology of the Trinity, and

wrote

privately

to

brother

his

bishop requesting an explanation of his position.

The Alexandrian responded with a

reasoned apologia which, while insisting on the distinction of the divine persons, clear that he to

was no

tritheist;

and

made it

this

seems

have settled the matter.

14,

Dionysius exerted himself no in practical affairs.

faced,

DIONYSIUS, ST

(22 July

260-26 Dec.

268). Because of the severity of the persecu-

first,

At

less actively

his accession

with the disarray of the

he was

Roman

church caused by Valerian's persecution,

and

then by

the

problems created by

Emperor

Gallienus's (260-8) reversal of his

the summary' execution of the clergy, the

father's

policies

Roman church

church's

tion of Valerian (253-60),

which entailed

did not elect a successor to

and restoration of the and property

confiscated

news of the emperor's death

cemeteries. Dionysius seems to have car-

reached Rome; for almost two

ried through, or at any rate inaugurated, a

church was governed by the presbyters alone, all seven deacons having

thorough reorganization of the church, a

Sixtus

II until

in captivity

years

the

perished with Sixtus. Dionysius,

elected,

II,

may be obtained from

the

eventually

report of LP that he allocated the parishes

probably

of

Greek

and the cemeteries to the several priests, and delimited new episcopal units in his

descent, had been a leading presbyter under Sixtus

glimpse of which

The man

corresponding with Dionysius,

metropolitan

area.

In

he

addition,

bishop of Alexandria, on the contentious issue of the *rebaptism of heretics, on which

vigorously maintained the

Roman

long-standing

of helping

the bishop was trying to mediate between

tressed Christians wherever they might be;

Rome

more than

Asia Minor.

379) was to recall with admiration his generosity in dispatching letters of encour-

rigid

and the churches of north Africa and He had originally shared the stance of Stephen I, who had broken

tradition

a century later Basil the

church's dis-

Great

(d.

EUTYCHIAN (275-83) agement

church

to the afflicted

Cap-

in

be handed over

bishops of Italy and of

for

ransoming Christians in captivity. The mention of him is at the head of the letter which the synod of Antioch, which deposed Paul of Samosata for his *adoptionist leanings, addressed to him and Maximus, the new bishop of Antioch, announcing its decision in 268/9. Whether he received it or not is not clear, for he was dead by the end of 268. One of the most important popes of the 3rd cent., he was not

munication'.

last

Felix

a martyr, as claimed by

LP,

in

papal

the

crypt

Eusebius, Hist.

eccl.

De

decret.

Dion, passim; Basil, Ep. 70;

LP

25 1,

f.;

list

Christian

i977)>

133- 6

DHGE

14,

Schwaiger); 1

>

;

247

Doctrines

Caspar f.

(5th

1,

54;

De sent.

(B. Botte);

cxxv; 158;

NCE 4,

876

(E.

3,

1,

19-23;

7, 32, 1;

LP

1,

43; 84; 468; J. Quasten,

and Antwerp, 1953) 2, 242; H. Lietzmann, Apollinaris von Laodicea und seine

Patrology (Utrecht

Schule (Tubingen, 1904), 91-4; 318-21; C. H.

222;

Turner, 'The Papal Chronology of the Third

405 (G.

Century', JfTS 17 (19 16), 349; F. Millar, 'Paul of Samosata, Zenobiaand Aurelian', JfRS 61 (1971),

G. Weltin); Seppelt

59-04-

1-17;

DHGE

ST (3 Jan. 269-30 Dec. 274). Described by LP as a Roman by birth, son of

886

16,

(G. Schwaiger);

FELIX

7, 30,

eccl.

Caspar

London,

84; 90-3;

LThK

of episcopal burials, not that of martyrs;

Eusebius, Hist.

157; C. H.

edn.,

the

and the 4th-cent. Liberian Catalogue states that he was interred in the papal crypt in the cemetery of Callistus on the Appian Way. Feast 30 May.

Turner, 'The Papal Chronology of the Third Century', JfTS 17 (19 16), 348 f.;"j. N. D. Kelly, Early

Roman

same name. The *Roman calendar of 354 includes him in its

7, 5, 6; 7, 7, 6; 7, 13; 7, 26, 1;

1-18; Athanasius,

erroneous, the result of a

is

bearing

martyrs

cemetery of Callistus. Feast 26 Dec.

7, 30,

the

com-

must therefore have been

It

confusion between him and actual

the

in

in

gave the decision in favour of

Via Aurelia

calendar of 354 placed him in its list of episcopal burials, not in that of martyrs. He

was buried

Rome were

Timaeus, the successor of Domnus (d. 270/ 1), and secured the undignified expulsion of Paul. Apart from these surmises, nothing is known about Felix's activities. LP's report that he died a martyr and was buried on the

*Roman

for the

who

whom

to 'those with

padocia (central Turkey), as well as funds

f.

NCE 5,

(P.

Nautin);

878

f.

(E.

LThK 4,

67

G. Weltin).

I,

Constantius, he

is

EUTYCHIAN, ST

one of the obscurest

popes, even his dates being conjectural.

was the recipient, probably, of the announcing the deposition of the

283).

He

He

(4 Jan.

275-7 Dec.

was, according to LP, a native of

Tuscany, son of Marinus. While his dates can be fixed within a year, no reliable infor-

letter

mation about

local

his activities or personality

remainder of LP's account

bishop, Paul of Samosata, for Trinitarian

survives; the

and the election of Domnus I in his place, which the synod of Antioch sent in 268/9 t0 P°P e Dionysius, Bishop Maximus of Alexandria, and other bishops. As a result he seems to have entered formally into communion with Domnus and corresponded with Maximus. A creed-like which fragment name, bearing his circulated in Alexandria and was cited by

either anachronistic conjecture, e.g. that he

Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444) in the 5th-cent.

Diocletian (284-305),

error,

Christological debates,

may

retouched extract from his

decreed that only beans and grapes should

be blessed

much

at

mass

later

(a

usage attested in the

Gelasian

and

Gregorian

Sacramentaries), or pure fantasy, e.g. that

he personally buried 342 martyrs. It is worth noting that his pontificate fell wholly within the period of peace between the persecutions of

Emperors Valerian (253-60) and

church was able

possibly be a letter to

is

Max-

its

position (as

to is

when

the

Roman

develop and consolidate

evidenced by the exten-

imus. Although deposed, Paul of Samosata

sions of the official cemeteries undertaken

refused to vacate the church building

at

then).

Antioch until Emperor Aurelian (270-5), whom the orthodox appealed, ordered it

to

Such records of his reign as existed may have perished in the devastation caused

to

by Diocletian's persecution. LP's assertion *3

GAIUS (only in

(283-96)

its

2nd

edition) that

of 354 included him in

Leclercq);LWC£ 11, 237 f. (G. Bzrdy); LThK 2, 877 (G. Schwaiger); BSS 3, 646-9 (A. Amore); NCE 6, 241 (E. G. Weltin); C. H. Turner, 'The Papal Chronology of the Third Century', JTS 17

he died a martyr

The *Roman

should be rejected.

calendar

of episcopal

its list

He was the pope to be interred in the papal crypt in the cemetery of Callistus, where fragments of his epitaph, in ill-formed Greek letters, have been found. Feast 7 Dec.

burials, not in that of martyrs.

(1916),

350

f.

last

Eusebius, Hist. 10; 159

f.;

Barmby); 1

eccl.

7,

Caspari

DHGE

32,

LP

1;

1

16, 91

cxxxi-clix; 6 2,

412

fell

is

;

known of

much the greater part of his when the church

a period

in

3,

enjoyed external peace. His sole recorded action in these years was, according to an inscription, to authorize

Severus,

(Berlin, 1933), 49.

or

background,

reign

Chronology of the Third Century', jTS 17 (1916), 350; P. Styger, Die romischen Katakomben

GAIUS,

25 Oct. 304). While nothing

his

f.;

(J-

LThK

(H. Marot);

d.

H. Turner, 'The Papal

f.

2 14 (G. Schwaiger); C.

,

DCB

43; 84;

1,

MARCELLINUS, ST (30 June 2 9 6-?30 4

modifications

CAIUS, ST

certain

structural

cemetery of Cal-

the

in

one of his deacons,

On 23 Feb. 303, however, Emperor Diocletian (284-305) issued his first perselistus.

283-22

(17 Dec.

out

carry

to

Apr. 296). Although he was described by LP

of

cuting edict ordering the destruction of

these par-

churches, the surrender of sacred books,

from the 6th-cent. Passion of St Susanna, whose uncle he was supposed to be and with whom he became linked through the fact that her

and the offering of sacrifice by those attending law-courts. Marcellinus complied and, probably in May 303, handed over copies of the Scriptures; he also, apparently, offered

Dalmatian

as

in

origin,

relative

a

Emperor Diocletian (284-305), ticulars are suspect; they derive

was

cult

in

the

incense to the gods. Several of his clergy,

localized at the titulus, or *title

church, of Gaius

at

Rome. He

of St

Passion

including

also figures

represents him as encouraging the soldier

with him.

and his companions to face their impending martyrdom. LP's further reports about him should also be dismissed as saint

anachronistic, especially

he took refuge

Diocletian's persecution and (in

While

edition) died a martyr.

his dates

be determined with

a reasonable

accuracy, nothing

known about him

is

in a period of

the

Roman

and embaris borne out by the facts that his name was omitted from the official list of popes and that

can

Damasus

The *Roman

was

Callistus

light.

in a sector separate

ments of

in the

Eusebius, Hist.

eccl.

nineteenth century. Feast

7, 32,

71 f; 161; Caspar 1,43 1,

386

f.

(E.

B.

f.;

1

;

LP

50

Birks);

f.;

1

,

xcviii-xcix; 6

50

DACL

f.;

84; 97;

2,

to present

Thus LP, basing

it

were

in a favourable

itself

on a now

lost

how he

was ordered to sacrifice and proceeded to do so, but a few days later was filled with remorse for his weakness; he was then beheaded with three others on Diocletian's

his initial distinctly given as a

found there 22 Apr.

evident that his apostasy

Passion of St Marcellinus, relates

frag-

Greek letters with gamma, were

his epitaph, in

it is

frankly acknowledged, and efforts

being made

from the old full;

when

completely ignored him

the 6th cents,

calendar

of 354 did not include him in its list of martyrs. He was buried in the cemetery of papal crypt, which was probably

I

composing verse tributes to previous popes. By the end of the 5 th and the beginning of

fell

peace and consolidation for

church.

facts,

rassed manner. Marcellinus's guilt

or his

reign

*Donatists used these

St Augustine, who, while denying the alle-

degree of

activities; all that is clear is that his

have acted

gations, did so in a perfunctory

2nd

its

The

three to

all

to

their controversy early in the 5th cent, with

catacombs during

in the

Marcellus,

presbyters

of which they had documentary evidence, in

statement that

its

the

Miltiades, and Silvester, become popes, were later said

which

Sebastian,

orders.

f.;

DCB

An

independent account of his

apostasy, and supposed avowal of

pseudo-council

1736 (H.

24

of

Sinuessa

it

at the

(west

of

MARCELLUS

1(306-8)

apocryphal acts

rendered sacred books to the authorities

no

along with Marcellinus were true, for he

evidence of his martyrdom; no one in the

proved a merciless judge of such conduct and seems to have expunged Marcellinus's

Capua), appears 6th

(early

the

in

There

cent.).

fact

in

is

4th cent, seems to have had any inkling of it, and St Augustine made no reference to it

when

On

name from

dealing with the Donatists' charges.

it

the other hand, his surrender of sacred

is

of popes. His dates,

many

scholars, for instance, accepting a later,

books disqualified him from the priesthood, and if he was not actually deposed (as some scholars argue) he must have left the Roman church without an acknowledged head. The date of his abdication or deposition

official lists

should be noted, are uncertain,

shorter reign from 27

May or 26 June 308 to

16 Jan. 309. An important task facing him must have been the reorganization of the

church in the improved political climate, and this probably underlies the ana-

not

He died on 25 Oct. 304, and was buried in the cemetery of Sta Priscilla on the known.

chronistically expressed report of

LP that he

divided the city into twenty-five

tituli,

or

ning of the persecution. Because of the story of his execution at the emperor's behest

under its presbyter. But a no less pressing issue was the multitude who had compromised the faith under persecution. To judge by the verse tribute composed for him by Damasus I, Marcellus was a rigorist whose hard-line penitential demands soon aroused majority opinion in

he came

the

Via Salaria;

because

was presumably chosen

this

was

it

private

powerful family of the church's

parishes, each

property of the

Acilii Glabrioni, the

cemeteries having been

official

confiscated by the government at the begin-

be venerated as a martyr. Feast

to

Eusebius, Hist. Petil. 2, coll.

202;

2,

f.;

PL

eccl.

7, 32, 1;

208;

De unic.

Augustine, C.

against him.

The

resulting

Maxentius to intervene, and when Marcellus was denounced to him by an apostate he banished him from the city as a disturber of

lift.

bapt. 16, 27; Brevic.

LP 1, bori-lxxiv; xcix; 72 f.; 20 (Sinuessa); E. H. Rottges,

cum Donat.

162

community

public disorder and even bloodshed led

2 June.

3, 34;

6,

420; A. Amore,

the peace.

ZKTh

78 (1956), 385— preteso "lapsus" di papa

'Marcellinus-Marcellus', 'II

32 (1955), 411-26; W. H. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (London, 1965), 503 f.; T. D. 38; 303

Barmby);

Caspar

EC 8,

10

1, f.

97-9; 3, Monachino);

(V.

804-6

(J.

DACL

10,

not

it is

body was subsequendy Rome and interred in the

his

persecution. Later legend, reproduced by

Barnes, Constanttne and Eusebius (Harvard, 1981),

DCB

died shortly after, but

brought back to cemetery of Sta Priscilla, a private property which had not been impounded during the

Marcellino', Antonianum

f.;

He

known where;

LP in its

2nd edition, embellished his death with the story that Maxentius, infuriated by his refusal to sacrifice to the gods, converted

1762-73 (H. Leclercq);L77itf 7, 1 (A. Stuiber); 188 (E. G. Weltin); Seppelt i, 65-7.

NCE 9,

the building which was to

MARCELLUS

church into a stable for horses of the imperial post and made the pope tend them as a groom, in which menial role he died. In

I,

ST

(Nov./Dec. 306-16

Jan. 308). Because of internal divisions as well as the persecution, the

remained vacant for half years after

With

just

Roman

see

fact,

over three and a

Marcellinus's apostasy. Emperor Maxentius

became

Marcellus,

presbyter

under

practicable.

had been

Marcellinus,

Since the

late 19th cent, a case has been on the basis of the confusion between them in the sources, the absence of one or other name from key texts, and other

argued,

The man a

leading

and

had

puzzling

probably played the key role during the vacancy. ists'

It is

later

Marcellus

very unlikely that the *Donat-

allegations

that

he

the 5th-cent. Martyrology of St Jerome

Jan.

(306-12) and his adoption of toleration, an election

his *title

records that he died as a confessor. Feast 16

the accession of

chosen,

become

facts,

for

with

the

identification

Marcellinus

(of

of

whose

existence there can be no doubt), or at any

had sur-

rate for regarding

*5

him

as a presbyter

who

EUSEBIUS(310) exercised quasi-papal functions during the

of Callistus.

long interregnum rather than as an actual

designated him a martyr, but neither the

pope. to

It

*Roman

continues to attract support, but has

meet formidable

difficulties,

appearance of both as popes

in the

Liberian

Catalogue, compiled some forty years

his

Damasus

eulogy

calendar of 354 nor

gests that he

notably the

In

LP itself sug-

was one. Feast 17 Aug.

A. Ferrua, Epigrammata Damasiana (Vatican City,

later,

1942), i29-36;LPi,cvii-cix;8-io;74f; 167;

I.

and Damasus I's description of Marcellus as 'rector', a term he reserves for a bishop,

Carini, / lapsi e la deportazione in Sicilia del papa

s.

Eusebio (Rome, 1886); E. Caspar, 'Die romische

46 (1927), 330-3; DHGE 15, 1433 (H. Marot); EC 5, 857 (A. Amore); Caspar 1, 99-101; 128 f.;

A. Ferrua, Epigrammata Damasiana (Vatican City,

1942), 181;

LP

6

1, lxxiii-lxxiv; lxxix; ccxlix;

Mommsen,

72-4; 164-6; T.

f.;

L7M"3,

,

1980,38; 303

190

(E.

1494;

672-6

8,

f.;

EC

EUSEBIUS, ST is

16

Amore);

(A.

f.

supplied

(2

Roman

after a

vacancy

of indeterminate length, depending on whether Eusebius's accession was in 310 or, as scholars variously argue, in 308 or

NCE 9,

(18 Apr.-2i Oct. 310).

309, ation

moment when the political situmade a new appointment urgently

at a

desirable.

African,

Roman

Liberian

4th-cent.

MELCHIADES, ST

government, he was elected,

uncertainty about the year

by the

or

(V.

(308 or 309 has also been proposed), the days and months of his accession and death are

(G. Schwaiger).

to enjoy the active favour of the

Caspar 1,43; 8,

G. Weltin).

While there

f.

MILTIADES,

(1958), 57-75; T. D. Barnes, Constantine and

14,

198

July3ii-ioJan. 314). The first pope to see the church not only tolerated but beginning

1

54; 97-101; P\V Monachino); BSS

1

Xeues Archiv 21

(1896), 335-57; E. H. Rottges, 'MarcellinusMarcellus',ZA77i 78 (1956), 385-420; A. Amore, Antonianum 33 'E esistito papa Marcello? Eusebius (Harvard,

ZKG

Bischofe der diokktianischen Verfolgung',

in his verse epitaph for him.

LP he was a Greek

Although described by

it

is

more

in origin.

likely

LP

that he

He had been

as

was

an a

a presbyter

suggest)

under Pope Marcellinus, and a century later was to be accused by the *Donatists of

further

implication in his apostasy; no such charge

attribution of the finding of the Saviour's

lapsed in the persecu-

seems to have been advanced in his lifetime. Hardly had he assumed office when Emperor Maxentius (306-12), anticipating the policies which were to be laid down by the convention of Milan in Feb. 313,

Diocletian

(284-305)

ordered the restoration of the properties of

communion, which

the church, including land and buildings,

Catalogue. According to

by extraction

name would

(as his

who had been

physician;

a

cross to his pontificate

is

a patent

The dissension and Roman community over the

ism.

Christians tion

who had

of Emperor

should be readmitted

had

to

its

anachron-

rioting

led to the exile of IVIarcellus

tinued in Eusebius's brief reign.

it

I,

con-

From

confiscated at the beginning of Diocletian's

Damasus I composed in

persecution (303). It fell to Miltiades to send his deacons, armed with the imperial

appears that he allowed those

rescript, to the city prefect to claim formal

verse tribute which his honour,

the

in

terms on which

the

who had apostatized to be restored after due

restitution.

penance, while Heraclius, the leader of an

with him presiding, was able to celebrate

opposing faction

who seems

to

As

a result the

Easter on 13 Apr. 312 in

have been a

Roman full

church,

security

and time

sort of antipope, resisted their readmission.

possession of its holy places for the

first

In spite of Eusebius's efforts to maintain

since the outbreak of persecution.

He must

peace, the

split in

have met Constantine the Great (306-37) soon after his triumph over Maxentius at the

the community- caused

government intervention, and Emperor Maxentius (306-12) had both him and Heraclius deported to Sicily. There he soon died. His body was subsequently brought back to Rome and interred in the cemetery

was

Milvian Bridge (28 Oct. 312), and

it

probably during the emperor's stay in

Rome

(or

perhaps

later)

that

he

presented

Miltiades with the Empress Fausta's palace

26

SILVESTER

(314-35)

I

on Monte Celio, henceforth

buried in an as yet unidentified spot in the

the papal residence. Less than a year later,

cemetery of Callistus on the Appian Way.

when

Feast 10 Dec.

(the Lateran)

the

party in north Africa

rigorist

objected to Bishop Caecilian of Carthage on

Eusebius, Hist.

the ground that one of his consecrators had

De schism.

been a traditor (i.e. had surrendered sacred books during the persecution), elected a rival bishop Majorinus (soon to be replaced by Donatus), and appealed to Constantine to arbitrate, the emperor commissioned

cum Donat. Parm.

nominated by himself, to adjudicate the affair in Rome and report to him; the letter,

the

first

of

its

23

1,

3, 18, 34;

f.;

Augustine, Brevic.

De unic.

28

bapt. 16,

10; C. part. Donat. 17; Ep. 43;

1,

H. U.Jnstinsky,

f.;

LP

coll.

C. ep.

1,

8

f.;

und Kaiserthron (Munich, 1955); 'Zwei Bischofsnamen Konstantinischer Zeit', RQ 55 (i960), 203-11; E. Caspar, 'Die romische Synode von 313', ZKG 46 (1927), 333-46; Caspar 1, 102; 109 ff.; \z\\DTC 10, 1764 (E. Amann); EC 8, 1015 f. (V. Monachino); PW 15, 1706 f. (W. Ensslin); NCE 168

Miltiades, sitting with three Gallic bishops

imperial

18-20; Optatus Milev.,

10, 5,

eccl.

Donat.

kind received

9,

by a pope, survives in a Greek translation. transformed the shrewdly Miltiades

f.;

857

f.

(J.

Bischofsstuhl

Chapin); Seppelt

SILVESTER

I,

Although

1,

72-5.

ST (31 Jan. 314-31 LP describes him

Dec.

government commission of inquiry into a regular church synod by himself adding fifteen Italian bishops. The synod met in Fausta's palace, with both Caecilian and his

pictured him as having suffered in the per-

now

secution of Diocletian (284-305), and the

did

use of 'most glorious' in addressing him

not in fact investigate the charge that the

indicates that in this respect at least the

consecrator, Felix of Aptunga, had been a

legend was correct.

Donatus,

accuser,

principal

Majorinus's successor, present, but

traditor, since

from the

it

335).

Roman, son of Rufinus,

his

Roman point of view

The

story also

Marcellinus

in

books to the Although pope

authorities

gave

its

officiant.

verdict in favour of

him lawful bishop of Carthage, and excommunicated Donatus Caecilian, pronouncing

for requiring the *rebaptism of laity

On

surrendering

for almost

was

sacred a

libel.

twenty-two years

of the reign of Constantine the Great (306-

and

epoch of dramatic developments for

37), an

reordination of clergy who had lapsed under persecution.

it

had joined with Pope

that as a presbyter he

it

makes

likely that the *Donatists' later allegation

depend on the worthiness of the Oct. 3 13

a

are

hopelessly entangled with later legend. This

the effectiveness of a sacrament did not

On 3

as

origins

the church, he seems to have played an

the other hand, Miltiades

insignificant part in the great events that

sought to isolate Donatus by offering com-

were taking

munion

glimpses of him, negative but instructive,

to other dissident African

bishops

on terms which allowed them to retain their episcopal status. These decisions deeply

survive.

moned

came to and led them

disappointed the Donatists, as they

be called after their leader, later in the

century to spread scandalous

They appealed

thage,

obstinacy,

representative of to

meet

worthy

summoned all

a

again to

the

Lnounced, verdict final.

first

when Constantine sumcouncil of Aries

(1

Aug.

contested by the Donatists in

Pope Miltiades' decision

in his

favour the previous year, he did not the

council

bishop

entrusted

the western provinces

its

Rome

make

chairman but general conduct to Chrestus,

of

its

bishop of Syracuse, while the bishop of

Aries on

at

that,

still

spite of

Constantine, and he, although irritated by their

First,

the

and only one or two

314) in a further attempt to adjudicate the claims of Caecilian to be bishop of Car-

rumours about Miltiades' conduct during the persecution.

place,

1 Aug. 314; it is notealthough the pope had pro-

Aries, Marinus, presided. Silvester did not

emperor did not consider

to represent him; his

Before

the

council

attend but sent two priests and two deacons

his

met,

absence was caused

not by disapproval of Constantino's

however, Miltiades was long dead; he was

ive in calling a

^7

initiat-

church council but (prohahK

)

;

MARK (336) by the

of leaving

difficulty

after his installation.

When

council communicated

Rome it

so soon

nificant

him

decisions to

its

Secondly,

churches.

Silvester

receiving

again

summoned by (Iznik,

Son 'one condemning

currency, in which,

at

was alleged

a creed declaring

and

inferior to the Father. Like

other bishops of the empire, Silvester was invited to attend, but although he

oped he declined

it

imprisoned Christians

setting

Deriving from

had been

kept informed of the controversy as

among other fictions, he

have converted Constantine,

a persecutor, baptized him, cured him of leprosy, and imposed on him the penance of closing the pagan temples

the teaching of Arius that he

was a creature,

to

previously

with the Father and

in being'

then from an Arian bishop

it

of the 5 th cent, a romanticized version of Silvester's life (the Acts ofSt Silvester) gained

Constantine, met

summer 325 and agreed the

insig-

Christian

also

north-west Turkey) in

in

first

(Eusebius of Nicomedia). In the second half

absent from the ecumenical council which,

Nicaea

the

the

all

was

beside

role

emperor, or that Constantine could have deferred his baptism until his deathbed,

which eloquently expressed its sense of his primacy over the west, and

in a letter

requested him to circulate them to

pope could have played such an

the

broke up, the

there

this,

came

free.

to

be

accepted as authentic the so-called 'Donation of Constantine', a

devel-

document

in

which

do so, this time pleading old age. He sent two priests to represent him, and although they were not accorded

the emperor was represented as conferring

any precedence

and temporal dominion over Rome, Italy, and all provinces and states of the west generally. Constantine was also represented as offering the imperial crown to Silvester, who declined to wear it but agreed to the transfer of the imperial government from

to

at the council,

on

they affixed

their signatures to the acts before

the

all

bishops present except Ossius of Cordoba,

who as president signed

In the 5th

first.

and

6th cents, the idea was to gain credence that

Ossius had been commissioned by the pope,

and even concert;

Rome

had been sumpope and the emperor in

that the council

moned by

the

but these

There were

historical foundation.

bishops

whom

fidants,

and with

Constantine

certainly his

He

con-

he concerted his but Silvester was not

had the

CSEL

satisfaction,

benefactions,

included great churches

Constantiniana

Giovanni

in

Laterano), with its baptistery, and the basilicas of St Peter and St Paul.

It

was appropri-

ate that the bulk of Silvester's notice in

should be devoted to detail, for

Rome,

it

as

a

result

began

2

1

,

eccl.

10, 5, 21-4; Jaffe I,

206-1 o; LP

1

,

28-30;

cix-cxx; clii-cliv;

dlandischen Mittelalter', Hjf 75 (1956), 10-46; 1000 f. (W. Ullmann).

NCE 4,

his pontificate that

of

to

Sicht', DA 15 (1959), 523-40; E. Ewig, 'Das Bild Constantins des Grossen im aben-

Constantine's

MARK, ST (18 Jan.- 7 Oct. 336). Although

wear the external trappings of a Christian city. He was buried in the cemetery of Sta Priscilla on the Via Salaria. Feast 3 1 Dec. Later generations found it incredible that generosity,

fabrication of

neuer

LP

listing these gifts in

was during

A

document came

115-30; DCB 4, 673-7 0- Barmby); DTC 14, 2068-75 (E. Amann); NCE 13, 857 f. (J- Chapin). For the Silvester legend see W. Levison, 'Konstantinische Schenkung und Silvester-Legende', 57" 38 (1924), 159-247; H. Fuhrmann, 'Konstantinische Schenkung und Silvesterlegende in

which

like the Basilica

S.

(later

primacy

74-8 1 170-201; H. U. Instinsky, Bischofsstuhl und Kaiserthron (Munich, 1955), 83-102; Caspar 1,

presided enriched and beautified by the princely

to Constantinople.

Eusebius, Hist.

however, of seeing the church over which he emperor's

his successors the

be treated as authoritative even by opponents of the papacy, and was only exposed as false in the 1 6th cent.

whom

ecclesiastical policies;

one of them.

made

and

the 8th-9th cents., this

legends without

are

Silvester

over the great ecclesiastical patriarchates,

to

LP

describes

him

Priscus, nothing

28

is

as

a

Roman, son of known of his

reliably

background.

He

fied with the

Mark mentioned by Constan-

should possibly be identi-

JULIUS Great (305-37)

tine the

Miltiades synod

Pope

in his letter to

313 asking him

in

hold a

to

to adjudicate the case of Caecilian of

Carthage;

so, he must have then been

if

prominent among the short reign

fell

Athanasius

(c.

in

Roman

eventful

clergy.

9,

from

Alexandria to Trier, Marcellus of Ancyra

in

any way involved

in the struggle arising out of the council of

*Nicaea

an

(325);

exchange

attributed to Athanasius

»cent.

collection

Decretals

is

known

spurious.

of

and him

letters

in the 9th-

False

the

as

LP

Roma

euro,

nel iv secolo

JULIUS I, ST (6 Feb. 337-12 Apr. 352). A Roman of forceful character, elected after a four-month vacancy, he

Mark was

Chapin); A.

(Rome, 1947), 282; 300.

his vigorous support of

evidence that

(J.

99 (1948), 503-13; V. Monachino, La

tolica

and other leaders of Nicene

r.374)

f.

pastorale a Milano, Cartagine e

orthodoxy deposed, and the arch-heretic Arius on his deathbed; but there is no

(d.

232

Ferrua, 'La basilica di papa Marco', Civiltd cat-

with

times,

banished

296-373)

His

NCE

(G. D. Gordini);

1(337-52)

claims that he

and of

its

(d.

(d.

f.376),

known

for

373) and Marcellus of whom the Arianizing

Eusebius

with

associated

party

chiefly

*Nicene orthodoxy eastern champions, *Athanasius

of Alexandria

Ancyra

is

of

Nicomedia (d. f.342), now dominant in the east, had ejected from their bishoprics.

When Constantine

May

the Great died (22

band of white wool decorated with crosses, worn by the pope and bestowed by him on metropolitans) to the bishops of Ostia and decreed that they

337) they were allowed by the government to return to their sees, but the dismayed

should always consecrate the bishop of

endorse

Rome. The former statement

replacement by Arianizing nominees, but

granted the pallium

(a

doubtful,

is

since while popes began using the pallium in the 4th cent, there

conferring the latter

Augustine,

is

no proof of

their

Eusebians sought to prevent

when

on other prelates so early; but may well be correct since St

admitted

Marcellus,

communion

on the

Roman

held a synod originally

first

of his

consecrators. It seems that Mark founded two churches. One was the *title church of Mark, originally named after him but later placed under the patronage of the Second Evangelist; probably a simple house which he owned and converted into a church, it was long ago incorporated into what is now the Palazzo di Venezia. The other was a basilica in the cemetery of S. Balbina on the Via Ardeatina, the ruins of which survived until the 17th cent. There is evidence that it was during his reign that the compilation of the Depositio episcoporum and

W

1

for

30-2;

LP

1,

So

f.;

202-4; Caspar

1

,

now

completely

had

refused to

cleared

the

He communi-

condemning bishops of

them

apostolic sees

without reference to the episcopate as a

whole and, more

particularly, for ignoring,

of Athanasius, the customary

in the case

prerogatives of Rome in relation to Alexandria.

An

impasse was reached

Eusebians,

at

Antioch

summer

in

when

the

the Dedication Council of

341, reaffirmed their

condemnation of Athanasius and adopted a creed which, omitting the Nicene key-

of anniversaries of the deaths of Roman

,

(the easterners

but

masterly letter in which he reproached

phrase

'one

in

being with the

Father',

attacked the theology of Marcellus. a

request

3,

of Julius,

II

(337-61),

convened

council of east and west

29

To

find

way out the two emperors, Constans (337-

50) and Constantius

18; 142;

825 0- Barmby); DTC 9, 1959 f. (K. Amann); EC 8, 50 (V. Monachino); BSS 8, 699 f.

DCB

it,

cated these decisions to the easterners in a

bishops and martyrs, was begun. Feast 7 Oct. J

Rome

bishops of doctrinal error.

the Depositio martyrum, the precious ancient lists

at

proposed

which

attend)

three

of his subscription to the

basis

baptismal creed. In autumn 340 he

have the bishop of Ostia as the

in

he

suspected of *Sabellianism, to

413, takes it as established custom for the Roman pontiff to writing

and

Rome he took them under

they fled to

protection;

his

it

decline to

deposition

bishops'

the

help to

enlist Julius's

Not only did he

this.

at

at

the

i

general

Scrdua

(Sofia) in

LIBERIUS 342

(or 343).

however,

(352-66)

When the western on

insisted

Marcellus taking part

1, 142-65; Haller 1, 65-71; DCB 3, 526Barmby); DTC 8, 191 4-17 (E. Amann); PRE 9, 619-21 (H. Bohmer); 177^5, 1203 f. (R.

Caspar

delegation,

32

and

Athanasius

in the proceedings,

(J.

Baumer);

the eastern one indignantly withdrew and

NCE

8,

51

f.

(J.

Chapin); Seppelt

1,

86-95-

issued an encyclical not only reiterating the

anathema on them but excommunicating

LIBERIUS (17 May 352-24 Sept. 366). A Roman by birth, he was elected at a time

leading western bishops, including Julius,

whom

branded as the cause of all the trouble. Meanwhile the western majority continued to meet as a council, and although Julius was not personally present his influence can be detected in its renewed vindication of Athanasius and his colleagues, its condemnation of many of the Eusebians and their supporters, and its it

canons, particularly those

deposed bishop the

when

was in the and Constantius II (337—61), now sole emperor, was taking steps to force the western episcopate to fall into line and join the east in anathematizing symbol

of Nicene

eastern bishops

Julius

pope.

A

in the east

Athanasius of .Alexandria the

giving a

(3, 4, 5)

right to appeal to the

the pro-*Arian faction

ascendant

I

had recently written

reign, but

falls

to return to

way

at

with an eloquent

church

on

letter

although mild and impulsive, lacking his

him

predecessor's strength of character, rejec-

congratulating his

ted their accusations and sent envoys to

the pope furnished

receiving

pastor. Julius also

when

allowed in

Alexandria, he called on his

Rome, where

whose deposition by the

council of Tyre (335) the west steadfastly refused to accept, but the new pope,

over the rest of Julius's

when Athanasius was

345

to

urging him to examine afresh the

case of Athanasius,

curtain

(d. 373), always orthodoxy. The

back

had the

Constantius,

valiant

their

seemed

then

requesting him to

satisfaction in

resident

summon

Aries,

at

a council at

be turning

Aquileia which would settle the issues dis-

against them, of accepting a cringing recan-

puted between east and west. Instead the

tation

from Bishops Ursacius and Valens, bitterest foes and leaders of Arianism in the west, and of

emperor,

two

advisers, the pro-Arian bishops Ursacius

347,

the tide

to

of Athanasius's

his

theological

and Valens, held a synod there and then

communion. activities on the

them temporarily

by

influenced

at

to

Aries which, bypassing theological ques-

LP credits him,

possibly correctly, with reorganizing the

condemnation of even the pope's legates concurred. Deploring their

papal chancery on the model of imperial

weakness,

restoring

Information

about his

domestic front

is

sparse, but

practice; for the first time

of the primkerius

mention

is

or

notariorum,

tions,

made

several

Rome

churches,

inspired

notably

senior

him

to

faith

was

He was buried

cemetery of

in the

Calepodius on the Via Aurelia, his name being immediately included in the

*Roman

calendar of 354. Feast 12 Apr. Athanasius, Apol. c.Ar. 21-35; 5 2 f (two letters); 8, 857-944; PLSupp 1, 191 f.;JW 1, 30-2; E.

PL

Schwartz, Gesammelte Schriften (Berlin, 193663), 4;

H. Hess, The Canons of

Serdica a.d.

343 (Oxford, 1958);

the Council of

LP

1,

8

f.;

demanded

a

new

and not

at stake.

just the position

of Athanasius

When the council met at Milan

in Oct.

in

Trastevere and the Julian basilica (now SS. Apostoli).

Liberius

pressure,

355 there was no discussion of the Nicene creed; once again the emperor used bullying tactics to extract a condemnation of Athanasius from all the delegates except three convinced Nicenes, who were promptly exiled. Since Liberius still held out, resisting bribery and then threats, he was brought by force to Milan and then, proving unyielding, banished to Beroea in Thrace. Here, as the months slipped by and the local bishop worked on him, his morale

found

Sta Maria

the

under

general council, stressing that the *Nicene

notary. His care for the growing Christian

population of

reaffirmed

Athanasius;

collapsed and, in painful contrast to his

205 f;

30

FELIX now acquiesced

bishops of

excommunication, accepted

with those

previous resolute stand, he in Athanasius's

the ambiguous First

Creed of Sirmium

(which omitted the Nicene 'one in being with the Father'), and

made

abject submis-

sion to the emperor. His capitulation pathetically mirrored in four letters

is

which

he wrote from exile in spring 357 to Arianizing bishops, and which suggest that he was ready to pay almost any price to return home. Finally, brought to Sirmium (Mitrovica in Yugoslavia) in 358, he was content to sign a formula which, while

Nicene 'one

rejecting the

in

Son

Father', declared the

being with the to

be

the

like

Father in being and indeed in everything.

The emperor, satisfied that public order Rome could only be restored by his return, now allowed Liberius to go back. In in

his absence his

archdeacon Felix had been

elected bishop, but had proved extremely

unpopular.

The Roman church was now

informed that Liberius could return on con-

II (antipope

enter into communion who had compromised them-

Italy to

adhered

selves at Rimini provided they

Nicene

the

355-65)

faith.

Finally

in

to

when

366,

eastern bishops were seeking western support,

he granted them communion on the condition

strict

accepted

they

that

the

Nicene creed.

Thus in

in his closing years Liberius

some degree

for his

atoned

temporary capitula-

and made a contribution to the unity of and west. The violent disorders, however, which erupted in Rome after his death suggest that he was a weak pope who tion,

east

failed to

maintain cohesion in the

Roman

community. He built the huge Liberian basilica on the Esquiline, transformed in the 5th cent, into Sta Maria Maggiore. A discourse on virginity he is said to have delivered at the veiling of Marcellina, St

Ambrose's

Ambrose the

work of St

the

sister, is largely

himself.

The almanac known

as

Chronograph of 354, comprising lists of

He

emperors, consuls, popes, martyrs,

the

derives from his reign. In the 5th-cent.

the suggestion of a

Martyrology of St Jerome he was com-

joint episcopate with the acclamation 'one

memorated on 23 Sept., but his name does not occur in later calendars; as early as the

dition that

he and Felix reigned

welcomed

was

populace,

God, one withdraw

jointly.

enthusiastically

who spurned

by

one bishop'. Felix had to the suburbs, but the two

Christ, to

bishops seem to have reached a modus vivendi, with the great majority of clergy laity

and

attached to Liberius. Despite his per-

Rome, however, he was gravely compromised in the church at large;

sonal triumph in

for several years

leadership of the west

6th cent, hostile legend represented him as a traitor to the faith faithful.

8, 1348-1410 (letters, etc.); PLSupp 1, 19720i;GS£Z,65, 155-73 (letters from exile); 35, 1 f. (Liberius and Felix); Sozomen, Hist. eccl. 4, 15;

JW

Caspar

two bishops in Rome, Liberius was not invited, nor did he send delegates, to the synod of Rimini (359), at which the western

24

death

of

Constantius

however, he was free as

to

(3

Nov.

champion of Nicene orthodoxy.

published

a

decree

Arianizing decisions

setting at

361),

re-assume his role

Rimini.

First,

aside

Then

he the in

and persecutor of the

the distorted picture of

is

PL

because of this, but also because there were

accepting an Arianizing creed. With the

This

Liberius which appears in LP.

passed effectively into other hands. Perhaps

bishops were eventually browbeaten into

etc.,

7,

32-6;

1,

(J.

1,

LP

1,

exx-exxiii;

166-95; Haller

DTC 9,

Barmby);

1269-72

(V.

1,

82

71-5;

631-59

f.;

207-10;

DCB 3,

(E.

717— Amann); EC

Monachino); Seppelt

1,

95-102.

FELIX II, ST (antipope 355-22

Nov. 365). background except that he was archdeacon when Liberius was banished to Beroea by

Nothing

is

known about

Emperor Constantius

II

his

(337-61)

in late

355. Led by Felix, the Roman clergy solemnly swore to recognize no one else as

362, associating himself with conciliatory

their bishop during Libcrius's lifetime. In

measures taken earlier in the year at the synod of Alexandria, he instructed the

spite

of

this,

yielding

to

demands, they soon elected

the

emperor's

Felix pope.

1

le

DAMASUS

1(366-84)

was consecrated by three *Arianizing prelates, not in a church but, according to

to seek to

Athanasius of Alexandria

own. By a strange irony, however, Felix was

(d. 373), in the imperial palace, presumably at Milan, and

communion with

entered into

of the

clergy

remained

and

devoted

installation

all

the

Liberius,

to

Rome

at

popular reaction;

Rome

almost

posthumous triumph. Although contemporary documents speak of him as an Arianizing interloper intruded by Conto enjoy a

the Arianiz-

ing party favoured by Constantius. As

some

he not only came to be included in list of Roman popes with the

stantius,

laity

the official

Felix's

provoked a violent

when Constantius

and Liberius was wise enough amalgamate Felix's clergy with his

his partisans,

incorrect but traditionally accepted style of Felix

visited

(LP assigns him

II

a special section,

357, he was met with demonstrations in favour of Liberius and

almost

lobbied by society ladies demanding the

same name was eventually venerated as a martyr himself, with his feast on 29 July. As his legend developed, he was believed to have been a courageous defender of the *Nicene faith and to have laid down his life for it, while Liberius was represented as a

Apr.

in

exile's return.

stitution

him

is

revealed by a con-

of the Theodosian

Code addressed

Augustus and Julian Caesar on 6 Dec. 357, confirming the exemption of clergy, their families and employees from taxes and other was charges. Constantius satisfied, however, that the restoration of Liberius to

was

as bishop by Constantius

him

faithful.

Athanasius, Hist. Ar. 75; Jerome, Chron. (Helm,

The

citizens,

to his will,

n; Caspar

1,

f.;

DCB

LP 2,

1,

ep.

1

(CSEL

15;

4, 33; cxx-cxxv; 2074,

480-2

Barmby);

(J-

(Berlin,

1905-13)

6,

570-81.

arrangement,

DAMASUS later

he was thrown out again. loyal

Born

in

I,

ST

(1

Oct. 366-11 Dec.

Rome

£305, he was son of a be priest of the church

who rose to known as S. Lorenzo and of a mother

father

in the Julian

A deacon under Liberius, he accompanied him into exile in 355 but soon found his way back to

He had to

Laurentia; he had a sister Irene.

resign himself to settling in the suburbs, but

have retained

188

2, 17;

eccl.

134 f. (A. Amore); DHGE 16, 887-9 (PNautin); Th. Mommsen, Gesammelte Schriften

attempted to celebrate mass

to

eccl.

Hist.

1

5,

384).

seems

98; Collectio Avellana,

Hist.

shouting the slogan 'One God, one Christ, one bishop', and expelled Felix from the city. When he staged a comeback and basilica,

ill.

Sozomen,

1-4);

Theodoret,

EC

however, objec-

ted to this unprecedented

De vir.

2T,-]);

35,

permitted him to return in 358 on the understanding that Felix and he should be co-bishops.

martyrs bearing the

orthodoxy and a persecutor of the

traitor to

essential to the preservation of public

order, and, having bent

but through being

fiction),

Roman

confused with

The government's continued

recognition of Felix

pure

all

supporters,

to LP, he bought a property on the Via Aurelia, built a church there, and was eventually buried in it. It appears that from 357 to 365 Rome had two bishops, Liberius occupying the Lateran palace from 358 and Felix

Rome where, in defiance of the oath of the Roman clergy not to recognize anyone else

established in the suburbs, with the clergy

with him.

and people unequally divided between them. Each could appeal to the imperial letter recognizing them as joint bishops; and the sole concern of the city prefect was to prevent clashes between the two communities pending the death of one of them. Felix

366

including

some

in fact died

clergy.

first,

According

pope while Liberius was alive, he took with Antipope Felix II. When Liberius was allowed to return in 358,

as

service

Damasus became

On

at

some

point reconciled

Liberius's death

on 24 Sept.

violent disorders broke out over the

choice of a successor.

A

remained consistently

loyal

group

who had

to

Liberius

immediately elected his deacon Ursinus in the Julian basilica and had

bishop,

but

a

rival

him consecrated

adherents elected Damasus,

the exact date of his death

(22 Nov. 365) being carefully preserved by

of

Felix's

who

did not

faction

hesitate to consolidate his claim

32

by hiring a

DAMASUS

eastern churches, however, where Basil the Great (d. 379) was striving to restore orthodoxy on the basis of a subtle restatement of *Nicene doctrine, were less than

gang of thugs, storming the Julian basilica and carrying out a three-day massacre of Ursinians. On Sunday i Oct. his partisans seized the Lateran basilica, and he was there consecrated.

of the

pope

He

happy. Like the west generally, he failed to

then sought the help occasion of a

city prefect (the first

enlisting the civil

power against

his

1(366-84)

understand the new developments when Antioch was split between

and, rival

and he promptly expelled Ursinus and his followers from Rome. Mob violence continued until 26 Oct., when

bishops, persisted in backing Paulinus, the

Damasus's men attacked the Liberian basilica, where the Ursinians had sought refuge; the pagan historian Ammianus Marcellinus reports that they left 137 dead on the field. Damasus was now secure on his throne; but the bishops of Italy were shocked by the reports they received, and his moral authority was weakened for several years. The antipope and his adherents, though repeatedly banished by the government, kept up continuous attacks on him throughout his reign. In about 371,

eastern hopes for unity were centred;

through a converted Jew named Isaac, they brought a 'disgraceful charge', probably of

the test of a creed's orthodoxy was

adversaries),

emperor's

and

him,

against

adultery,

only

secured

intervention

unrepresentative leader of a reactionary

group,

whom when

him as impossibly

In despair Basil described arrogant.

He took no part in the ecumenical

council (the second) held at Constantinople in 381,

and made no contribution

to the

constructive detente between east and west

which was now under way. Damasus was indefatigable

in

promoting

Roman primacy, frequendy referring to Rome as 'the apostolic see' and ruling that

the

its

endorsement by the pope. In 378 he persuaded the government to recognize the holy see as a court of first instance and also

the his

of

these

embarrassments,

the favour of court

nicknamed him His

the pope himself from the

and

life-style

break

to

down

(379-95) declared (27 Feb. 380) Christianity the state I

form which the Romans had once received from St Peter and Damasus

and

religion in that

the anti-

Christian prejudices of upper-class pagan

He was

courts. In

civil

tune with his ideas, Theodosius

'the matrons' ear-tick-

magnificent

helped

hospitality

it

declined to admit any special immunity for

aristocracy, not least of wealthy ladies; gos-

ler'.

on

of appeal for the western episcopate, but

spite

Damasus enjoyed sips

of Meletius,

Meletius died in 381, he refused to enter into communion with his successor Flavian.

acquittal.

In

instead

of

Rome and

Peter of Alexandria

Damasus

now

pro-

primacy was not

in

repressing

heresies, including *Arianism,

and did not

based on decisions of synods, as were the

scruple to call in the secular power; but he

claims of Constantinople, but exclusively on

families.

failed to dislodge

active

Auxentius

(d.

fessed; for

his being the direct successor of St Peter

374), the

Arianizing bishop of Milan. His measures

and so the

against the intransigently Nicene disciples

made

of Lucifer of Cagliari ticularly

brutal.

In

(d.

traits,

but

370/1) were parhe counselled

380

at

rightful heir

of the promises

him by Christ (Matt. 16: 18). This succession gave him a unique juridical power to bind and loose, and the assurance

moderation in dealing with Priscillianism, an esoteric Spanish heresy with dualist and *Sabellian

this

of

successive synods

he anathematized Apollinarianism (which

to

this

infused

all

his rulings

discipline.

He was

churches

(including

also S.

a

on church builder

Lorenzo

of in

Damaso), advanced the cult of the martyrs, and restored the catacombs with the aim of

claimed that the Logos took the place of the

human

mind in the God-man) and Macedonianism (which denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit). His relations with the

demonstrating that the

real glory of

Rome

was not pagan but Christian. A man ol cultivated interests, he organized and 33

URSINUS

(antipope 366-7)

rehoused the papal archives.

He made

friends with St Jerome, employed

him as

Ursinus and his deacons, Amantius and Lupus, into exile. He also had his priests arrested, but the Ursinians rescued them

his

secretary for several years, corresponded •

with him on points of exegesis, and commis-

on the basis of the

and then established themselves in the Liberian basilica (Sta Maria Maggiore), which they used for a while for worship. In

himself composed epi-

response to their appeal, Emperor Valen-

sioned him to revise the existing Latin translations of the gospels original Greek.

He

grams in sonorous, if turgid, verse, mosdy in honour of martyrs and previous popes, and had them inscribed on marble slabs in the elegant lettering of his friend Filocalus; and St Jerome attributes to him essays in prose and verse on virginity. He was buried in a church he had built on the Via Ardeatina, but his remains were later transferred to S. Lorenzo in Damaso. Feast 1 1 Dec.

tinian

(1965), 105-28; Caspar

48-53

(A. van Roev);

LThk

3,

(M. R.

P.

136

(O.

1

136-9

DHGE

Perler); 1,

ment

Damasus. The to meet without clergy in cemeteries and in the church of Sta Agnese on the Via Nomentana, although they were soon brutally dislodged by the pope's henchmen. The bishops of Italy were understandably upset by the reports they received, and at a Roman synod (autumn 368) to celebrate Damasus's

4 109-30.

,

624

14,

f.

(antipope Sept. 366-Nov. 367:

Nothing

is

known of

orders,

Ursinians,

(A. Ferrua);

NCE

his earlier

was one of Liberius's deacons. On Liberius's death on 24 Sept. 366 the animosity between his supporters and those of Antipope Felix II, dormant since the latter's death on 22 Nov. 365, erupted afresh. The dead pope's unwavering adherents, including priests and three deacons, immediately assembled in the Julian basilica (Sta Maria in Trastevere), elected Ursinus, and had him consecrated there and then by Bishop Paul of Tibur (Tivoli). They were probably opponents of the irenic policy of Liberius, who had done history except that he

that they should

hold meetings nearer than the twentieth milestone from Rome.

members of

leading

city prefect, Viventius,

of Felix,

its

outskirts.

and

charge'

They now

in the early

were

faction

but the

370s used

(of adultery,

civil

Rome

settled in north a converted

Isaac to bring a 'disgraceful

against the pope.

according

The charge was

to

LP)

dismissed

power had no option but

to

intervene again, relegating Ursinus to Col-

ogne and Isaac

Damasus

who

his

standing that they did not set foot in or

to Spain; the Ursinians

were

forbidden to come within a hundred miles

of Rome. Even

eventually got the upper hand, enlisting the

help of the

precarious peace

released from confinement on the under-

have been more numerous, elected the deacon Damasus, who thereupon hired a mob, savagely attacked the Ursinians, and was himself consecrated pope on 1 Oct. The bloody but

A

having been thus patched up, Ursinus and

Italy,

continued,

down his request condemn Ursinus. The

instructions that the Ursinians should not

Jew named

street-fighting

to

continued

government nevertheless maintained active support for Damasus, and f.370 issued

The former however, who may

partisans

handed over

however,

birthday pointedly turned

his best to heal the schism after Felix's

death.

antipope and his deacons recity in

Nov., this time to Gaul. His clergy and many of his supporters were also expelled, and their last remaining church was, on govern-

Histona 14

196-256;

McGuire); Seppelt

URSINUS d. 385?).

f.

1,

EC 4,

city

triumph on 15 Sept. 367. There were renewed disorders, however, and Damasus (it was alleged) having bribed the court, Ursinus was again exiled on 16

tw Avellana (CSEL 35, 1-4; 28-30; 49; 56 f.); ill. 103; ep. 22, 22; LP 1, 212-15; ,

The

entered the

Jerome, Devtr.

1

new

leagues on condition that they kept the peace.

i, 37-40; PL 13, 347-424; A. Ferrua, Epigrammata Damasiana (Vatican City, 1942); Collec-

und Damasus

the

Agorius Praetextatus, to permit the return of Ursinus and his col-

JVV

A. Lippold, 'Ursinus

now ordered

(364-75)

I

prefect, Vettius

so, the

sentence seems to

have been relaxed, for in Sept. 381 the

sent

34

SIRICIUS

(384^99)

synod of Aquileia complained to the emperors that Ursinus was still fomenting mischief, and requested them to get rid

the authoritative chancery style of imperial

once for all of so persistent a trouble-maker. Yet he never abandoned hope of attaining the papal throne, and put himself forward as a candidate on Damasus's death in Dec.

addressed

384.

An

imperial letter survives, dated 24

edicts and, like them, carrying the force of law.

The

1 Feb. 385) is Himerius, bishop of Tar-

earliest surviving (1 to

who had submitted fifteen queson church discipline to Damasus I.

ragona, tions

Opening with the claim that the pope, or Aposde Peter present in him,

rather the

Feb. 385, expressing the court's relief that

bears the burdens of the heavily laden,

he had been howled down and that Siricius had been decisively elected. The date of his death is not known.

proceeds to give peremptory rulings on

Collectio Avellana, Epp.

1;

36;

LP

1,

212;

A.

questions like the readmission of heretics, the proper seasons (Easter and Pentecost) for baptism, the age

5-13 (CSEL 35, 2-4;

48-55); Ammianus Marcellinus, Rer. gest. 27, Rufinus, Hist. eccl. 2, 10; Ambrose, Ep. 11; JW Lippold,

'Ursinus

3;

ordinations,

1,

celibacy,

und

Damasus', Historia 14 (1965), 105-28; Caspar 1, 196-201; 203 f.; 208; 257; DCB 4, 1068-70 (J. Barmby); DHGE 14, 48-50 (A. van Roey); PRE 20, 346-8 (A. Julicher); PWSupp X, 1141-8 (A. Lippold).

it

and

qualifications for

and

continence

clerical

and the penitential discipline.

Siri-

cius requests that these decrees (decretalia),

which are

the canons of

as binding as

synods, be communicated to the neighbouring provinces of Africa, Spain, and Gaul. In Jan. 386 he dispatched to Africa and other

churches nine canons adopted by a synod

SIRICIUS,

384-26 Nov. 399). A he had been one of

ST (Dec.

Roman by birth, Damasus I's deacons,

meeting 'by the relics of the Aposde Peter' which laid down, inter alia, that no bishop be

should

having before that

without

consecrated

the

served Liberius as reader and then deacon.

cognizance of 'the apostolic see' or by only a

Although Antipope Ursinus again put himwas election forward, Siricius's self

with a series of canons to queries submitted

He

single consecrator.

similarly

unanimous, and was confirmed with evident satisfaction by Emperor Valentinian II

by the bishops of Gaul.

(375-92) in a rescript (25 Feb. 385) probably intended to cut short any intrigues in

activities are available.

the Ursinian camp.

The emperor

Only

responded

rare glimpses of Siricius's general

To

maintain

Roman

influence in east Illyricum (the south-east

Balkan peninsula), now incorporated

gave fur-

in the

ther proof of his approval by presenting

eastern empire, he conferred on the bishop

funds for the restoration and enlargement

of Thessalonica in 385 the unprecedented privilege of authorizing all episcopal

something approaching its present size of St Paul's basilica, which the new pope con-

to

appointments in that region, thus laying the foundation

secrated in 390.

St Jerome,

who had once

of the

later

papal vicariate.

Although disapproving of *Priscillianism, he rebuked (386) the usurper Maximus

fancied himself

pope and in whose expulsion from Rome must at least have concurred, described him as guileless and easily imposed upon, while Paulinus of Nola (d. 43 1) comas

(383-8) for executing the heretic

Siricius

refused

communion

Priscillian,

to the bishops

sible for the tragic innovation

respon-

of sentencing

plained of his haughty reserve. In fact he

a heretic to death,

was an experienced, forceful pontiff who, though inevitably overshadowed by St Ambrose, bishop of Milan 374-97, was as fully aware as Damasus I of Rome's primatial status and his own role as successor of St Peter. He was the first pope to issue decretals, i.e. directives couched in

Ambrose in recommending lenient treatment for penitent Priscillianists. No

and

in

opponent of asceticism,

397 joined with St

as

sometimes mis-

Roman synod of excommunicate Jovinian, a monk

represented, he used a

392/3

to

who had turned critic of fasting and celibacy and who argued that the BVM had lost her 35

ANASTASIUS

1(399-401)

virginity in bearing the Saviour. Later

condemned

he

than Siricius to the

Naissus (Nis), that Mary' had borne children to St

the

after the Lord's birth, while

Joseph

leaving

it

to the

man

bishops of Illyricum to judge

He

himself.

also intervened suc-

cessfully in the schism dividing Antioch, for

was on

it

have been thoroughly confused, for Origen was a mere name to him and he had little or no grasp of the issues at stake; but when a letter reached him in spring 400 from

Theophilus, the powerful patriarch of Alex-

his advice that the council of

Caesarea

Palestine)

(in

recognized

andria

that

was the legitimate bishop. In the mid-390s he incurred the wrath of St Jerome, then settled in Bethlehem, and of his friends at

by

Rome

wrote

and

Flavian,

not

Evagrius,

because of his favourable attitude

move-

strict ascetic

ment, and they put pressure on him to condemn Origen's writings. The pope must

the view of Bonosus, bishop of

(d.

412), dwelling on the evils caused

Origen's

works and reporting

their

recent condemnation in Egypt, he convened a

synod which anathematized the con-

troversial

to

theologian's

and

errors,

then

bishop of Milan

to Simplician,

(d.

John, bishop of Jerusalem (d. 417), and to Rufinus of Aquileia (d. 410), both at that

bishops' adhesion to the anathema. Feeling

time in Jerome's blackest books.

himself

Siricius

was buried

in the basilica

400), inviting his and other northern Italian

of his translation and of his

Silvestro near the cemetery of Priscilla; a contemporary column outside the north

porch of St Paul's commemorates his dedication of the basilica. Although honoured as a saint in earlier centuries, he was omitted

from the

first

edition (1584) of the

Rufinus

threatened,

sent

Anastasius a short but spirited defence both

of S.

position.

Still

under

own

the

theological

influence

Jerome's friends, the pope wrote

in

401

of to

Bishop John of Jerusalem making it plain that, while he remained sceptical about

Roman

Rufinus's motives in making his notorious translation, he left

Martyrology because of the criticisms of St

him

to

God's judgement.

Jerome and St Paulinus of Nola. His name was added to it in 1748 by Benedict XIV,

special

who wrote

Thessalonica to prevent eastern Illyricum

Like Siricius, Anastasius maintained a

a dissertation to prove his holi-

ness. Feast 26 Nov.

Jerome, Ep. 127,

9;

Paulinus of Nola, Ep.

Collectio Avellana, Ep. 40 1

(diss.,

90

f);

PL

LP

696-702 258

f.

1,

(J.

(P.

Barmby);

DTC

BSS

11,

1234-7

bishop

the

of

from

drifting into the ecclesiastical sphere

of

Constantinople.

Unlike

Siricius,

however, he was immensely admired by

13,

Stil

Monachino); 13,

35,

86 f.; 216 f.; JW 1, 40-2; H. und Form der dltesten Papstbriefe Tubingen, 1922); Caspar 1, 257-85; DCB

131-96;

Getzeny,

4,

(CSEL

5, 14;

with

relationship

Jerome, who claimed that his pontificate had been cut short because Rome did not deserve so noble a bishop.

(V.

He

also enjoyed

cordial relations with Paulinus of

217 1-4 (E. Amann); NCE T. Camelot); Seppelt 1, 127-33. 14,

431),

him

whom

had snubbed,

Siricius

to attend the anniversary

Nola

(d.

inviting

of his con-

ANASTASIUS I, ST (27 Nov. 399-19 Dec. 401). A Roman by birth, he had hardly

worried by a shortage of clergy, sought a

become pope when he was plunged

relaxation of the ban

secration.

into the

When

the

African

bishops,

on *Donatist clergy

church,

he replied in

quarrel then raging over Origen, the out-

returning to

standing but controversial 3rd-cent. Greek

by Rufinus of Aquileia (f.345-

autumn 401 in distinctly unhelpful terms, exhorting them to continue to struggle advice the Africans against Donatism tactfully ignored. LP attributes to him

410) which had greatly offended Jerome (331-420), now settled in Bethlehem, and

bishops, as well as priests and deacons, to

theologian. This had been sparked off by a whitewashing translation of Origen's First Principles

the

—

(possibly correctly) a constitution requiring

stand with bowed heads during the gospel at

Rome. These had welcomed Anastasius's election because they judged him better disposed his influential circle of friends in

mass, and also reports his erection of the Basilica Crescentiana, of unknown location.

36

INNOCENT He was buried in the cemetery of Pontian on the Via Portuensis. Feast 19 Dec. PL

20, 51-80;

PLSupp

1,

790-2; Jerome, Epp. 95;

127, 10; 130, 16; Paulinus of Nola, Ep. 20;

42 2,

f.jZ-P 1, 1

218

f; P-

47 1-3 0-

Turchi);

NCE

Caspar

1,

JW

1,

(P.

entrusted Bishop Rufus (17 June 415) with control 'in our stead' of the church in that region.

He was

papal

vicariate

thus the true founder of the

of

determination to assert himself in east as

EC 1, 1154 f. (N. T. Camelot); Seppelt 1,

well as west was also shown in his support of John Chrysostom (c. 347-407) and Jerome

285-7; 291

133-5

(331-420)

INNOCENT ST (21 I,

Dec. 401-12 Mar.

Son of Anastasius I and probably his

deacon, he was a

man

of great

commanding character. At

and

ability

a time

when

hours of need.

in their

John was deposed 417).

His

*Thessalonica.

UDHGE

1,

Kirsch);

478

(401-17)

I

as bishop of

When

Constan-

and exiled in 404, he sent him letters of encouragement, refused to recognize the tinople

bishop appointed in his place, called for an

and organized a dele-

impartial council,

the

western empire was crumbling under bar-

gation of protest to the eastern emperor.

barian invasions, he seized every opportun-

When

ity

of asserting the primacy of the

see,

making more

Roman

were insulted and sent in exile, he broke off

his envoys

back and John died

communion with

substantial claims for the

the eastern bishops

When news

who

papacy than his predecessors. As a result he not only proved one of the outstanding

had persecuted John.

popes of the early centuries, but has sometimes been saluted as 'the first pope'. His activities are mirrored in his correspondence, of which some thirty-six letters survive. For example, in decretals to Victricius of Rouen (d. £.407), Spanish bishops who had met in council at Toledo in 400, Exuperius of Toulouse (d. £.411), and Decentius of Gubbio (/?. 410), he laid down the law on a range of disciplinary and

Bethlehem had been destroyed and their inmates assaulted by hooligans, he at once wrote to him offering to exert 'the whole

Roman

north Africa in 405 and 412. The controversy with Pelagius (^.354-^.419), however,

liturgical matters, insisting that 'the

custom' should be the norm.

The

him

(416)

that Jerome's

reached

monasteries

authority of the apostolic see' against the

offenders, and sharply rebuked Bishop John

of Jerusalem

417) for allowing such

(d.

atrocities in his diocese.

The

imperious pope had

little

influence

with the government, and was not consulted over

letter to

its

measures

to

crush *Donatism in

Exuperius advised him on the canonical

who was

books of the Bible, while that

grace and exaltating the role of free

is

to

Decentius

also deals with

it

extreme

unction,

and

Innocent

gave

penance and restricts

accused of playing

down

divine will,

welcome chance of emphasizing Rome's doctrinal magisterium. Alarmed by the rehabilitation of

important for the history of the canon of

the mass;

at

the

administration of confirmation to bishops.

a

Innocent's tone was peremptory; as the

Pelagius at Diospolis (Lydda, 415), two African councils reaffirmed his condem-

gospel had reached the western churches

nation (411) in

from Rome, they should look to it for leadership, and recognize that Rome was their court of appeal, to which also 'weightier causes' should be referred.

tially

four other African bishops also wrote, sending

him

a

copy of Pelagius's

treatise

On

Nature. In three letters dated 27 Jan. 417 Innocent, while tactfully professing

ship with the bishop of Thessalonica which

had established so

deferen-

the apostolic see to theirs. St Augustine and

Innocent formalized the special relationhis predecessors

summer 416 and

asked the pope to add the anathema of

uncertainty about what had happened

as to

at

condemned perverse views on

prevent eastern Illyricum (the south-east

Diospolis,

Balkan peninsula), since 391 a prefecture of the eastern empire, from falling under the

grace and pronounced Pelagius and his

ecclesiastical

colleague Caelestius excommunicate unless

sway of Constantinople; he

they returned to orthodoxy.

M

I

le also

praised

ZOSIMUS

(417-18)

his correspondents for referring the matter

bishops everywhere should submit disputed

from insufficient knowledge of the west as from his impulsive temperament and highhanded methods. As early as 22 Mar. 417 he issued a decretal making Patroclus,

matters of faith to Peter, the founder of

bishop of Aries (412-26), an adventurer in

judgement (they had

to his

done

in fact not

thus following the ancient tradition that

so),

name and

their

had so

office.

No

Rome at the time who may have manipulated the election, metropolitan of the provinces of Vienne (a rival see) and the

previous pope

clearly enunciated the view that the

apostolic see possesses

supreme teaching two

authority. St Augustine rejoiced that

two Narbonnes, with authority secrate all bishops and adjudicate

councils had sent their decisions to the holy see, definitive rulings

had come back, and

ters not requiring reference to

the case was settled.

from Gaul wishing

WTien Alaric the Visigoth

Rome

siege to

in

(d.

410)

now

illegal)

angry gods, he apparently turned

Rome;

clergy

Rome had

to visit

to

These

ment

Patroclus, rejected protests, even deposing

for public

appease the

to

mat-

unprecedented measures aroused resentin Gaul, but Zosimus, influenced by

408, Innocent witnessed

While rejecting the demand

sacrifices (by

con-

all

obtain letters of credence from him.

laid

the famine and despair that afflicted the city.

to

(5

Mar. 418) Bishop Proculus of Marseilles

when he proved

a blind eye

A

recalcitrant.

letter to

to clandestine offerings. In

Hesychius

deputation

metropolitan of Dalmatia, suggests that the

410 he led a Emperor Honorius (393—

to

Ravenna to negotiate a truce, but the came to nothing, and Alaric stormed and plundered Rome (24 Aug. 410). The pope's absence was interpreted by pious historians as providential; God had spared him, as he had spared Lot, from 423)

pope had plans

at

negotiations

being engulfed with the sinful returned to died, he

Rome

was buried

capital.

only in 412. in the

When

vicariates

His intervention

20,

cent

same cemetery on

RTAM

19 (1952), 5-16; E.

geot, 'A propos des interventions I

dans

la

astute

519

f.

(P.

Zosimus reopened

the

skilful letters

self-defence

at

a

and Caelestius's meeting in S.

brusque

1,

7,

themselves, against

Demou-

1,

he informed the African

criticizing

them

unscrupulous

du pape Inno-

the

as over-hasty

witnesses.

action

taken

and based on

The outraged who frankly

reaction of the African bishops,

him (Nov. 417) that Innocent's sentence must stand, forced Zosimus to beat a

told

296-343; DCB 3, 243-9 (J1940-50 (E. Amann); NCE 7,

T. Camelot); Seppelt

letters

episcopate that both heretics had cleared

canon

le

to

defer to the judgement of the holy see. In

politique seculiere ',/?// 21 2 (1954),

23-38; Caspar Barmby); DTC

*Pelagian contro-

recent censure of Pelagius and his

I's

by Pelagius's

I.

41-4

Collectio Aiellana, Epp.

Leipzig, 1901); B.Capelle, 'Innocent let

cent

the

Clemente; they both professed readiness

463-636;

messe',

similar in

question and allowed himself to be taken in

he

35, 92-8); JW 1, 44-9; LP 1, 220-4; H. Gebhardt, Die Bedeutung Innocenz I fur die Enttvickelung der ptipstlichen Gewalt (dissert.,

la

in the

disciple Caelestius,

(CSEL

de

probably,

c.429),

more clumsy. Despite Inno-

versy was even

Feast 28 July.

PL

establishing

for

and,

there

(d.

western church generally.

He

the Via Portuensis as his father Anastasius

Salona

of

retreat;

135-44.

after

lecturing

them on papal

supremacy, he assured them (21 Mar. 418) that the situation remained as in Innocent's

ZOSIMUS, ST (18 Mar. 417-26 Dec. A Greek, possibly of Jewish descent

Meanwhile the Africans had appealed Emperor Honorius (393-423) at Ravenna, procuring from him a rescript (30 Pelagius, Apr. condemning 418) days.

418).

(his father's

name was Abraham), he was a presbyter who had been recommended to Innocent I by John Chrysostom (^.347-

to

407). Although he tirelessly upheld the

Caelestius, and their followers as heretics and disturbers of the peace. The pope had no option but to make a complete climb-

papal claims, his short and turbulent reign

was marred by blunders springing

as

much 38

EULALIUS (antipope 418-19) down, and addressed to the bishops of east and west a lengthy document, known as his Tractoria, in

which, reversing his previous

stand, he anathematized the Pelagians

and

EULALIUS (antipope 419:

d.

423).

when

buried

27 Dec. 418-3 Apr. Zosimus had hardly been

the deacons of the

themselves on 27 Dec. in the Lateran basilica and elected Eulalius, his

ricaded

their teachings.

Zosimus again clashed with the African

and

church, always jealous of its autonomy, over

archdeacon

who, excommunicated by Bishop Urbanus of Sicca, had appealed to him. Although Afri-

Greek, as his successor.

can canon law forbade appeals overseas, the pope acquitted him and sent him back to

Dec.

a disgruntled African priest, Apiarius,

Africa

with

demand

three

instructed

legates

to

that African bishops should

(a)

neighbouring sees;

to

(b)

that

elderly colleague

demarche

to the court at

make a habit Ravenna (their

of Pelagius

case

the

in

like

On

him,

a

28 Dec. the

Boniface.

men were

both

On Sunday 29

separately

con-

secrated, Eulalius in the Lateran by the

bishop of *Ostia,

who customarily ordained The prefect of the city,

the bishop of Rome. the pagan

Symmachus, immediately

dis-

patched a report favourable to Eulalius to

Emperor Honorius (393-423) at Ravenna, accepted him as pope. Having soon

the African bishops should not

of resorting

probably,

great majority of the presbyters elected their

have the right to appeal to Rome, and priests

and deacons

Roman

church, with a handful of presbyters, bar-

who

and

received,

however,

from

the

Roman

Urbanus

presbyters a different account of the elec-

should be excommunicated unless he with-

from Symmachus's, Honorius sumcontestants before a synod of bishops meeting at Ravenna. When this reached no conclusion, he deferred the case

Caelestius rankled); and

that

(c)

tion

moned both

on Apiarius. Zosimus justified his interference by appealing to two canons of the council of Nicaea (325), which were really canons of Serdica (342/3)

drew

his sentence

not recognized in Africa. referred

case

the

to

The next

the

to a

more

representative council, including

from Gaul and Africa, which should meet at Spoleto on 13 June 419; in the meantime both bishops should withdraw from Rome and the bishop of Spoleto,

bishops

Africans

African

meanwhile they informed the pope that, pending investigation, they would observe the two supposed canons without council;

Achilleus, should take charge of the Easter

tactiessness

ceremonies there on 30 Mar. Boniface complied, but Eulalius, determined to

Rome

establish his position by presiding at the

months an opposition group of clergy was intriguing against him at the imperial court at Ravenna. He was taking measures to excommunicate the malcon-

Easter services, returned to Rome on 18 Mar. and occupied the Lateran basilica by force. This proved his undoing, for it sparked off civil disorders, and the prefect expelled him from the city. On 3 Apr. an imperial edict was published excluding him from the see and confirming the appointment of Boniface; the projected council of Spoleto was dropped. Eulalius accepted the decision, retiring at first to Antium (Anzio, 60 km. from Rome), but he and his supporters seem to have retained hopes that he might stage a comeback; falling ill shortly afterwards, Boniface warned the emperor

prejudice.

heavy-handed

Zosimus's

excited considerable opposition in itself; in

tents

his last

when he

sickness, died.

on the road

fell

ill

and, after a protracted

He was buried in S. Lorenzo

to Tivoli.

The

factions

which

erupted after his death suggest that his rule

was divisive as well as misguided. Omitted from the 5th-cent. Martyrology of St Jerome, his name first appears in the 9thcent. Martyrology of Ado. Feast 26 Dec.

PL

PLSupp 1, 796-8; JW 1, 49-51; 225 f.; Caspar 1, 344-60; DCB 4, Barmby); DTC 15, 3708-16 (E.

20, 630-86;

LP

1, ccci;

1221-5 (JAmann); BSS pelt

1,

12,

1493-7

(V.

that the

schism might break out afresh

event of his death. In

Monachino); Sep-

died in Sept. 422, Eulalius

145-54-

39

in the

when the pope made no attempt

fact,

BONIFACE

(418-22)

I

to recover the see

although pressed to do so

by

LP

his partisans.

Honorius banned election intrigues, and that, if two candidates should be elected, both should be disqualified and the government would only recognize a bishop chosen unanimously. This first attempt to regulate papal election remained without

reports that he was

assigned a provincial see, although tions differ as to

whether

or in Campania.

He

it

was

its

decreed

edi-

Tuscany

in

died in 423.

14-36 (CSEL 35, 59-84); 88 f.; 227-9; Caspar 1,361-

Collect™ Avellana, Epp.

JW 1,51 4;

DCB

Haller

f.;LP

1

,

lxii;

effect.

277-9; DHGE 15, 1385 (H. Marot); 130 f.; Seppelt 1, 154 f.

1,

Boniface took

Elderly, frail in health,

2,

steps to annul Zosimus's

scheme

for

making

Aries a papal vicariate, and restored their

BONIFACE 422).

I,

A Roman

ST

(28 Dec.

418-4 Sept.

Innocent

papal vicariate of *Thessalonica, formalized

death,

I

entrusted with important mis-

by Siricius, when the eastern Emperor

On

Constantinople.

to

He

and Narbonne.

whom

Iocundus, he was a leading presbyter sions

metropolitan rights to Marseilles, Vienne,

priest,

by birth, son of a

while

presbyters

deacons

the

elected

the

Eulalius on 27 Dec, the the presbyters, with

many

Theodosius II (408-50), in response to complaints from the bishops of Thessaly,

Zosimus's and a few archdeacon

issued a constitution (14 July 421) transfer-

great majority of lain,

faced a threat to the

ring ecclesiastical jurisdiction in east

cum, now

assembled

of the

prefecture

a

Illyri-

eastern

Theodora on 28 Dec. and

empire,

elected Boniface. Both were consecrated

worked

29 Dec, Boniface in the church of S. Marcello in the presence of

authority in the region, impressing on Rufus

in the basilica of

separately on

nine bishops.

machus,

The

prefect of the

city,

to

reassert

his

of Thessalonica and the other bishops that

Sym-

the care of

came down in favour of report to Emperor Honorius

all

the churches, including the

eastern, rested by divine appointment with

a pagan,

Eulalius in his

Boniface

Constantinople.

to

energetically

Rome; through Honorius he managed

to

(393-423) at Ravenna, and Boniface was ordered to quit Rome; he did so under protest. He was popular with the people,

persuade

Theodosius

legislation,

although he could not prevent

however, and had powerful friends

inherited the case of the deposed priest

including Honorius's

and on receiving

sister,

a petition

suspend

his its

inclusion in the imperial codes. In Africa he

at court,

Galla Placidia;

from the

to

Apiarius,

Roman

whose reinstatement Zosimus had

peremptorily demanded, and received a

let-

May

4 1 9) from the African bishops reporting that, having avowed his mis-

presbyters strongly favouring Boniface, the

ter (3

emperor summoned both rivals to a synod at Ravenna. When this reached no conclusion,

conduct, Apiarius had been ordered to

1

ciate in another diocese. In the

he referred a decision to a council to be held at Spoleto on 13 June 419 at which bishops from Gaul and Africa would be present; in

offi-

meantime

they asked the pope to check the canons,

supposedly Nicene but in fact Serdican, by which Zosimus had justified his interven-

meantime the rival bishops should withdraw from Rome and Achilleus, bishop of

the

tion; they did

not conceal their disgust at the

On the other

Spoleto, should conduct the Easter services

arrogance of Zosimus's legate.

there on 30 Mar. Boniface complied, but

hand, Boniface was himself guilty of indis-

Eulalius's defiance of the order infuriated

cretion

the government, which banished

him from

Rome and recognized Boniface (3 Apr. 419) as

its

lawful bishop.

In July 420,

north Africa

when

entertained an appeal from

whom

St Augustine had in-

advisedly appointed, and without hearing

and worried that schism might afresh if he died, Boniface requested the emperor to ensure peace if there had to be a new election. In reply

seriously

when he

Antony, a deprived bishop of Fussala in

the case against

ill

him

sent

him back

to Africa

with orders for his rehabilitation.

break out

In

the

struggle

against

*Pelagianism

Boniface was an unswerving supporter of

40

CELESTINE and persuaded Honorius

orthodoxy,

publish an edict requiring

all

ating St Augustine having

come

Augustine,

who prepared an

treatise in reply to

to the

pope

communion

with persons they had excommunicated.

exhaustive

and humility of character.

his guilt; the African

the pope of their traditional autonomy, and

Celestine was

more successful

in asserting,

as St Peter's successor, his general over-

which bore testimony

Roman, Boniface was

which Apiarius broke

pressed him not to enter into

St

them. This he dedicated

in a letter

to his kindness

to

at

down and admitted

bishops seized the opportunity to remind

into his

had them transmitted

(422-32)

plenary council was held at

Carthage (f.426)

Zosimus's *Tractoria outlawing the heresy. Two letters by Pelagian leaders calumnihands, he

A

Faustinus.

to

bishops to sign

I

A

sight over east Illyricum,

and directed (423/

indefatigable in

4) the bishops there to regard Rufus, bishop

promoting the claims of the papacy, and once wrote, 'It has never been lawful for what has once been decided by the apostolic see to be reconsidered.' He had a chapel built in the cemetery of St Felicity on the Via Salaria, near her tomb; and it was there that

of *Thessalonica, as his vicar. Injury 428 he reminded the bishops of southern Gaul that

he himself was buried. Feast 4 Sept.

vigorous action succeeded in getting the

true

PL

20, 745-92;

Epp. 14-37 16, 2, 45;

327

f.

JW

(CSEL

51-4;

i,

DHGE

abuses

(including

the

innovation of wearing a distinctive episcopal

costume) of which he had heard.

His

leaders of *Pelagianism expelled from the west, and in 429, influenced by his deacon

Code

LP i, 227-9; Caspar 1, 3 59-64; DCS

censured

sharply

Collectio Avellana,

35, 59-84); Theodosian

(T. R. Buchanan);

they were subject to his surveillance and

headed by Ger-

Palladius, he sent a mission

1,

manus of Auxerre (c.378-448)

895-7 (G. Caraffa); NCE 2, 668 f. 9,

Bardy); BSS 3, 328-30 (F. (J- Chapin); Seppelt 1, 155-8.

to Britain to

root out the heresy there; in 431 he con-

secrated Palladius and sent as

first

its

bishop. In the

him to Ireland same year, to

CELESTINE I, ST

counter Semi-Pelagianism (which allowed a

432).

place to free will in the

(10 Sept. 422-27 July Archdeacon of Rome, he was born in the Campagna, was a deacon under Innocent I, and in 418 corresponded with Augustine. Elected without opposition, he

proved a vigorous bishop in

Rome

grace),

he wrote

Gaul urging them, remain

in

turning to

of southern

general terms, to

loyal to the revered Augustine.

so-called

itself,

first

to the bishops

'Chapters of Celestine',

The

sum-

crushing the large *Novatianist minority

marizing decisions of the holy see on grace

and confiscating their churches so that they had to worship in private houses. He also restored the Julian basilica (Sta Maria in

and appended to this letter, should probably be attributed to Prosper of Aquitaine (c 390-^463).

damaged in the sack of the city in 410; and the new basilica of Sta

into

Sabina was constructed during his reign.

Nestorius of Constantinople (428-31) and

Late in his reign Celestine was drawn

Trastevere), severely

His conviction that

Rome

could receive

the

Christological

debate

between

appeals from any province brought him into

of Alexandria (412-44), the one representing the Antiochene school with its

north African church.

tendency to hold apart Christ's divine and

collision with the

Although he yielded to

demand

Fussala,

a

to

Cyril

human

Augustine's plea not

the reinstatement of

deposed

appealed to Boniface

bishop I,

Antony of who had

natures, the other the Alexandrine

school which stressed their dynamic unity.

Nestorius was creating a

he ordered the

stir

by attacking

the popular description of the

BVM

as

rehabilitation of Apiarius, a disgraced priest

'mother of God' (Theotokos), and when both

who had been

request but had again lapsed and been

he and Cyril submitted their positions to him Celestine treated it as an appeal from

excommunicated, and sent him back

the east to

restored

at

Zosimus's to

Africa with a notoriously arrogant legate,

Rome. Briefed by

Cyril,

who

portrayed Nestorius's views as a denial of 41

SIXTUS

111(432-40)

and by

the divinity of Jesus,

a critique of

of

him by the monk John Cassian (c. 3 60-43 5)> ne condemned these

them prepared views

at a

Roman

50, 417-558; PLSupp 3, 1 8-2 1 ,ACO 1, 1,7, 125-37; I, 2, 5-101; LP i,ccxi; 23of.;JW 1, 557; Caspar 1, 381-416; DCB 1, 584-8 (W. Bright);

on Nestorius to recant within ten days or stand excommunicate, and asked Cyril to our

DACL

stead'. Cyril

demand which

Nestorius accompanied by the

II

the

Christology.

Antiochene

summoned

(408-50) to

settle

a general

Ephesus in the affair. Although at

with

legates

instructions,

closely

(J.

Chapin); Seppelt

1,

with

Cyril

and follow

XYSTUS,

or

Daniele);

150

Zosimus published

f.;

NCE

158-71.

(31 July

but

ally;

when

publicly anathematized *Pelagianism and

made

to

his rejection of

it

clear to

his activities during the

but

references

Celestine

I's

had

hand

a

legates or the Antiochene bishops, and with

working

excommunicated Nestorius. When the legates arrived on 10 July they endorsed the decisions already taken. The acts of the council were not submitted to Celestine, but in letters dated 15 Mar. 432 he expressed his satisfaction with its

Emperor Theodosius

his supporters

to

Ephesus (431) suggest

in drafting

Sixtus continued Celestine

without awaiting the arrival of the papal

letters

correspondence with the east

after the council of

that he

arch-

is

early

his

in

its

known of reign of Boniface I,

adversary, Augustine. Nothing

his

him to be generous if Nestorius should show a change of heart. It was Cyril who now made the running. Reaching Ephesus first, he opened the council on 22 June

He

ST

(418) his *Tractoria, he

judgement; he also wrote to Cyril urging

achievements.

III,

claimed by Pelagians as an

while

upholding the decisions of the holy see,

work

f.

DHGE 12, 56-8

(I.

43 2-1 9 Aug. 440). A Roman by birth, son of Xystus, he had earlier had the reputation of being sympathetic to Pelagius, and had been

invited, Celestine did not attend, but sent

three

263

SIXTUS,

'two-

Meanwhile Theo-

council (the third) to meet

June 431

3,

(F. Cabrol);

BSS 3, 1 096-1 100

he sign twelve anathemas

that

excluded

natures'

dosius

to

2794-802

2,

(G. Bardy);

took the further step of forwarding the

ultimatum

mausoleum being

his

PL

called

'in

Silvestro,

ling the council of Ephesus. Feast 6 Apr.

synod on 10 Aug. 430,

execute the sentence

S.

apparently decorated with paintings recal-

for

hard,

it.

I's policies,

with

collaboration

in

II

(408-50), to heal

the breach which had opened at Ephesus between Cyril of Alexandria and John of Antioch (d. 441), leading proponent of the moderate Antiochene Christology. Avoiding mention of Cyril's *anathemas, he insisted that John and others sharing his \iews only needed to accept the decisions of Ephesus and disavow *Nestorius to be restored to communion. The reconciliation reached in spring 433 on the basis of the Symbol of Union, drafted by the Antiochenes but accepted by Cyril, gave him great satisfaction; he attributed the success

deplored only the fact

had been allowed to retire to Antioch, where he could create more trouble, and dissociated himself from the excommunication the council had passed that Nestorius

on John of Antioch (d. 441), leader of the moderate Antiochene wing, leaving the door open to him to return to communion provided he accepted the council and disavowed Nestorius.

to the Apostle

and present

In his correspondence and through his

lations

Peter, guarantor of true

in himself.

Rome now

The

faith

excellent re-

enjoyed with the east

legates at the council Celestine repeatedly

were temporarily clouded when Proclus, the

asserted, with an unprecedented insistence,

new bishop of Constantinople (434-446/7),

the pope's claim, as successor and living

initiated

representative of St Peter, to paternal over-

cum

sight of the entire church, eastern

than

western.

He was

buried

cemetery of Priscilla, near the

little

no

less

in

the

moves

in

434

to

detach east

Illyri-

(south-east Balkan peninsula) from

traditional

ecclesiastical

Rome. He had

subjection

its

to

warn the Illyrian bishops, who were showing signs of insubordination,

basilica

42

to

LEO

absent in Gaul on a diplomatic mission with which the imperial court had entrusted him. As a deacon he exercised great influence on his two predecessors, arranging for Celestine I to be briefed about the *Nestorian heresy in 430, and stiffening Sixtus Ill's resistance to the rehabilitation

to pay no attention to oriental synods, and to remind them that the bishop of *Thessalonica was still his vicar in east Illyricum. At the same time he requested (Dec. 437) Proclus not to receive bishops from Illyricum who failed to produce letters of credence from his vicar, Anastasius of Thessalonica. To conciliate Proclus, he

of the Pelagian Julian of Eclanum in 436. In 430 Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444) personally

informed him that a bishop of Smyrna who had been sentenced at Constantinople had appealed

to

Rome, but

that

enlisted his support in blocking plans for

he had simply

consecrated on his return to

Pelagian leader Julian of Eclanum

his 'nativity'.

who had been deposed and

Sept., a day he

454),

and universal authority in the church, bestowed originally by Christ on Peter, had been transmitted to each subsequent bishop

the imperial family, he also carried out a

Rome as the Apostle's heir. As such, he assumed Peter's functions, full authority, and privileges; and just as the Lord bestowed more power on Peter than on the other apostles, so the pope was 'the primate

more noteworthy building programme than

of

any one of his predecessors, one of his motives being to make good the destruction wrought by the Visigoths in 410. He deliberately used two of his most remarkoctagonal baptistery

to celebrate annually as

energetic and purposeful

pontiff,

Appian Way. Helped by funds provided by

new

was

An

Leo infused all his policies and pronouncements, especially his anniversary sermons, with his conviction that supreme

exiled in 418, to

be allowed to return to his see in Apulia. Sixtus founded the earliest recorded monastery in Rome at S. Sebastiano on the

able works, his

He was Rome on 29

raising Jerusalem to a patriarchate.

endorsed his sentence. In 439, stiffened by his deacon Leo, he resisted the pleas of the (d.

(440-61)

I

of

at

all

the bishops', the Apostle's mystical

embodiment.

the Lateran and his reconstruction of the

Leo confidendy

Liberian basilica as Sta Maria Maggiore, to

asserted his authority

advertise the dogmatic achievements of his

everywhere

age; the inscriptions in the former extolled

ing the liturgical year, reveal

divine grace and the theology of baptism,

concerned

to

thus underlining the defeat of Pelagianism,

for heresy.

He was

and the mosaics of the latter celebrated the church's triumph over Nestorianism. His cult was late in developing, his name first

Manichaeans, persuading the government

in the west.

*Pelagians.

He Italy,

PL

north, insisting

Monachino);

NCE

13,

271

f.

(J.

11, (J.

against a revival of *Priscillianism, supply-

Chapin); Seppelt 1,171-4; R. Krautheimer, 'The

ing the bishops with instructions for action.

Architecture of Sixtus IIP, Essays in Honor of E.

Panofsky (ed.

M.

Meiss,

New

In Africa, traditionally jealous of

York, 1961).

omy,

LEO

I,

ST (Aug./Sept. 440-10 Nov.

kept firm control of the

including Milan and the on uniformity of practice, correcting abuses, and settling disputes. In Spain, dominated by Arian Visigoths, he answered (21 July 447) an appeal for help

581-619; PLSupp 3, 21 f.;JW 1, 57 f.;LP cxxvi f.; 232-7; Caspar 1, 416-22; DACL 13, 50,

(V.

particularly severe with

against them; and he sharply attacked the

bishops of

1262-4

as a pastor

to revive (June 445) the old penal legislation

Ado. Feast 28 Mar.

1204-7 (H. Leclercq); DCB 4, 706-8 Barmby); DTC 14, 2196-9 (E. Amann); BSS

him

guide and instruct, watchful

appearing in the Qth-cent. Martyrology of

I,

His sermons, cover-

tions

461).

his rulings

and

other

on

its

auton-

irregularities in elec-

scandals

were

eagerly

lilary

of Aries

One of only two popes (the other being Gregory I) to be called 'the Great', he was born in the late 4th cent., probably in Rome

sought and accepted.

of Tuscan parentage, and was elected when

confined him to his diocese and obtained

When

I

(403-49) seemed to be treating his see as a independent of Rome, Leo

patriarchate

43

LEO

1(440-61)

from Valentinian III (425-55) a rescript recognizing his jurisdiction over all the western

To

provinces.

emergence of a

prevent

Christological issue, however, the council

passed a number of canons, the 28th of which granted Constantinople the same

the

patriarchate, he later (450)

patriarchal status as

divided the bishoprics of Gaul between

that both

Aries and Vienne. In east Illyricum (south-

this

east Balkan peninsula)

papal

but

vicariate,

Anastasius

he confirmed the sternly ordered

*Thessalonica,

of

blundering representative, to respect the a

as contravening the canons of Nicaea (325). In the following years, however, his chief concern was to stiffen the

share in the pope's

government

oversight, not the fullness of power.

In

his

dealings

with

the

encountered a disinclination

east

to

Leo

of

Constantinople,

When Leo

(1

3

Declared a doctor of the church by

Benedict XIV, Leo was

out

the

permanent

or

of

Theodosius II (408-50) called a council at Ephesus in Aug. 449, and Leo was represented by three delegates with his

Tome, which he expected to be read out and

endorsed. In the event the council spurned

condemned

Flavian,

and rehabilitated

Eutyches. Leo refused to recognize ceedings, branding (latrocinium),

it

as

a

its

pro-

'brigandage'

and placed himself at the head

of the rapidly growing opposition to

it.

The

him from

Peter'.

Having

settled

and,

seizing

west, 18 Feb. in the east.

138 and i38A;/ICOII, 1-4; JW 1, 238-41; T. G.Jalland, The Life and Times of St Leo the Great (London, 1941); W. Ullmann, 'Leo I and the Theory of Papal

PL

54-6;

58-75;

Leo's doctrine the fathers recognized 'the of

Rome

if he could not prevent and looting the city, he at least induced him to spare it from fire, torture, and massacre. When he died he was buried in the porch of St Peter's, his remains being translated to the interior in 688. Feast 10 Nov. (formerly 1 1 Apr.) in the

walls of

outcome was the fourth general council, held in Oct. 45 1 at Chalcedon (Kadikoy) on the Bosphorus, which reversed the decisions of Ephesus (449) and affirmed the doctrine that Christ is one person in two natures. If Leo's hopes that it would be held in Italy and that his legates would preside were frustrated, his legates were at least assigned a position of honour, and his Tome was received with respectful approval; in voice

profound theologian. Although con-

in liturgy, he was not responsible for the so-called Leonine Sacramentary (6th/7th cent.). His surviving sermons (96) and letters (143: the product in the main of his chancery) are marked by clarity, terseness, and rhythmic prose; content and form are admirably united in them. But Leo was a man whose personality and courage impressed more than churchmen. In 452 near Mantua he personally confronted Attila the Hun, then ravaging north Italy and pressing southwards, and persuaded him to withdraw; in 455 he met the Vandal Gaiseric outside the

Christ's two natures in his one person.

it,

of

cerned for and accomplished

June

distinction

a lucid codifier

accepted orthodoxy rather than an original

449) an important letter to Flavian, his socalled Tome, condemning Eutyches and setting

policies there,

apocrisiarius in Constantinople.

for

grasped the true

of this teaching, he dispatched

own

he established Julian of Cos, a Greekspeaking Italian, as his nuncio or

monophysite doctrine that Christ incarnate had only one nature, the human nature having been absorbed by the drift

efforts to consolidate the

but also to promote his

teaching the

divine nature.

its

ensure that he was kept informed of events,

accept the

at their face value. In

Flavian

bishop,

in

doctrinal position agreed at Chalcedon; to

448 he received an appeal from the monk Eutyches (d. 454), who had been deposed by his

papal claims

Leo found he took the

that

invalid

rights of his metropolitans; as papal vicar, he

had been granted

unacceptable

the ground

cities.

dangerous step of postponing his endorsement of the council's proceedings until 21 Mar. 453; even then he declared canon 28

often

his

so

Rome on

were imperial

the

Primacy',

44

CCL

LP

1,

JTS

11

(i960), 25-51; E. Dekkers,

SIMPLICIUS 'Autour de I'oeuvre liturgique de S. Leon

whom

PW

218-301 (P. Bariffol); NCE X. Murphy); Seppelt 1, 175-210.

(F.

9,

8,

it was because Leontius of Aries, he supported when the rights of his

in his aim,

le

Grand', Sacris erudiri 10 (1958), 363-98; Caspar 12, 1962-73 (H. Lietzmann); 1, 462-564;

DTC

see were violated by

637-9

Mamertus of Vienne

£475), could not rise to the role expected of him. At a synod held in Sta Maria Mag(d.

giore on 19 Nov. 465 (the

HILARUS, ST

(468-83)

of which

first

Roman synod been

Nov. 461-29 Feb. 468). Sardinian by birth, son of Crispinus, he was Leo I's archdeacon and one of his

preserved) he dealt with complaints brought

Ephesus

against Silvanus of Calahorra, upholding

(19

legates at the 'robber council' of

and with difficulty escaped alive to bring Leo an eyewitness account of the disorderly proceedings and an appeal from Flavian (now dead). He

A man

designate

to

their

successors.

how dependent was on Rome, and

Several of his letters reveal the Spanish episcopate

how

and decisively the holy see

readily

solved their problems.

Among his buildings

attributed his escape to John the Evangelist,

whose burial-chamber outside the of Ephesus he had hidden himself.

have

the rights of metropolitans and forbidding

bishops

(446-9),

in

minutes

by Ascanius, metropolitan of Tarragona,

(Aug. 449), where he protested against the condemnation of Flavian, bishop of Constantinople

detailed

at

Rome were

three

chapels attached to the Lateran baptistery,

walls

one dedicated

of character and energy, Hilarus

to

John the Evangelist

as a

thank-offering for his escape at Ephesus in

a

449. LP lists his lavish gifts to Roman churches, intended as replacements for the

to

precious metal looted during the Vandal

eastern bishops confirming the councils of

occupation of 455, and records that he founded a monastery at S. Lorenzo fuori le

took his predecessor as his model. All that

known of decretal

his dealings with the east

is

which he apparently circulated

is

Ephesus and (431), Chalcedon (451), and Leo's *Tome, and also condemning heresies and emphasizing

Nicaea

the

(325),

Roman primacy.

If authentic, the object

of the decretal was

*monophysite

Mura, where he was buried. Feast 28 Feb.

PL

to

counter growing

opposition

to

58, 11-31;

PLSupp

370-81; 441-3; JW 1, 1, xxxviii; 242-8;

3,

75-7; Thiel 1, 126-70; LP Caspar 1, 483-95; 2, 10-14;

Chalcedon.

Barmby);

Nearer home he struggled to prevent the spread of *Arianism in Italy, where it

DTC 6,

2385-8

339 (G. Schwaiger); BSS

NCE6,

1 1

13

(J.

(E.

7,

DCB

3,

Amann);

737-53

Chapin); Seppelt

1,

72-4

(J.

LThK

5,

(B. Cignitti);

191-3; 211

f.

enjoyed the protection of Ricimer, barbarian master of the west

472.

He

till

his death in

SIMPLICIUS, ST

even had to put up with an Arian

church in Rome, established by Ricimer, and an Arian bishop; but in 467, hearing that the new emperor Anthemius (467-72) might sanction meeting-places for heretics in the city,

he boldly confronted him

483).

(3 Mar. 468-10 Mar. Born at Tivoli, son of Castinus, he saw

the deposition in Sept. 476 of the last western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, the

accession of a

German

Odoacer, as king of

in St

and made him swear that he would never consent to such a thing. Hilarus frequently intervened in Gaul and Spain to consolidate Rome's authority and prevent the breakdown of canonical order. In Gaul he strove, without actually saying so, to rally the bishops around Aries

allegiance to the

as their metropolis, so that he could use the

who exceeded

bishop of Aries as his channel for informa-

first to

Peter's

tion

and

instructions. If

general, the Arian

Italy

owing theoretical emperor Zeno

eastern

(474-91), and the establishment of barbarian kingdoms in the rest of the western

empire. His relations were primarily with the east, but in difficult times he

hard

to

worked

maintain Rome's authority in the

west, intervening to censure Italian bishops

he did not succeed

their authorin and being the commission the bishop of Seville as

papal vicar in Spain.

45

,

FELIX

III (II) (483-92)

among other works

Early in his reign Simplicius, appealing to

Leo

converting a hall on the

move by

Esquiline Hill into the church of S. Andrea

obtain recognition of *canon

(472-89) to 28 of the

building being so adapted), and erecting the

council of Chalcedon (45 1), granting his see an equivalent status to Rome. But the sig-

architecturally

nificant and, in western eyes, disturbing

to

development in the east was the triumph during Basiliscus's usurpation of the throne (Jan. 475-Aug. 476) of the *monophysite

the

'one-nature'

after a long illness

its

rejection by

Acacius

resisted a

I,

of Constantinople

opposition

Chalcedonian followed

by

Chalcedonians and monophysites by

I

a for-

*Chalcedonian

condemned and

Christology

The

which

found

in

35-62;

58,

DTC

2,

14,

in his election

an

fect

also

and

his clergy to withstand the

reaction,

on

impressing

1,

249-51;

690-5 (J. Barmby); Amann); NCE 13, 232 (J. 4,

212-15.

a priest, himself a

widower with

descended).

was played,

at

whom

A decisive part

at the

request of

his predecessor, by Basilius, praetorian pre-

influence: encouraging (Jan. 476) Acacius

exert

(E. 1,

LP

77-80;

1,

two children (from one of

Gregory I was

correspondence shows him to

56-69

492).

reached Simplicius, often belatedly, and unsuccessfully

JW

2161-4

least

struggling

Epp.

FELIX III (II), ST (13 Mar. 483-1 Mar. A Roman of aristocratic family, he was

the

which

his

Collect to Avellana,

Chapin); Seppelt

son of

479

and

10-25; ^Cff

made concessions to monophysitism. News of these happenings until

with

35, 124-55); E- Schwartz, Publizistische

*Henoticon (482), a superficially innocuous

statement

assist

S. Lorenzo. He died and was buried near Leo the porch of St Peter's. Feast 10 Mar.

Caspar

to get

in

Stefano in

He is reported

churches to

*titular

(1934), 119-22;

restoration of

expression

S.

Sammlungen zum Acacianischen Schisma, AAM 10

the

however, did assure Zeno, not Chalcedonian orthodoxy, for he and Acacius were soon pursuing a policy of conciliation

Roman

(CSEL

Leo's

*Tome, and allowed monophysites control of the great sees.

interesting

have arranged for priests from certain of

PL

mula of compromise. Needing monophysite support, Basiliscus publicly

example of a public

the Caelian Hill.

Peter, St Paul,

unite

to

first

the services at the major basilicas of St

Christology,

moves

Catabarbara (the

Rotondo on

the

to

'two-natures' official

in

of Odoacer, king of Italy (476-93), who had an ecclesiastical law promulgated

monophysite

forbidding the alienation of church property

the

by the popes on pain of anathema. Because of

Basiliscus

soundness of Leo's Tome, calling on (Apr. 477) Zeno, now restored, to uphold the Chalcedonian doctrine, reluctantly accepting (June 479) an uncanonical appointment to the see of Antioch. After 479, however, Acacius deliberately kept him

in the

the

posthumous inclusion of Antipope Felix list of legitimate popes as Felix II, he

in the

was improperly given the

who

style Felix III.

on his archdeacon (and successor) Gelasius, was from Felix,

relied heavily

the start closely involved with the east.

dark

News

helpless spectator, remonstrating ineffectu-

had just reached Rome of the *Henoticon, z compromise doctrinal statement designed to appease the *monophysite opposition to

with Zeno and Acacius on the return of

the 'two natures' Christology approved at

about events, especially the plans for the Henoticon, and he became an increasingly ally

the monophysite Peter

Mongos

to

Chalcedon (451) which Emperor Zeno (474-91) had published in 482. A monophysite, Peter Mongos, had been installed as bishop of Alexandria, and his

Alexan-

maladroidy backing an unacceptable candidate, John Talaia, for the see, and dria,

repeatedly complaining to Acacius that he

was not keeping him informed. Clearly the holy see did not count for

emperor or

much with

orthodox but extruded predecessor, John Talaia, was in Rome full of bitter com-

either

patriarch.

Simplicius was

a

plaints.

noteworthy builder,

Felix dispatched

Constantinople with

46

an embassy to emperor and

letters to

GELASIUS patriarch.

To Zeno

he announced his elec-

when Acacius

Again,

cius.

1(492-6)

died (28 Nov.

sought his aid for catholics in north Africa

489) and hopes of reunion ran high in Constantinople, he refused to accept any

persecuted by the Arian Vandals, but chiefly

overtures so long as

tion (the first instance of a

demanded

pope so doing),

the deposition of Peter

Mongos

Acacius were recited in the diptychs. In 49 1

and the maintenance of the *Chalcedonian Christology. A first letter to Patriarch Aca-

him

reproached

cius

Mongos and

the Henoticon,

sequent one

summoned him

when Mongos

(29 Oct. 490) and Zeno (9 Apr. 49 1 ) were both dead, the new patriarch Euphemius, an orthodox Chalcedonian

supporting

for

but a subto

Rome

alarmed

to

answer the charges of John Talaia. The embassy proved a fiasco: the legates let themselves be imposed upon and failed to protest

when Acacius included Mongos

the diptychs,

i.e.

the

names of

departed publicly prayed for

at

living

Rome

of him and the Henoticon.

On

accession of an emperor,

at the

(491-518), with monophysite leanings, wrote to Felix seeking the restorAnastasius

I

communion between the two but while commending his orthodoxy the pope declined to make any move until Acacius's name was removed of

ation

churches;

in

and

mass, thus

giving the impression that

Mongos occupied the name and that of

see of Alexandria and his

from the diptychs.

approved

Few

their return

excommunicated both his legates and Acacius at a synod held on 28 July 484. He angrily warned the emperor not to interfere in matters which belonged to the church's bishops, and sent his sentence of excommunication on Acacius to the infuriated pope

glimpses survive of Felix's activities

in the west.

When the Vandal persecution in

down under King Guntamond (484-96), he had to determine what was to be done with the numerous Catholics who had been forcibly submitted to Arian rebaptism. His decision (13 Mar. 487) was north Africa died

Constantinople by a special messenger.

exceptionally severe: persons in holy orders

Some

could only be restored to

city

over-zealous orthodox

made

it

monks

in the

blatantly public by pinning

to Acacius's vestments as

it

on

communion on many years of According to some

their deathbed, others after

he was celebrating

penitential discipline.

mass.

scholars he was the real author of certain

had no practical effect on Acacius, beyond provoking him to remove the pope's name from the diptychs, but it started the Acacian schism, which divided the churches of east and west for thirty-five years (484-519). Even some of Felix's supporters in Constantinople were dismayed, but reports of this, and of the replacement of the Chalcedonian bishop of Antioch by a monophysite, only stiffened his attitude. He held a fresh synod (5 Oct. 485) which approved a letter confirming, for the

letters fulminating against a

Felix's sentence

attacking

deposed, without

of

Acacius;

effect, the

he

pagan

the

festival

of

the

Lupercalia (15 Feb.), which are tradition-

Gelasius

ally attributed to

I.

Authoritarian and harsh, he kept alive by his intransigence the first

east

and west.

He was

schism between

buried in St Paul's

basilica, close to his father

ordered by

Leo

to repair

I

his children. Feast

JW

benefit of the people of Constantinople, his

excommunication

resurgence of

*Pelagianism in Dalmatia, and of a treatise

1,

80-3; Thiel

1

1,

(who had been his wife, and

it),

Mar. 221-84;

LP

1,

Schwartz, Publizistische Sammlungen

also

cianischen Schisma,

252-4; E.

zum Aca-

AAM

10 (1934), 202-19; A. Grillmeier and H. Bacht, Chalkedon (Wiirzburg,

monophysite

bishop of Antioch. In 488/9 an opportunity for healing the rift occurred when Odoacer,

1953),

1,

889-95

(P-

threatened by Theodoric the Ostrogoth,

NCE 5,

879

Nautin); (J.

king of Italy (493-5 26), was seeking a political rapprochement with Zeno, but Felix's

GELASIUS

terms were complete submission by Aca-

496).

47

25-44; DUGE 16, 685 (G. Schwaiger); Chapin); Seppelt 1, 217-22.

43-51; Caspar

Born

in

I,

2,

L7M' 4

ST

Rome

(1

,

Mar. 492-21 Nov.

of African descent, be

GELASIUS

1(492-6)

had been influential as archdeacon, shaping Felix Ill's policies as well as his letters. He faced a difficult situation on his accession. Barbarian kings, all Arian, ruled what had been the western empire; the Ostrogoths under Theodoric had overrun Italy and were besieging King Odoacer in Ravenna. As a result of the wars there was a breakdown of supplies, a swarm of refugees, and an acute shortage of clergy. No less serious, the schism with the eastern church caused by the imposition there of the *Henoticon, seen by the west as a betrayal of the Chalcedonian settlement (451), and sealed by Felix Ill's excommunication (484) of

had sent

Gelasius

of the

latter,

Roman

known

to

every

comof

opportunity

see,

and was the

first

have been saluted as

Christ' (at the

Roman synod

pope

'vicar

of 13

of

May 495

which restored Misenus). It was the pope's prerogative, he claimed, to ratify councils and protect their decisions. But his most original contribution, expounded in a letter to

Emperor Anastasius as well as in other was his theory of the two powers

texts,

which govern the world, the 'consecrated authority of bishops' and the 'royal power', the one centred in the pope and the other in the emperor. Each was a trust from God, sovereign and independent in its own

Gelasius established excellent relations the

seized

for

position.

inculcating his conviction of the supremacy

tinued unresolved.

when

Roman

promising the

Patriarch Acacius of Constantinople, con-

with Theodoric

as a legate to Constantinople in

484 but had excommunicated

having

eliminated Odoacer in 493, became ruler of Italy. An Arian, he was a tolerant one who

sphere,

inherently superior since

it

did not interfere in church affairs, and

salvation of the temporal.

This teaching was

Gelasius gained from his friendship with

to

him.

A

vigorous administrator, Gelasius

but

the

authority

spiritual

was

provided for the

be used by canonists and others for

centuries to

come

in their

treatment of the

from

problem of church and state. Holding views like these, Gelasius had no

the papal estates and calling on Theodoric

patience with the claim of Constantinople,

used his private fortune

to help the poor,

relieved famine by sending supplies

for aid,

and temporarily relaxed the

for ordination

in

criteria

ratified

order to recruit more

to

Christendom. Since the schism persisted, however, his letters and writings were

clergy. In dealing with the *Acacian schism,

however, he proved even more intransigent than Felix

III.

Thus he

by the council of Chalcedon (451), second only to Rome in

rank

inevitably preoccupied with justifying the

rejected the over-

Roman line. Examples were

tures of Euphemius, the orthodox patriarch

hard

of Constantinople (489-95), who could not understand how Acacius had been con-

ings he sent,

more than once,

the warn-

to the bishops

of the south-east Balkans against the propa-

demned, and kept on insisting that no reconciliation was possible until the names

(491-519), caused the eastern bishops to complain that he was endanger-

ganda of Constantinople, notably to Bishop Andrew of Thessalonica, who had refused to disown the memory of Acacius. He drew greater satisfaction from the loyalty to the holy see of the churches of Italy and the west. Even here, however, as a result of the breakdown caused by barbarian invasions, there were defects and abuses to be corrected. Thus he encouraged the bishops of eastern Italy (Picenum) and Dalmatia to

and encouraged

root out the remains of *Pelagianism. In

of Acacius (dead since 489) and others tainted with the Henoticon were expunged

from the *diptychs. In

letter after letter

tried to justify Acacius's

which the

east judged

unyielding

Anastasius

attitude

uncanonical. His

alienated

Emperor

I

ing the whole

growing unease

Rome. As

he

excommunication,

church, in

influential

a result of pressures

circles

Rome itself he took a stand against the pagan festival of the Lupercalia (15 Feb.), which a leading senator and his friends wanted to revive as a harmless carnival; they

at

from these

he was obliged (13 May 495) to rehabilitate Bishop Misenus of Cumae, whom Felix III

48

ANASTASIUS retaliated

by accusing him of

ANASTASIUS

laxity in dis-

ciplining delinquent clerics. At his spring

498).

synod of 494 he published decretals covering the recruitment and formation of the clergy, the active care of souls, and the

his

division of

he

agreed

is

neither

reflected

dissatisfaction

in

III and Gelasius I to the *Acacian schism (484-5 19) with the east. As a deacon he had been prominent at the synod of 495 which rehabilitated Bishop Misenus, whom

Gelasian

the

election

of Felix

prolific writer,

six theological treatises.

that

496-19 Nov.

A Roman, son of a priest named Peter,

influential circles with the hard-line attitude

over a hundred letters or fragments

left

of letters, as well as It

A

church funds.

(24 Nov.

II

11(496-8)

Felix

III

had excommunicated

Roman

for betraying

when legate Once installed,

to

Con-

the

pope

Decree, containing a canon of scripture and other acceptable writings, nor the Gelasian

the

Sacramentary, in any of its forms, has any-

dispatched two bishops to Constantinople

On

thing to do with him.

position

stantinople in 483.

bearing a conciliatory

the other hand,

letter

eighteen mass formularies preserved in the

Anastasius

I

Leonine Sacramentary (early 7th-cent. MS) go back to him. Next to Leo I, Gelasius was the outstanding pope of the 5th cent., and he surpassed Leo in theological grasp. His writings leave the impression of an arrogant, narrow-minded, and harsh pontiff; but the extraordinary reverence in which he was

announcing

his election,

held by contemporaries description

Exiguus,

left

who

lived in

and consorted with

is

Rome

his

c.

after

clergy. Formally his proposals did not differ

from those of Felix

50CW. 550

unlike them, however, he

This

that

and Gelasius

III

made

it

I;

evident

he wanted peace and was prepared

to

make concessions. He made no mention of Rome's other bete noire, the monophysite Peter Mongos of Alexandria (d. 490), only

serve rather than rule, his delight in conver-

God's servants and

Emperor

he made clear his

Dionysius

disciples.

to

which,

While maintaining Rome's insistence that Acacius (dead since 489) should not be named in the *diptychs, he did so in restrained terms, and unambiguously recognized the validity of ordinations and baptisms conferred by Acacius and his

stresses his humility, his determination to

sation with

in

yearning for the restoration of church unity.

reflected in a

monk

by the

(491-519)

in Bible

meditation, his personal mortification and

begging the emperor

generosity to the poor, and the way in which,

Alexandrian church back to Chalcedonian

Good Shepherd, he lived as well as taught the divine precepts. He was buried in St Peter's. Feast 21

orthodoxy.

Nov.

sent at the

modelling himself on the

PL

PLSupp

59, 13-190;

Thiel

1,

3,

739-88;JW

(CSEL

1,

cianischen Schisma, 2,

AAM

1,

83-95;

Festus, the senior

35, 357-468); E.

10 (1934);

LP

617-20 0- Barmby); BSS

6,

1,

255-7;

90-3

(195

1),

drian

leonien

el

(SC65,

church,

Roman

and

memorandum on

these

faith

the *Henoticon almost

emperor exploited the

senator,

who

submitted

dix-huit messes du sacramentaire

Paris, 1959).

a

which reproduced

word

for

word.

The

situation and, while

forbidding his patriarch, Macedonius, communicate formally with Anastasius revived a compromise proposal, mooted

129-44; G. Pomares, Gelase I: Lettre contre

Lupercales

Constantinople to

representatives in the city of the Alexan-

(V.

NCE 6,

of Church and State', CHR2~j (1942), 412-37; B. Capelle, 'L'oeuvre liturgique de S. Gelase'^TS 2

les

to

worked closely with the papal legates. There were conversations with the

zum Aca-

315 f. 0- Chapin); PRE 6, 315 f. (B. Moreton);JR, 62-8; A. K. Ziegler, 'Pope Gelasius I and his Teaching on the Relation

Monachino);

same time

of Italy (493-526). This mission was led by

1-12; Collectio

Schwartz, Publizistische Samtnlungen

DCB

pope's embassy was linked with a

mission which Theodoric the Ostrogoth negotiate the recognition of himself as king

285-613; Lowenfeld

Avellana, Epp. 94-101

The

to help in bringing the

to II,

in

Gelasius's time, to recognize Theodoric as

king in return for the acceptance of the

49

SYMMACHUS (498-514) Rome. The

*Henoticon by

papal legates to this plan

own

Festus on his

persuade the pope the

basis

Anastasius

of

initiative

undertook it,

cianischen Schisma,

1953)

Emperor

assurance

whom

tide,

denounced

communion

(J- P-

2,

82-7; Haller

Kirsch);

LW3,

234 f.; 22-4 (P.

1,

232-5; JR 67-9.

5 1 4). A Sardinian, a convert from paganism and by the time of his accession a deacon, he was elected in the Lateran basilica by a

received his deacon Photinus, had entered into

1473-5

SYMMACHUS, ST (22 Nov. 498-19 July

had

as a partisan of Acacius,

66-70; Caspar

Bertolini); Seppelt 1,

had

Gelasius

2,

DHGE 2,

probably in 498. Earlier (497) the pope had reopened relations with Andrew, bishop of Thessalonica,

AAM

10 (1934), 226-30; A. Grillmeier and H. Bacht, Chalkedon (Wurzburg,

to

and on

granted Theodoric his

I

1, 95 f.; Thiel 1, 615-39; LP 1, 44; 258 f.; E. Schwartz, Publizistische Sammlungen zum Aca-

unknown, but

to fall in with

this

JW

reaction of the

is

with him without consult-

majority of the clergy

who were

dissatisfied

ing his clergy, and had then sent him to

with Anastasius IPs policy of making con-

Constantinople to

with the discus-

cessions in the attempt to heal the *Acacian

sions with the Alexandrian representatives.

schism (482-519) with the east. A minority of the clergy, however, supported by most of

By now, however,

assist

his conciliatory policies

were creating dismay

at

Rome, and

the senate and

his

reception of Photinus was regarded as a final betrayal.

A number

Maria

II

letter

new pope, with synod

allowing

man

A

Nuceria

now recognized as a name is not found in

For

is

any ancient martyrologies, and there evidence of devotion paid to him.

is

no

Dante's description {Inferno

tomb

in hell,

was

that

xi,

he was a

determined

He was in fact buried in the portico

if

bishop

of

Symmachus was

secure; with

visit

to

Rome

partisans

headed

of

by

in

when he The

500.

Lawrence,

Festus,

were

unseat him, and in 501 accused him before Theodoric of having

6-9) of his

Acacius.

a time

aristocratic

traitor to the

who wished

and was appointed Campania.

however,

in

holy see

to designate, if practicable, the

in

paid a state

The

LP and

him

the senate he received Theodoric

medieval tradition, reflected in the slan-

derous notice assigned to him in

discussion of a

all

he wished; the clergy should choose

statute,

king of the Franks (481-5 11), on his conforgery. Anastasius's

Mar. 499) which

he died before doing so, but participation by the laity was excluded. Lawrence signed the

purporting to congratulate Clovis,

version and baptism

(1

pope's successor during his lifetime while

human souls are not by God but generated by as bodies.

ordained

characteristic energy, held a

St Peter's

in

agreed a statute banning

a letter (498) to the

same way

Italy

settle

occupy the apostolic see, he assigned it to Symmachus. Returning from Ravenna, the

that

their parents in the

Sta

election

or with the larger backing, should

first,

bishops of Gaul condemning traducianism, created directly

man

the matter. Ruling that the

Nothing survives of Anastasius's dealings

the view

divided

(493-526), Arian though he was, to

pretation of the Henoticon.

i.e.

The

asked Theodoric, Ostrogothic king of

suddenly died.

His critics were quick to claim that his death was the result of divine judgement; it remains possible that with him there passed away the last hope of reunion between west and east on the basis of an orthodox inter-

with the west except

Maggiore.

on the same

Lawrence in

resulted in such brawling that both factions

before the return of P'estus and the

papal legates, Anastasius

leader Festus, favoured

day elected the archpriest

of his clergy with-

drew from communion with him, and a schism was under way. At the height of the crisis,

its

the continuation of detente, and

celebrated

to

Easter

according to the old

Roman calendar, not the Alexandrian one. The king summoned him to Ravenna, but

to restore the heretic

when he reached Rimini he

of St Peter's, and his epitaph in elegiacs

discovered that

he was also being charged with unchastity and misuse of church property. In a panic he 50

SYMMACHUS (498-514) returned to

Rome and

bishop of Pavia) and the Alexandrian dea-

took refuge in St

Peter's, then outside the walls.

This

Theodoric, now from Byzantium and its allies in Rome, was induced to confirm the synodical acquittal of Symmachus, and order Festus to hand back the churches and papal property to him and thus 'allow only one pontiff in Rome'. Thus the split in the Roman church ended, and Lawrence had to withdraw. But

judged move not only set Theodoric against him but seemed an admission of guilt; many clergy withdrew from communion with him.

On the petition of the Lawrentians

of appointing the

bishop of Altinum as

visitor to celebrate

Rome

and administer the see pending a decision on the charges against Symmachus, and of convening a synod of Easter 502 in

Italian

the legacy of bitterness continued for the rest of

bishops to adjudicate the charges.

After two abortive sessions

(Symmachus

refused to give evidence

first until

at

the

The pope

of

Arian

gifts to

orthodox victims

and

persecution,

ransoming

prisoners captured in the wars in north

He

(502-42), the *pallium (the it

on

a bishop outside Italy).

Gloria in

into

excelsis

first

bestowal of

He

introduced

masses celebrated by

bishops, and was an extensive builder and

embellisher of churches in

King Odoa-

Rome. He paid

particular attention to St Peter's, equipping

cer (476-93), the law of Mar. 483 prohibiting the alienation of church property by

with a residence for the pope, accommodation for his staff, and facilities for pilgrims. His victory over the pro-Byzantine it

in virtually the

same form but with the authority of the pope and bishops. Symmachus's aim was both to

opposition stiffened his attitude to

eliminate lay interference and to underline

Emperor Anastasius

his repudiation of practices of which

the

been accused. The

and

stantinople

he had

the I

*Acacian

Con-

schism;

(491-519) branded

pope as a Manichaean, and Symmachus retaliated in stridendy abusive terms. It was only in 514

was disand the Lawren-

king, however,

pleased by his acquittal,

Italy.

restored the primatial rights of Aries

over Gaul in 514, extending them to Spain, and sent its bishop, the famous Caesarius

declared invalid, because promulgated by

it

Manichaeans from Rome,

sending generous

number of priests and deacons, to a synod of his own in St Peter's on 6 Nov. 502. This

popes, and then re-enacted

own misconduct.

his

exercised his ministry vigorously,

expelling the

the bishops, with a

Basilius, praetorian prefect of

reign, fuelled accord-

by

critics

Many, including the saintly deacon Paschasius, never became reconciled to him.

the

was removed, and was prevented from attending the second by attacks on himself and his escort), the synod held its final session on 23 Oct. 502. Its verdict was that, as Symmachus was pope, no human court could judge him and judgement must be left to God. He was therefore freed of all charges, and his clerical opponents were urged to be reconciled with him. Symmachus Flushed with victory,

summoned

Symmachus's

ing to his

visitor

immediately

that

politically alienated

the king

steps

took the grave

Dioscorus,

con

ill-

were resolved to overthrow it. Lawrence was allowed to return to Rome and for four years ruled as pope in the

'illegally

that, faced

tians

ordained'

with riots in Constantinople and

revolt in Thrace, Anastasius decided to seek a rapprochement with Rome

a

serious

Lateran, taking over the churches of the city

and wrote

and the papal property, while Symmachus was confined by street violence to St Peter's. This stormy period saw the launching of the 'Symmachan Forgeries', which attempted to demonstrate by spurious precedents that the pope can be judged by no man. It was

preside over a great council at Heraclea, in

Feast

1

only in 506, after intense diplomatic activity

JW

96-100; Thiel

by the deacon Ennodius (473/4-521:

399—455;

to

the

pope

Thrace, which would

inviting

him

to

settle the doctrinal

issues underlying the schism.

Symmachus

was dead, however, when it reached Rome. He was buried in the portico of St Peter's.

later

51

1,

9 July.

LP

1,

1, 639-738; MG\A 12, 44-6 ('Laurentian fragment');

LAWRENCE (antipope 498-9; 501-6)

13,

Barmby);

876

DCB 4, 751-5 2984-90 (E. Amann); XCE Chapin); EC 1 1 629-3 1 (A. Amore);

Caspar

260-8; (J.

f.

(J.

tians now dominated the streets with their mobs, Symmachus found himself imprisoned in St Peter's, then outside the walls, while Lawrence installed himself in the Lateran palace, took over the city churches and much of the papal property, and for four years ruled as pope.

87-129;

2,

DTC 14,

,

JR, 69-99; Seppelt

235-44.

1,

LAWRENCE (antipope 22 Nov. 498-Feb. 499; 501-6: d. 507 8). Archpriest of the Roman church, he was elected in Sta Maria

Maggiore on the same day as Symm

During these years the

urns in

the Lateran basilica after a contested election

tians maintaining the

marked by bribery on both sides. He was

autumn 506

only in

upper hand.

the choice of a minority of the clergy but the

adroit diplomacy of the also by his

influential leader Festus,

who

heal

line.

So

ANASTASIUS were the

violent

ances

both

that

man

ordained

first

to his patron Festus. There he de\oted himself to asceticism, and soon

belonging died.

or with the larger

LP

backing should occupy the apostolic see, he assigned

it

to

Symmachus. Lawrence

at first

Prassede', stands

among

first

appointed

to

1

Mar. 499.

I

the

see

of

to

Nuceria,

(J-

;

f.

12,

storici in

onore di G.

741-876; Caspar 2, 87Barmby); Z.7M" 6, 829 (G. 2,

1,

235-42; JR, 69-76.

Silverius, later himself a pope.

A last

peacemaker, he

extinguished the

first

embers of the Lawrentian schism,

receiving

into

communion

the

diehard

adherents of Antipope Lawrence. But he chiefly

remembered

for his part in

is

ending

the long *Acacian schism (484-519) between Rome and the east. For four years he made little headway, although the

Lawrence was who was also dis-

with the verdict, to return to

f.

16

(20 July 514-6 Aug. Born at Frosinone, Italian despite a Persian name, aristocratic and rich, he had been the trusted collaborator of Symmachus, who probably nominated him. Married before ordination, he had a son,

everything they could to have the verdict

satisfied

629

2,

523).

pending their investigation. Even when the synod convened by Theodoric to adjudicate the case freed the pope of all charges (23 Oct. 502), they did

allowed by the king,

DCB 3,

eccl.

i sinodi romani nello

Picotti,

1958)

Hist.

ioo;.VfCAA9,32 4

HORMISDAS, ST

in

to administer the see

Meanwhile

1.

then

persuade the king to appoint a visitor

reversed.

W

Schwaiger); Seppelt

Campania, as a consolation prize. While obliged to accept the king's ruling, the Lawrentian faction, spurred on by Festus, were determined to unseat Symmachus, and by 502 were able to lay serious charges against him before Theodoric, and even

89-93); J

olpe (Florence,

118;

the priests

He was

1

416-55; G. B.

signing the decrees of a synod held by the

new pope on

86a,

scismo laurenziano', Studi

of Sta

*title

46-8; Theodoras Lector,

1,

(PC

accepted the position, and his name, with the description 'archpresbyter of the

by Symmachus, but settled on a farm

city

requested

Theodoric, Arian king of Italy (493-526), to decide between them, and on the principle that the

came

and papal property to him. Lawrence, many of whose adherents continued loyal to him, was expelled from the

resulting disturb-

factions

from round to

political alienation

Theodoric

churches

conciliatory

IPs

was

favour and ordered Festus to restore the

(484-519) with Byzantium. Symmachus had the votes of the mass of the clergy, who repudiated

It

moved by the Symmachans but

accept the synod's decision in the pope's

*Acacian schism

protracted

the

growing

Byzantium,

favoured

the late pope's policy of making concessions to

factions

that,

bulk of the aristocracy and senate, including its

rival

fought bloodily in the streets, the Lawren-

Rome

eastern emperor, Anastasius

from Ravenna, where he had taken refuge from Symmachus's attacks; he had alreadyresigned his bishopric. Since the Lawren-

I

(491-518),

faced with revolts and a resurgence of

Chalcedonian orthodoxy

him 5-

early in 5

1

at

5 to preside

home,

invited

over a council at

HORMISDAS (514-23) The Formula was

Heraclea, in Thrace, which would restore

cessors.

Being cautious, Hormisdas consulted Theodoric, king of Italy (493526), and dispatched a carefully prepared

appealed to

church

unity.

embassy and,

to

when

Constantinople in Aug. 515, came to nothing, another in

it

517. Both carried his detailed, hard-line conditions for reunion, including public

acceptance of the council of Chalcedon (45 1) and Leo I's letters, the condemnation of Acacius and others deemed tainted with

*monophysitism, and the re-trial by Rome of all deposed or exiled bishops (the aim was get Rome's jurisdictional primacy to

He

Council incorporated

it

dogmatic

in the

constitution Pastor aeternus (18 July 1870).

Although the Acacian schism was ended and a noteworthy blow struck for the council of Chalcedon (451), Hormisdas's triumph was not as unqualified as many have represented it. Intransigent as he was, he could have achieved nothing had not Justin I and his nephew Justinian (emperor 527-65) been convinced Chalcedonians who also needed reunion with Rome for their long-term objective of recovering Italy

used the second mission to rally the forces of Chalcedonian orthodoxy in the east to put pressure on

recognized).

be frequently

to

in later history; the First Vatican

They

for the empire.

skilfully

also avoided

restoring

the

conced-

Rome

ing jurisdictional supremacy to

by

bishops

orthodox

exiled

Now

before starting negotiations; while in sign-

emperor refused to yield to the pope's inflexible demands. The deadlock was broken by Anastasius's sudden death on 9 July 518. The new emperor, Justin I (518-27), was a staunch Chalcedonian and lost no time in re-

ing the Formula Patriarch John added a

Anastasius, but

it

failed like the first.

politically stronger, the

gloss expressing joy that old

were now one,

and new

Rome

equal in honour. In the

i.e.

establishing, with the enthusiastic support

following months, when the government was trying to implement the settlement, it became evident that Hormisdas either could not or would not understand the

of the people of Constantinople, the 'two-

widespread

natures' Christology as the official faith of

on

its

he kept strictly

it

warm

invi-

applied,

Hormisdas, again

after

patriarch, behind a facade of deference,

the empire. In response to his tation (7 Sept. 518)

in the east;

terms must be

hostility to

insisting that

while

the

emperor

and

the

obtaining Theodoric's agreement, sent a

quiedy went their own way and did what was

third delegation to Constantinople bearing

practicable. In

identical

A

terms for a settlement.

key

not

Justin

member was

Mar. 521, while exhorting shrink from coercion in the settlement, Hormisdas to

the gifted Alexandrian deacon Dioscorus, an accomplished speaker of Greek. Both parties being basically agreed, there was no question of this mission failing, and on 28 Mar. 519, Dioscorus having skilfully explained Rome's aversion to Aca-

imposing

cius (d. 489), the 'Formula of Hormisdas'

of Constantinople.

simultaneously

all

after

remove the remains of the schism in the thereby in effect recognizing *canon 28 of Chalcedon and the patriarchal, status

The

divergent attitudes of Rome and the were again shown when a group of Scythian monks proposed the so-called Theopaschite formula 'One of the Trinity east

much

bishops and

heads of monasteries present. This comprised

not

only

acceptance

of

new

east,

signed in the imperial palace by John, heart-searching, and by

the

to

was, on the emperor's orders, solemnly patriarch of Constantinople,

authorized

patriarch, Epiphanius, as his representative,

suffered in the flesh'

— —

as a

means of pro-

tecting the Chalcedonian Christology

the

*Chalcedonian Christology, but a clear acknowledgement of Rome as the apostolic see in which the Catholic faith had always been preserved in its purity, and the condemnation of Acacius and his four suc-

from

any suspicion of *Nestorianism. Correct in itself,

it

had monophysite associations, and

both the papal legates

in

Constantinople

and Hormisdas at Rome treated it with great reserve. Without condemning it, the 53

JOHN

(523-6)

I

pope warned the emperor against it, arguing Leo I's *Tome and the Chalcedonian definition were entirely adequate. Justinian, on the other hand, concerned to win over moderate monophysites, was already

revered friend of Boethius, the philosopher

and statesman (c. 480-5 24), who consulted him on his writings and dedicated three

that

theological tractates to him; his election reflected the

enhanced strength of the pro-

prepared to approve the formula. Arising

eastern party as a result of the reunion

out of the

affair of the Scythian monks, Hormisdas was consulted (520) about the

between

orthodox) of Faustus of Riez

Hormisdas. It is was responsible

whom was

(c.

and west accomplished by significant that as pope he for introducing, on the advice of Dionysius Exiguus, the Alexandrian computation of the date of Easter, an

45 9-^.490),

they had portrayed as a Pelagian (he

in fact a

was

reply

been

*Semi-Pelagian). His discreet

that the church's teaching

Augustine;

Celestine

by

settled

for

as

Faustus,

had

and

I

disputed

issue

Symmachus;

St

it

Lawrence

between

came

to

be

and

accepted

throughout the west.

writings

his

east

could be read provided one did not follow

Emperor

Shortly before John's accession

who

any obnoxious teaching they contained.

Justin

harmony with his concern Hormisdas commissioned

orthodox}' had revived the old laws against

In

Exiguus, a Scythian

Rome,

c.550 in

prepare

Dionysius

up an

active

heretics,

le

correspondence with

good relations with Catholics but

now

increasingly

felt

isolated.

He sum-

pope to Ravenna and ordered him to lead a high-powered delegation of bishops and senators to Constantinople to

523), and that the restoration of the

be taken

and alarmed

cultivated

moned

death of the Vandal king Thrasamond (28

the

in

secure the suspension of the persecution,

buried in St Peter's, his

the return of confiscated churches, and

Catholic hierarchy could

He was

infuriated

Theodoric, king of Italy (493-526), himself a Goth and an Arian, who had hitherto

Catholics in Africa had ceased with the

hand.

began persecuting the Arians,

These measures

542) and Avitus of Yienne (d. and appointed papal vicars in Spain.

of learning that the persecution of

May

for

realms. Their churches were seized, they were excluded from public office, and many were compelled to abandon the Arian faith.

I

Shortly before his death he had the satisfaction

zeal

Latin transla-

a

(d.

r.5 19),

his

including great numbers of Goths, in his

the leading bishops of Gaul, Caesarius of

Aries

in

resident f.500-

canons of the Greek church.

tion of the

also kept

to

monk

for the east,

(518-27),

I

at last

epitaph in elegiacs being composed by his

freedom

son Silverius. Feast 6 Aug.

revert to *Arianism. Fearing for the fate of

PL

63, 367-534; Collectio Avellana, Epp.

Catholics in the west

105-242

undertook

741-990; JW 1, 101-7; LP i, 269-74; A. Grillmeier and H. Bacht, Chalkedon (Wurzburg, 1953) 2, 73-94; R.

(CSEL

35, 495-742); Thiel

Haacke,

'Die

1,

Glaubensformel

des

161-76

(E.

NCE 7, 100-9;

148 242

LThK 5, 483 Chapin); Seppelt

Amarm); (].

f.

1,

to

concessions

do

if

he refused, John

his best to obtain

demanded except

frankly told the king he

Papstes

Hormisdas', AnGreg 20 (Rome, 1939); Caspar 129-92; DCB 3, 155-61 (J. Barmby); DTC

for forcibly converted Arians to

all

the

he would not ask the the

last;

emperor to grant this. Theodoric's reaction is not known; some have conjectured that he relied on other members of the mission to

2,

7,

(R. Haacke);

transmit his request to Justin

244-52; JR,

Leaving

Ravenna

early

I.

in

526,

the

-

ST (13 Aug. 523-18 May 526). Tuscany, he was a senior deacon, elderly and infirm, when elected. Earlier he had supported the pro-eastern Antipope

embassy reached Constantinople shortly before Easter (19 Apr.). John was the first pope to leave Italy for the east, and his mission was a humiliating one. His reception, however, was brilliant: the whole city-

Lawrence, but made

came out

JOHN Born

I,

in

Symmachus on

his submission to

16 Sept. 506.

He was

to the twelfth milestone to greet

him, the emperor prostrated himself before

a

54

FELIX St Peter's vicar, and on Easter Day he was given a throne in church higher than the patriarch's, celebrated mass according to

and instead of the patriarch placed the customary Easter crown on the Latin

rite,

Justin's head.

When they got down to

1

W.

(III) (526-30)

Ensslin, Theoderich der Grosse (Munich,

1947), 316; Caspar

Amann);

NCE 7,

i82-92;D7C8, 593-5

2,

1006

f.

(E.

Chapin); Seppelt

(J.

1,

255-7; JR. iog-iy, 118-20.

FELIX IV

busi-

emperor agreed to comply with most of Theodoric's demands, but rejected the one to which he attached most import-

00;

IV

A

ail),

ST

(12 July

Samnite by birth

526-22 Sept. as a deacon

who

ness, the

530).

ance, that forcibly converted Arians should

had been a member of the delegation sent by Hormisdas in 5 19 to Constantinople, he was elected after a vacancy of fifty-eight

be permitted

to

revert to

their

original

belief.

Knowing

the

possible,

Ravenna,

only

to

all

hastened

legates

the

be

and was

impatience

king's

believing they had achieved

that

back

confronted

days; in view of the posthumous inclusion of Antipope Felix in the list of legitimate popes, he was improperly styled Felix IV

LP

instead of Felix HI.

states that

he was

consecrated by order of Theodoric, Ostro-

to

goth king of Italy (493-526).

with

The

evidence

fury. In his eyes the

suggests that there was a long, indecisive

mission had been a failure since it had not brought about reciprocal toleration. He was also deeply angered by reports of the pope's

struggle between the pro-Gothic and pro-

Theodoric's unbridled

Byzantine parties (the

most of the

and his gratified Morbidly suspicious, he had already executed his once trusted minister Boethius and other leading personages on charges of treasonable correspondence with magnificent reaction to

reception

it.

the emperor; the pope's conduct

made him

he too was prepared to betray him. Reports that he flung John and his fellowlegates into gaol and would have executed them had he not dreaded the emperor's wrath are certainly false. What he did with the other legates is not known, but he ordered John to remain in Ravenna at his disposal, making clear to him that he had forfeited his favour, trust, and protection. Before the king had reached a final decision about him, the wretched man, ill, worn out by his travels, and shattered by the terrible prospect before him, collapsed and died. His body, which immediately became the focus of veneration and miracles, was transported back to Rome and buried on 27 May in the nave of St Peter's. His epitaph in fear that

him

elegiacs salutes

establishment with Early

in

Caesarius,

his

men sharing his outlook. Felix

wrote

Aries

(502-41),

reign

bishop

of

to

approving the testing of laymen before ordination

ordained

and deploring the return of

men to secular life. More

import-

ant was his support of Caesarius in his efforts to

combat *Semi-Pelagianism, then

widespread

as 'a victim for Christ'.

Feast 18 May.

in

Gaul.

When

his Augustinian

views on grace met with opposition at a

synod

Thiel i,697;AfGAA9,328; 11, 37-105; 306-28; f.; LP 1 275-8; P. Goubert, 'Autour du

JW 1, 109

comprising

latter

and that Theodoric, who after John I wanted a reliable friend of the Goths as pope, intervened to break the deadlock. The king died on 30 Aug. 526, but, as his choice, Felix enjoyed good relations with his grandson and successor Athalaric (526-34), still a minor, and his widow Queen Amalasuntha, who acted as regent. Proofs of royal favour can be seen in an edict confirming that civil or criminal charges brought against clergy should be judged by the pope, and in the claim in Felix's epitaph that he increased the wealth of the papacy. The abnormally large number (55) of priests he ordained suggests a deliberate attempt to pack the clerical senate),

at

Valence in 528, Caesarius turned

for help to Felix,

who

in early

,

529 sent him

voyage a Byzance du pape S. Jean I', OChP 24 (1958), 339-52; H. Lowe, 'Theoderich der

twenty- five

Grosse und Papst Johann

consisting mainly of texts of St Augustine

I',

propositions

defining

the

church's teaching on grace and free-will,

HJf 72 (1952), 83-

55

DIOSCORUS

(antipope 530)

assembled by Prosper of Aquitaine fc.390These were adopted by the second

when

sudden death brought it to an end after only twenty-two days. Although LP did not assign him an entry, there is no doubt that,

531)

by the canon law of the time, he was

r.463).

council of Orange (July 529), and

approved by Boniface an end

effectively put

II

(25 Jan.

to the controversy

legitimate pope.

over grace.

Originally a deacon at Alexandria, Dio-

With Queen Amalasuntha's permission

scorus supported the *Chalcedonian 'two-

Felix converted several temples and public

Forum

buildings in the

The

ship.

natures' Christology and fled to

wor-

to Christian

splendid mosaics in one of them,

which feature

who dominated and

a portrait of Felix himself (the

due

earliest surviving papal likeness), are

around

among

Lawrentian

handed him

of eloquence

church. During the

he backed 506 intervened sucpersuading

behalf,

his

(493-526), to recclose confidant of

Italy

A

ognize him as pope. I

A man

(501-6)

in

Theodoric, king of

his *pallium (on condition that he returned

He

Roman schism

on

cessfully

a

'precept' nominating his archdeacon Boni-

face as his successor; he even

in

to

he soon became a leading

SYMMACHUS, and

the clergy and senate

and delivered them

his sickbed

Egypt.

political skill,

figure in the

to

him. As his death approached, he gathered his supporters

Rome,

unknown,

are

escape persecution by the *monophysites

Cosma and Damiano,

the church of SS.

which

circumstances

Iormisdas, he was a key

member

of the

had the precept

mission which went to Constantinople in

in Rome and sent to the court at Ravenna. The majority of the senate re-

cian schism (484-519) and, familiar as he

it

he recovered).

if

published

5

1

9 to negotiate the settlement of the *Aca-

Duchesne, 'La succession du pape Felix \X\MelArchHtst 3 (1883), 239-66;

was with Greek and the eastern world, he was able, at the decisive meeting in the imperial palace on 27 Mar., to argue convincingly before Patriarch John II and his clergy for the soundness of Rome's anathema on Patriarch *Acacius. Hormisdas so admired his abilities that he tried, unsuccessfully, to persuade Emperor Justin

255-8; DHGE f. (G. Schwai-

Alexandria. While in Constantinople he led

acted against this

strictly

unconstitutional

action by forbidding any discussion of a

pope's successor during his lifetime, or any

acceptance of a nomination. Feast (now) 22 Sept.

PL 65, 255;

1-23;

1

JW

Caspar

2,

895

f.

16,

ger);

1,

XCE

PLSupp 3, 1 280 f.;.VfCAA

no

151

f.;

f;

193-7; Haller

(H. Marot); 5,

879

f.

1

2,

246;

L.

(J-

LThK 4,

1,

68

Chapin); Seppelt

1,

I

257-

(518-27)

to appoint

the campaign against the Scythian

60; JR, 120-5.

who were (antipope 22 Sept.-i 4 Oct.

— formula 'One of the the — and was able

Trinity suffered in

show

530). Although Felix IV on his deathbed

to

had designated his archdeacon Boniface, a Gothic partisan like himself, as his successor, the majority of the clergy and senate were indignant at this unconstitutional procedure; many of them also preferred a pro-

monophysite

Byzantine pope.

When

influence

that

flesh'

was

it

misuse.

and

susceptible

His

prestige

of

undiminished

made him

the

obvious candidate of the pro-eastern party at the death of Felix IV. When he died, the sixty presbyters

therefore the elec-

favour,

meeting was held in the Lateran basilica, the deacon Dioscorus was chosen by a large majority, and was forthwith consecrated; the minority withdrew to a hall of

after

who had come

some

initial

out in his

hesitation,

cepted Boniface as pope, but the

tion

the palace and elected Boniface,

monks

calling for the acceptance of the

*Theopaschite

DIOSCORUS

Dioscorus bishop of

ac-

latter

forced them to sign a humiliating retractation

and

to

condemn

Dioscorus's

memory. It was to the credit of Pope Agapitus I that he had the document brought out of the papal archives and solemnly burned in St Peter's in 535. The

who was

consecrated on the same day. There was thus a schism in the church, but Dioscorus's

56

JOHN officials

to

of the papal chancery, however, saw name of Dioscorus did not

that the

it

appear in the

CSEL

and the alms he expended on

notaries,

helping the clergy when famine threatened.

Like Felix, however, he was resolved to

of popes.

official lists

35, 146; 149; 167; etc. (see index);

(533-5)

II

LP

1,

JW

secure a pro-Gothic successor.

So in 53 1

,

at

1, H2;L. 46; 100-3; 265; 270; 273 f.; 281-3; Duchesne, 'La succession du pape Felix IV,

a synod in St Peter's, having taken appropri-

MelArchHist 3 (1883), 239-66; Caspar 2, 116; 14, 507 f. (H. Marot);£C 4 1 5 1-8; 195

nominating the deacon Vighjus as the next

UDHGE

1681

f.

NCE 4,

,

Amore); LThKi,, 410 (G. Schwaiger); 878 (J. Chapin); Seppelt 1,241; 247; 260

(A.

f.;JR, 7 6;io 4

;

107

f.;

BONIFACE n

123

253

f.;

pope, and obliged the clergy to subscribe

him

by

his *pallium.

created, and probably also of objections

from

Sept.

such

The

had

and

also,

situation.

The little

that

is

Apostle. the

at

awkward

It fell

him

to

to

confirm authoritatively (25 Jan. 531) the acts of the second council of Orange Quly 529), which

ended the controversy over the patriarch of Constantinople, in response to complaints from two Greek bishops, deposed and excommuni-

grace.

the

When

cated the bishop of Larissa (Greece), Boniface held in 532 a synod

which

forcibly

Rome over *Illyricum, within which Larissa lay. He was

asserted the special rights of

buried in St Peter's, but there

resulting schism,

is

no evidence

however, was short-lived, for Dioscorus

of any cult being devoted to him.

died (14 Oct.) after twenty-two days, and the clergy backing him, now leaderless,

JW 1, in

LP

f;

1,

deutsche Papst',

acknowledged Boniface as pope. He proved vindictive in his triumph, and at a synod held on 27 Dec. forced the sixty priests who had opposed

after initial hesitation

him

his

known of the rest

the prestige of the holy see.

death the deacon Dioscorus was elected by a large majority in the Lateran basilica. The minority belonging to the pro -Gothic faction withdrew to an adjacent hall and

The

revoked

rights,

of his reign suggests that he strove to uphold

on pain of exile and con-

Boniface.

his

cost of some loss of face, from an

clergy were in agreement, and on Felix's

elected

soon

Boniface thus extricated himself,

behaviour,

The mass of

exceeded

ment before the tomb of the

of property, the acceptance of

nomination by anyone.

he

nomination, and burned the signed docu-

the succession during a reigning pope's

fiscation

Ravenna,

at

presence of the senate, confessed that he

published an edict forbidding discussion of lifetime

court

the

retreated and at a subsequent synod, in the

senate, outraged

unconstitutional

it

with an oath. In view of the indignation this

Gothic party to retain the papacy, formally designated him as his successor, even handing

powers, he proposed a constitution

f.

530-17 Oct. 532). The son of Sigibuld, he was the first pope of Germanic stock, although born in Rome. A rich man, he served the church from childhood and was archdeacon when on his deathbed Felix IV, wanting the pro(22

ate

193-8;

281-4; A. Hamack, 'Der erste

SAB

DHGE 9, 897

(G. Schwaiger);

NCE 2, 669

f.

(A.

(1924), 24-42; Caspar 2, f.

DBI

LThK 2,

(G. Bardy);

12,

133-6

(P.

H. Skeabech); Seppelt

62;JR, 122-5; 2 4 2

588

Bertolini); 1,

259-

-

to sign a declaration admitting their

guilt in

JOHN n

533-8 May 535). The II was followed by an exceptionally long vacancy of two and a half months. It was a period of intrigue and

disregarding Felix's nomination,

and condemning memory. This he deposited again,

(2 Jan.

death of Boniface

promising never to attempt anything similar Dioscorus's in the papal

with

archives.

corruption,

Having thus assured his position, Boniface became conciliatory and made

throne and their partisans resorting to can-

strenuous

efforts, as his

reunite his divided flock.

to

the

papal

vassing and bribery; even church plate and

epitaph records, to

funds

LP lists his gifts of

plate to priests, deacons, subdeacons,

aspirants

collected

squandered

and

compromise 57

for

poor

relief

were

to obtain votes. Eventually a

candidate

was

chosen,

AGAPITUS

1(535-6)

Mercury, an elderly priest of S. Clemente; his name was a pagan god's, he

Code. John's action has often been cited

because

glaring example of a

assumed that of the martyred John I, being the first pope to make such an alteration. It

previous pope in a matter of doctrine.

is

significant

Athalaric,

that,

after

his

Italy

(526-34), confirmed and extended a decree of the senate, published under Boniface II

ble,

it

He added

strict limits to

expended

that could be

the

proper

at elections or, in

from the

latter

received

had being

confined

to

informed,

John

a

dragged on into the reign of Agapitus

affair I.

on procuring the necessary documents from royal officials. John was on good terms with both Athalaric and the eastern emperor, Justinian I (527-65), who sent him hand-

He

On

ordered (533) his deposition and appointed Caesarius temporary visitor of the see. The

sums

court,

presents.

(d.

sentence,

monastery.

the case of disputed elections referred to the

some

by

542) had found guilty of misconduct and, being divided about the

and ordered that, inscribed on marshould be posted in St Peter's for all

to see.

a council presided over

Caesarius of Aries

penalties improper practices in papal elections,

whom

Provence,

which prohibited on pain of severe

(53°)>

a

The only glimpse which survives of John's dealings with the west concerns the case of Bishop Contumeliosus of Riez, in

installation,

Ostrogothic king of

the

as a

pope contradicting

\J(,\\

1

f.

,

12,

279-82;

Collectio Avellana, Ep.

84

32^8); PL 66, 17-32; JW 1,113; LP 285 f.; DCB 3, 390 f. 0- Barmby); NCE 7, 1007 (J- Chapin); Caspar 2, 217-19; Seppelt 1, 263-

(CSEL

35,

126

5 ;JR,

f.;

251.

deputations

AGAPITUS

and, after holding a synod,

Of

I,

ST

(13

formally accepted a dogmatic decree which

536).

the emperor had published on 5 Mar. 533. While acknowledging the teaching of the

partisans of Antipope

who

Gordianus,

1

May 535-22

aristocratic birth,

had

son of a

been

Apr.

priest,

killed

by

decree

502,

Lawrence in Sept. he was archdeacon when elected. A

included the *Theopaschite formula, 'One

man

of culture, he kept a library of the

general

four

first

councils,

of the Trinity suffered

Hormisdas had

this

which

in the flesh',

mansion on the Caelian and with the statesman and writer Cassiodorus (c. 490-^.5 80) planned a fathers in his family

rejected as unnecessary

Hill,

and open to misunderstanding. The emperor favoured it because, by excluding *Nestorian

Christian university for

Rome

modelled on

interpretations

of

the

the academies at Alexandria and Nisibis (in

Christology

and

fully

Mesopotamia). As one of the clergy who opposed the designation by a pope of his

*Chalcedonian

expressing the teaching of Cyril of Alexan-

seemed calculated

to appeal

successor, he opened his reign by having the

*monophysites in the empire, whom it was his policy to win over. The Acoemetae

anathema on Dioscorus, which Boniface II had extorted from the clergy, publicly

dria (d. 444),

it

to

(i.e.

sleepless)

monks of Constantinople,

burned.

champions of Chalcedonian orthodox}- and traditionally Rome's staun-

Forceful and independent in character,

fervent

chest

John,

allies,

to

appealed against

whom

it

to the

when appealed to by Contumeliowho had been deposed for misconduct by John II, appointed fresh Agapitus,

pope.

sus of Riez,

Justinian had written in

deferential terms acclaiming

Rome

judges to examine the case; the outcome

as 'the

head of all the churches', did his best to persuade them to abandon their opposition, but when they refused excommunicated them as Nestorians and wrote to the emperor pronouncing his decree orthodox. Justinian was overjoyed, and incorporated both his letter and the pope's reply in his

not known. priety

Aries

On

is

grounds of canonical pro-

he refused (July 535) Caesarius of 542) permission to apply church

(d.

property for the relief of the poor.

When the

African bishops, Catholicism having been restored in north Africa after

from 5«

the

Arian

Vandals

its

by

recovery

Emperor

SILVERIUS and

(536-7)

pronounced

I (527-65), sought his ruling, he took the hard line that *Arians converted to

emperor's

orthodox}' could never hold clerical office.

had sent

As regards African Catholic clergy who abandoned their charges to seek refuge in

teaching of the fathers and the apostolic see;

disapproved),

Justinian

these should not be received at

John, conformable with the

to

he added the pointed rider that laymen nevertheless did not possess authority to

he accepted the bishops' plea that

Italy,

the

out in the edict he

faith, as set

Rome unless

preach.

furnished with proper letters of authoriza-

Agapitus died in Constantinople on 22

congratulating him on his election

Apr. 536. But his resolute stand for the *Chalcedonian Christology gave new heart

tion. In

Justinian asked

converted

him

Arians,

with

to deal leniently

but

Agapitus

again

replied (Oct. 535) that the canons did not

allow a converted Arian priest to continue in office.

Meanwhile Justinian was energetically Italy, a Germanic kingdom since 476, and reincorporate it with the empire; the murder (5 Apr. 535) of Amalasuntha, widow of King Theodoric, by Theodahad, the last Ostrogothic king (534— 6), gave him a pretext, since she had appealed to him. Alarmed, Theodahad charged Agapitus to lead a mission to Constantinople to persuade the emperor to abandon his plans. Such was the poverty of the Roman church at the time that the pope was forced to pawn sacred vessels in order to finance the journey. Although he was

to its supporters in the east, and in MayJune a synod was held in Constantinople at which the clerical members of his delegation took part. This confirmed the deposition and excommunication of Anthimus and

anathematized other leading monophysites,

preparing to invade

such

Severus of Antioch

as

(d.

538).

The

dead pope's body, sealed in a leaden coffin, was brought back to Rome and interred in St Peter's on 20 Sept. 536. Feast in the west (now) 22 Apr., in the east 17 Apr.

PL

66, 35-80; Collectio Avellana, Epp. 82;

(CSEL

86-91

330-47); JW 1, 1 13-15; LP i, Marrou, 'Autour de la bibliotheque

35, 229

f.;

287-9; H- Idu pape Agapit', MelArchHist 48 (193 1), 1 24-69; Caspar 2, 199-229; DHGE 1, 887-90 (J- P-

DB1

Kirsch);

1,

362-7 (O.

182 (G. Schwaiger); Seppelt

1,

NCE

Bertolini);

1,

194

f.

(J.

LThK

1,

Chapin);

265-9; JR, I2 7 f

given a triumphal reception in the capital

SILVERIUS, ST

(Feb. 536), his mission proved a failure; Justinian explained that the enterprise was

too far advanced to be called

off.

He

scored

greater successes in the ecclesiastical

after

the

his

successor

tion

I's

Italy

the

orthodoxy

(534-6),

last

Ostrogothic king of

terrorized

the

clergy into

65) from his plans for the conquest of Italy,

he wanted

a

could

Once

trust.

whom he had been con-

pro-Gothic pope Silverius

secrated, the clergy hostile to his appoint-

ment accepted him for the sake of unity. The new pope was now caught in a fatal

web

of intrigue. While in Constantinople,

I had, to the chagrin of Empress Theodora, brought about the deposition of the *monophysite patriarch Anthimus;

declara-

of

Agapitus

Constantinople having reached

him pope. One source suggests that Theodahad had been bribed; what seems certain is that, knowing that Agapitus had failed to deflect Emperor Justinian I (527-

*Formula of Hormisdas. At Justinian's confirming

at

electing

he had signed an expanded version of

II's

death

Rome, Theodahad,

Menas (536-52)

request he then endorsed John

June 536-11 Nov.

only a subdeacon when, news of

field.

Having been warned that Anthimus, the patriarch and a favourite of Empress Theodora, was a *monophysite, he refused to communicate with him on the specious ground that he had been uncanonically translated from Trebizond. In spite of threats, promises, and proffered bribes, he stood his ground and, after a public disputation with Anthimus, convinced Justinian that he was a heretic. Anthimus was removed from office, and Agapitus consecrated

(8

537: d. 2 Dec. 537). Born at Frosinone, son of Hormisdas, he was, unprecedentedly,

Agapitus

the

*Theopaschite formula (which Hormisdas 59

VIGILIUS

(537-55)

when Agapitus

died,

physite herself,

made

Roman

deacon

Theodora, a monoa compact with the

Vigilius,

apocrisiarius

and from the

hastened to Rome, only

first

Anecd.

Silverius

the empress's wishes.

When

accused, with the aid of forged

f.;

HJ

25

1,

LP

f.;

3, 15;

270-3; P.

1,

des

Papstes

213-49; O. del pontificato di papa Silverio', 42

(1922),

(1924), 325-43; Caspar 2, 230-3; 670-3 (J. Barmby); DTC 14, 2065-7 (E. Amann); BSS 11, 1069-71 (V. Monachino); NCE

DCB

4,

217 128-33. 13,

and

letters,

115

Ansetzung

'Die

(537)',

Gothico

hello 1,

ASRomana 47

he refused, he

called to Belisarius's headquarters

JW

Bertolini, 'La fine

who

Rome on

10 Dec. 536, to induce Silverius to stand down in compliance with

was

14;

1,

Hildebrand,

made,

through Justinian's general Belisarius, occupied

De

42); Procopius,

to find Silverius

already installed. Attempts were

as

Feast 20

faith.

Liberatus of Carthage, Brev. 22 (PL 68, 1039-

he would secure the Anthimus. Vigilius

if

of

rehabilitation

was venerated

June.

(nuncio) of the holy see, that she would get

him appointed pope

ith cent, he

1

a martyr for the orthodox

Chapin);

(J.

Seppelt

1,

270-3; JR,

of

VIGILIUS

having treasonably plotted with the Goths,

the object of avoiding bloodshed, joined

(29 Mar. 537-7 June 555). Nobly born, son and brother of consuls, he was a deacon when Boniface II designated him his successor in 531, only to revoke the

with the senate in persuading the citizens to

nomination

who were now

besieging

Rome,

to

open

its

gates to them. Although he had in fact, with

surrender the

in face of a storm of protest. Sent then as apocrisiarius (nuncio) to Con-

city peacefully to the imperial

army, he was bound to be suspect as a pro-

stantinople, he

Goth, and Belisarius, swayed by his wife

*monophysite empress Theodora.

Antonina, had him stripped of his *pallium,

Agapitus

degraded him

to the

con announced

made

rank of a monk, and

with enormous

to the clergy that

he was no

the papacy for

1

gifts, that she would secure him if he would disavow the council of Chalcedon (451) and reinstate

longer pope.

was deported

Silverius

local bishop,

Patriarch Anthimus, whom Agapitus had had deposed as a monophysite. Ambitious and avaricious, Vigilius agreed, but on reaching Rome he found Silverius already

to Patara, a sea-

port in Lycia (south-west Anatolia).

The

however, went to Constan-

tinople to protest

on

many

When

died there (22 Apr. 536), she a secret compact with him, reinforced

A subdea-

(1

a confidant of the

I

Mar. 537).

then deposed him

became

his behalf to Justinian;

declared, but only one pope, and Silverius

commander of Emperor Justinian (527-65), had

had

deposed

there were

been

kings in the world, he

extruded.

unjustly to

and given

trial:

a fair

Justinian

be sent back

ordered Silverius

if

found

should be assigned another see;

to

for

him

to

Silverius

he

orders.

innocent,

own

much

Justinian,

island in the

Gulf of Gaeta. Here

of Silverius ordered by

in his second, fatal exile,

Given the prestige of the *Chalcedonian

hands.

Vigilius, to Palmaria,

trial

and

cannot be evaded. Christology in the west, Vigilius could not

was then dispatched, under guard

of two agents of

he forced through the on Theodora's

The new pope's complicity in block-

ing the fair

pope, and when Silverius he arranged with Belisarius

be delivered into his

Silverius,

election of Vigilius, probably

now

Rome

reached

Rome

guilty,

if

restored to his throne. This was too for Vigilius,

installed. After Belisarius, victorious

openly

an

fulfil his

Privately,

undertaking to the empress.

however, he assured Anthimus

and other monophysites

his abdi-

in the east that

shared their opinions, although

him

helpful if they could keep quiet about

(11 Nov. 537), and shortly afterwards he died (probably on 2 Dec), the victim of starvation and the hardships he had suffered. He was buried on the island, his grave becoming the centre of cures and miracles,

it

he

would be

cation seems to have been extorted from

it.

Meanwhile he was kept busy restoring the churches and other buildings in Rome devastated during

Goths.

60

He

its

recent siege by the

maintained his predecessors'

VIGILIUS policies in Gaul,

empowering successive

determination, he allowed his resistance to

A

in June 547 resumed communion with Menas, secretly promised Justinian and Theodora that he would condemn the Three Chapters, and on 1 1 Apr. 548 sent Menas his Iudicatum or 'verdict', viz. that the Three Chapters should be condemned, although without prejudice to

bishops of Aries to act as papal vicars.

decretal he addressed (29 Mar. 538) to

Profuturus of Braga on disciplinary matters

and several masses Leonine Sacramentary (7th cent.) belong to him. It was his relations with Byzantium, however, which revealed his deviousness and weakness of character. In Sept. 540 he wrote fulsomely to Justinian, avowing himself a true-blue Chalcedonian is

(537-55)

liturgically important,

in the

be worn down,

Chalcedon.

the moment. When in Jan. 543 the emperor anathematized the teaching and person of Origen, the Greek 3rd-cent.

This betrayal, as it was considered, provoked intense indignation in the west. A synod of African bishops excommunicated Vigilius (550), and he himself had to excommunicate members of his own entourage. The crisis was such that emperor and pope agreed that it would have to be resolved by a council. Vigilius was allowed to withdraw his Iudicatum, but was obliged to give

theologian, Vigilius dutifully subscribed the

Justinian a private but written assurance

edict with other patriarchs. Later that year,

that

however, Justinian published a further edict

about the

anathematizing the 'Three Chapters',

Chapters. In July 551, however, exasperated by delays and worked on by his

who

rejoiced in the emperor's repudiation

of Anthimus and other monophysites. This reflected

his

real

but also his

attitude,

awareness of Justinian's theological stance at

the person and writings of

i.e.

Theodore of

Mopsuestia (d. 428), and certain writings of Theodoret of Cyrrhus (d. £.458) and Ibas of Edessa (d. 457), supporters of the 'twonatures' Christology whose orthodoxy the council of Chalcedon (451) had not questioned. Justinian was convinced that the monophysites in the empire, who regarded these three as virtually *Nestorians, might be won over by their denunciation, and he required

all

patriarchs, the

pope included,

to endorse his judgement.

This was Vigilius's great and, fatal test.

as

it

proved,

Menas of Constantinople and

the

he would do

all in his power to bring condemnation of the Three

theological adviser Askidas, Justinian issued a

fresh

anathematizing the Three

edict

Chapters. This was too

who

much

for the pope,

called for the withdrawal of the edict,

excommunicated Askidas, and then sought sanctuary with his clergy in a church. After Justinian's police

had physically assaulted

him

he returned with a safe

at the altar,

conduct

to his lodgings,

but since he was

treated like a prisoner he fled a second time

(23 Dec. 551) across the Bosphorus and took refuge, appropriately, in the council

church

at

Chalcedon. Here he published an

eastern bishops, with notable exceptions,

encyclical

signed the anathemas under protest; but

behaviour and deposing Askidas. By June

there was a violent reaction in the west, which saw the Chalcedonian settlement imperilled. At first the pope resisted, but Justinian, to whom his support was vital, had him arrested by Byzantine police at mass (22 Nov. 545) and, after a lengthy stay in Sicily,

547).

brought

Once

to

Constantinople

(Jan.

there, he for a time maintained

excommunicating Patriarch Menas for subscribing and being excommunicated by him in return. Gradually,

552

attempting

a reconciliation

to

justify

had been patched up,

but in spite of Vigilius's

demand

planned council should be held Italy,

the

emperor convened

General Council)

May

in

his

it

that the

in Sicily or

(the Fifth

Constantinople on 5

553.

In spite of strong pressure to attend, the

pope

refused,

complete

pleading

the

western

representation.

his bold front,

inadequacy

however,

Instead, assisted by his deacon PelaGIUS, he issued on 14 May a compromise document, his First Constitution, condemning

observing

the

emperor's

of

PELAGIUS

1(556-61)

sixty propositions attributed to

Theodore

281; 291; 296-302; E. Schwartz, 'Vigiliusbriefe' and 'Zur Kirchenpolitik Iustinians', SAM 1940, Heft 2; L. Duchesne, 'Vigile et Pelage', RevQuest-

and declining to anathematize Theodoret and Ibas. It was a

but

not

person,

his

but Justinian rejected

skilful manifesto,

Hist 36 (1884), 369-440; 37 (1885), 529-93; A.

it.

Chavasse, 'Messes du pape

In reprisal, at the seventh session of the

council (26

May) he humiliated

Vigilius

229-86;

revealing his secret correspondence con-

demning

He

then ordered the

it

DTC 15,

2994-3005

pelt

Roman, nobly born and

experienced and elderly

The

Three

As

eighth session.

council having proved compliant,

it

I

a

in

rich,

appointed.

deacon he had accompanied Agapitus

536

to Constantinople, after his

representing the

himself into

*monophysite synod held there

His close

advisers, including the deacon Pelagius, were flung into gaol, recalcitrant Latin bishops were deposed and exiled, and the pope himself was placed under strict house arrest. Isolated and ill, his spirit broken, he capitulated after six months, and on 8 Dec.

new

X.

Sep-

he was widely

when

only remained for Justinian to bring Vigilius line with his policies.

(F.

(A. Lippold);

270-90; JR, 129-33; 141-60.

1,

The

at its

664-7

14,

2,

LThK

PELAGIUS I (16 Apr. 556-3 Mar. 561). A

however, that he was severing communion

Chapters

Amann);

clear,

with him personally, not with the holy see. council was to anathematize the

(E.

10, 787 f. (K. Baus); NCE Murphy); PWSupp 14, 864-85

condemn them. pope's name to be

or promising to

struck from the *diptychs, making

ELit 64

Vigile',

(1950), 161-213; 66 (1952), 145-215; Caspar

by

holy

see

at

death

the

anti-

in

May-

When

Silverius was exiled in 537, was alleged, in deference to Empress Theodora's wishes, to have worked to prevent his return in order to August.

Pelagius

retain the papacy for Vigilius.

stayed

Constantinople

in

as

He had Vigilius's

defence of the Three Chapters and confes-

and become the confidant of Emperor Justinian (527-65), who had consulted him on church appointments, used him on delicate missions, and under his

God having opened his eyes, he now agreed they deserved full condemna-

influence published (early 543) a denunciation of the Greek theologian Origen (d.

553 wrote

to the

patriarch, Eutychius,

apocrisiarius

revoking (he appealed to St Augustine's Retractations

as

a

precedent)

his

earlier

sing that,

tion.

This being deemed

insufficient,

he

r.254). In 544,

issued on 23 Feb. 554 his Second Constitution fully endorsing the decisions of the council.

He was now set free

return to

Rome, where

demanded.

He

when

Justinian issued his

condemning the *Three Chapters, Pelagius had been in Rome, but had sought theological ammunition against it from Feredict

and allowed to was

randus of Carthage

his presence

(d.

546/7). In 546, the Goths, he

when Rome was besieged by

stayed in Constantinople,

however, for a year, and obtained from

had played

Justinian, as a reward for his loyal services,

absent pope, spending lavishly on famine

the so-called Pragmatic Sanction (13 Aug.

relief and,

554), intended to establish orderly imperial government in Italy, now wrested from the

intervening with the Gothic king Totila to

a

noteworthy role as vicar of the

when

the city

(17

fell

Dec),

prevent a massacre. Totila had sent him

Goths, but also assuring the church of

(547) to Constantinople to negotiate peace,

important rights and privileges. In spring he

but without success.

set off, but succumbed to gallstones (from which he had long suffered) and died at Syracuse, Sicily. His remains were brought back to Rome and, in view of his unpopularity, were buried, not in St Peter's, but in S. Marcello on the Via Salaria.

PL 69, 15-328; CSEL AfCEp 3, 57-68; JW 1,

For the

LP

he had been

Three

Chapters. Like the west had rejected Vigilius's *Iudicatum (547) condemning them. Returning to Constantinople in 551, he had stiffened the

generally, he

the vacillating Vigilius's opposition to their

35, 230-320; 348-56;

117-24;

rest of his diaconate

deeply involved with the controversy over

condemnation, sharing his

1, ccliii f.;

62

ill

treatment,

PELAGIUS backing his demand for a general council reassure the west, and,

to

the juridical system in

when it met in a form

the devastation of war.

part.

When

Constitution.

First

Vigilius's

active in relieving poverty

was he who had drafted

It

the

pope weakened and issued a Second Constitution, he had broken with him and, imprisoned in monasteries, had written, with other pamphlets, a Defence of the Three Chapters, branding Vigilius in it as a

the poor.

But now he made an abrupt change of stance, accepting both the condemnation of the Three Chapters and the Fifth General Council. The reasons for his had realized

new

likely that

monastic insisting

he

he was aware that Justinian,

admire him, wished him provided he

to

who

exceptions

be the next pope

death he returned to

Rome, but

(e.g.

suburbicarian

—

Italy

There seems suggests

to

nominee

and Ravenna), he had an uphill and

largely

unsuccessful struggle to secure recognition

Rome

bitter

may have

humiliating assurances of his orthodoxy-.

that

Justinian

clergy in Constantinople.

Not

Roman

surprisingly,

condemnation of the Three Chapters was most obdurate in north Italy,

many relicom-

where the great sees of Aquileia and Milan renounced communion with him. To bring

Pelagius had a hostile reception,

Hostility to his

gious and nobles withdrawing from

munion with him. His consecration had

the schismatics to heel he even put pressure

to

on the exarch

be postponed until 16 Apr. 556 since no bishop would officiate, and it was then carried out by only two bishops (of Perugia and

Narses

of the

arguing that such was permitted by divine law; but the great general shrank from doing so. Thus the reign of this gifted and energetic pontiff, the outstanding churchman of the day, was dogged with bitter frustration. As a deacon Pelagius made a Latin

significant that, after

translation of selections of the 5th-cent.

the bishop of *Ostia, normally a papal con-

Rumour

Vigilius's death,

him

implicated

and he was execrated

his betrayal, as the west regarded

Three Chapters.

It is

he broke

it,

precedent

solemnly affirming his loyalty to the

in for

Greek Sayings of the Elders. Before he died he had made a start on the cruciform church of Sts Philip and James (now SS. Apostoli), modelled on Justinian's Apostoleion at Con-

by first

four general councils, especially Chalcedon

and

in St Peter's,

supported by the

governor Narses and holding

aloft a cross

and the book of the gospels, swore had done no harm to Vigilius.

stantinople and intended to

that he

powers

granted

*Pragmatic Sanction,

It

was

a

symbol of his collaboration with both the emperor and his commander. He was fitting

by Justinian's

to restore

commemorate

Narses's triumph over the Goths.

Pelagius worked energetically, using the

temporal

(imperial governor or viceroy)

to use his troops,

action

Ferentino), while a presbyter represented

ordination,

where

comparisons were made between his

earlier and later attitudes, he continued to be distrusted and hated, in spite of repeated,

for the papacy.

obtained the grudging assent of the

secrator.

i.e.

have been no election, but

as the emperor's

(451),

on high moral standards. By efand pastoral care he

for his authority as pope. In Gaul,

On Vigilius's

his

the depleted ranks of

the seven dioceses within 60 km. of Rome

policy.

LP

fill

elsewhere in the west, with certain notable

into line with his religious

fell

and

speedily conciliated opinion in

differences had never ceased to

despite

life

ficient administration

but also

situation,

special efforts to recover

the clergy, campaigning against simony and

endorsement of

that Vigilius's

the council created a likely that

It is

He made

church plate dispersed during the troubles, and took steps to improve the quality of

turncoat.

volte -face are obscure.

Rome and Italy after He was exceptionally

and starvation and ransoming prisoners of war. Helped by a lay banker, Anastasius, he overhauled the papal finances and reorganized the papal properties in Italy, Gaul, Dalmatia, and north Africa, earmarking their income for

unlikely to do so, supporting his refusal to

take

1(556-61)

buried

order and

in St Peter's

with an optimistic epi-

taph attributing to him more success

63

m

JOHN

III (561-74)

winning back schismatics than

in fact

he

settled,

had. P.

to

M. Gasso and

he was providing,

1956); R.

Devreesse, 'Pelagii diaconi In defensione trium capitulorum\

738; LP

1

,

ST 57 (1932); JW

303

f.;

309

f.;

1,

Caspar

2,

114-36;

2,

to return (571)

reside in the imperial palace,

and

take charge of the crisis. In spite of the help

C. A. Batlle, Pelagii I papae

epistuUu quae supersunt (Montserrat,

and persuaded him

Rome,

ances

among

this created

the populace

so unpopular that he judged

695;

274-305; DCB

such disturb-

and made John it

wise, so as to

escape being involved in the quarrel, to

295-8 0- Barmby); DTC 12, 660-9 (RLThK 8, 249 f. (G. Schwaiger); PWSupp 7, 836-47 (A. Nagl); NCE 1 1 55 f. (F. X. Murphy); Seppelt 1, 286-92; JR, 142-8; 15 1-3 4>

withdraw

from

residence

at the

the city and take up church of SS. Tiburtius

Devreesse);

,

and Valerian two miles outside on the Via Appia. There he carried out all his duties,

(and see index).

including the consecration of bishops, until

JOHN HI (17 July 561-13 July 574)- Originally

named

Anastasius, a

governor; he

is

I's

Greek 5th-

and compiled an

Exposition ofthe Heptateuch.

JW

A pro-easterner

Emperor Justinian

Rome

in

573/4.

He him-

after his octogenarian friend

1,

136

f.;

LP

1,

305-7; O. Bertolini, Roma di

fronle a Bisanzio e at Langobardi (Bologna, 1941),

(527-65)

I

soon

and was buried in St Peter's. He completed the church of Sts Philip and James (now SS. Apostoli) begun by his predecessor to commemorate Narses's victories.

who completed

translation of the

cent. Sayings of the Elders

acceptable to

self died

probably to be identified

with the subdeacon John

Pelagius

Narses's death in

was the son of Roman senator and provincial Catelinus, he

220-2; Caspar

DACL

and to Narses, his exarch (viceroy) in Italy from 554, he had to wait only four months

13,

2,

122 1

350

Chapin); Seppelt

f.;

DCB 3, 391

(J.

Barmby);

(H. Leclercq);NC£7, 1008

f.

1,

(J.

292 f.;JR, 162-6; 241; 243.

after election before the imperial authoriza-

tion necessary at this time for his consecra-

BENEDICT I (2 June 575-30 July 579). A

from Constantinople. John's reign, about which hardly anything is known, saw the invasion (568) of large parts of Italy by the Lombards under King

Roman by birth,

son of Boniface (otherwise unknown), he had to wait almost eleven

tion arrived

Alboin; they met with

months

after his election before the necess-

ary imperial confirmation, delayed by the

of the condemnation of

breakdown of communications, arrived from Constantinople and he could be consecrated. His reign, about which almost nothing is known, saw the most cruel phase of the Lombard conquest, with armed forces pushing south and in summer 579 investing Rome. A delegation he and the

the *Three Chapters. Relations with north

senate sent to Constantinople to ask for help

little

resistance since

(565-78) had dismissed Narses in response to popular

Justinian's successor Justin

II

demand. The invasion

assisted the

of the schism between

Rome and

ending

the great

churches of the west caused by the endorse-

ment by Pelagius Africa

became

I

had

easier after Justinian's death

573 the new bishop of Milan, Laurentius II, elected in Genoa because of

in 565,

and

the occupation of his city in 569,

deemed

litde success.

Emperor

The

troops dispatched by

(565-78) were too few, and while the grain ships he had sent from

in

Justin

II

was shortand famine spread in the city, Benedict died. But certain actions of his stand out from the darkness. For a time at any rate he seems to have had good relations with the Lombard duke of Spoleto, for he was able to order the Egypt provided valuable

it

prudent to renew communion with Rome and signed a document (countersigned by the future Gregory I, then prefect of Rome) acquiescing in the condemnation of the Three Chapters. Aquileia, however, continued obdurate. But John had more than church affairs to worry about. As the Lombards poured south, he went in desperation to Naples, where Narses had

lived.

As

relief,

it

the siege intensified

of landed properties to the monastery of S. Marco near the city. He was

restitution

exceptionally active pastorally, ordaining

64

no

GREGORY One

fewer than twenty-one bishops.

578, thereby consolidating papal influence was now the residence of the

imperial governors of

Gregory

Italy. Finally,

who removed

he

from

I

it

He was

were

Constantinople,

fruitless despite the irenical

He

then got Smaragdus to use

force to bring about a reconciliation, but he

too was unsuccessful.

ordained him deacon, thus strengthening his administrative staff.

now back from

his letters.

and

monastery

his

Gregory, his efforts

tone and impressive theological content of

was

future

the

an attempt to end

in

the schism. Although he was assisted by

in the city that

probably

*Three Chapters,

the

a

Under

buried in

Pelagius the conversion of the

King Reccared

the sacristry of St Peter's.

Visigoths in Spain, under

JW 1, 137; DCB 1, 31

(586-601), was proclaimed

Baix);

695 f.;LP 1, 308; Caspar 2, 350 f.; (T. R. Buchanan); DHGE 8, 7-9 (F.

2, 1

DBI 8, 324

Chapin); Seppelt

f.

NCE 2, 273

(O. Bertolini);

1,

293; JR, 165

Born

the

third

the beginning of a long controversy over the

(J.

title

f.

(26 Nov. 579-7 Feb. 590).

II

at

council of Toledo (589). His reign also saw

'ecumenical patriarch', used by bishops

of Constantinople from the

PELAGIUS

(590-604)

Rome in disgust at its condemnation of

with

of

Roman, John III, whom he appointed archbishop of Ravenna in Nov. them was

I

originally with the

Rome, son of a Goth named when the siege of by the Lombards was at its height.

his

he was ordained

the

in

own

late

5th cent.,

meaning 'supreme within

patriarchate'.

When Patriarch John

Unigild, he was elected

IV assumed

the city

Pelagius refused to endorse the acts since

Because of the

crisis

title

immediately, probably in Aug. 579, without waiting for the imperial mandate indispens-

supremacy,

able since the Byzantine conquest of

until

was officially dated from November.

his reign in late

He

at

Gregory

once

dispatched

arrival

as

apo-

and to beg for military aid. Hard pressed by the Persian war, Emperor Tiberius II (578-82) could spare only a few crisiarius

troops, but advised the

bribe the

Roman delegation to

Lombard dukes and seek

from the Frankish

help

king. In Oct. 580, there-

fore, Pelagius

appealed to Aunarius, bishop

of Auxerre;

as

orthodox

faith,

neighbours

sharing

Rome's and

His appeal

reopening of access

to

Italy

72, 703-60;

40;

LP

infringe

on

his

in

588,

papal

nuncio

1,

Leclercq); (J.

DTC

1

2,

669-75 (& Amann); NCE

Chapin); Seppelt

1,

1 1

293-6; JR, 166-8;

225-30.

GREGORY 604). Like

I,

Leo

ST I

(3 Sept.

590-12 Mar. was

called 'the Great', he

born f.540 of a wealthy patrician family which had already provided two popes,

advantage of the northern

seemed to and called

PL

56-8

ears,

until 589. Pelagius took

synod held

ACO TV/2, 105-36; JW 1, 137309-11; Caspar 2, 353-74; DCB 4, 298-301 (J. Barmby); DACL 13, 1222-4 (H.

fell on deaf and four years later he had to write to Gregory in Constantinople describing Italy's plight and urging him to bestir the emperor. In 585, however, Smaragdus, imperial exarch in Ravenna, arranged an armistice with the Lombards which lasted

Italy's protectors.

a

portico of St Peter's.

the

he pleaded, Providence had

singled out the Franks to be

at

Gregory to break off communion with John he repudiated it. In Rome he was an active builder and restorer; it was probably he who raised the presbytery of St Peter's so that the high altar was directly above the shrine of the Apostle, and he reconstructed S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, where his portrait can be seen in contemporary mosaic on the triumphal arch. When plague began ravaging Rome as a result of flooding caused by an overflow of the Tiber in Nov. 589, he was one of its first victims. He was buried in the

Italy;

deacon

his

Constantinople

to

its

it

Felix III and AGAPTTUS which probably included

to

correspond with Elijah, bishop of Aquileia

(now at Grado), and the bishops of Istria, whose sees had renounced communion

I.

His education,

legal studies,

was

the best available. After gaining administrative

65

experience as prefect

ol

Rome

c 572-4,

GREGORY

I

(590-604)

he became a monk on the death of his father Gordianus (two paternal aunts were nuns), converted the family mansion on the Caelian

Andrew

Hill

vigorous and confident pontiff whose reign

was

From the outset, owing to the breakdown

the monastery of St and there embarked on a

into

in 574/5,

rigorous monastic apprenticeship.

He

decisive for the subsequent history of

the church and for the medieval papacy.

of

founded six monasteries on family estates in Sicily. Although he ruined his health with fasting, this was the happiest period of his life; but he was soon called to more active service, being made deacon in 578 by Benedict I (probably), and in late 579 sent as apocrisiarius to Constantinople by PelaGIUS II. In this key post he became expert on eastern church affairs (but learned no

government, he was involved as temporal as in spiritual affairs.

civil

much

also

in

Hardly enthroned, he took

hand the

in

provision of food and other necessities for

To find the means, he carried out a thorough reorganization of 'the patrimony of Peter', i.e. the vast estates owned by the holy see not only in Italy but in the starving population.

Dalmatia, Gaul, and north Africa,

Sicily,

appointing rectors directly responsible to

himself in the several domains and insisting

and humane management.

He

Greek), enjoyed close relations with the

on

court and leading personalities (although he

thus not only relieved social distress but laid

efficient

clashed with Patriarch Eutychius on doc-

the foundations of the future papal state.

and struggled, with little success, to obtain military- and material help for Rome and Italy, since 568 subject to invasion by the Lombards. Meanwhile he lived in his

also

trine),

residence as a

official

monks. Recalled

to

monk

Rome

in

threats to

with other

585/6, he

employed as confidential adviser to Pelagius II, helping him with his difficult negotiations to end the schism with Venetia-Istria caused by Rome's condemnation of the *Three Chapters. He was responsible for the third, theologically most important, of pope's

letters,

but

the

Rome since the imperial exarch at

promising yearly

tribute. In these years

became virtually civil ruler of Italy, aim was

the conversion of the

cism.

When

the

a general

Lombards

emperor chided him

stinging rejoinder defending

ask him to withhold his consent. In the

his predecessors,

stricken city, organizing penitential proces-

sions and preaching calls to repentance. still

sought escape, but was consecrated under

on 3 Sept. 590. His early letters as pope graphically portray his unhappiness at being dragged from the contemplative life protest

In

more

of the west than working where possible through metropolitans. In Italy he imposed a detailed code for the election and conduct of bishops, enforced clerical celibacy, and deposed offending prelates. Even if his efforts to end the schism in Venetia-Istria failed because the emperor, for political reasons, bade him desist, he managed to a

meantime he devoted himself to the plague-

shoulder his heavy burden.

effective oversight

obtain the submission of several individual bishops. In Africa he struggled to counter a

fact,

habitually describing himself as 'servant of

revival of

God's

authority,

servants',

for

Gregory sent him (June 595) a what he was doing on behalf of 'my country' (patrid). With his tireless energy and unerring eye for what was needed, he quickly established

barians,

Although a junior deacon, Gregory- was elected with rare unanimity on Pelagius IPs death. Genuinely recoiling from promotion, he did everything possible to avoid it, even writing to Emperor Maurice (582-602) to

to

peace and to Catholi-

being so simple as to be duped by bar-

schismatics

imperial mandate arrived he

he

negotiat-

ing treaties, paying troops, and appointing generals. His

proved unyielding.

When the

He

Lombard

personally with the

Ravenna would do nothing. In 592 he made a truce with Ariulf, duke of Spoleto, and when the exarch broke it and King Agilulf descended on Rome, he rallied the garrison and saved the city (593) by bribing him and

resided in his monastery, but was chiefly

the

dealt

he proved an exceptionally

66

*Donatism and assert Rome's although an unco-operative

GREGORY

I

(590-604)

and concerned himself with liturgiprobably setting up a school of singers. He was also a voluminous writer,

exarch and the tradition of African independence made it uphill work. He had

liturgy

cal music,

greater success in forging links with Visi-

gothic Spain,

where he found friends in the King Reccared and Bishop

practical rather than theoretical, an unorig-

Catholic

inal

Leander of Seville (d. 600), and with Gaul, where he restored (595) the papal vicariate at Aries and kept up a friendly cor-

teaching; his works were so widely studied

respondence with the ferocious Queen Brunhild (d. 613). Of his missionary enterprises the most successful was his dispatch

church. His Register contains more than

England of Augustine, prior of

to

Roman monastery, with

forty

monks

but effective summarizer of Augustine's

he was acclaimed, with Ambrose,

that

Augustine, and Jerome, a doctor of the

850

and illuminates every aspect of His Pastoral Care (r.591) sets view of the bishop as a shepherd of

letters

his activities.

out his

his

Greek in his lifetime Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, it

souls; translated into

in 596.

Mellitus and Paulinus (later bishops of London and York), and conferred the *pallium on

became

the textbook of the medieval epis-

copate.

Of his sermons and commentaries

Augustine as archbishop of the English.

40 short Homilies on

and

In 601 he sent reinforcements led by

Gregory's relations were different with the east,

longer

where there was an emperor whose

subject he readily acknowledged he was.

frequendy had

bow

to

in

Commentary on

He was indefatigable, upholding the Roman primacy,

Ezekiel

(593),

1

Samuel survive, graphically

Italian saints, reflect the

simple credulity of

the age. His Moralia, a mystical and allegorical exposition ofJob,

and finished treasury of moral and tinople

Constantinople. Although accepting *canon

begun

later centuries.

Gregory argued

ble-minded; what gave urgency

made

all

Gregory was a man of immense to the great, but always realistic

commis-

a

and hum-

to his think-

ing and action was his conviction of the

Rome. The wrangle

imminent end of the world. The victim of ill health throughout his pontificate, he was racked with gout and unable to walk when he died. Threatened with a fresh siege, Rome was again in the grip of famine, and the mob, ironically, turned in exasperation on the man who had lavished everything on them. He was buried in St Peter's, his

was resentment arising from it which caused him to greet the murder of Maurice and the usurpation of the tyrant Phocas (602-10) with unworthy jubilation in 602. Gregory's interests and influence were (c.

ability,

determination, and energy, over-deferential

dragged on for Gregory's entire reign, with the eastern authorities refusing to budge. It

Nursia

Constan-

churches, Constantinople

included, subject to

wide-ranging.

in

595, became a ascetical theology in in

28 of Chalcedon, Gregory strongly objected it as challenging the pope's unique supremacy. Emperor Maurice rebuked him for making a fuss over a mere title, but to

sion

His

Dialogues (593/4), relating the lives and miracles of Benedict of Nursia and other

and successfully maintained Rome's appellate jurisdiction in the east. A major cause of friction, however, was the use of the title *'ecumenical patriarch' by the bishop of

that St Peter's

22 two

the Gospels (590-1),

on

written and allegorical in approach.

in

ecclesiastical policy.

however,

Homilies

Homilies on Song of Songs, and part of a

He

his wishes

to

into

An

admirer of Benedict of

480-f. 550) and the

first

pope

to

epitaph acclaiming him as 'consul of God'.

be

Feast

now

3 Sept.

monk, he was the propagator of monasti-

cism,

granting

important

monks and choosing them ate

circle.

Although

privileges

for his

the

Life by

to

grave

immedi-

anonymous monk of Whitby:

(ed.),

The

see B. Col-

Earliest Life of Gregory the Great

(Lawrence, Kansas, 1968); Bede, Hist. eccl. 2, I; (works, etc.); AfG'Kp 1 and 2; CCL 140-

Gregorian

PL 75-9

Sacramentary

is a later compilation, he introduced a number of changes in the

140A

(letters);

Moralia);

67

JW

1,

142-4 143-219;

(commentaries

LP

1,

and

312-14; P. H.

SABINIAN (604-6) Dudden, Gregory the Great: His Place

in History

and

Thought (London, 1905); H. Grisar, Gregor der Grosse (Rome, 1928); P. Batiffol, St Gregory the Great (ET, London, 1929); J. Richards, Consul of God (London, 1980); N. Sharkey, St Gregory' the of Papal Power

Concept

Great's

(Washington,

Seppelt

(R. Gillet);

NCE

6,

SABINIAN Born

at

cleric

who

604-22 Feb. 606).

deacon served

as

Gregory

438

Amann);

(E.

f.

f.

BONIFACE

Feb.-i2 Nov. 607).

III (19

Rome

in

of Greek family, he had to

Gregory

was

who

a favoured

he had been chief executive agent of the church iprimicerius defensorum) had made him a deacon and sent him as nuncio to Constantinople in 603, commending him warmly to the new emperor Phocas (602-10). A skilful

Volterra in Tuscany, he was a career as

244; 260

14,

Mullins); Seppelt 2, 43; JR,

(P. J.

In contrast to Sabinian, he

766-70 (G. Rush);

I's

Constantinople from 593 to 595. This indicates that Gregory then had a high

nuncio

784

protege of

(13 Sept.

DTC

Barmby);

12,

wait almost a year before being consecrated.

9-42.

2,

(J.

Born

1956); Caspar 2, 306-514; DCB 1, 779-91 (J. Barmby); BSS 7, 222-78 (V. Monachino); DSp 6,

872-910

574

NCE

in

I,

after

diplomat, he established friendly relations

when he became pope

with Phocas, and

opinion of him, but he incurred the pope's

obtained from him a formal declaration that

anger

Rome,

595 for not being

in

sufficiently firm

Emperor Maurice (582-602) and Patriarch John IV in opposing the latter's

with

use of the

was

recalled,

#

had issued

He and later that year was a mem-

title

'ecumenical patriarch'.

ber of a papal mission

this time

stantinople before being ordained in mid-

Rome

who was unpopular

the time of his death;

at

it is

in

which saw

his short reign, hostilities

with the

renewal of

Lombards and an

when Gregory

LP

died.

he was involved

seems

Pelagius

The

title

II

and

*'ecumenical

occasion was marked by the

Rome

of a gilded statue of the

tolerance towards the schism in Venetia-

known of

of the famine gripping

sification

that

a

patriarch'.

the

to

tion. A further proof of good relations between Boniface and the emperor was the latter's ending of his predecessors' policy of

signifi-

ing on monks, he preferred to promote is

I,

tyrannical Phocas with an adulatory inscrip-

cant that, reversing Gregory's policy of relysecular clergy. Almost nothing

moment at any

claim of bishops of Constan-

Gregory

erection in

Sept. His election represented a reaction against Gregory,

pronouncement, but

a similar

tinople, exasperating to

probably in Mar. 604, he had to await the arrival of the imperial mandate from Con-

was head of all

Emperor Justinian (527-65)

put a stop, for the

it

rate, to the

Gaul. Elected

to

the see of St Peter,

the churches.

inten-

Istria

caused

Smaragdus

Rome

against

to suggest

in negotiations for a

truce between Smaragdus, imperial exarch

by

its

energetic

take

to

adherents.

Chapters

The

measures

only other note-

worthy event of Boniface's reign was his holding of a synod to regulate papal elections; this forbade,

Ravenna, and the Lombard king. His policy for alleviating the famine again conat

*Three

the

controversy, and his instruction to exarch

cation,

all

on pain of excommuni-

discussion of a successor to a

7

trasted with Gregory's,

grain

from

the

who had

papal

pope or bishop during

given away

granaries

freely;

Sabinian kept a tight control and sold

that, in

so unpopular with the masses

procession had to

detour outside the

city walls to

make

1,

220;

until

rivalries

explain the long vacancy better than delay,

of which there

a

is

no evidence,

in obtaining

the necessary imperial confirmation.

reach St

JW 1, 220; 2, 698; LP 1, 316; Caspar 2, 517 DCB 1, 329 (T. R. Buchanan); DHGE 9, 898 (G. Bardy); NCE 2, 670 (P.J. Mullins); DBI 12, 136

f.;

Peter's.

JW

and

possible that

election

by canvassing and

order to avoid hostile demonstra-

tions, his funeral

own

It is

had been marked between the proand anti-Gregorian factions; this would

Boniface's

it,

only to be accused of profiteering. This

made him

his lifetime

three days after his death.

LP

1,

315; Caspar

2,

515

f.;

DCB

f.

4,

68

BONIFACE V (619-25) (P.

Bertolini); Seppelt 2,

43

f.;

JR, 177; 259;

261-3.

Leclercq); DHGE 9, 898 f. (G. Bardy); NCE 2, 670 (P.J. Mullins); DBI 1 2, 1 37-40 (P. Bertolini);

Seppelt

BONIFACE IV, ST Bom in what is

615).

(15 Sept. 608-8 May

now

the province of

L'Aquila, son of a doctor, he

is first

men-

44-6; JR, 53; 177; 256; 262-5.

2,

DEUSDEDIT (later ADEODATUS I), ST (19 Oct. 615-8 Nov. 618). A Roman by son of a subdeacon Stephen, he was

tioned in 591 as a deacon and treasurer to Gregory I. The ten-month vacancy before

birth,

was caused by the need to await the imperial mandate from Constantinople. A disciple and imitator of Gregory, as his epitaph emphasizes, he turned his house in Rome into a monastery on becoming pope and encouraged monks and monasticism. His reign was disturbed by famine, plague, and natural disasters, but he enjoyed good relations with Emperors Phocas (602-10) and Heraclius (610-41). Pho-

as a priest for forty years,

his consecration

cas granted his request to turn (13 the

Roman Pantheon

cated to the

BVM

all

the II.

first

priest to

IV;

them

ordained since Gregory

an evening

instituted

May 609)

office, parallel to

Rome was

afflicted

LP

1,

in Italy, disgrunded at the failure of their pay to arrive. The exarch John and other government officials at Ravenna were

butchered. Deusdedit continued loyal to

Emperor Heraclius (610-41) throughout the upheaval, and gave a warm welcome to the

when he

visited

before moving to crush the revolt.

was cut down by troops as he marched on Rome. Deusdedit's epitaph, composed by Honorius I, describes him as simple, devout, wise, and shrewd; on his deathbed he made the first recorded funerary bequest by a pope to his clergy, the equivalent

(it

conjectured) of a year's

is

stipend to each. Feast 8 Nov.

JW

1,

222; 2, 698;

520; 523;

DACL

DHGE

356

14,

Daniele);

f.

LP 13,

1,319 f.; Caspar 2, 517 f.; 1229 f. (H. Leclercq);

(B. Bone);

NCE 4, 822

BSS

1,

250

f.

(I.

(C. E. Sheedy); Seppelt 2,

4 6;JR, 178; 262-4.

BONIFACE V(2 3 Dec. 610-25 Oct. 625).

317

A

Columban et le jugement du pape RevSR 3 (1923), 277-82; Caspar 2, 13,

exarch, Eleutherius,

Eleutherius, too, soon raised the standard of

Riviere, 'St

2062-8;

it

with an earthquake and

an outbreak of scab disease, and that there a serious mutiny of the Byzantine forces

home armed

163 f; 170-7;

is

was

rebellion, but

10,

be and mat-

the martyrs (the

613 Boniface received a letter, deferential full of impassioned but reproaches, from the Irish monk Columban (543-615), now at Bobbio (in the Apennines), who, at the instigation of the Arian Lombard king Agilulf and his Catholic wife Theodolinda, besought him to repudiate his predecessors' condemnation of the *Three Chapters and convene a council to demonstrate his own orthodoxy. No rejoinder from Boniface has survived. On his death he was buried in St Peter's; his cult can be traced only to the reign of Boniface VIII. Feast 25 May.

DACL

death),

his reign, except that during

generally. In

517-22;

I's

the clergy. Practically nothing

tins, for

Rome

heretique',

He

also ordained fourteen priests (the first to

new

3,

and

promoting

rather than religious to offices.

Archbishop Lawrence of Canterbury, King Ethelbert of Kent, and the English people

AfGEp

I

with satisfaction

that 'he gready loved the clergy',

with the synod's decrees and letters for

220-2;

LP records

known of

church, and Mellitus returned

1,

and was himself

be made pope since John

He was the choice of the party opposed to

Boniface

conferred about the needs of the English

f.;J.

elected, having served

the pro-monastic policies of Gregory

first such conversion of a pagan temple), and he filled it with relics from the catacombs. In 610 he held a synod to regulate life and discipline in monasteries, and among those present was Mellitus (d. 624), first bishop of London. The pope and he

JW

when

church dedi-

into a

and

already elderly

Neapolitan, son of John, he had to wait

some

thirteen

months

after election before

the imperial sanction for his consecration

1063-7 (H-

69

HONORIUS The

arrived.

1(625-38)

reason for the delay was the

who was

obtained from the exarch Isaac,

preoccupation of Emperor Heraclius (610-

staying in

41) with his campaigns against the Persians;

previous career, but he shared the ideals of

it

Gregory

significant that the responsibility for

is

now

confirming a papal election was gated to the exarch

Gregory

The sources stress his regard clergy,

and

ness to preserve

prerogatives:

their

example, he insisted that only should

acolytes,

for

initially

in

martyrs, and that acolytes should not act for

subdeacons

at

A

baptisms.

asylum

ecclesiastical

businesslike

bequests into

face

line

he took

IV,

with

civil

English church, writing to Mellitus

Justus of Rochester

(d. f.627),

and

*pallium

the

ring

(d.

to

* Three

Arian

finally

from

he

was

own subdeacon Primogenius. He

of

to

monks when he

abate

the

rivalry

directly

to

who was

ms

Peter.

A

PL

handsome bequests

80,

Bede,

429-40^

Hist.

eccl.

2,

7

1,

222

f.;

2,

He

instructions that

f.;

2,

6gS;LP 2,

1,

to

and honour of him and St

St

Apollinarius,

the struggling

congratulating

King

his conversion

when one of them

died the

survivor should nominate his successor, and

dispatching (634) Birinus to evangelize the less success in per-

West Saxons. He had

to his clergy.

10 f; Caspar

by en-

archbishops of Canterbury and York with

completed the cemetery of S. Nicomedes on the Via Nomentana, and when he died left

mission,

Ravenna,

Rome

(627), granting (634) the *pallium to the

needy and

distributed his personal fortune in alms.

patron,

took steps

church dedicated

Edwin of Northumbria on

compassionate and kindly to the

a

He actively supported

English

of securing the conversion of the king and

man, he was generous

Rome

arranging services in

consort Ethelburga,

already a Christian, with the object

his subjects.

in

Ravenna's

also wrote

Edwin, king of Northumbria

(616-33), and t0

who had

between

dowing

He

replace

to

seized the see of Aquileia-Grado, with his

sent to England by Gregory (624).

a

with

able,

exarch,

the

residence of the exarch, and

became archbishop

with

ended the schism of

metropolitan on Justus (one of the I)

him,

to

Fortunatus, a schismatic bishop

624),

Bishop

status

an

Arioald,

Chapters,

assistance

and confer-

the

opposed

Venetia-Istria over the condemnation of the

a special interest in the

archbishop of Canterbury, and

rival

claiming that he

Boni-

law. Like

punishing bishops

Catholic wife. Although his epitaph erred in

of

matter

the

in

in

and, after

Italy,

backing the deposed Catholic king

torious

churches, and brought

in

practice

north

established cordial relations with his vic-

administrator, he formally confirmed the right of

politics in

Adaloald and requesting the exarch's help

of

relics

his

Honorius was immediately involved

Lombard

priests, not

the

transfer

him as his mansion

took

for his staff.

keen-

his

in a pontificate filled with

activities

employed monks rather than secular clergy

for the secular

showed

his legislation

his

near the Lateran into a monastery, and

pro-monastic policy.

I's

and

known of

is

model. Like him, he turned

is

known about Boniface's earlier career, but like Deusdedit he represented the reaction against

I

wide-ranging

dele-

Ravenna. Nothing

at

Rome. Nothing

321

suading the Celtic Christians

f.;

abandon

517-22;

their

in Britain to

non-Roman method of

cal-

330 (T. R. Buchanan); DHGE 9, 899 (G. Bardy); NCE 2, 670 (P.J. Mullins); DBI 12, 1402 (P. Bertolini); Seppelt 2, 46 f.; JR, 178 f.; 244;

culating the date of Easter. His interven-

263 f

Toledo (638) urged the bishops to press on with the conversion of the Jews. On 1 1 June 628 he exempted (the first such exemption on record) the abbey of Bobbio, in the Apennines, from all episco-

DCB

1,

tions in Sardinia, Illyricum, to

at the

sixth council of

HONORIUS I (27 Oct. 625-12 Oct. 638). A wealthy aristocrat from Campania, son of the consul Petronius, he was consecrated after only

and Spain seem

have been purposeful; his envoy

two days' vacancy; the imperial

pal jurisdiction except the pope's.

mandate necessary at this time was probably

In 634 Honorius received a fateful letter

70

SEVERINUS(640) from Sergius

I,

the maintenance of the corn supply, acting

patriarch of Constantinople

(610-38), proposing that

as paymaster for the imperial troops

of one or

talk

all

human and

every operation,

The

God-man.

formula

divine, of the

so efficient that he never lacked funds and

'two

was able

distinct

to carry out a

natures but one operation', he explained,

gramme of building,

had been found invaluable in the east in winning over disaffected monophysites, but had come under fire from Sophronius, the new bishop of Jerusalem (634-8), as *monophysitism in disguise. In a hasty reply Honorius not only expressed approval, but went on to argue that, since the Word acted through both natures, he had only one will; he developed the same thesis (technically

lishing churches in

'monothelitism')

further

in

Mansi

11, 537-44; 549323-7; J. Chapman, 'The Condemnation of Pope Honorius', Dublin

JW

1,

223-6;

LP

1,

Review

139 (1906), 42-54; P. Galtier, 'La premiere lettre du pape Honorius', Gregorianum

29 (1948), 42-61; R. Baumer, 'Die Wiederentdeckung der Honoriusfrage im Abendland', RQ 56 (1961), 200-14; G. Kreutzer, Die Honoriusfrage im Mittelalter und in der Neuzeit (Stuttgart, 1975); Caspar 2, 523-619; LThK 5, 474 f. (R. Baumer); NCE 7, 123-5 (H. G.J. Beck); Seppelt

Ecthesis, a decree which formention of operations, one or two, in Christ, and ordered the confession of a single will in him. Honorius was dead when

published his

bade

80, 467-94; 601-7;

63; 578;

638

in

included,

common people'. PL

with the policies of Sergius and of

Emperor Heraclius (610-41), who

and embel-

Rome. This

epitaph acclaimed him as 'leader of the

to

letters

remarkable pro-

repairing,

most notably, the complete restoration of St Peter's and of S. Agnese fuori le Mura. When he was interred in St Peter's, his

Sergius, Sophronius, and others. This view fitted well

in

Rome, and instructing government officials how to administer the city of Naples. His management of the *patrimony of Peter was

two modes of operation in Christ should be banned; instead it should be asserted that one and the same Son was the subject of

all

2,

47-58; JR, 179-84-

the Ecthesis appeared, but his successors

SEVERINUS

agreed in rejecting monothelitism as heretical,

and

he

anathematized

Council

(i.e.

by

the

General

name), he was already elderly when elected in mid-Oct. 638, but he had to wait almost necessary for his consecration arrived.

exarch Isaac could not issue

question

has been debated.

much

pontiff

tions that the pope-elect should subscribe

of papal

it.

The

heretical as imprudent.

a

Honorius was

whose leadership infused

I,

he

successfully

more

realistic

involved than in

had

a

to do; as a result

to

be sent

appreciation of the issues

Honorius

I's

time.

to Constantinople,

Envoys where

were told that ratification of his appointment would be conditional on his acceptance of the decree. Only after pro-

they

fresh

reform the education of the clergy but,

This Severinus refused

of representations by eastern opponents of *monothelitism the Roman church now had

usual

vigour into the papacy. Not only did he

Gregory

monothelite heresy) with instruc-

will (the

the First

Apart from his unfortunate incursion into theological controversy,

The

since he had

since the

defence of Honorius has been that he was not so

it

been sent Emperor Heraclius's (610-41) *Ecthesis declaring that Christ had only one

the council in 682, has caused embarrass-

ment and considerable discussion 15th cent., especially when (as at

(an upper-class

twenty months before the imperial mandate

680-1),

the

A

Sixth

existence of two wills,

infallibility

640).

Roman, son of Avienus

the third council of Constan-

Vatican Council)

May-2 Aug.

formally

which proclaimed the human and divine, in the Redeemer. This anathema, ratified as it was by Leo II when he approved the acts of tinople,

(28

was

himself

like

shouldered

tracted negotiations

and promising

to

do

temporal responsibilities with which the

their best to obtain Severinus's signature

could no longer cope, such

were they allowed to return to Rome with the mandate. Meanwhile the pope-elect

civil authorities

as the restoration of

Roman

aqueducts and 7'

JOHN

IV (640-2)

had been subjected to brutal treatment which may be explained by an attempt to put pressure on him in view of his reported objection to the Ecthesis. Persuaded by the military registrar (chartularius) Maurice that their arrears of pay were being held in the papal treasure accumulated by Honorius I, the troops in and around Rome besieged Severinus and other leading clergy in the Lateran for three days, and then placed seals on the treasure. When exarch Isaac arrived, ostensibly to sort things out,

city,

confiscated

their

dividing

whether

he

ever

officially

not

gianism.

first

he

condemned

it,

declaring

to his

was the archpriest Hilarus, and

The

the

may have hoped

exarch

official's

on doctrinal matters, but in Jan. 641 held a synod which condemned *monothelitism, favoured by the *Ecthesis of

line

Emperor Heraclius (610-41), In

fact

had resulted only in divisions, wrote pope shortly before his death (1 1 Feb.

Ecthesis

his

to the

641) disavowing monothelitism and making the previous patriarch Sergius I (610-38)

that

two natures, should be

responsible for the Ecthesis. patriarch Pyrrhus

him from having to make a pronouncement. A good and charitable man (according to LP), he belonged to the pro-clerical faction which opposed the pro-monastic policies of Gregory I and his disciples. He showed his

ganda

definitive

west, appealed to

tine III

that

1,

328

649',

537

f.;

1,

(Feb.-May 641) expressing disgust

made

to

will in Christ,

are normally subject as a result

of the Fall (Rom.

demanded

von

ZKG 51 (1932), 114, n. 87; Caspar 2,526 DCB 4, 628 (J. Barmby); D7T 14, 2006-8

7:

14-23).

He

should

be pulled down.

Amann);

Mindful of the plight of his homeland, John sent Abbot Martin to Dalmatia with substantial sums to ransom Christians

Bertolini,

enslaved by the Avar and Slav invaders.

JOHN

IV (24 Dec. 640-12 Oct. 642). A Dalmatian, son of a Venantius who was legal {scholasticus)

to

the

exarch

also

that copies of the Ecthesis posted

in public places in Constantinople

f.;

f.;

adviser

link

novelties; his

when he had been thinking exclusively of his human will, which he held was free from the division to which

22-j;LP

E. Caspar, 'Die Lateransynode

new

accepted in the

attempts were being

spoke of one

LThK 9, 700 f. (G. Schwaiger); 317 f.; NCE 13, 143 (C. M. Aherne); Seppelt 2, 56 f.; JR, 245; 264. (E.

to get the Ecthesis

human wills Mansi io,675~8o;JW

the

predecessor, he argued tortuously,

them a year's full payHe was buried in St Peter's, the apse of which he had

restored. 129, 583-6;

When

(638-41), in his propa-

Honorius with such heretical

stipends and granting

PL

I

Honorius I's endorsement of it, John wrote to Emperor Constan-

regard for the secular clergy by raising their died.

as heretical.

Heraclius, disappointed that the

ably saved

the mosaic in

that his

son would accept the government's

John

treated with reserve; his early death prob-

when he

that

as 'vicegerents of the apostolic see'.

Christ had two wills and energies cor-

responding

interesting that, while the

is

It

John, also a signatory, described themselves

attitude to the Ecthesis. Later reports that he explicitly

for his

sent an

Hilarus and the chief secretary (primicerius)

known

defined

Roman church

pope-elect was the second signatory, the

Severinus survived his consecration by It is

imperial

abbots censuring their custom of observing Easter on the day of the Jewish Passover and warning them against *Pela-

Heraclius.

more than two months.

the

and

booty between the soldiers and his officials, but prudently sending part to Emperor

little

awaited

authoritative letter to certain Irish bishops

plundered the vaults and contents,

he

consecration, the

temporarily expelled the vicegerents of the see from the

while

interval

mandate then considered necessary

also

endowed

baptistery

in

Dalmatia and

at

Ravenna, he was archdeacon of Rome when elected in Aug. 640. During the five-month

Venantius

Dalmatian 72

(his

He

a chapel next to the Lateran

honour

of the

filled

with relics of St

it

saints

of

own father's name) and other

martyrs

which

Martin

had

MARTIN

monothelitism was received in the west as a

brought to Rome. His portrait can still be seen there in the mosaic of the apse, which

Theodore

his successor his death

I

presented.

notable triumph for orthodoxy, and the

On

PL

330; Caspar

1,

DTC NCE 7,

2,

eccl.

2, 19;

365-8;

DCB

JW 1, 227

f.;

391

(J.

3,

Amann);

Barmby);

8,

1008 (H. G.J. Beck); Seppelt

(E.

597-9

come

649).

I

made peace

a bishop, he had probably

come

to

Rome

as

The

a refugee from the Arab invasions.

*monophysites in the east and was so unpopular in the west as to threaten political stability, Constans II promulgated the edict known as the Typos, or 'Rule', which Paul had drafted. This

*monothelitism,

of

critics

Patriarch Sophronius of Jerusalem (634-8)

and Maximus the Confessor (c. 580-662), can be explained by the need to elect a pope

who

abrogated the Ecthesis, prohibited sion on the

could effectively resist the heretical

view, imposed by the Byzantine court, that

Christ had only one

will.

The

with the court. In his fury

failed to reconcile

choice of an easterner with close links with chief

all

and ordered that church teaching

in Christ,

should be restricted to what had been

short interval

was arrested and exiled

Constantinople.

Latin chapel in the Placidia Palace,

defined by the

his election

to the

of Theodore's

first

acts

boy-emperor, Constans

enquiring Heraclius despite

its

why

was

was

(610-41)

repudiation by

in

John

wrote in similar terms patriarch

of

to

Paul

II,

predecessor Pyrrhus

I

him

the

been

new

among

(641-53),

would

certainly have

but he died before being able it.

Although chiefly known as

other

poor of

modest

Rome

building

was and,

works,

embellished S. Stefano Rotondo on the Caelian Hill on the occasion of the transla-

until his

tion to

demand-

it

of the relics of SS. Primo and

Feliciano (the

recorded translation of

first

relics in the city).

and have it removed from public it was posted. When Pyrrhus renounced monothelitism in 645 after being defeated in public debate by Maximus the Confessor and, having travelled to Rome, published a solemn recantation, Theodore received him with patriarchal honours and

Ecthesis

PL 87, 71-102; JW

places where

5;

Caspar

f.;

DCB

(E.

2,

1

,

228-30;

59-6i;JR, 184-6; 265; 269

I,

ST

d. 16 Sept. 655).

73

1,

,

4, 949-51 (J. Barmby); DTC 15, 224-6 Amann); LThK 10, 27 (G. Schwaiger); NCE

MARTIN

of

LP 1 33 1317-20; 543

698;

2,

529; 543~53; Haller

14, 16 (P.J. Mullins); Bertolini, 2,

recognized him as rightful bishop of Conabjuration

official

demolished. Theodore's

altar

also generous to the

(638-41) had been

Pyrrhus's

Trebizond; the

the implacable foe of monothelitism, he

ing that Paul himself should repudiate the

stantinople.

hostile,

to formulate

He

canonically deposed by a synod at which the

holy see must be represented, and

its

attitude to the Typos

IV and by

Constantinople

declining also to recognize

down and

force,

Heraclius himself before his death.

to

residence of the pope's nuncios, was shut

to write

Emperor

still

and when the papal

apocrisiarius Anastasius refused to sign he

(641-68),

II

the *Ecthesis of

general councils. Sub-

five

scription was obligatory,

cates that the imperial

One

discus-

number of wills and operations

and ordination indimandate necessary for his consecration was obtained from Ravenna, not from exarch at the

between

to

Theodore excommunicated him too, signing the decree (it was said) on the Aposde's tomb in consecrated eucharistic wine. In 648, convinced that the Ecthesis had

642-14 May

(24 Nov.

went

throne,

Ravenna, withdrew his recantation, and

2,

A Greek, born at Jerusalem and son of

the

recovering his

actually

Bertolini,

57-9; JR, 182; 184.

THEODORE

out in favour of the Ecthesis. In the

event Pyrrhus, disappointed in his hopes of

f.

325

f.;

all

excommunicate and depose Patriarch Paul, who had now quarters, did not hesitate to

he granted his clergy a year's

80, 601-8; Bede, Hist.

encouraged by support from

pope,

stipend each.

LP

(649-53)

I

(5

July

329-33; Seppelt

f.

649-17 June 653:

An Umbrian from Todi,

MARTIN he served

(649-53)

I

for

Theodore

when deacon

time

a

becoming thoroughly

tinople,

where he had sought sanctuary, handed his clergy the imperial order declaring that he had made

pontiff in the Lateran basilica,

as

apocrisiarius in Constan-

I's

familiar with

the leading personalities there and with the

*monothelite

prevailing

Christ had only one

courageous, he

is

teaching

will.

chiefly

himself pope

Resolute and

known

under guard on

for his

uncompromising opposition to this heresy and for the tragic retribution it brought on him. He showed his independent spirit from the outset by having himself consecrated without seeking the imperial cation

deemed

him

(641-68),

II

at the time.

and dysentery and brutally humiliated, Martin arrived in Constantinople on 17 Sept. 653 (not 654, as often stated), and

who

was brought

was

of treason,

Olympius

refused to recognize

When

as legitimate pope.

Almost

once he held an impressive

at

anti-monothelite synod in the Lateran;

was attended by 105 western bishops,

Greek

clerics.

anathematized

both

remarkable

monothelitism

These decisions were

to death,

and,

in the

circulated

him

for

The most

attack

on

on the

once sent

his

mer 653

that the

that

God would

in the true faith

pastor

triumphed,

sumnew exarch, Theodore was not

He

alive.

from

preserve

and shield

its

and enemies. Although the Sixth General Council (Constantinople III, 680-1), at which the teaching for which he had fought and suffered

revolted, not without Martin's connivance, It

and prayed

church

new

for

Olympius soon found that the pope had widespread support; he then came to an understanding with him, and finally himself against the emperor.

still

nevertheless resigned himself to the position,

failed,

and express wishes, elected

a successor while he was

the chamberlain Olympius as exarch to Italy

This move

distressing feature of Martin's

made

his expectation

with orders to arrest Martin and bring him to Constantinople.

was taken

to

plies to alleviate his plight, but, contrary to

already apprised of this

his religious policies, at

(64 1-

clear in vivid letters from was his abandonment by the Roman church, which not only neglected (as he bitterly complained) to send him any sup-

advice of successive patriarchs.

The emperor,

II

exile,

to repudiate the heresy, the tactfully laid

condemned

and publicly flogged, but on the

ordeal, as he

sent a copy of the de-

which he

As

apocrisiarius.

BVM.

cisions to Constans with a courteous letter inviting

was

Chersonesus in the Crimea (near Sevastopol), where he died on 16 Sept. 655 from the effects of cold, starvation, and harsh treatment. He was buried there in a church dedicated to the

vicar for Palestine, then a stronghold of

blame

former

by ship (26 Mar. 654)

in the east as well as the

He

and

prison, in appalling conditions, he

for subscription;

monothelitism.

it

27 Dec. 653) the sentence was commuted to banishment. After three more months in

west Martin excommunicated Bishop Paul of Thessalonica for rejecting them, and appointed an orthodox apostolic

immediately

attempt to seize the throne.

pleading of the dying patriarch Paul

recent edict (the *Typos) banning discussion

Lord.

in his

arranged, he was found guilty,

Constans's

of the number of wills and operations

a charge

he raised the doctrinal issue,

deacon

After an exhaustive

boldness,

on 19 Dec. on

of having aided and abetted

treated, not as pope, but as a rebellious

it

rein-

study (5-31 Oct. 649) of all the issues, this affirmed belief in two wills in Christ and

with

to trial

viz.

dismissed as irrelevant; throughout he was

forced by an intellectually able group of exiled

three months' solitary confinement

after

ratifiIt

a ship sailing to the capital.

After a stop at Naxos, prostrated with gout

which infuriated Emperor Con-

a gesture

stans

necessary

and was therefore

illegally

deposed, smuggled him out of Rome, and, though racked by painful illness, put him

that

could

heresy

not

rehabilitate

him,

being held under the aegis of Constans IPs

until

son Constantine IV (668-85), wno must have regarded him as guilty of high treason,

Calliopas, seized (17 June) the bedridden

74

VITALIAN was not long before the Roman church to venerate him as a martyr (the last pope to be so honoured), originally on 12

(657-72)

it

person or hypostasis he possessed only one

came

will.

Although this logically entailed that he had three wills, they were talked into accepting it, and on this basis, at Pentecost

Nov., supposedly the anniversary of the translation of his relics to S. Martino ai Monti, but since 1969 on 13 Apr., his feast day also in the Greek church.

655, entered into synodical letters,

Martin \\AnB

5

(1933),

1

225-62^. M.

f.

DTC (C.

10,

M.

182-94

Barmby); Seppelt

2,

(E.

Amann);

DCB

Aherne);

NCE

848-57

3,

9, (J.

61-7; JR, 186-91.

EUGENE I, ST (10 Aug. 654-2 June 657). A Roman, son of Rufinianus, he had been brought up in the church's ministry from childhood and was an elderly presbyter

when

elected

deposition

the

after

and they

which embodied an ambiguous theory of Christ's wills, was formally read out in Sta Maria Maggiore, the outraged clergy and people prevented Eugene, who was disposed to accept it, from proceeding with the mass until he had promised to reject it. Thus instead of the peace he was working for, there was again schism between Rome and Constantinople. In his exasperation Constans II threatened that, once his hands were freed from fighting the heathen, he would administer the same treatment to

7),

553-78;

new

returned to Rome. But when the profession,

I und Maximus Confessor', HJ 38 213-36; E. Caspar, 'Die Lateransynode von 649', ZKG 51 (1932), 73-137; Caspar 2,

300

transmission to the pope,

for

Peitz,

'Martin (19 1

the

handed the envoys his announcing his appoint-

ment and containing his profession of faith,

PLS-j, 105-212; 129, 591-604; JW 1, 230-4; LP i, 336-40; P. Peeters, 'Une vie grecque du pape S.

communion with

patriarch. Peter then

and

banishment of Martin I by Emperor Constans II (641-68). It had been Martin's hope that the Roman clergy would not elect a

Eugene as to Martin. Before any steps could be taken, however, the pope was dead. He

should not be considered legitimate pope

was revered for his unaffected goodness, and left bequests for both the clergy and the people of Rome. Buried in St Peter's, he was ignored by the ancient martyrologies, and his name was inserted in the Roman Martyrology by the famous church historian Cesare Baronius (1 538-1 607). Feast 2

until Martin's death in Sept. 655, but while

June.

successor while he was

still

alive,

but in view

of pressure from the Byzantine court and exarch in

Italy

they had

Eugene did not seem

its

little

option. Since

likely to

cause trouble,

the government found no difficulty in ratify-

ing their choice. According to

many he

disappointed by his election Martin himself

seems

to

have acquiesced in

1, 233 f.; 2, 699; 740; LP 1, 341 f.; D. Mallardo, Papa S. Eugenio I (Naples, 1943); Caspar 2, 580-7; DCB 2, 270 (J- Barmby);

JW

it.

As in Martin's time, the burning issue was still whether Christ had two wills, as

DHGE

15,

Roman orthodoxy affirmed, or one, the view (*monothelitism)

favoured

A'C£ JR,

Constan-

at

1346

1

5,

f.

(H. Marot);flSS

624

f.

194 f. (P. Burchi); (C. M. Aherne); Seppelt 2, 580-7; 5,

9 1-4.

tinople in spite of the banning of discussion

of the subject by the *Typos.

man, Eugene was out

saintly

A to

VITALIAN, ST (30 July 657-27 Jan.

mild and

Born

be con-

at

Segni,

near

Rome,

672).

son

of

treatment meted

Anastasius, he immediately took steps on

out to Martin, and dispatched envoys to

Constantinople to restore relations between

his accession to restore good relations between the holy see and Constantinople,

the holy see and the court. These were warmly received by the recently appointed

cates by divergent attitudes to *monothelit-

ciliatory after the brutal

patriarch Peter (654-66),

them tained

a

who proposed

strained to breaking-point in recent pontifi-

ism (the heresy that Christ had only one Writing to Emperor Constans II (641-

to

compromise formula which mainthat,

natures had

while each its

own

will,

will).

of Christ's two

considered as

68) and to Patriarch Peter (654-66), w hostambiguous creed Eugene I had been

a

75

ADEODATUS

11(672-76)

forced to reject, he maintained the

Roman

army sought to raise the Armenian Mezezius to the purple, Vitalian gave strong the

position but was deliberately conciliatory,

playing

down

the doctrinal issue and pass-

backing to Constans's son and legitimate

ing over the *Lateran synod of 649 in

successor,

Constans reciprocated by sending him sumptuous gifts and in a rescript formally confirmed the privileges of the

was

silence.

Roman

church,

while

—

the

patriarch

felt

—

in July

663, Vitalian and his clergy

this,

an

autocephalous

on

openly, and even

John

V

(669-75),

Patriarch

Theodore

(677-9) wanted

I

name from

the diptychs,

but the emperor firmly resisted the move.

his publication of the *Typos,

Italy,

patriarch,

to erase Vitalian's

Feast 27 Jan.

which the Lateran synod had declared blasphemous. This show of friendship, however, did not prevent Constans either from stripping the Pantheon and other buildings of bronze tiles and ornaments, or from publishing in Sicily, on 1 Mar. 666, a decree making Ravenna, the seat of his in

new

the

discreedy ignoring his brutal treatment of

exarch

more

because they were unorthodox. Because of

him with magnificent ceremonies,

Martin I and

able to assert the orthodox teaching

declined to accept the synodical letters of

When Constans for political reasons paid Rome a twelve-day received

new emperor had now

Since the

to enforce the Typos, Vitalian

Christ's two wills

tychs at Constantinople.

visit

as Constantine IV (668-85) mindful of his debt to the

Roman church. no wish

name the first pope to be so honoured since Honorius I in the *dipincluded his

who

to prove

PL 87, 999-101 o;JW

1, 235-7; 2*699; 7W*LPi, 343-5; Bede, Hist. eccl. 3, 29; 4, 1; S.J. P. Van Dijk, 'Gregory the Great Founder of the Urban Schola cantorum\ ELit 77 (1963), 345-56; Caspar

580-7; 678-82; Mann 1/2, 1-16; DCB 4, 1161-3 (J. Barmby); DTC 15, 31 15-17 (E. Amann); BSS 12, 1232-5 (V. Monachino); NCE 14, 724 (C. M. Aherne); Bertolini, 355-64; Seppelt 2, 68-7 1 ;JR, 193-7; 20I 2 °6; 273; 280. 2,

see

'y

independent of

Rome

only to elect

bishop, subject to imperial

its

with the power not

confirmation, but also to have

ADEODATUS U

him con-

676).

the bishop of Rome. for the

(11 Apr.

672-17 June

son of Jovinianus, he was

from youth a monk of the community of S. Erasmo on the Caelian Hill. He was elected pope in old age at a time when there was an

secrated by three of his suffragans, just like

Deeply concerned

A Roman,

Anglo-Saxon

Rome

church, Vitalian backed the efforts of Oswy,

emotional

king of North umbria (655-70), to establish

knowledge of the Hypomnesticon, written £.668 by the Greek monk Theodosius) in Martin I and Maximus the Confessor (c. 580-662), both

England the Roman,

as opposed to the and other Roman practices, as agreed by the synod of Whitby (664). On 26 Mar. 668 he consecrated the accomplished Greek monk, Theodore of Tarsus, as archbishop of Canterbury (66890) and sent him to England to reorganize

in

Celtic, date for Easter

He

the English church.

martyrs

for

ratified after only a at

689/90) to accompany him to ensure that he did not introduce alien Greek ideas or customs. Nearer home, building on

cal letters

I,

favoured

Byzantine government. Hence

(d.

Gregory

resistance

their

teaching

it is

the

to

by the not sur-

prising that, although his appointment

arranged for the

was

few weeks by the exarch

Ravenna, he himself rejected the synodiand profession of faith sent him

by Constantine

I,

the

new monothelite As a

patriarch of Constantinople (675-7).

he devel-

oped the song-school at the Lateran so as

in

by

*monothelite

African abbot Hadrian and Benedict Biscop

foundations laid by

of interest

revival

(stimulated

result, his

name was excluded from

*diptychs in the imperial

to

new, more elaborate and Byzantine-style papal rites; its chanters were called 'Vitaliani'. When Constans II was murdered in Sicily on 15 Sept. 668 and train singers for the

this, his

reign

is

city.

extremely obscure.

letters are attributed to

the

Apart from

Two

him, one addressed

to Hadrian, abbot of St Peter's monastery,

Canterbury, confirming

76

its

exemption from

AGATHO (678-81) episcopal supervision, and the other to the

expressing his desire for amicable relations.

bishops of Gaul informing them of privi-

Constantine himself addressed (12 Aug.

leges granted to the monastery of St Martin

of Tours

authenticity has

(its

been doubt-

678) a courteous and conciliatory letter to him to send delegates to a

the pope inviting

ed).

conference which would thrash out the dis-

that

puted theological issues; his exarch would

Nothing else is recorded of him, except he was generous to all, compassionate to pilgrims, and kind to his clergy, raising their customary honoraria on the death of a pope, and also that he restored the basilica of S. Pietro

at the

eighth milestone of the

provide transport and pay expenses. Donus,

however, was dead before the Constantinople. Little else

restoring,

ings of his former monastery, raising

among

its

237;

681-90

LP

1,

364

PL

f.;

of Hypomnesticon); Caspar

(text

He was

87, 1139-44; 129, 2,

587;

JW

44 (G. H. Moberley); DHGE 1, 542 (A. Noyon); EC 1, 304 (I. Daniele); DBIi, 272 f. (G. Arnaldi); Bertolini, 364 f.; Seppelt 2, 7i;JR, 198;

DCB

and

embellishing

churches;

other works, he adorned the atrium

before St Peter's with a marble pavement.

status. i,

letter left

known of his

reign except that he was active in building,

Via Portuense and reconstructed the build-

JW

is

1,

reportedly generous to his clergy.

238;

LP

348

1,

196-201; Caspar

1,

Marot);

NCE 4,

2,

f.;

FD

585-8;

242; Mansi 11,

1, n.

DHGE 14, 671

1010 (C. M. Aherne);

365-7; Seppelt

f.

(H.

Bertolini,

JR, 198.

2, 71;

201; 244; 266.

AGATHO, ST (27 June 678-10 Jan. 681).

DONUS Roman

(2

by

A

A

Sicilian

son of Maurice, he was

in

Greek as well as

Nov.

birth,

already elderly

676-n

when

Apr. 678).

elected; he

had only

who had been

a

monk, proficient had his election

Latin, he

speedily ratified by the imperial exarch at

to

wait a few months before receiving the

Ravenna. His short reign was important

imperial mandate necessary for his con-

the

secration.

His reign

is

even more obscure

than that of Adeodatus that

he

(although

it

II,

an

reached

remained

but

it is

known

accommodation

for the

moment

holy see and Constantinople.

Soon

a

his

after

consecration

dead letter) with Reparatus, archbishop of Ravenna, which implied the abandonment

received the letter which

by that see of its claim to autocephalous status and independence from Rome, granted by Emperor Constans II (641-68) in

Aug. 678)

666. In

Rome

itself

*Chalcedonian a growing

had addressed (12 a conference at which the question whether Christ had two wills or one should be discussed and unity between the churches restored. The emperor had decided that monothelitism, repugnant to the west, was no longer useful for reconciling *monophysites in the east. He therefore invited the pope to send accredited representatives, including four from the now important Greek monasteries in Rome,

monks occupy-

ing a well-known monastery were in fact

*Nestorians; he replaced them by orthodox

Roman monks and

dispersed them

among

other monasteries in the hope that they

might be converted doctrine.

to the

Agatho

Emperor Con-

stantine IV (668-85)

he had the shock of

discovering that the Syrian

for

abandonment of *monothelitism by the Byzantine government and the resultant reopening of amicable relations between the

Meanwhile there was

Donus, proposing

to

desire in Constantinople for the restoration

to Constantinople to debate the issues with

of unity with the holy see, for decades

eastern theologians, promising free trans-

interrupted by the *monothelite contro-

port and safe conduct. Agatho

and Emperor Constantine IV (66885) put pressure on Patriarch Theodore I (677-9), wno as a monothelite was initially reluctant, to write to Donus, not enclosing the customary profession of faith but

the

versy,

but

initiative,

welcomed

arranged

first

for

preparatory synods to be held in the west (including one

Archbishop formulate

77

at

1

lathekl, presided over by

Theodore of a

united

(

'.antcrbury),

western

attitude

to to

LEO

(682-3)

II

monothelitism;

the

important was held

by Agatho himself.

impressive papal delegation future popes,

and

largest

most

(it

Once

attend.

Rome (27 Mar. 680) On 10 Sept. 680 the

Rome, however, he began

in

negotiations with the pope for ending the

at

autonomy

included two

and

agreed,

in

return

for

Agatho's support against hostile elements

John V and Constantine)

at

Ravenna, that in future its archbishops should be consecrated by the pope and

reached Constantinople bearing two lengthy documents, a letter from Agatho to the

receive the *pallium from him. This agree-

emperor and the synodical decree of the

ment was

Roman

Leo

council signed by

50 bishops, both condemning monothelitism and the former stressing

Rome's

1

now decided

be constitutionally confirmed in

An

experienced administrator, Agatho

broke precedent by acting, in view of the

role as the custodian of the

true faith. Constantine

to

IPs reign.

of the

stringency

that his

church's

finances,

as

conference should be a full-dress council of

treasurer (arcarius) of the holy see until

the church and, having already deposed the

obliged by

monothelite patriarch Theodore

He

instructed his successor

George

I

(677-9),

health to delegate the office.

ill

succeeded

obtaining from Constan-

in

(679-86) the metropolitans and bishops

tine the abolition of the tax customarily paid

The

Trullan

emperor stipulated that the earlier, time-consuming practice of seeking imperial ratification from Constantinople rather than from Ravenna should be

681

restored. Agatho's interest extended to the

and, presided over by the emperor, asserted,

English church, and at the Lateran synod of 679 he upheld the appeal of Wilfrid (634-

to

summon

under

jurisdiction

his

council, to be

known

to

I

attend.

as the Sixth

return

General

Council, met in the imperial palace in a

domed

hall

hence

(trullus:

council) from 7 Nov.

680

first

to 16 Sept.

agreement with the pope's letters, the orthodox doctrine of two wills and in explicit

operations in Christ; it

at its thirteenth

papal elections, but in

at

the

709), bishop of York, against his deposition

by Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury

session

anathematized the monothelite leaders,

HoNORius

exarch

to the

He also sent John, precentor of St

(668-90).

without the papal

Peter's, to England, partly to teach liturgical

delegates raising any objection. Agatho was

chant and practice, but also to report on

including

dead before

its

I,

deliberations were

com-

pleted, but his decisive contribution

recognized in the congratulatory address

presented to Constantine

conditions in the English church.

A kindly man,

Agatho was loved by all for good humour. Although desperately short of funds, he was generous

was

at its closing ses-

acknowledged that the true faith, written with God's hand, had been given to the church by Old Rome, and that Peter had spoken through Agatho. At the same time it applauded the emperor as the source

to his clergy, leaving

sion; this

of the

initiative for restoring religious

and described him

God

cheerful

his

it

them

all

a substantial

bequest on his death; he also made

gifts to

the churches of SS. Apostoli and Sta Maria

Maggiore. Buried in St Peter's, he came to be venerated in east as well as west, his feast in the latter being 10 Jan.

peace,

as collaborating with

PL

himself.

87,

350-8;

Agatho had scored a further success invited Archbishop Theodore of Ravenna (677-91) to the Roman synod of 27 Mar. 680. In spite of Donus's agreement with Archbishop Reparatus, Ravenna still retained in practice the independence granted it by Constans II (641-68) in 666, but Theodore's envoys agreed that since matters of faith were to be discussed he might

Hist.

when he

1,

1

161-258;

FD

eccl.

JW

4, 18; 5, 19;

916-18

Daniele);

(J.

DBI

1,

238-40;

2,

699;

LP

1,

242; Mansi 11, 165-922; Bede,

1, n.

P. 1,

Caspar

Kirsch);

373-6 (G.

2,

588-610;

BSS

1,

Arnaldi);

DHGE

341

f.

Mann

(I.

1/2,

23-48; NCE 1, 197 (C. M. Aherne); Bertolini, 377-83; Seppelt 2, 7i-5;JR, 197-9; 265; 280 f.

LEO

II,

ST

(17 Aug.

Sicilian, trained in the

admired

78

682-3 July 683).

A

papal choir-school,

for his eloquence, culture,

and

BENEDICT Greek

proficiency in

as well as Latin,

he was

pure teaching

to

be

that, in his letter to the

some eighteen months before

ably,

The

letters

through negligence

from the guardians of

the holy see announcing

Spanish and, prob-

other western bishops,

he merely

accused the dead pope of having failed

imperial mandate necessary for his consecration.

(684-5)

sullied'. It is significant

probably elected in Jan. 68 1 but had to wait receiving the

II

Agatho's death

stamp out the flame

to

He was

of heresy.

lenient

when

too

and Leo's election reached Constantinople on 10 Mar. 68 1, while the # Sixth General Council was still in progress, but Emperor

Macarius

Constantine IV (668-85) deliberately held

Rome, remitted by

up

judgement and sentence; with the exception of two, who recanted and were admitted to

ratification

Honorius

along

I

with

champions of *monothelitism and Rome's acceptance of

its

the

Roman

The

A token

envoys to accept the condem-

nation of a pope had to be overcome, and for this

long and delicate negotiations, extend-

Following

ing

many months

reign,

of the

681), were necessary.

council (16

Sept.

Only

682 did the envoys return

in July

Rome

to

Constantine, whose power to

a rapprochement

as well as the corn requisition for the army.

self with

come

the

II (1

Leo exempted

and from the obligation

personally to

Rome

to

for the annual

synod.

A competent singer, Leo concerned himchurch music. LP applauds his love

Leo was

realist enough to accept the which opened a period of peace and collaboration between Rome and Byzantium. He had the acts of the council, which condemned monothelitism, translated from Greek into Latin and, in

poor and the

for the alleviate

works

their

he

efforts

condition.

restored

S.

he made

Among

Bibiana

to

other

on

the

Esquiline, transferring there the relics of

martyrs previously buried on the Via Portuense, and reconstructed S.

implementation of imperial policy, took

Giorgio in

now flourishing Rome. Feast 3 July.

Velabro for the use of the

church leaders

Greek community

in

PL

1,

rulers of the west with letters calling for

His most important

their subscription.

let-

May

1,

683) was to Constantine, ratifying the council's decisions with the authter (7

ority

of Peter and

monothelite

leaders

including Honorius text

in Agatho's

(682/3)

the fees traditionally incidental

to consecration

situation,

to the

of co-operation

made

from, the pope. In return

them from

them

spirit

Constantine revoked

had been his trump card, showed his satisfaction by inviting the new pope to send a resident apocrisiarius to court, and by diminishing the tax burden on the papal patrimonies in Sicily and Calabria

and

among

the rest

henceforth archbishops of that see should be consecrated by, and receive the *pallium

this

steps to circulate

in

for

Mar. 666) granting Ravenna autonomy, and it was agreed that

of the council, the mandate for Leo's consecration.

new

of the

decree of Constans

taking with them, along with the acts

withhold

him

between emperor and pope was the definitive ending of Ravenna's short-lived bid for autocephalous status independent of Rome.

reluctance of

after the closure

to

various monasteries.

decisions, including the

anathema, was assured.

emperor

the

communion, he dispersed

other

the

Mar.

(7

appeared

monothelites

intransigent

anathematized

formally

deposed by the council

681) as patriarch of Antioch, and other

of the election until the

had

council

I,

I.

subvert betrayal';

the in

pure the

6,

had condemned,

faith

by

his

Greek version

JW

250-1; Mansi 2,

240 11,

610-19; 624 7, 1280-2

Amann); BSS

f.;

(P.

LP 1, 359-62; FD 713-922; 1046-58;

f.;

DTC

9,

301-4

Rabikauskas);

(E.

LThK

947 (G. Schwaiger); NCE 8, 639 (II (. Bertolini, 383-92; Mann 1/2, 49-53; I

Beck);

In the original Latin

he spoke of him as having 'attempted

n.

Caspar

anathematizing the it

96, 387-420;

Seppelt

2,

75 f.;JR, 182; 197; 265-7; 2 78-

to

profane this

BENEDICT

was

softened to 'by his betrayal he allowed the

II,

ST

(26 June

684-8 May

685). Elected in early July 683, he had to

79

JOHN V (685-6) wait almost a year before

the

mandate

consecration

sanctioning

his

imperial

Roman

arrived from Constantinople.

now

patriarch of Antioch,

monastery

by

in

Rome,

to

confined in a

abandon

his hereti-

cal views.

LP

he had enrolled in the clergy as a boy, had studied in the papal choir-school and served in every order, and was a priest when appointed. The choice of a local man, of birth,

Benedict

describes

minded and gende,

humble-

as

poor who

a lover of the

at Easter

685 distributed honours and promotions among the clergy of various ranks, and on his death bequeathed thirty pounds

background, in contrast to his Greek-speaking Sicilian predecessors, may

traditional

of

gold

the

to

diaconal

the

clergy,

Rome's new confidence vis-d-vis Byzantium following the reconciliation cemented by Agatho and Emperor Con-

charitable relief attached to churches),

stantine IV (668-85). Further tokens of the

out

fresh atmosphere of co-operation were the

Lorenzo

emperor's agreement,

Valentino on the Flaminian

indicate

in

monasteries (Greek-style foundations for the lay sacristans of churches.

response to Bene-

ratified

by the exarch

in Italy, not

St

in

(the

and

carried

and

Peter's

and

Lucina,

in

Maria ad Martyres Feast 7 May.

dict's petition, that in future papal elections

should be

restorations

He

S.

beautified

S.

Way and

Sta

former Pantheon).

by Constantinople, thereby enabling the pope-elect to assume office with the

PL

minimum

9-14 (F. Baix);BSS 2, 1 193 f. (I. Daniele);ZW8, 325-9 (O. Bertolini); NCE 2, 273 (H. G.J. Beck);

FD

of delay, and his unprecedented

act of presenting, at a

solemn ceremony,

Rome

as a

1, n.

Seppelt

locks of his infant sons' hair to the clergy,

army, and people of

96, 423

f.;

JW

1,

2,

76

f.;

f.; 2, 699; LP I, 363-5; 614-19; 674 f.;DHGE 8,

241

252; Caspar

2,

JR, 202

f.;

265

f.;

301

f.

symbol of

their adoption of the princes.

JOHN V

Only glimpses of Benedict's short reign survive. While still pope-elect he pressed on

Syrian from Antioch, son of Cyriacus, he

perhaps came to Rome as a refugee from the

with the task of securing the adhesion of the

Arab

west

General Council (third council of Constantinople, 680-1) and its

Agatho's

condemnation of *monothelitism,

instruct-

Constantinople, 680-1), took a leading part

ing the notary Peter, delayed by

Leo

to the *Sixth

Rome

back to

Leo

independence of the Visigothic in Spain; and while the fourteenth council of Toledo endorsed the acts in Nov. 684, it subjected them first to an exhaustive

and when he learned

he sent him an indignant

and Emperor Constan-

He

at

once in

the Lateran palace to await confirmation of

appointment by the exarch at Ravenna. Nothing is known of his reign except that he took strong and successful action to check aspirations to autonomy in Sardinia, where Citonatus of Cagliari, the metropolitan, had

his

that

the pope had verbally criticized passages in it

the

and personally brought

decreed by Constantine, installed

of

Toledo, dispatched his own profession of faith to Benedict,

at

was archdeacon and an eminent cleric when he was unanimously elected in the Lateran basilica and then, under the new procedure waiving direct reference to Byzantium

church

metropolitan

deacon he was one of

representatives

tine IV's ratification of Leo II's election.

did not reckon with the

Julian,

a

A

Rome the documents containing the

conciliar decisions

fierce

examination.

As

three

in its discussions,

II's

had furnished him. The mission was mishandled, for

invasions.

685-2 Aug. 686).

*Sixth General Council (third council of

death, to proceed to Spain with the acts of

the council and the letters with which

(23 July

riposte. Again,

while pope-elect Benedict issued a directive

ordering Wilfrid (634-709), deprived as bishop of York in 678, to be restored, but it remained without effect. He was equally

consecrated a provincial bishop without

unsuccessful in his patient efforts to per-

reinstated

suade Macarius

I,

reference

Rome. He suspended the at a synod held in Rome, him after getting it established to

bishop and then,

deposed monothelite

that the holy see's authority in the island

80

was

THEODORE (antipope 687) paramount. Well educated and energetic, he was nevertheless so ill for much of his reign that he could hardly officiate at

He

ordinations.

guardian of the church's immaculate

The emperor

reductions in the taxes levied on the papal

his clergy, the charitable monasteries of the city,

and the

was buried

lay sacristans

of churches.

the

He

against

in St Peter's.

NCE

.TllldllllS, nann);

JYVji.

ick 395

1008 1UUO

/, 7,

f.: f.;

SeDDelt Seppelt

of

arrears

Conon

however,

home,

Nearer

tax.

got

by

trouble

into

nominating, on the advice of interested

deacon of the Syracusan church,

parties, a

Beck); (H. \l 1. G. J. Ul.tR VJ. 78-82; !R, 202; 206 f. 78-82;JR,

f. 1.

2,

who had been

of peasants

release

sequestered by the government as security

JW i, 242 f.;APi,366f.;FD i,n. 252; Caspar 2, 620-3 i;DCff 3, 392 O-Barmby); 7)70, 599 (E. Bertolini, rtolini.

faith.

welcome

patrimonies in Lucania and Calabria, and

substantial legacy to

left a

also gave notice of

Constantine,

as

of the

rector

Sicilian

patrimony, a lucrative responsibility nor-

CONON (21

Oct. 686-21 Sept. 687).

John V on

On

who

clergy,

and the

who wanted

for the Roman clergy. The appointment proved doubly disastrous, for Constantine 's

the priest

Hill, sent

extortionate regime soon provoked a revolt by the papal tenantry, and this led to the rector's arrest and deportation by the gov-

armed

pickets to prevent the clergy from entering

ernor of

the Lateran basilica. Eventually, negotia-

election of a

tions having

come

abandoned Peter and put forward the elderly, uncommitted Conon, a priest, as a compromise candidate. As son of a general who had served with the Thracesian regiment stationed in Asia Minor, he was acceptable to the army; his election was thus

the empire,

that

civil

all

and

was

2,

(C.

EC

620-3;

4,

M. Aherne);

362

(P.

Bertolini,

i,n. 254-6;

\CE

Goggi);

THEODORE presbyter, he

80;

militia's

can-

tion following the death ofJohn

686. His

archpriest

impasse

a

backed by the

V on 2 Aug.

was the and in the resulting compromise candidate, Conon,

rival,

clergy,

Peter,

I

continued his

again a dispute about the succession, two

Rome, and

candidates being put forward and elected by

ecclesiastical,

God had

2,

didate for the papacy at the disputed elec-

separate factions, the archdeacon

had

(third council of Constan-

clear that

182

4,

A Roman

(antipope 687).

was the Roman

and Theodore, who

in the

become

With

archpriest.

nevertheless

first

Paschal

meantime had their

arriving

it

Caspar

396-9; Seppelt

General Council

made

the

JR, 206-8.

the high officers of

Justinian

left

and festering dangerously.

JW i,243;.LPi, 368-70; FD

they hastened to the Lateran,

680-1);

it

unresolved

solemnly endorsed the acts of the *Sixth tinople:

became

that (as

Roman church

tensions in the

received a letter (17 Feb. 687) from

him announcing

without

was proposed, elected, and consecrated. On Conon's death on 21 Sept. 687 there was

father's policy of detente with

Conon

real mistake in the

ailing pontiff,

apparent even before his death)

civil

reappointing the monothelite Theodore at first

weak and

tions as ordinations,

and military authorities, and was duly ratified by Theodore, the imperial exarch at Ravenna. Like several other popes of the period, Conon had been brought up in Sicily; on coming to Rome he had worked his way up the ranks of the ministry. Unworldly and of saintly appearance, he was simple-minded and continuously ill. The new emperor, Justinian II (685-95; 7°5 -II )> although (686-7) as patriarch,

But the

Sicily.

the strength to carry out such routine func-

to nothing, the clergy

carried through with the support of the

and

cleric,

the use of the ceremonial

saddle-cloths (mappuli) jealously reserved

Theodore. An impasse was reached when the soldiery, who had occupied S. Stefano Rotondo on the Caelian

him

allowing

2

favoured the archpriest Peter,

local militia,

Roman

mally assigned to a

Aug. 686 the succession was hotly disputed between the the death of

partisans

Theodore

and occupying the inner apart-

ments, and Paschal following and taking over the outer ones. Again resort was had to

appointed him 8.

PASCHAL (antipope 687) a

compromise candidate,

titular priest

this

of Sta Susanna,

urging him to come in person to Rome and making renewed promises if he would overturn the election. Without announcement John came, but when he discovered that Sergius's election had been regular and had massive support he decided he had no

time Sergius,

who was

elec-

ted and, his election having been ratified by the Byzantine exarch in

When

secrated.

duly con-

Italy, I

was

installed in

Theodore accepted defeat

Lateran,

the

Sergius

with good grace, came forward, and em-

option but to ratify

braced him

nevertheless, to intrigue against the pope,

further

token of submission. Nothing

in

known about him, and

is

as

he was

is

doubtfully reckoned

an antipope.

JW

i,

243

Bertolini,

f.;

396

PASCHAL

He

ces.

LP f.;

1,

368; 371

Seppelt

2,

f.;

80

Caspar f.;

2,

621

Paschal continued,

and was canonically arraigned, deposed from the archidiaconate, and imprisoned in a monastery on the charge of magical practi-

never consecrated and accepted Sergius as legitimate pontiff, he

it.

died

there

five

years

later,

obdurately impenitent.

f.;

JR, 206-8.

JW 4,

(antipope 687: d. 692). His

1,

243;

195

(J.

LP 1 369-72; Caspar 2, 622 ff.; DCB Barmby); LThK 8, 127 f. (G. Schwai,

ger); Bertolini,

background is unknown, but he was archdeacon of Rome under Conon, and was

399-401; Seppelt

2,

80

f.;JR,

207

f.

ambitious to succeed him. Confident that

SERGIUS

I,

ST

the elderly, ailing pontiff had not long to

701).

Born

at

Palermo, of a Syrian family

he wrote to the new Byzantine exarch at Ravenna, John Platyn, promising him a hundred pounds of gold if he would ensure

from Antioch, he came to Rome under Adeodatus II, was ordained, studied at the choir-school, and became titular priest of Sta Susanna on the Quirinal. On Conon's death there was an electoral split, one faction electing the archdeacon Paschal (who had obtained the support of John Platyn, Byzantine exarch, by promising him a sub-

live,

he hoped to recoup himself from the bequests he knew the pope was planning to leave to the clergy and others. John agreed, and privately instructed the officials he had appointed to govern Rome his election;

to arrange for Paschal's election.

On Con-

on's death, however, the succession

stantial

disputed, one faction (probably comprising

the archpriest

Theodore. The two

it

became

rivals

their supporters in

separate parts of the Lateran palace. clear that neither group

the

687-9 Sept.

other the

archpriest

In the resulting stalemate a

meeting of leading civil officials, army officers, and the bulk of the clergy was held in the Palatine palace and unanimously chose Sergius, who was already a marked man. He was then installed in the Lateran, the gates having to be stormed since it was occupied

the officials) electing Paschal, but another

were barricaded with

bribe),

Theodore.

was

(15 Dec.

When would

groups and their candidates.

give way, a meeting of leading civic officials,

by the

army

Theodore accepted the new pope-elect with good grace, but Paschal grudgingly and

officers,

and the majority of the clergy

(particularly the priests), as well as citizens,

was held

in

the imperial palace on the

Palatine and elected a

under

rival

compulsion,

exarch to come to

compromise can-

Sergius, titular priest of Sta Susanna. With the people acclaiming him as

election.

didate,

To

secredy

Rome

everyone's

urging

the

to overturn the

surprise

John

Platyn did come, unannounced, but soon

pope, Sergius was conducted to the Lateran

decided, in view of the overwhelming sup-

and, the gates having been stormed, was

port for Sergius, that his election must

installed there to await the exarch's ratifica-

stand.

When Theodore

He

therefore issued the mandate

saw how things

necessary for his consecration, but only

stood, he made his submission to Sergius, but Paschal had to be forced against his will

after obliging him to hand over the hundred pounds of gold which Paschal had promised

tion.

to

do

so;

he wrote secredy

to

John

him.

Platyn,

82

JOHN VI (701-5) brute force and, after seizing and deporting

Sergius proved an able and energetic pontiff

who

asserted

successfully

authority of Rome in the west.

Damian of Ravenna came consecrated, the

Thus Bishop

Rome

to

to

be

holder of that see to do

first

pope's

the

the

principal

commander of

bodyguard,

to

Rome

sent

advisers,

Zacharias,

the

imperial

with orders either to

obtain Sergius's signature or bring

him

as a

so since the ending of its short-lived (666-

captive to the capital. At this point, however,

82/3) autonomy. Deeply concerned for the English church, he baptized (10 Apr. 689)

in Italy

the

the limits to which the emperor's authority

young Caedwalla, king of the West

Saxons, granted the *pallium to Beorht-

weald of Canterbury (693), and ordered Wilfrid (634-709) to be restored to the see of York

693 he authorized the

(f.700). In

mission to Frisia of the Anglo-Saxon Wil-

whom

librord (658-739),

Pepin of Herstal

Rome, and on 27 Nov. 695 consecrated him archbishop of the Frisians, bestowing on him the pallium. In 700, folhad sent

to

lowing a council convened

Lombard

095Sergius was an active restorer and embel-

by the

lisher of

he received schism since the condemnation

One

Eager

namesake Justinian

his

self,

at

this

assembly of

of the Fifth (553) and Sixth (680) General Councils (hence the title Quinisext) by procanons.

102

in

tive

(e.g. clerical

fast in

ritual

Feast 8 Sept.

these

JW

f.;

2,

699; 741;

2,

LP

620-36;

DTC 14,

i,

371-82;

DCB

1913-16

(E.

FD

1, n.

618-20 Amann); BSS 4,

(J.

11,

873-5 (N- Del Re); NCE 1 3, 1 1 2 (C. M. Aherne); Mann 1/2, 76-104; Bertolini, 398-409; Seppelt 2, 80-5; JR, 208-11; 266 f.; 274 f.; 278 f.; 280.

Chalcedon (451) granting Constantinople

Rome

244

Barmby);

renewed the *28th canon of

patriarchal status second only to

1,

259; Caspar

celibacy and the Saturday

Rome had

calendar of St Willibrord indicates that

and

Lent) established in the west, and

expressly

(Annunciation, Dormition, Nativity,

his cult started not long after his death.

ignored western canon law, banned practices

an

to

mass, enriched the four great feasts of the

inspiration,

disciplinary

Oriental

resting-place

view of the public inside

and Presentation) with solemn processions, and seems to have inaugurated the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross. He was buried in St Peter's, and his mention in the primi-

eastern bishops in 692 to complete the work

mulgating

full

An accomplished singer himhe introduced the singing of Agnus Dei

BVM

famous

I

convened

inconspicuous

the basilica.

(527-65) by presiding over a great council, the emperor, without inviting the west,

first

ornate tomb in

Justinian IPs

emulate

to

of his

their

(685-95; 7°5 -11 ) demand that he should endorse the second Trullan or Quinisext council.

churches, including St

and his own Sta Susanna. works (8 June 688) was to

remove the remains of Leo the Great from

Sergius was no less determined and suc-

Emperor

Roman

Peter's, St Paul's,

of the *Three Chapters by Vigilius in 553, back into communion with Rome. cessful in resisting

had been reduced were glaringly The imperial troops at Ravenna

and elsewhere rallied to the pope, forced their way into Rome, and pursued Zacharias relentlessly until Sergius (under whose bed he had taken refuge) had to plead with them for his life. It was a humiliating defeat for Justinian which he could not avenge, for he himself was overthrown and exiled in late

Cunibert,

king

Aquileia, in

at Pavia

exposed.

(to

JOHN

the canons to be publicly read out. Infuri-

VI (30 Oct. 701-n Jan. 705). is known of his background except that he was Greek by birth. The few glimpses that survive of his reign show him, at a time when Byzantium's hold on Italy was loosened in the confusion following the deposition of Emperor Justinian II in 695,

ated by his attitude, Justinian resorted to

accepted as a popular leader

which

The

Nothing

papal apocrisiarii in Constantinople

were induced but

consistently objected).

when

to sign the acts

of the council;

copies were delivered to Sergius

with a blank space for his signature, he firmly refused to insert

it,

or even to allow

83

in

ItuK

but

JOHN VII (705-7) careful himself to avoid any rupture with the

empire.

up

Thus when

arms

against

Theophylact,

the

the Italian militias took

exarch

imperial

the

who had come

to

Rome

pope

first

to

A man

official.

artistic sensibility,

from

administrator

be son of a Byzantine

of learning, eloquence, and

he had earlier been the

{rector)

of the papal patrimony

Sicily,

on the Appian Way;

his

epitaph in graceful verses for his father, and

John closed the city gates and saved life, at the same time succeeding in

pacifying the mutineers walls.

seems

It

camped before

on

who had

commander of

Zacharias,

Sergius

to

the

taken part

the holy see of valuable estates in the Cot-

imperial

Rome to arrest

King

I

punish.

to

John's

bard duke Gisulf

Campania with and

towns

throne

when the

to

in

695

II,

but

Byzantine

the

705, dispatched two bishops to with copies of the canons of the antiin

Rome Roman

second

Trullan

*Quinisext

or

council (692), which Sergius

and

devastation,

restored

dramatically

Lom-

his armies f.702, sacking

spreading

lost

occupied

had

it

(625-43)

who had been overthrown

of Benevento invaded

I

Rotari

Ligurian coast. In 706 Emperor Justinian

difficulties,

however, were illustrated when the

Alps (Liguria) which

tian

on Justinian II's orders; in the event, having been rescued by the pope, it was the informers whom Theophylact was obliged

inscription.

As pope he enjoyed excellent relations with the Lombards, which were reflected in the return by King Aribert II (701-12) to

in the humiliating rebuff administered to

bodyguard, when he came

human

a touching, very

information received, was planning to exact retribution from citizens

such he composed an

erected a memorial to both his parents with

the

that Theophylact, acting

as

I

had

flady

milestone on the Via

refused to endorse, and requested John to

Latina; John had to spend enormous sums on ransoming his prisoners and persuading him to withdraw, and even then behind

convene a synod and confirm such of them as he approved while rejecting the ones he found unacceptable. Terrified of offending

greatly extended frontiers.

the notoriously ruthless monarch,

Three times driven from his see, Wilfrid of York (664-709) came to Rome in 703

not dare take advantage of the apparently

halted only

at

the

fifth

four-month-long synod held

704 he was wrote

(his

finally

in

Rome

vindicated, and

returned

Canterbury

should endeavour

to

failed to

do

themselves

so, at

he

to

comply

borne out by

his artists' portraits of Christ

tended

be modelled on the type favoured by

Lamb they represented the Lamb human form, as prescribed by canon 82

in

of

the Quinisext council, and not as a lamb.

(E.

DCB 3, 392 Amann); XCE 7,

Bertolini,

408-10; Seppelt

f.

is

of the

Rome to thrash the matter out

636; 688; 726;

599

Byzantine policy

official

Justinian's coinage, while in the Adoration

both parties should present

2,70of.;LPi,383

f.;

LP. His readiness

in

with

to

at a fuller council.

JW 1, 245

but

Constantinople

biographer

Thus

reach a satisfactory if

proposed,

the church decorations he had executed.

(693-731),

settlement of the affair at a synod;

to

earning a rebuke for cowardice from his

Northumbria and Mercia directing that Beorhtweald, whom he had confirmed as of

canons

the

without signifying assent or dissent, thereby

in

John

only extant letter) to the kings of

archbishop

compromise

reasonable

appeal to the pope. At a

(his third visit) to

John did

f.

(J-

f.;

Caspar

Barmby);

2,

A

624;

DTC 8,

call

BVM who

builder and patron of the

1009 (H. G.J. Beck); 2,

devotee of the

85; JR, 211.

delighted to

himself her servant, John was a notable

constructing a

arts.

He began

new papal residence

(epi-

scopium) at the foot of the Palatine, close to

JOHN

VII

Greek by

(1

Mar. 705-18 Oct. 707). A he was son of Plato and

Blatta, his father official

the

Greek quarter and

palace,

birth,

now

to the old imperial

the residence of the deputy to

the Byzantine exarch. His complaisance to

being the highly placed

responsible for the maintenance of

the imperial palace on the Palatine; he was

84

Justinian was

sharply criticized,

perhaps

need

felt

the

and he

for additional security.

CONSTANTINE (708-15) addition

In

and

building

to

restoring

churches (Sta Maria Antiqua in the Forum, in particular), he liked adorning them with

CONSTANTINE 715).

A

(25

Mar. 708-9 Apr.

Syrian like his predecessor and

described by his biographer as 'exceedingly

he should probably be identified

mosaics and frescos; not infrequendy, as his

gentle',

biographer sardonically noted, he included

with the subdeacon Constantine

BVM which he

who was one of Pope Agatho's representatives at the *Sixth General Council (third council of Constantinople, 680-1). His reign is

today preserved in the

reported to have witnessed the extremes of

representations of himself, and one such striking

portrait

mosaic,

in

designed for a chapel of the

added to St Peter's, Vatican

palace, and

is

He

Grottoes.

was buried

died

originally

new

his

in

BVM.

JW

f.;

LP

1,

385-7; P.J. Nordhagen, The Maria Antiqua (Rome,

Frescoes ofJohn VII in S.

1968);

Early in 709 Constantine had a brush

with Felix, newly elected archbishop of

246

i,

famine and abundance.

of the

in his chapel

J.

reasserting the

Ravenna had

Breckenridge, 'Evidence for the Nature

364-74; Caspar

2,

630-7;

BZ

II',

DTC

8,

obedience and other tokens of submission in customary form. In 712, however,

f.

(E.

f.

109-23; Bertolini, 410-12; Seppelt 211 f.; 226; 244; 267; 270.

2, 85;

which Emperor Justinian

JR,

him

name being John.

had sentenced he made his

centrepiece of Constantine's reign was the

his

ably in Oct. 707, he

II

after putting out his eyes,

peace with the pope and died (723) in communion with Rome. But the

background and earlier career, except that he was a Syrian by birth, his father's

when

Felix returned to his see from the exile to

SISINNIUS (15 Jan.- 4 Feb. 708). Nothing known of

that

600

DACL 7, 2197-2212; 13, 1243 (H. Leclercq); NCE 7, 1009 (H. G.J. Beck); Mann 1/

is

Rome

briefly

65 (1972),

Amann); 2,

he consecrated but who,

autonomy from

(662-82/3) enjoyed, provide the required oath of

refused to

of Relations between Pope John VII and the Byzantine emperor Justinian

whom

Ravenna,

year-long journey (Oct. 710-Oct. 711) he made to the east on the express summons of

Elected prob-

the emperor.

was already an old man,

It

was Justinian's wish

malize relations with

Rome

to nor-

by reaching a

and so crippled with gout that he could not use his hands to feed himself. There was an interval of almost three months before he could be consecrated while ratification of his appointment by the Byzantine exarch was awaited. He was greatly respected and was considered a man of resolute character,

mutually satisfactory agreement about the

with a genuine care for the inhabitants of

prospect,

Rome. Although pope-elect and pope

Accompanied by an impressive retinue, Constantine was royally received everywhere. The negotiations at Nicomedia (Izmit) were conducted with consummate

less than four

civil

and

*Quinisext

council

I

visit,

for

authorities) to order the prepara-

proved

skill

Rome,

Gregory

attack as events in

John

to

held

hostile

many of them. The

a

by his deacon Gregory (soon to be

the

these orders from being carried out.

canons; and the pope seems to have

lis

only recorded ecclesiastical act was the con-

1

,

247;

(J.

LP

1 ,

388; Caspar

Barmby);

NCE

2,

13, 261

Roman

objections to a

number of

the

finally

DGB 4,

at any rate, such of them were not repugnant to western usage. Justinian, who had ceremonially kissed

(M. A. Mulhol-

Constantine's feet on meeting him and

approved, verbally

secration of a bishop for Corsica.

705

in

triumphant success.

demonstrated. His sudden death prevented

JW

his

II), who in response to the emperor's enquiries convincingly explained

VI's reign had

I

at

which must have seemed ominous

tion of lime for the restoration of the walls of

exposed

canons which the

(692),

had enacted but which Sergius had refused to endorse because of the

anti-western tone of

months, he had the foresight

dangerously

ritual

instigation,

and energy (no action was forthcoming from the

disciplinary

620; 624;

as

land); Seppelt 2, 86.

received

Xs

communion and

absolution from

1

GREGORY was

him,

II

(715-31) well

evidently

and

satisfied,

of Pavia had belonged to the pope from

published a decree confirming the privileges of the

ably

its

Roman

church, including prob-

J\V

Ravenna.

jurisdiction over

Rome,

reached

Constantine

ancient times, and should so continue.

after

Soon

illness,

91 (G. Bardy);L

A

Bertolini,

731).

was

repudiating

the

General

(680-1), sent the pope an

of his belief in one

ded

his

will in

official

This

adhesion.

Rome

Constantine

Greek

public documents and

ling the

to

enforce

armed with crosses and gospel-

books who prevailed on the anti-imperial mobs to withdraw Fortunately Philippicus was soon overthrown (3 June 713), and his successor Anastasius II (713-15) promptly to

Constantine

pontiff of the 8th

political skill in

confused situation arising

ses of

Cumae and

Sutri.

Between 717 and

726, loyal subject of the empire though he

formal

was,

he

headed

the

angry

assurances of his orthodox} and adhesion to

throughout

the Sixth General Council.

imposed by Emperor Leo

Visitors to

Rome

in

Constantine 's reign

Italy to crippling tax III

resistance

demands

the Isaurian

(717-41), with the result that the governplans, frustrated in the event by

included Cenred, king of Mercia, Offa, the

ment made

young and

his popularity, to have

attractive

hand-

in Italy as

Alps; later he secured the return to the empire by the Lombards of the key fortres-

.

dispatched

Roman

Byzantine power waned. In 716 he persuaded Liutprand, the great Lombard king (712-44), to hand back valuable papal patrimonies that he retained in the Cottian

Rome. The pope

played a pacific role, sending out bands of priests

w ith Emperor Justinian

Gregory displayed

the

emperor's wishes, and there were bloody battles in the streets of

10-1

or Syrian background, and proved

the outstanding

The

steps

in 7

leading role

a

over me canons of the (685-95; 7°5 _I •Quinisext council (692). He was the first Roman to be elected after seven popes of

cent.

took

and played

II

from the prayers at mass, and his likeness removed from churches and the coinage. exarch

(19 May 715-11 Feb. Rome of wealthy stock,

in the negotiations

deman-

Philippicus was rejected, his

name omitted from

ST in

to Constantinople,

refused, and in the resulting furious reaction in

Beck);

f.

of the delegation Constantine led

Council

exposition

Christ and

J.

86-8; J R, 198 f;

resolute, he

*monothelite who,

Sixth

II,

Born 669

(H. G.

f.

2,

intellectually

Philippicus Bardanes

a fanatical

638-

able, statesmanlike and had been brought up in the Lateran, acting when subdeacon as keeper of the purse and then as librarian under Sergius I. As deacon he was a key member

fortnight later

Rome and Byzantium was at once shattered, new emperor,

4, 223 413-23; Seppelt

GREGORY

Nov. 711) Justinian was murdered by mutinous troops. The new accord between

(71 1— 13),

2,

77^3, 48 (G.Schwaiger); Mann

202; 213-15; 267; 274

(4

for the

i,nn. 266-9;

Caspar

5, 19;

eccl.

XCE

12, 127-40;

after his departure in

interrupt the discussions.

247-9;^ 1, 389-95; 96; FD

M\DCB 1, 658 (G. H. Moberly);D//G£ 13, 589-

a

on 24 Oct. 711. 710 the new exarch, John Rizocopus, for reasons which remain obscure, had brutally executed several of his senior, most valued officials; the news must have reached the pope at Constantinople, but he had not allowed it to journey troubled by

1,

271; 273; Bede, Hist.

son of the king of the

him

either assassin-

East Saxons, and Benedict, archbishop of

ated or deposed. During his reign he strove

Milan. Both the former took the tonsure

to contain the expansionist

moves of the

and became monks, dying shortly after. Benedict pressed on the pope the demand

Lombards,

found

Milan, as they had been before the

in

729

Rome

threatened by Liutprand and the exarch Eutychius, united in an unexpected and

that bishops of Pavia should be consecrated at

but

Lom-

temporary

bard invasion. Constantine adopted the

alliance.

Gregory made

matic appearance in the

a dra-

Lombard camp,

making such an impression on the Catholic

firm line that the right to consecrate bishops

86

GREGORY

(715-31)

II

Liutprand that he not only abandoned the

Germany. Having come to Rome from Eng-

siege but deposited his royal insignia at St

land in spring 718, Boniface

tomb

Peter's

token

in

left

the follow-

ing year with a letter from Gregory, dated

of submission.

May

him

commissioning

Although Eutychius installed himself in Rome, the pope patched up an agreement

evangelize the people of Frisia.

with him and, always loyal to the empire,

722, in view of the success of his work in

15

719,

to

On 30 Nov.

helped him to crush Tiberius Petasius, a

Bavaria, Thuringia, and Hesse, the

rebellious aspirant to the throne.

consecrated him bishop; he armed him with

On

the theological plane Gregory firmly

resisted

Leo

the

Isaurian's

a

measures,

an obstacle to the conversion of Jews and Muslims, to ban sacred images and their

The new

policy of iconoclasm,

which Leo began to campaign in 726 and which he promulgated in an edict signed by the eastern patriarch early in 730, was repugnant to Italy, and created consternation and revolts. Between these dates the emperor corresponded with Gregory requesting his approval, on pain of deposifor

tion,

correspondence with him; as a result of his

(two letters,

now accepted

Roman

influence,

usage

liturgical

everywhere adopted by the infant

was

German

church.

As

measure Gregory started city walls; he also made good the ravages caused by the Tiber

of the prohibition of images. Gregory's

rejoinder

Charles

Franks (716-41),

of the

ruler

whose protection would enable him to carry out his tasks successfully. Having imposed on Boniface an oath which bound him closely to the holy see, Gregory now gave him his full backing and was frequendy in

motivated in part by the belief that they were

veneration.

of recommendation to

letter

Martell,

pope

as

a defensive

his reign

by repairing the

in flood.

He

carried out extensive restora-

many churches. He actively fostered

broadly authentic, have been preserved) was

tions in

uncompromising: he rejected iconoclasm as a heresy, warned Leo that dogma was not

monasticism, rebuilding and repopulating

the business of princes but of priests (their

turning his

two spheres were complementary but different), and countered his threats with the spirited reminder that, once three miles from Rome, the pope was safe since the entire west revered the successor of Peter. The news of Leo's ultimatum to Gregory

tery dedicated to St Agatha;

gave the signal for uprisings in north

Before his death he was planning a

deserted and decaying monasteries, and

7

and the emperor's

hostility to

images only served subjects

still

to

(720)

home

Monte Cassino, which

had reduced cal

into a

monas-

he commis-

to ruins.

the

He was among

innovator who,

Lombards

also a liturgi-

other things,

introduced a mass for Thursdays in Lent.

Italy,

visit to

the north which he proved unable to carry

detach his Italian

out.

further from the empire; yet in

family

sioned Abbot Petronax of Brescia to restore

devotion to

Gregory himself never wavered

own

Evidence of his cult appears

first in

the

gth-cent. Martyrology of Ado. Feast

11

Feb.

his

loyalty.

Gregory's concern for the people of

JW 1, 249-57; LP 1, FD 1, nn. 279; 286

northern Europe was especially significant.

He

received both

Duke Theodo of Bavaria

(716) and Ine, abdicated king of (726), in

Rome

702; Caspar

Wessex

implemented more than twenty years

More

later,

far-reaching was his

he renamed Boniface (680-754),

643-64; 692-701; E. Caspar,

und der

Bilderstreit',

ZKG

52 la

querelle des images', Melanges Ch. Diehl (Paris,

1930)

1,

LThK

4,

244-54; 1

Ikrtolini,

m

1

78 1-6

NCR

BSS

(P. 7,

Monccllc);

287-90

(P.

770 (R. E. Sullivan); 435-52; Seppeh 2, 88-101; JR, 214;

218-23; 267-

*7

DTC6,

181 (L. Spading);

Rabikauskas);

support of the missionary work of Wynfrith,

whom

II

PL 89, 453-534; /WCEp 3, 698-

291; 298;

(1933), 29-89; G. Ostrogorsky, 'Les debuts de

for the creation of an ecclesiastical province in his country.

2,

'Papst Gregor

and worked out tentative plan, to be

as pilgrims,

with the former a

396-414;

f.;

6,

GREGORY

III (731-41)

GREGORY III, ST (18 Mar. 73 1-28 Nov.

or tomb, of the Apostle in St Peter's. Realiz-

741). Syrian by origin, an able and eloquent

ing,

priest equally at

home

Greek and

in

he was seized by cheering crowds during the funeral of Gregory II, rushed to the Lateran and elected pope by acclaim, and consecrated five weeks later after obtaining (he was the last pope to seek it) the Byzantine exarch's mandate. The iconoclastic controversy was now at its height, the prohibition of sacred images and of their veneration having been enacted by Emperor Leo III (717-41) in early Jan. 730. Eager for a rapprochement with the east, Gregory immediately appealed to Leo to abandon this policy, deeply offensive to western belief and practice. Receiving no response, he held

a

44),

eastern

chia,

by

since

stubborn pontiff

when

it

to

heel.

was wrecked

sequestered

the

in

Sicily

self with the ineffective, treacherous

Adriatic,

Trasamund of

in

to that

alter

importance

fell

to

the

Lombards

in

by

exarch

Eutychius.

Eutychius showed their

church full

in

northern

backing

to the

missionary enterprises of Boniface (680-

Thus

754) in Germany, granting him the *pallium and the rank of archbishop in 732, with authority to establish bishoprics; after Boni-

733, his active to its recapture

Both

of the

Europe. Thus he gave

the seat of Byzantine rule,

support contributed greatly

Gre-

in

still

his view the sole legitimate authority.

when Ravenna,

Duke

Spoleto, thereby inflaming

In the strictly ecclesiastical field

did not

Gregory's loyalty to the empire,

city,

gory's actions revealed his awareness of the

of

the patriarch of Constantinople.

These were damaging blows, but

in

the king's animosity.

provinces of Illyricum and

from the pope's jurisdiction

from the Franks, and in

and imploring him to defend 'the church of God and his peculiar people'; he also offered him the title of consul and the rank of patrician. Although courteously received, these appeals remained unanswered; Charles had no wish to march against Liutprand, who had recently (738) helped him against the Arab invaders of Provence. Left to himself, Gregory first appealed to Liutprand to give back the strongholds he had seized, and then, when his request fell on deaf ears, made the mistake of allying him-

Calabria and Sicily, and transferred the ecclesiastical

it

cribing the pitiable plight of the holy

he disand then,

the

and

In desperation,

740 sent impressive embassies to Charles Martell, *mayor of the palace (7 r 6-4 r ) and thus defacto ruler of the Merovingian Frankish kingdom, bearing sumptuous gifts and relics, and letters des-

(741-75),

patrimonies

papal

after

no help could be expected from

739 and again

First,

fleet to Italy,

key fortresses,

city itself.

step of seeking

and Patriarch Anastasius (730-54), the emperor decided to use force to bring the patched an armed

who

Byzantium, Gregory took the momentous

implication

V

four

seizing

threatened the

and then the were intercepted by imperial officials in Sicily and gaoled. When eventually (733) one got through to Constantinople with letters from Gregory to Constantine

restored those of Civitavec-

and entered into defensive alliances

Rome,

his original appeal

later

own expense, the

Rome,

capturing Spoleto invaded the duchy of

drastic synodal decrees,

Leo, his son,

Liutprand (712-

rebuilt, at his

only added to the fury of the king,

included. The successive envoys, however,

earning

vulnerable he was to the

their king

both enemies of Liutprand. These moves

widely representative

were

how

with the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento,

1

patriarch

Gregory

walls of

Nov. 731 which denounced iconoclasm and excommunicated anyone destroying images; the emperor and the synod on

however,

Lombards and

Latin,

face's third stay in Rome (737-8) he commissioned him as 'legate of the apostolic

Leo

and gratitude, the one

see' to organize the church in Bavaria, Alemannia, Hesse, and Thuringia, urging

by making a tacit truce with the pope, the other by presenting him with six onyx columns which he placed before the confessio,

bishops, abbots, and lay magnates to give

him 88

their fullest support.

He also cemented

ZACHARIAS (741-52) Rome and

between

relations

the English

church, bestowing (735) the pallium on Egbert of York (d. 766); when Tatwine of

whole of England.

obtained not only the return of the fortres-

was a decisive one; he foresaw,

and other towns, of confiscated papal and of all prisoners, but a twentyyear truce between the Lombards and

political

pontificate

even

if he

could not bring about, a pact with

the Franks which would help to maintain

ses

estates,

He himRome and its churches on an

In 743, when the Lombards switched their attack to Ravenna and the

Rome.

the independence of the holy see. self beautified

unprecedented scale; the numerous colourful and splendid images he set up had the additional purpose of proclaiming defiance

remaining Byzantine possessions

and

743), and prevailed

life,

and

it

to

that

evidence of his cult

name

an

Martyrology of Ado.

Lombard capturing

Moncelle);L77rA:4,

1

181

f.

(T. Schieffer);

290-4 (P. Rabikauskas); PRE 7, 91 f. (H. Bohmer); NCE 6, 770 f. (R. E. Sullivan); 453-77; Seppelt

2,

the

expansionist ambitions and, after

was soon aiming his sights at Rome. With Constantinople, relations with which had been stormy as a result of Emperor Leo Ill's (717-41) ban on images and their veneration (*iconoclasm), Zacharias was able to reach an at any rate

7,

Bertolini,

when he renewed

Ravenna (summer 751) and bringing the Byzantine exarchate to an end,

1

(P.

successor

pope induced (749) him too, by persuasion and gifts, to desist. But this was the last of his successes with the Lombards. Ratchis was obliged to abdicate and his brother Aistulf, who replaced him (July 749), revived the

JW 1, 257-62; LP 1, 415-25; PL 89, 557-98; MGEp 3, 290-4; 702-9; FD 1, nn. 301; 302; Caspar 2, 664-7; DCB 2, 796-8 (J. Barmby); DACL 13, 245-50 (H.Leclercq);D7iC 6, 178590

to

offensive against the exarchate, the

Feast 28 Nov.

BSS

on the reluctant king Liutprand's

armistice.

with Rome; but

was an oratory in the Saviour and the

he was buried. The first is the appearance of his

in the qth-cent.

in Italy,

Eutychius

Ratchis confirmed the twenty-year truce

for the reception of relics of saints,

was here

exarch

evacuate the occupied districts and consent

significant constructions

St Peter's dedicated to

distracted

intervened, visited Liutprand at Pavia (June

he gave practical support to existing communities and founded new ones; and he carried out repairs in the cemeteries around Rome and reorganized the services held in them. One of his most

BVM,

the

implored him to mediate, Zacharias again

A believer in the

of the iconoclastic heresy. monastic

Abandoning the

blunders apart, Gregory's

(d.

his vicar for the

Some

itself.

Duke Trasamund of Spoleto, envoys to the Lombard king Liut-

alliance with

he sent prand (7 1 2-44), then met him personally in his camp at Term (spring 742), and by promising the help of the Roman militia

734) visited Rome, he not only gave him the pallium but appointed

Canterbury

him

Rome

threatening

102-8; JR, 223-6;

268.

temporary

ZACHARIAS, ST

modus vivendi. Although his appointment had not needed imperial ratification, he was careful to send envoys to the

Dec. 741-15 Mar. 752). Born in Calabria of Greek stock, he worked closely as a deacon with Gregory III.

The

last

cultivated

(3

Greek,

into

admired

gentle,

for

his

He combined adroitness

political

and

pope

this,

great

and was

he reversed Gregory in

the

to

convey synodi-

he was the

last

to

he also made his objection

to

iconoclasm

Emperor Constantine V (741-75)

clear to

personal

and Patriarch Anastasius. When the envoys arrived, they found the usurper Artavasdus (741-2) on the throne, but while they had no option but to recognize him, both they and the pope seem to have behaved with

Ill's

policy

who had seized key Campagna and were

towards the Lombards, fortresses

and

however,

persuasiveness. First,

it

do so. While thus indicating that there was no break with the eastern church,

compassionate

with

announce

cal letters to the patriarch;

man who translated Gregory the

Great's Dialogues

bearing.

capital to

of the Greek popes, he was a

89

STEPHEN

(II) (752)

diplomatic reserve. At any rate, stantine

was restored

in

when Con-

king by Boniface. Zacharias's part in the

Nov. 743, he bore

transference

Rome but made a grant to

no grudge against

of

Carolingian

the

dynasts-

crown to the was to prove of

the holy see of the large and lucrative estates

immense

of Norma and Ninfa

between pope and emperor. Zacharias was an energetic and efficient administrator who, as well as controlling the militia and civil government of Rome, took

in

south Lazio. In

fact,

while Constantine was a fanatical iconoclast

and Zacharias an orthodox defender of images, they seem to have play the

aware

of,

tacitly

agreed

to

down. The emperor was and must have been grateful for,

an active interest

issue

To

the help the pope had given his exarch to

keep hold of Ravenna, and

for the

significance for future relations

in the papal patrimonies.

abandoned

resettle

land, but also to

replace revenues lost through the confisca-

moment

tion

preferred to have him as a friend while he

of

the

and

Sicilian

patrimonies by Emperor Leo

Calabrian

he developed the system ofdomus cultae, estates held in perpetuity by the church and worked by tenant farmers settled around an oratory. Although he constructed no new church, he

consolidated his position and dealt with the

Arabs and Bulgars. Zacharias's dealings with Boniface (680754), Apostle of Germany, and with the Franks since Charles Martell's death (29

—

III,

carried out a great deal of restoration and

Oct. 741) ruled by his sons Carloman and

embellishment of churches

Rome, con-

in

tinuing

John MPs

palace (originally supervisors of the royal

Maria

Antiqua

household but now quasi-hereditary chief ministers) were especially memorable.

also brought the papal residence,

Pepin

III

(714 15-68) as mayors of the

Like

Gregory backing

referred

II

and Gregory

to Boniface,

matters

to

who

III,

he gave

John VII

his

programme

him

legate.

the

Palatine,

He

moved by

back to the

for official

This

it

with painted murals

sumptuous new dining-room purposes. Feast 15 Mar.

and adding

was carried through, with the co-operation of Carloman and Pepin, by a series of important Frankish synods, the measures taken being ultimately approved by the pope. The result was the effective strengthening of the ties between the Frankish church and Rome, and the his

to

palace but adorning

for

the reform of the Erankish church, appoint-

ing

in Sta

contemporary

a

Lateran, not only rebuilding the decaying

continually

him, and both en-

couraged and directed

(where

fresco portrait of himself can be seen).

—

full

work

decorative

a

1, 426-35; JW 1, 262-70; MGEp 3, 479-87; 709-11; Caspar 2, 710-40; 731-40; Seppelt 2, 108-19; DTC 15, 3671-5 (E. Amann); DACL 8,

LP

1583; 1653 (H. Leclercq); BSS 12, 1446-8 (N. Del Re); NCE 14, 11 06 f. (M. C. McCarthy); LThK 10, 1298 f. (L. Spading); Mann 1/2, 22588; Bertolini, 479-5 1 3; JR 226-31; 268; 2785300 f.; O. Bertolini, 'I rapporti di Zaccaria con Constantino V e con Artavasado nel racconto del

presentation to Zacharias of a remarkable

expression of loyalty by a council of the

biografo e nella probabile realta storica'.

entire Frankish episcopate early in 747. In

mana 78

same year the pope confirmed the condemnation of two heretical impostors, Adalbert and Clement, by Boniface. In 750, in response to an embassy sent to Rome by Pepin, he delivered the momentous ruling that it was better for the royal tide to belong to him who exercised effective power in the Frankish kingdom than to him who had none. The sequel was the deposition of

ASRo-

(1955), I—21.

the

King Childeric Merovingian

line,

III,

last

of the

STEPHEN 752).

An

(II)

Mar. whose known, he was

(22 or 23-25 or 26

elderly

presbyter

previous career nothing

is

of

elected by the clergy and people of

few days

Rome

after the death of Zacharias

a

on 15

Mar. 752. He was duly installed in the Lateran palace, but had a stroke three days later and died on the fourth day. As he was never consecrated, and consecration was deemed essential by the canon law of the time, he was not reckoned a pope by LP or

feeble

the election of Pepin at

Soissons (Nov. 751), and his anointing as

00

STEPHEN him

one, on the ground that valid election

is all

that

man

required for a

is

become general

to

'Stefano

II'

in

in Catholic circles.

its official list

Stephen

LP

1,

Thus

him

as

until i960,

but

Mindful of responded

visit

his

him under

a

debt to Zacharias, Pepin

favourably,

sending

Bishop

own

brother-

Chrodegang of Metz and

his

out on 14 Oct. 753. He stopped at Pavia, the Lombard capital, having been instructed by

numbering.

JW

270;

1,

DCB

(A- Clerval);

5> 973 Aubert);A/C£

13,

695

4,

the Byzantine emperor to submit a fresh

730 0- Barmby); 15, 1184 (R.

demand

DHGE

moved

EHR

sent,

32 (1917), 476 f; R. Thibaut, 'Noms NRT72 (1950), 834-8.

II (III)

A Roman

(26 Mar.

752-26 Apr.

Chalons-sur-Marne, while next day he and

themand besought him, for the Apostles' sake, to deliver them and the Roman people from the Lombards. The outcome of this meeting, and of further

his clergy, in penitential garb, flung

selves at the king's feet

Zacharias made them dea-

cons, and as such they signed the acts of the

synod of 743. When the priest to succeed Zacharias,

Stephen, chosen

later, the

was rebuffed he

received by Pepin at Ponthion, south of

of aristocratic and wealthy

he was orphaned in childhood and brought up with his younger brother Paul in

died four days

this

first

family,

the Lateran.

when

north, with Aistulf 's grudging con-

on 15 Nov. and crossed the Alps (the pope to do so) by the Great St Bernard Pass. On 6 Jan. 754 he was obsequiously

et

chiffres pontificaux',

STEPHEN

for the return of his confiscated

possessions, but

(P.J. Mullins); R. L. Poole,

'The Names and Numbers of Medieval Popes',

Roman

be invited to

in-law Autcar as escorts, and Stephen set

DTC

757).

to

safe conduct.

1961 have suppressed his

a dual

440;

begging

given subsequent popes called

editions since

name and

ing to

be pope,

the Annuario Pontificio included

(752-7)

turned in 739 to Charles Martell), describ 1 him Rome's precarious situation and

any medieval document; only since the 16th cent, did the practice of considering

II (III)

culminating at Easter (14 Apr.) at Quierzy, near Laon, was that Pepin deliberations

elder brother was

unanimously elected pope in Sta Maria Maggiore. His short reign witnessed not only the detachment of the papacy from

not only engaged himself and his sons in

under the pro-

Roman church and the prerogatives of St Peter (i.e. the pope), but also promised in writing (the

tection of the Frankish kingdom, but the

'donation of Pepin') to guarantee, as St

formation of the papal

Peter's rightful possessions, along with the

Byzantium

as

it

placed

itself

general terms to protect the

state.

duchy of Rome, Ravenna, the exarchate and cities held by the Lombards, and

Shortly after his accession Stephen found

Rome menaced

by

the

Lombard king

other

Aistulf (749-56) with his army, fresh from

probably also other extensive areas in north-

the conquest of Ravenna. Although initially

ern and central

was soon apparent that Aistulf regarded the duchy of Rome as his fief, for he began exacting an annual tax from every inhabitant. At the same time he spurned the demands of a Byzantine envoy, accompanied by the

scholars

promising

a forty-year truce,

it

basis of his claims the so-called

of Constantine, a

embassies

Constantine having in

all

to

Aistulf,

Rome, and an appeal

confer on Silvester

Emperor

spent the winter gravely

(as

III,

king of the

Gregory

III

among

other privi-

ill

at

the abbey of St

Denis, near Paris, solemnly anointed (28 July 754) Pepin, his wife and sons, scaling

(741-75) for military aid proved fruitless, Stephen turned

Franks (751-68)

I,

dominion over Rome, Italy, and 'the provinces, places and civitates of the western regions'. For his part Stephen, who had

V

desperation to Pepin

Con-

leges,

penitential to

*Donation

instrument draf-

stantine the Great (d. 337) purported to

imperial territories he had annexed. Fur-

litanies in

fictitious

ted in the papal chancery under which

pope's brother Paul, for the return of the ther

Italy. According to many Stephen produced as the legal

thereby the legitimacy of their dynasty, and

had

bestowed on Pepin and 91

his sons, in token of

PAUL their

the

I

(757-67)

new

Romans'. promise Pepin

In fulfilment of his

made

Pepin and the holy see. Stephen's letters to Pepin reveal his exultation at Aistulf's death and his joy at the way things were working out. But his own remarkable reign, which

role as protectors of the holy see,

'patrician of the

title

first

several attempts to induce Aistulf to

had given a new direction to papal policy, was nearing its end. As his biographer in LP remarked, he had worked hard, with God's

surrender the occupied territories peacefully.

When

diplomacy

failed,

he defeated

the king in a swift campaign (Aug. 754) and made him swear (first Peace of Pavia) to

hand over

to the

pope

conquests

his

blessing, 'to enlarge the republic', being

founder of the papal state. Apart from these greater matters, he had

in the

effectively the

who

exarchate and the Pentapolis. Stephen,

had accompanied Pepin's army, was then conducted back to Rome and received a delirious welcome. Once the Franks had

been

recrossed the Alps, however, Aistulf broke

dedicated to St Denis, and had founded

his oath

Rome

Roman

in

churches, had

turned his family mansion into a monastery

and was soon (1 Jan. 756) besieging and devastating its environs. In

several

hospices.

Through

Pepin arranged that the

should replace the Gallican

Pepin again invaded Italy, crushed Aistulf, and at the second Peace of Pavia (June 756) bound him to evacuate the territories

while

previously agreed with the addition of Com-

DCB

a small force to

ensure that the

terms of the peace treaty were carried out.

When

Byzantine

officials

1,

440-62; JW

Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes (ET, London,

protested that the

belonged

to the

strict

offices.

4,

1908);

territories legally

he insisted on the

1, 271-7; MGEp 3, 487-507; 730-5 (J. Barmby); DHGE 15, 1 184-90 (A. Dumas); NCE 13, 695 (P.J. Mullins); LThKg, 1083 f. (Th. SchiefTer); Bertolini, 515-82; E. Caspar, Pippin und die Romische Kirche (Berlin, 191 4); L. P. Duchesne, The Beginnings of the

LP

Fulrad, abbot of St Denis,

left

liturgy

in his realms,

observance of the day and night

acchio (south of the mouth of the Po). This

behind with

Rome

at

influence

his

Roman

response to Stephen's repeated entreaties

time he

and

active in carrying out restorations

embellishments

Mann

1/2,

289-330.

emperor,

Pepin replied that he had taken up arms solely out of love for St Peter and for the

PAUL I, ST (29 May 757-28 June 767). A

forgiveness of his sins, and would not hand

orphaned

over his conquests to anyone but the Apos-

Lateran

tle.

He

cities

Roman

brought up in the and ordained deacon by Zacharias, he was elected immediately

then presented Ravenna and the

of the exarchate, the Pentapolis Pesaro,

Fano,

in childhood,

after the death

(i.e.

and Ancona, with adjacent territories), and Emilia to St Peter and the Roman church in perpetuity, Fulrad depositing the keys of the cities and the instrument of donation upon Rimini,

of aristocratic and wealthy family,

Senigallia,

He

II (III).

man and

of his elder brother Stephen

had been Stephen's right-hand

trusted negotiator, but his con-

secration had to be put off for a

month

because a minority faction hostile

to the

Frankish alliance preferred

Archdeacon

tomb of St Peter. Thus the papal state came into existence, although at first at any

Theophylact. While

rate the emperor's suzerainty continued to

king of the Franks (751-68), using the

be recognized

formula earlier employed to notify the

the

When

tion he

in theory.

74), receiving in return a

several

He

further

promise

cities,

to

also

had

awaiting consecra-

Pepin

III,

rati-

he pledged undying loyalty to the pact the king had made with Stephen II; and in his reply Pepin asked him to stand godfication,

hand

including

father to his infant daughter.

Paul's reign was a continuous struggle to defend and consolidate the young, still vulnerable papal state. It was threatened by

hand in getting the new dukes of Spoleto and Benevento to cut adrift from the Lombards and submit to Bologna.

still

his election to

Byzantine exarch. While not asking for

Aistulf died without heir in Dec.

successfully backed Stephen 756, Desiderius of Tuscany for the throne (757—

over

announced

a

92

CONSTANTINE (antipope 767-8) new Lombard king (757—

Desiderius, the

who

74),

several cities he

had promised

Stephen

to

persecution.

envoys

II

invaded

and

(758)

papal

ter-

detach the Franks from Rome. Paul was

and

filled

Benevento which had accepted Frankish and papal suzerainty, and negotiated with Byzantium for military aid to reconquer Ravenna and the exarchate. At a meeting

these overtures, but that

had rejected

when iconoclasm

and Trinitarian doctrine were debated between Franks and Greeks at the synod of

Roman

Gentilly in 767, the

any concessions he made would be condi-

acceptance of

image veneration had prevailed.

on the release of Lombard hostages

Paul died shortly afterwards (28 June

held by Pepin. As his correspondence

767) at St Paul's basilica, where he had sought refuge from the excessive heat. He

tional still

with apprehension, but was overjoyed

to learn not only that the king

Rome Desiderius declared that

with Paul in

the

to

protested against the

765 Constantine sent Frankish court seeking

Spoleto

devastated

subjugated

ritories,

In

Pepin's support for *iconoclasm, and also to

as the price for help in securing his throne,

but

who had

Jerusalem,

not only refused to hand over

was intercepted, the pope was reduced to begging Pepin in open letters to accede to these demands, while secretly urging him to resist them. All the time he was sending him

was temporarily buried

there,

his

body

being translated to St Peter's three months

He had

later.

a high conception of the papal

anguished complaints about Desiderius's

office,

excesses and appeals for help, but with his

between God and men, the searcher of

preoccupations in Frankland and his anx-

souls'.

iety to

prevent a Lombard-Byzantine coa-

lition

Pepin had

By

militarily.

no wish

to

LP

extols his

'mediator

compassionate nature

and the zeal with which he visited paupers and prisoners, but he was criticized as a

intervene

however,

diplomacy,

himself as

describing

severe administrator who relied on oppress-

he

brought about an uneasy modus vivendi

ive subordinates.

between Desiderius and Paul in 760, but it meant that both had to yield points, the pope in particular abandoning parts of his

for the history of the catacombs, for

grandiose vision of the papal

notably that of Petronilla,

At cern.

churches

state.

he

numerous bodies from them to and chapels in Rome, most

whom

(Paul's

Constan-

action had a political aim) the Frankish royal

were becoming Paul's great con-

house revered as the supposed daughter of St Peter. There is no evidence of his cult

stage

this

tinople

transferred

His reign was important

relations with

He was disturbed not only by Emperor

Constantine

V's

moves to Lombards and

before the 15th cent. Feast 28 June.

(741-75)

establish relations with the

JW 1, 277-83; MGEp 3) 507-58; 263-6 0- Barmby); DACL 13, 1252-4 (H. Leclercq); BSS 10, 283-5 (P- Rabikauskas);

LP

then with the Frankish court, but also by the denunciation of images and their worship

by the eastern council the emperor had held at Hieria in Feb.-Aug. 754. More than once he dispatched envoys to urge ratified

Constantine

to

restore

the

463-7;

1,

DCB

4,

NCE

11, 12 (R. E. Sullivan);

Ullmann);

M. Baumont,

LThK 8, 197 f. (W. 'Le pontificat de Paul P,

MelArchHist 47 (1930), 7-24; Bertolini, 583-624; Seppelt 2, 139-47.

traditional

veneration of images (hence LP's salute to

him

as

a

CONSTANTINE

'courageous champion of the

(antipope 5 July

767-6

and when the persecution of image-worshippers intensified he welcomed crowds of eastern emigres fleeing from it, and made the monastery of SS. Stefano and Silvestro, which he had founded in his home in 761, available for Greek monks. In 763 he joined forces with

Aug. 768: d. ?). A layman, brother of Duke Toto of Nepi, he irregularly succeeded

the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and

temporal power with the foundation

orthodox

faith'),

Paul

I,

whose harsh

rule

and reliance on

the ecclesiastical bureaucracy had incensed the lay aristocracy. For

them

it

was import-

ant to have a pope they could influence, not least

93

because the papacy had become

a

ot the

-

PHILIP papal his

(antipope 768)

state.

As Paul

lay dying,

Toto plotted

murder, but, along with other

leaders,

abjectly admitted his guilt.

Roman

was persuaded by Christopher, the

cedents for laymen and even married

being

must follow traditional form. On Paul's death (28 June 767), however, Toto broke his oath, had Constantine acclaimed pope

all

mob

of his soldiers and dependants,

him in the Lateran, and forced Bishop George of Praeneste first to ordain him subdeacon and deacon, and then, with to consecrate

him

the clergy, including Stephen) and of his

administration were burned, his ordinations

were declared

installed

two other bishops,

men

made bishops. This exasperated his judges, who manhandled him and threw him out. The acts of his election (signed by

chief notary, that the subsequent election

by a

At the second

session he altered his tune, invoking pre-

sentenced monastery.

from

in St

Peter's (5 July).

LP

and he himself was

invalid,

lifelong

to

From

penance

in

a

he disappears

this point

history.

king of the Franks (751-68) and protector

468-72; 475 f.;JW 1, 283 f.;.WGEp 3, 64953; Mansi 12, 717-20; Seppelt 2, 148-52; Zi, 13-25; DHGE 13, 591-3 (G. Bardv); Bertolini,

of the holy see, of his election, begging him

622-38;A77iA3,48(K.

Constantine

at

once informed Pepin

to maintain the pact

in Sept.,

,

Baus).

he had made with the

two previous popes. Receiving no wrote again

III,

1

reply,

PHILIP

he

using as a pretext an

chief

letter which had arrived ( 1 2 Aug.) Theodore, the new patriarch of Jerusalem; it was clear from his message that he was already encountering diffi-

(antipope 31 July 768).

notary

important

Sergius, with the help of

from

seized

culties. In fact, the clerical party at

pope, Stephen

III

(IV),

to settle the

son

Lombard

troops,

Rome

Cons amine, 1

Rome

the priest Waldipert, acting

apparently on the instructions of the

Lom-

bard king Desiderius (757-74), went with a band of Romans to the monastery of S. Vito,

on the Esquiline, brought out

its

chaplain,

the priest Philip, and, shouting 'Holy Peter

has chosen Philip for pope', conducted him to the

found

Lateran to

basilica,

pronounce

where

a bishop

the

prayers. Waldipert's object

was

appropriate

was

to exploit

the confused situation to the advantage of

the Lombards by appointing a pope who would be their king's creature. He succeeded in installing Philip in the patriarch ium, where he gave a blessing from the papal throne and presided at the banquet customarily given by a new pope to local notables. When Christopher heard what had happened, however, he swore publicly that he would never set foot in Rome while

having

been canonically elected, Constantine was dragged from his hiding-place, paraded ignominiously round the city, and at a synod on 6 Aug. stripped of the insignia of office and formally deposed. He was then imprisoned in a monastery where, attacked by a gang, he had his eyes gouged out. Finally, on 12 and 13 Apr. 769 he appeared before a synod held by Stephen III in the Lateran

the

his

during the night of 30/3 1 July 768 and imprisoned the usurping pope

had regrouped and its leader, Christopher, had made contact with the duke of Spoleto and the Lombard king Desiderius (757— 74). The Lombards were only too glad to exploit the situation, and with troops supplied by them Christopher's son Sergius carried out a coup in Rome on 30 July 768. Toto was killed in street fighting and Constantine fled to the Lateran oratory, where he was soon arrested. The Lombards momentarily sought to set up a pope of their own, the presbyter Philip, but he was almost at once ejected from the Lateran.

A new

When

and

Christopher

A group of went to the Lateran, and escorted Philip back to his monastery. No harm was done to him, for it was recognized that he was merely the innocent tool of Waldipert and the Lombards. Nothing is known about his earlier or subsequent history, but he should in all fairness Philip

remained

in the palace.

his followers took the hint,

matter in proper form.

At the first session he pleaded that the office of pope had been forced on him, but then

94

STEPHEN be reckoned as neither

and the new Frankish policy, prothe queen-mother Bertrada, of friendship with the Lombards. Flouting

pope nor an

a

intrigues

moted by

antipope.

LP

i,

357

470 f.;JW

(J.

III (IV) (768-72)

1,

284; Seppelt

Barmby); Bertolini, 629

2,

149 f.;Z)C5 4

,

Rome's

f.

prerogatives, Desiderius sought to

appoint (770/1) a creature of his own,

whom

STEPHEN

Stephen declined

to consecrate, to

Aug. 768-24 Jan. 772). A Sicilian who had been brought up in Rome, had served in the papal bureaucracy under Zacharias and his successors, and

the see of Ravenna, and refused to hand

was now priest of Sta

alarmed when he learned

III (IV) (7

Cecilia,

cities

state for

Charles

name, and

his

mastery was such that the

helpless to prevent the bar-

baric vengeance

which he and

his partisans

immediately wreaked on their opponents, including Waldipert, the agent in

Rome

of

Lombard king Desiderius (757-74). Once installed, Stephen dispatched an

the

embassy, led by Christopher's son Sergius, to the Frankish court to tion,

but also to

announce

solicit

his elec-

the presence of

vento. Feeling

Frankish bishops qualified in Scripture and

and

canon law at a synod to be held the following King Pepin III having died (24 Sept. 768), the legates were received by his sons Charles (Charlemagne: 768-814) and Carloman, like him 'patricians of the Romans' and protectors of the holy see, who granted the pope's request. The main object of the synod, which met in the Lateran on 1 2 Apr.

pher's

avowal

of guilt

burning

the decree of his election, declaring his acts

and ordinations invalid, and prescribing that only deacons and cardinal priests should be eligible for election as pope and that the laity should have no vote in elections.

The synod

eastern

council

of

I

Stephen reached an natural

his

who had found

by the king's promise

to yield an inch of territory,

himself as

lieria

much

Stephen found

subject to the king and

(754) and approved the traditional venera-

Afiarta as he

the folly of rapprochement with the

rest of his reign

Stephen

Taken

to

tion of images.

For the

enemy

a ruthless ally in

humiliating: Desiderius scornfully refused

also anathematized the

*iconoclastic

with

hand over still more territory to the papal state, Stephen abandoned Christopher and Sergius to him and Afiarta, thereby conniving at their brutal murder and the resulting collapse of the Frankish party in Rome. To his shame he wrote to Charles and Bertrada alleging that the chief notary- and his son, and Dodo, the envoy of Carloman (with whom Charles was then at odds), had plotted against his life, and that he had only been saved by timely help from his 'admirable son Desiderius' and the Apostle Peter. The outcome of his ill-judged policies was

accepted his ministry, by sentencing him to lifelong penitence in a monastery,

the lurch, however,

the papal chamberlain Paul Afiarta. in

having

for

foreign policy, a mar-

left in

dominance,

Desiderius,

769 with thirteen Frankish bishops attending, was to restore canonical order after Constantine's usurpation. This it did, after dramatic

fur-

in

also chafing at the chief notary Christo-

understanding

year.

a

more

even that,

was being arranged (770) between and Desiderius's daughter; he denounced it as devilish, a breach of the solemn pact between the Frankish royal house and St Peter, but the marriage went ahead. In fact Charles planned no diminution in his protection of the holy see, and it was Frankish pressure that induced Desiderius to give up meddling in Ravenna and to surrender substantial territory claimed by the pope in the duchy of Beneriage

notary. Christopher planned to govern in

new pope was

new

papal

to the

help in securing his

II's

The pope was

therance of the

at the

instance of Christopher, the powerful chief

his

he had promised

Stephen

accession.

he was elected

usurper Constantine

to replace the

over

had been

bards was exposed

vacil-

lated ineffectually in face of Desiderius's

to Christopher,

when

and

Lom-

Charles, sole ruler

of the Franks from 771, repudiated his

95

— a

HADRIAN Lombard

I

(772-95)

wife

and

became

thus

instrument of donation modelled on the

Desiderius's mortal foe.

earlier

LP i, 468-75; 89 f.; JW

1, 285-8; MGEp 3, 55867;Mansi 12, 680-722; Seppelt 2, 150-8; DCS 4, 735-8 (J- Barmby); DHGE 15, 190-3 (A.

approximately

Dumas); LThK 9, 1039 (G. Schwaiger); NCR'13, 695 f. (C. M. Aherne); Bertolini, 628-64; Mann

Although Hadrian began striking coins and dating documents by the years of his pontificate, it soon became clear that this instrument was more a recognition of claims than an actual transfer of sovereignty. Charlemagne restored the territories

1

1/2,361-93.

HADRIAN I (1 Feb. 772-25 Dec. 795). Of Roman

cities

family,

further areas

Tuscany,

on two

later visits to

and

Spoleto),

of the papal

while

Rome

he

has

state, its extent fell far short

his earlier ambitious dreams.

chagrin

the

of

the

Romans'

He

his

title

of

had

also

discovering

Charlemagne, taking

that

'patrician of

seriously, did not hesitate as

overlord of the papal state to interfere in

its

including those of Ravenna, as he

affairs,

thought fit. While often protesting, Hadrian proved in general a pliant partner, and was even prepared to back the king's secular policies (e.g. his

measures

of

Bavaria)

Tassilo

III

to

depose Duke

with

spiritual

anathemas. ecclesiastical field Hadrian Charlemagne's campaign to reform the Frankish church, supplying him with

In

the

assisted

Roman

disciplinary

cedents.

More

and

liturgical

pre-

importandy, he gave his

full

support to the second council of Nicaea (the

Seventh General Council) which, in Sept. 787, condemned *iconoclasm in the east

invoking his help as protector of the holy see.

autumn 773 Charlemagne, diplomatic approaches to Desiderius having come to In

and restored the veneration of images, it not only two representatives but a dogmatic treatise, which was applauded at the council, defending the proper use of images; he only demanded

nothing, descended on Italy and after a

sending to

lengthy siege (Sept. 773-June 774) captured the Lombard capital Pavia and

—

Lombard kingdom, adding

Lombards'

Italy.

deservedly been called the second founder

772/3 he moved on Rome itself, only retreating when the pope threatened excommunication. In the meantime, however, Hadrian secredy appealed to Charlemagne,

demand

At Easter 774 he paid a surprise visit to Rome, and on 6 Apr. held a momentous meeting with the pope in St Peter's. In response to Hadrian's plea that he should implement the territorial promises made in 754 by Pepin III (741-68) to the Aposde Peter and Pope Stephen II, he drew up and personally signed a fresh 'king of the

of

(781 and 787). Hadrian, however, had to relinquish important regions (Terracina,

subject to the holy see. In winter

destroyed the

St Peter

to

three-fourths

Desiderius had promised, and under almost continuous pressure from the pope added

orphaned in childhood but brought up by his powerful uncle Theodotus, he was made subdeacon by Paul I and deacon by Stephen III, whom he succeeded. The moment was a dangerous one, for Stephen had made an imprudent pact with the Lombard king Desiderius, whose agent, the chamberlain Paul Afiarta, now dominated Rome. Hadrian immediately amnestied Afiarta's numerous victims, sent him off as envoy to Desiderius and then had him arrested, and parried the king's request for an alliance by insisting that he must first make certain territorial restitutions he had promised to Stephen III. So far from complying, Desiderius, who was also intriguing to detach Hadrian from Charlemagne (768814), since Dec. 771 sole king of the Franks, continued to occupy and threaten noble

one and promising

to his tide.

tactfully

ignored at the council

the return of papal patrimonies confiscated

by Emperor Leo ognition of

Rome

III

(717-41) and the rec-

as metropolitan of Illyri-

cum. Charlemagne, however, who could not welcome the reconciliation of the pope with the Byzantine throne and had not himself been invited to the council, had a 96

LEO detailed refutation of its decisions (the Libri

Carolim) composed by his theologians on the basis of a faulty translation of

supplied by

its

acts

LP

1, 486-523; JW 1, 289-306; PL 96, 1167244;yVfGEp3, 567-657; 5, 1-57; Seppelt 2, 15884; DCB 2, 838-42 (J. Barmby); DHGE 1, 614-

144

1,

defend the veneration of images to him, adding however that he would anathematize

Empress Irene (780-802), widow of Emperor Leo IV the Khazar (775-80), and her son if the papal patrimonies and Rome's were not over Illyricum jurisdiction restored. When Charlemagne held his great synod of Frankfurt in June 794, the two papal legates and their master must have been relieved that only one proposition of Nicaea II, and that on the basis of faulty condemned, viz. that translation, was images might be adored. Hadrian, who had earlier condemned *adoptionism and dogmatically refuted it, had the satisfaction of terms borrowed from his

in

f.

(J.

1

,

3

2-23 (O.

1

E. Bresnahan);

DACL

Bertolini);

LThK

4,

NCE

1306

(L.

1255-64 (H. Leclercq); Mann 1/2, 394-497; E. Caspar, Das Papstum unter frankischen Hemchaft (Darmstadt, 1956), 35-113; Bertolini, 663-719; 737-9; Brezzi, 33 1 R. Krautheimer, Rome: Profile of a City (New Spading);

13,

;

Jersey, 1980), esp. 109-14.

LEO III, ST (26 Dec. 795-12 June 816). A Roman, of modest, south Italian stock, he had served in the curia from boyhood and was cardinal priest of Sta Susanna when elected. He at once announced his election to

(Charlemagne),

Charles

king of the

Franks

(768-814) and patrician of the Romans, sending him, in recognition of his

seeing the heresy anathematized by the

synod

DBI

19 (M. Jugie);

Rome. Hadrian had the courage

to

III (795-816)

tomb and Rome, and requesting the

suzerainty, the keys of St Peter's

own

the banner of

letter.

presence of an envoy to receive the citizens'

by the peaceful conditions ensured by Charlemagne, Hadrian not only built, restored, or beautified an extraordi-

oath of loyalty. In his reply Charles stressed

Profiting

renewed the city's walls, strengthened the embankments of the Tiber, and completely

while his function was to defend the church and consolidate it by promoting the faith, the pope's was to pray like Moses for the realm and the victory of its army. Although his election was unanimous,

He

Leo's personality and methods aroused

nary

that,

number of Roman churches, but

reconstructed

four great aqueducts.

devoted care to the diaconiae, monastic

hostility

foundations for the relief of the poor, and

Hadrian I's relative

in

aristocratic

circles

led

by

Paschalis, chief notary,

of

and Campulus, papal purse-keeper, and on 25 Apr. 799, as he was riding in procession to mass, a gang violently attacked him,

of his great agricultural col-

attempting without success to cut out his

onies was able to feed one hundred poor

eyes and tongue; after a formal ceremony of

domus

greatly developed the

run farms near the

objects

charitable

One

churches.

people

daily.

tendency his

city

to

nephew

On

cultae,

church-

providing income for

or

the

support

the

other, hand,

deposition he was shut up in a monastery.

his

advance his own

relatives (e.g.

Helped by

friends,

whom

he promoted

escape

Charles,

Paschalis,

chief notary) helped to sow the troubles

which plagued

his

successor

Despite occasional tensions

Leo

to

tives

of the rebels arrived too, and laid

formal

'as

against him.

be said throughout his realms for and had a magnificent marble slab inscribed with memorial verses full of affecto

his soul,

and

respect

sent

masterpiece of Carolingian

to art,

Rome; it

made his who

Paderborn,

not recognizing his deposition. Representa-

in their rela-

Charlemagne grieved at his death if he had lost a brother or a child', caused

tion

at

received him with solemn courtesy, clearly

III.

tionship,

masses

however, he

charges

The

of perjury and situation

was

adultery

delicate, for

in

Frankish circles these charges were held

to

be well founded. Charles's adviser Alcuin

(c.

73 5-804) reminded him that no power on

earth could judge the apostolic sec, and so,

a

can be

postponing

seen in the portico of St Peter's. 7

the king had Leo Rome, which he reached

a decision,

escorted back to

LEO

III (795-816)

on 29 November. In December an

Thus it was at his prompting that in 798 Leo

investi-

gation of the attack on the pope and of the

raised Salzburg to metropolitan status

accusations was carried out in the Lateran

held a synod

by Prankish agents, but though suspecting the latter to be true they had no power of

condemnation of the *adoptionism of Felix of Urgel in Spain (d. 818). It was Charles

decision and referred the affair to the king;

who

meanwhile,

the Avars, to take in

ensure peace in the

to

were

conspirators

temporarily

city,

the

sent

to

in late

1

Nov. 800, and was

was Leo's

the *Filioque,

the article on the procession of the

opening address that its purpose was to examine the charges against the pope, but

Holy

approved the doctrine

Spirit in the creed; he

implied by the proposed addition, but dis-

his

it

i.e.

already adopted by the Frankish church, to

notables in St Peter's, explaining in

the assembly replied that

resistance, in 810, to

clause 'and from the Son',

On

Dec. he held a council of Frankish and

Roman

hand the organization

Charles's request that he should add the

affair,

greeted with imperial-style ceremonial.

and

confirmed the

instructed Leo, after the conquest of

striking

Rome

reaching

Rome which

of the church in their regions. All the more

Frankland.

Charles took his time over the

at

approved alterations

Leo

did not wish to

maintained

in the creed.

with

relations

the

judgement on him. Leo then declared his readiness to purge himself of 'the false following the example of his charges predecessors', and at a plenary session on

bishop of Lichfield, and settling several

23 Dec. took an oath of purgation concerning them. His opponents were then con-

bishops

English church, helping to restore King

sit in

.

.

Eardulf of Northumbria

810)

(d.

to

his

throne, withdrawing the *pallium from the

.

other matters of dispute between the arch-

Canterbury

of

and

York.

On

demned to death, but on his intercession the sentence was commuted to exile. Two days

Charles's death (28 Jan. 814) he was able to

was beginning

conspiracy to depose and assassinate him

and Charles rose from praying before St Peter's tomb, the pope placed an imperial crown on his head; the assembled crowd acclaimed him emperor, and Leo knelt in homage (the first and last obeisance a pope was to offer a western emperor). In spite of

was discovered, he personally tried those involved (something Charles would never have permitted) on charges of treason, and

later, as

the Christmas mass

act

more independently, and when

ruthlessly

(815).

condemned

scores

Leo proved

coronation came as an unwelcome surprise

tor of the papal patrimonies,

ceremony, of momentous significance for subsequent history, had been carefully

and successfully Hadrian

Now fully rehabilitated, Leo continued to spend Christmas 804

paid

little

attention to papal

despite repeated

complaints,

interfered through his agents in the affairs

of Rome and the papal

state.

Leo dated

by Charles's regnal

years.

It

his coins

was Charles,

too,

As

who

I's

policy of reviving the splendour

Rome by lavishly constructing, and embellishing churches. One of his most remarkable works was the new hall {triclinium) he added to the Lateran for holding banquets, receptions, synods, and legal proceedings. The two great mosaics he set up in it emphasized his ideal of the cooperation of pope and emperor, the one showing Christ himself commissioning both Silvester I and Constantine the

shadowed by the towering personality of the

who

worked hard

extend the church's

restoring,

with him. As pope, however, he was over-

emperor,

to

of Christian

enjoy Charles's confidence, journeying (for

rights and,

at

provide

system of social welfare, and continued

prearranged.

to

to

a highly efficient administra-

to Charles, everything indicates that the

example) to Aachen

death

His action alarmed the court

Aachen, but Leo was able explanations which satisfied it.

the chronicler Einhard's report that the

to

a fresh

his subject,

took the lead

Great,

the

other

Peter handing

in organizing religious affairs in his realms.

98

depicting

the

Apostle

the pallium to the kneeling

PASCHAL Leo and

ceremony

to Charles, also kneeling, a royal

I

(817-24)

as spiritually reinforcing his royal

was

banner. Although a harsh and divisive pon-

position, but

he was included in the catalogue of saints in 1673 because of the presumed

suggesting that the intervention of the pope

was necessary

miracle of the restoration of his eyes and

imperial power.

tongue, although the sources in fact speak

daily discussions, the detail of

only of an attempt to remove them. Feast

only be guessed; but

(now suppressed) 12 June.

emperor formally renewed the long-standing pact of friendship and protection between the Frankish crown and the holy

tiff,

JW 1, 307-16; LP 2, 1-48; PL 102, 1023-72; MGEp 5, 58-68; 85-104; E. Caspar, 'Das Papstum unter frankischen Herrschaft', ZKG 54 (1952), 35-80; L. Wallach, 'The

HTR

nomy

Roman Synod of

640 2,

Mann

1-110;

2,

184-200.

STEPHEN 817).

(R. E. Sullivan);

IV

(V) (22

A Roman

June 816-24 Jan.

of aristocratic

brought up from childhood

in the

it is

held prolonged

which can

certain that the

later to grant to

Paschal

I,

Stephen's

must have been concession which

worked out at Rheims. A Stephen obtained, important for peace at home, was a pardon for the aristocratic conspirators whom Charlemagne had banished to Gaul in 800 for their part in the rebellion against Leo III. When Stephen set off for Rome with the amnestied exiles, Louis loaded him with sumptuous gifts and presented him with a royal villa near Troyes. Just three months after reaching the city the pope died.

30 (ig6o), 39-98; DTCg, 304-12 Amann); BSS 7, 1283-8 (P. Rabikauskas); 8,

The two

of the papal state and the freedom of

successor,

49 (1965), 123-42; W. Mohr, 'Karl der III, und der Romische Aufstand von

Seppelt

for the full exercise of the

which Louis was

the Alleged Trial of Leo IIP,

799', BullCang (E.

important as

papal elections embodied in the 'privilege'

Grosse, Leo

NCE

historically

see. Further, the guarantees for the auto-

(1935), 214-64; Zi, 26-36; R. Baker, 'The Oath of Purgation of Pope Leo III in 800', Traditio 8

December 800 and

it

family,

Lateran

under Hadrian I, he succeeded Leo III, who had ordained him subdeacon and deacon. Conciliatory and universally popular,

49-51; JW 1, 316-18; MGSS 2, 466-516; 585-648; Seppelt 2, 201-3, DHGE 15, 1193 f. (A. Dumas); NCE 13, 696 (]. E. Bresnahan); LThK 9, 1039 f. (G. Schwaiger); Mann 2,

LP 2,

he was probably chosen to heal the divisions at Rome opened up by his predecessor. He was also the first pope elected since the establishment of the Carolingian empire; the role of the Frankish emperor in papal elections

was

still

and

PASCHAL

in relation to the papal state

undefined.

After making the people of allegiance

to

Born

Rome

Charlemagne's

I,

ST

(24 Jan. 817-11 Feb.

Rome and

educated in the Lateran school, he was ordained priest by

824).

swear

Leo

successor,

III

in

and, after long service in the papal

Louis the Pious (814-40), Stephen dispatched envoys to him to announce and give

administration,

an account of his election, and to ask for a personal meeting. The meeting took place

pope.

Rheims in Oct. 816, the pope being welcomed with elaborate ceremonial, and at a festive mass in the cathedral Stephen anointed and crowned Louis and his con-

anxiety in

sort Irmengard, using an alleged 'crown of

Louis

Constantine' which he had brought from

had not sought office but that it had been thrust upon him. Not long afterwards, in

when

elected

He was consecrated the day following

his election, the exceptional haste reflecting

at

Rome

was abbot of St Stephen's

monastery, near St Peter's,

Rome to anticipate interference Roman emperor, now pro-

from the Holy

tector of the holy see; but Paschal

careful to

This was the first anointing of an emperor by a pope; Louis, who had been crowned as co-emperor in 813, must have regarded the whole for the purpose.

I

announce

his accession at

was

once

to

the Pious (8 1 4-40), stressing that he

response to his request for the renewal of

Rome's long-standing

relationship with the

Frankish crown, Louis issued a statute (the

99

PASCHAL

I

(817-24)

pactum Ludovicianum), the terms of which

Lateran because of their loyalty

he had worked out with Stephen IV. Under this he confirmed the pope in the possession of the papal states and of the patrimonies outside them, bound himself (in contrast to Charlemagne) not to interfere in the papal

culprits

domains unless

deemed

invited, or obliged

belonged

to

him; the

household,

to the papal

and rumour linked Paschal himself with the foul deed. Although he dispatched disclaimers to Aachen, the emperor sent an investigating commission to Rome. Paschal

by the

it

prudent,

like

Leo

III

before him,

claims of the oppressed, to do so, and

to take

guaranteed the freedom of papal elections,

of thirty-four bishops; he added that the

requiring only that after being consecrated

murdered men had been

the

new pope should

emperor and

notify the

an oath of purgation before a synod lawfully executed

as traitors.

renew the treaty of friendship. The harmonious relationship presup-

*iconoclasm

posed by these concessions continued for most of Paschal's reign, and papal envoys

(813-20), and Theodore of Studios (759— 826), the leading defender of image venera-

frequently visited the court and imperial

tion,

envoys Rome. Thus when Louis sent Arch-

seems

Lbbo

bishop

chosen

Rheims

of

to evangelize the

Paschal's

Rome

to

lalitgar

1

of Cambrai

(d.

When

regions.

Italy in

and,

as

Louis's

co-emperor

Lothair,

817,

came

823, Paschal invited him to

doubtless

with

to

Rome

as a

was the occasion of the ceremony) with a sword symbol of the temporal power needed

for

the

first

suppression of

onwards the pope's emperor, and Rome's

came

coronation,

recognized. While in hair trol

seems

to

to to

to

Rome and

her

is

It

harsh

body from being

was desirable. Exercising and gave judgement for the abbey of Farfa (40 km. north of Rome), exempting it from tribute claimed by the holy see. His vigorous action

until

arranged for

his

successor,

cent.,

it

to

it

as

was

had been unburied

left

securely

installed,

be placed in Sta Prassede. in the calendar

by

but his feast (14 May) was dropped in

1963.

same time upper-class opponents of

JW

1,

LP

2,

52-68;

AfGEp

AfGCap

1,

352-5,

PL

318-20;

528; 605;

support against the

5(1),

.

leaders of the pro-Frankish party, the chief

.

.

68-71;

106, 405-28; O.

Bertolini, 'Osservazioni sulla Constitutio

two

in the

interred,

His name was inserted

Paschal's high-handed rule turned to the

were blinded and then beheaded

and

made many detested in Rome.

the historian C. Baronius in the late 16th

at

notary Theodore and the nomenclator Leo,

of

Paschal

intended, in St Peter's;

his royal rights, he held a court

clerical party. After Lothair's departure

in the spirit

When he died popular uproar prevented his

have decided that firmer con-

for

of his work

clear that, by his self-willed

enemies and was widely

increasingly

Rome, however, Lot-

of the papal state than was presupposed

young monarch

monuments

government,

in Louis's statute

the

style

the Great.

crown the

Rome;

The

the art and ideals of the age of Constantine

From now

kindled anti-Frankish feelings in

in Trastevere; all

suggests the deliberate aim of renewing

be the place of his be

a builder

portraits of himself.

(this

evil.

right

As

three contain splendid mosaics with lifelike

solemnly anointed him again on Laster

Sunday, presenting him also

have protested to the eastern

Caelum, and Sta Cecilia

agreement,

Louis's

to

Greek monks fleeing and restorer of churches in Rome he was exceptionally active, his new churches including Sta Prassede on the Esquiline, Sta Maria in Domnica (or della Navicella) on the

830), but

son

in

V

appealed for help to him. Paschal

the persecution.

appointed him papal legate for the northern

crowned

of

revival

hospitality to refugee

in

822, Paschal not only commissioned him,

along with

the

by Emperor Leo

emperor, but without success; but he gave

('.775-851),

Danes,

saw

reign

in the east

Romana

dell'824', Studi medievali in onore di A. de

Stefano (Palermo, 1956), 43-78; Seppelt 2,

203-

Mann 2, 122-55; DTC 11, 2054-7 Amann); LThK 8, 128, (G. Schwaiger); BSS 6;

IOO

(E.

10,

EUGENE 353—6

Rabikauskas);

(P.

Krautheimer, Rome:

Profile

R.

stipulating that before being consecrated

J12-IJ08

the pope-elect should take an oath of loyalty

43-61;

Brezzi,

of a City

(Princeton, 1980), 109-34.

EUGENE

II (5(?) June 82 4 -2 7 (?) Aug. 827). Disturbances lasting several months

nobility

ing

death of Paschal

the

and the

rival

clerical

was emphasized by the oath of alleall citizens were to take. Eugene held an important synod in the Lateran in Nov. 826 at which these rules for elections were ratified. But if he had to show

giance which

the

I,

bureaucracy mak-

monk Wala

deference to the court in temporal matters,

fc.755-836), I the

Emperor Louis

trusted adviser of

Pious (814-40) and his son Lothair

the spiritual field he asserted an independence which his predecessors had lost under Charlemagne (768-814). Thus,

in

(84055), pushed through the election of the candidate favoured by himself and the I

while adopting the Frankish legislation for proprietary churches

Eugene, then archpriest of Sta Sabina on the Aventine. Eugene at once not only notified the Frankish court but, going further than his predecessors, acknowl-

nobility,

(i.e.

churches with a

secular or spiritual proprietor to control them), the

who claimed

synod published a

collection of reforming disciplinary canons

(dealing with simony, the qualifications and

edged the emperor's sovereignty in the papal state and swore an oath of loyalty to

duties

him.

monastic

In late August 824 Louis sent Lothair to

Rome

legate.

emperor's sovereignty over the papal

state

nominations, but after prolonged

discussions the

emperor before the imperial

to the

The

followed

II (827)

of

bishops,

clerical

vance, marriage,

etc.)

to the Frankish church. Again,

to restore order after the troubles of

education,

Sunday obserwhich were extended

arrangements,

when Louis

Rome in 824 to persuade the

the previous reign and to establish a con-

sent envoys to

stitutional relationship

between the empire which would exclude arbitrary excesses like Paschal's. With the pope's co-operation he made proper provision for the widows and children of persons assassinated under Paschal and

pope

and the papal

images, Eugene firmly insisted that the

state

decreed the return of reaching was

the

exiles.

'Roman

More

question had been settled in favour of image

had flared up afresh at under Emperor Leo V (813-20), and his successor Michael II (820-9), whose attitude was one of reserve, had enlisted the help of Louis in approaching Rome, knowing that the Frankish position was that, while images were permissible, they were not to be adored. On 1 Nov. 825, with Eugene's consent, Louis convened a commission of Frankish theologians at Paris to examine the issues, and this duly produced a report rejecting Nicaea II and censuring the pope for protecting error and superstition; but nothing could induce

(787). *Iconoclasm

Constantinople

far-

constitution'

the high point of Frankish control of the first,

immunity

to

all

persons under either imperial or papal protection. Secondly,

citizens

it

provided that ordinary

judged by Roman, Lombard law according to

should

Frankish, or

be

their choice. Thirdly, with the object of

keeping

a

tight

administration

of

rein

on

Rome,

the it

set

pope's

up

Eugene

a

supervisory commission consisting of one

would report annually

to

budge.

It is

significant that

did not put pressure on him, but

and one papal delegate which

imperial

compromise on sacred

veneration by the second council of *Nicaea

which he published, again with Eugene's agreement, on 1 1 Nov. 824, which marked papacy. This granted,

to accept a

final

Louis

left

the

decision to him.

restored the ancient tradition,

Meanwhile Eugene had been in correspondence with Theodore of Studios

suspended since Stephen Ill's synod of 769, by which the people of Rome as well as

(759-826), spiritual leader of the venerators of images in the east, who placed great

the clergy took part in papal elections,

reliance

Lastly,

it

to

the

emperor.

101

on Rome's support; he had

also

VALENTINE (827) given hospitality to refugees fleeing from the ban on images.

Among his concerns was

against the

abbey

Roman church

of

the evangelization of the pagan world, and

exempted from

826 he commended the mission of Anskar (801-65), Apostle of the north, and his companions in Denmark to the whole

to

Catholic church.

result

in

i,

J\\

LP 2, 69 'Ossena/ioni

320-2;

Bertolini, .

.

.

f.

WGCap

;

322-4;

I,

O

Romana

sulla CotutttMSio

Paschal

(Palermo,

1347-8 ger);

DHGE

43-78;

Dumas); LTkK$,

(A.

VCC

Mann

1956),

1

171

f.

Emperor Louis

827).

A Roman

church, being ordained and brought into

Rome;

I

the death

he was unanimously elected

clergy, nobility,

and people of

the participation of the lain indicates

824 promulgated by Emperor Lothair (840-55) and ratified by Eugene II was strictly observed. le was that the 'constitution of I

I

duly consecrated, but according to

LP died

the Annals attributed to

forty days later;

Einhard (c 770-840), Charlemagne's biographer and counsellor, give his reign as less than a

month.

LP applauds his piety and

other virtues in conventional terms, but there

is

no record of any

acts

performed by

him.

LP

2,

71

f.;

JYY

1,

322

f.;

DTC

I

the Pious (8 1 4-40) and his

(840-55), Pepin (d.

876).

(d.

838), and

When

these

would be understood as promote peace, but the mass of Frankish bishops were outraged by his partisanship, reminded him of his oath of fealty to Louis, and threatened excommunimediation

cation

and being

made archdeacon. On

pope by the

a

supported Lothair and accompanied him across the Alps to Frankland. He hoped that

Via Lata, he carh entered the sen ice of the

II

as

(G. Schwai-

of upper-class family, son of Leontius of the

ofEUGENl

I

German

Louis the

intended

eventually

seems

of the dynastic struggles between

sons Lothair

his

the papal palace b\ PaSCHAI

time, the Frankish court

have rejected his appeal.

three rebelled against their father, Gregory

5.

VALENTINE (Aug.-Scpt.

had

15,

625 (H. G.J. Beck); Brezzi, 46-8; 156-82; Seppelt 2, 208-14.

2,

Lothair

tribute to the holy see in

This dependence was loosened

dell'824\ Studi media ali in onore di A. de

Slefano

I's

in favour of the

which

Farfa,

15,

2497

(E.

Amann).

first

if

to

he persisted

in disloyalty.

He was at

shaken but, encouraged by leading

churchmen 840)

and

like Agobard of Lyons (769Wala of Corbie (f.755-836),

furiously rebuked his critics, insisting that

the authority of St Peter's successor

supreme,

was

peace and unity of the empire were his concern, and that the that the

papacy, entrusted with the care of men's souls,

was superior

When

the armies faced each other at Rot-

to the imperial

power.

field, near Colmar, in summer 833, the brothers persuaded him to go to Louis's

camp

to negotiate,

but

when he returned

with what seemed a reasonable basis for a

found that he had been duped by Lothair. On the night of the pope's return most of Louis's supporters deserted him, and on 30 June he had to reconciliation, he

surrender

votes of the lay nobility. In compliance with

unconditionally, only to be deposed and humiliated. Gregory returned to Rome from 'the field of lies' bitterly regretting his intervention. Louis was restored in Mar. 834, and in 837 reopened

Constitution of 824, his con-

relations with the pope, with the object

GREGORY

IV

(late

Roman of aristocratic

827-25 Jan. 844).

A

family, cardinal priest

of S. Marco, he owed his election to the Lothair

I's

secration (29 Mar. 828) was deferred until

ostensibly of

an imperial legate had approved his election and he himself had sworn allegiance. The

but really

dependence of the papal state on the Holy Roman emperor remained effective in the early years of his reign; when in 829

to Louis, but

imperial judges sitting in

Rome

decided

making

to

a pilgrimage to

Rome

detach him from Lothair.

Gregory was delighted and sent an embassy it was held up by Lothair at Bologna; he managed, however, to smuggle

a letter through. After Louis's death (20

June 840), he made timid attempts 02

to

SERGIUS mediate in the bloody conflict which ensued between the brothers, but without success. Apart from these ineffective political manoeuvres, little is known of Gregory's

The

pontificate.

Sicily since 827,

to

mainland

Saracens, established in

were now a constant threat counter this he built a

Italy; to

powerful fortress, named Gregoriopolis,

at

SERGIUS

Oan. 844-27 Jan. 847).

II

close kinsman), priest by

Paschal

meeting

racked but a grandee of their

legate for

and

I,

Gregory IV. On Gregory's death the Roman populace proclaimed the deacon John pope, seized the Lateran palace, and enthroned him there. The

consecrated bishop of Hamburg, gave him

named him

A

archpriest by

nobility,

the *pallium, and

(844-7)

Roman aristocrat, he had been made acolyte by Leo III, subdeacon by Stephen IV (V) (a

831/2 he received Anskar, since 826 missionary- in Denmark and recently

Ostia. In

II

the

in

basilica

of S.

Martino, elected Sergius, elderly and goutswiftly

crushed

own class, and

all

opposition; at Sergius's

life

was spared. Because of

Scandinavia and the Slav missions. In 831 liturgist Amalarius of

request John's

he also received the

the tense situation, but also as a gesture of

Metz

independence, Sergius's consecration was

780-^850) and assigned him an to teach him Roman liturgical usage. At Gregory's suggestion, four years (c.

archdeacon later,

Louis

I

then rushed through without awaiting ratification by the Frankish court.

extended the observance of AH

Emperor Lothair

I

angrily to this flouting of the

Rome the pope spent lavishly on building and decorating churches; his portrait in mosaic, commissioned by himself, can be seen in the apse of S. Marco. Among his other works was the reconstruction of a ruined aqueduct linked with the Janiculum, which provided not only water for domestic purposes but power to operate mills.

stitution

LP

73-85; 3, 122 f.; JW 1, 323-7; AfCEp 5, 228-32; Mann 2, i87-23i;£C6, 11 28 (L. Spat2,

ling);

PRE

92

7,

f.

(H. Bohmer);

(H. G.J. Beck); Brezzi, 49

f.;

NCE

Seppelt

2,

771 214-21. 6,

reacted

(840-55)

Saints day throughout his dominions. In

Roman Con-

of 824. In June his son Louis,

recently installed at Pavia as viceroy of Italy,

with Archbishop Drogo of Metz (801-55), leading Frankish churchman, as his mentor,

marched south with as

evidence

of

mercilessly pillaged

through which

it

a punitive

the

royal

army which, displeasure,

the papal territories

passed. Although Sergius

cooled the atmosphere by receiving Louis with ceremonial deference, he had to sub-

mit to a tough and protracted investigation of his

title

Italian

by a synod

(in

which some twenty

bishops participated) in St Peter's.

JOHN (antipope Jan. 844). On the death of

Eventually his election was ratified; but in

Gregory IV

(25 Jan. 844) the populace of

return he, with the citizens of Rome, had to

Rome, with

violent demonstrations, pro-

swear allegiance

claimed a deacon cessor,

named John

to Lothair

and accept that a

as his suc-

pope-elect could not be consecrated save on

and seizing the Lateran palace

the emperor's orders and in the presence of

enthroned him there.

The

lay aristocracy,

however, elected the elderly, nobly born archpriest Sergius, ejected

John from

the

his representative. Sergius then (15

June

844) crowned young Louis king of the

Lateran, and swiftly crushed the opposition.

Lombards, anointing and girding him with a sword. Although declining to swear al-

Sergius's consecration was rushed through

legiance to

without waiting for imperial

that the papal state

Although some of

John put

to

ratification.

his supporters

wanted

death for what they considered

his presumption,

his

life

was spared by

Sergius and he was confined in a monastery.

Nothing further

LP

86 f.; JW ger);£C6, 582 2,

1,

is

dom), he

LThK 5, 988

(G. Schwai-

felt

(that

would have implied

belonged

to his king-

obliged to gratify Lothair by

nominating Drogo apostolic vicar for the countries north of the Alps.

I

Ie

would not

accede, however, to Drogo's proposal that

known about him.

327;

him too

Ebbo and Bartholomew, deposed bishops of Rheims and Narbonne

as arch

in

835

their part in the humiliation of Louis

(P. Erezzi).

103

I

for

the

LEO

IV (847-55)

Pious (814-40), should be rehabilitated. for sharp criticism.

(he enlarged St

An

In fact Leo's immediate task

came

Sergius's general administration

Rome

defence of

in

ambitious builder

the repair of the

was the

against the Saracens and

damage

inflicted

by them in

846. With extraordinary energy he streng-

John Lateran and restored

Marcian aqueduct), he resorted to dubious methods of raising the necessary-

thened the

city walls

Leo

constructed

funds, and because of age and infirmity

from Emperor Lothair I (840-55), on the right bank of the Tiber, bringing St Peter's, hitherto exposed to

the

allowed himself

unscrupulous,

III,

be dominated by his power-hungry brother

Benedict, whom he made bishop of Albano and who by bribery got himself appointed

enemy

new

walls,

with

help

financial

to

and, reviving plans of

attack, within the defensive

system

and bishoprics and other church offices were sold to the highest bidder. These internal disorders were com-

and creating the 'Leonine city'. These new defences were solemnly dedicated on 27 June 852. In 849 he organized the fleets of Naples, Amalfi, and Gaeta and defeated the Muslims in a decisive sea-battle just outside

pounded

Ostia.

imperial representative in

them simony

Rome. Under

flourished,

in Aug. 846 when, in spite of advance warning, Muslim pirates landed in

mouth of

force at the

Porto and Ostia with

fortress *Gregori-

it

while

Porto he settled Corsican refugees

opolis (the garrison fled), and plundered St

treasures.

all

at

Leopolis (today Civitavecchia),

as a defensive garrison.

These and

and St Paul's (both outside the

Peter's

Aurelian walls), stripping them of

their

site,

naming

the Tiber, stormed

its

854 he rebuilt Centumcellae,

In

destroyed by them, on a more secure

measures

similar successful

could not but enhance Leo's prestige, and

Contemporaries were sure that had been unleashed by Provia punishment for the abuses

his reign

saw

a notable reassertion of papal

Outwardly he seemed

this disaster

authority.

dence as rampant in Rome. Sergius himself died suddenly when trying to mediate in a dispute between Patriarchs Venerius of Grado and Andrew of Aquileia.

the Frankish emperors, often seeking their

LP 2, 86-i05;JW Aherne);

DTC

1,

327-9; 16-18

14, 19

(E.

13.

1

1

A

Gregory

rV, then

II.

later

was raids

occupied

II

(sole

emperor 855-75),

he crowned and anointed in

Rome

at

850 and whose personal envoy resided there. Relations between pope and emperor were frequently strained, as when Leo had three imperial agents executed for murdering one of his legates, or when Louis, not without grounds, suspected circles

close

to

the

curia

of harbouring

treasonable ideas. Leo's authoritative style

was seen

in his denunciation of

powerful

Roman Con-

to be antipope), in spite of Louis's favour for

consent as required by the stitution

increasingly

without awaiting the imperial

Elected unanimously on the day

of Sergius's death, he was consecrated

weeks

and

Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims (845-82), and John, archbishop of Ravenna (850-61), his excommunication of Anastasius, cardinal of S. Marcello (soon

cardinal priest of SS. Quattro Coronati by

Sergius

appointments

Easter

Roman, son of Radoald and probably of Lombard extraction, brought up as a Benedictine monk, he was made subdeacon to serve in the curia by

son Louis

his

whom

(10 Apr. 847-17 July 855).

221-5;

was

Lothair

1,

2,

2,

episcopal

elsewhere, Leo's dealings were mainly with

(G M. 1

to

other routine acts of administration. As

EC

2

Amann);

Mann

385 f. (G. Fasoli); Seppelt 232-57; Brezzi, 50-2.

LEO IV, ST

XCE

consent

to defer to

of 824.

The

excuse put forward

that the crisis of the recent

made

delay

six

Saracen

impracticable,

but

prelates

him,

his

like

intervention

on behalf of the

Nomenoe of and his stubborn refusal to accede Lothair's requests that he appoint Hinc-

Breton bishops against Duke Brittany,

assurances had to be given of more orderly-

to

procedures

mar apostolic vicar and grant the *pallium to

in future.

104

BENEDICT A

the bishop of Autun.

of Rome's

assertion

high point of his

was

authority

his

annulment of the synod of Soissons (Apr. 853), which had declared void the ordinations carried out by Ebbo, deposed as bishop of Rheims but temporarily (840/1) reinstated, and his demand for another

III (855-8)

Lateran school, ordained subdeacon by

Gregory IV, and made cardinal priest of S. Callisto by Leo IV. On Leo's death (17 July 855) the first choice of clergy and people was Hadrian, cardinal priest of S. Marco, but on his refusal they elected Benedict. An influential imperialist group,

however, pre-

council presided over by papal legates.

ferred Anastasius, the ambitious cardinal

Towards Constantinople he adopted an

priest

imperious tone, rebuking Patriarch Ignatius for not consulting

Rome when

the bishop of Syracuse

of confirming

instead

he deposed and,

Sicily)

(in

the

Emperor Louis

II (855-75). Exploiting the Benedict could not be consecrated

fact that

sentence

as

save with the emperor's consent and in the

parties

to

presence of his envoys, they had his election

requested,

summoning both

Rome. Leo not

only fiercely defended papal

rights but

whom Leo IV had anathematized and deposed but who had found protection with

disallowed, put forward Anastasius as pope,

was

active in restoring

church

when necessary, introducing

and brought him installed

to

Rome, where he was

Lateran while Benedict,

in the

the

dragged from the papal throne, was ejected and imprisoned. Only when the general

exhaustive reply he sent in 849 to a wide-

support for Benedict and the revulsion for

discipline and,

reforms.

examples

Notable

were

submitted by the

ranging questionnaire

bishops of Britain, and the sharp reminder

he gave

in

to

853

Galerius, bishop of

Tripoli, that the old-fashioned penitential discipline

must be maintained. The

acts

survive of an important synod he held in St Peter's in Dec. 853, at

and

renewal

the

which he

insisted

strengthening

on

of the

He

reforming canons of Eugene

II.

promoted church music and

instituted the

keenly

his rival

consecration

BVM.

In 853 he

is

said to have

go ahead.

to

This was a

notable reverse for Louis, but his agents obliged Benedict to treat Anastasius and his

adherents

leniently

surveillance

and

to

accept

of Bishop Arsenius,

kinsman

tasius's

and

leading

the

Anas-

partisan,

in the role of imperial representative in

Rome. Only scattered glimpses survive of Benewhich seems in several

observance of the octave of the Assumption

of the

became clear did the envoys and the

imperial party give way and allow Benedict's

dict's brief reign,

hallowed Alfred (849-99), then a small boystaying in Rome, as future king of England.

respects to have foreshadowed that of his

He

counsel he in fact relied heavily. Emperor

restored or rebuilt

many churches

in

energetic successor

Rome, including

Lothair

S.

his consecration,

Nicholas

his original monastery of Martino near St Peter's, and his contemporary portrait in fresco can be seen in the lower basilica of S. Clemente. Feast (now suppressed) 1 7 July.

which remain obscure,

LP

75),

2,

1

06-39;

JW

329-39; AfCEp 5(2), 585852-1030; iMann 2, 258-307; *>

612; Mansi 14, Haller 2, 31-3; 51-4; 62-6;

DTC 9, 312-16 (E. Amann); BSS 7, 1289-93 (G. Boccanera); NCE 8, 640 f. (R. E. Sullivan); Brezzi, 53-60; Seppelt 2,

225-35.

BENEDICT

III (29

Sept.

855-17 Apr.

858).

A Roman,

piety

and learning, he was educated

with a great reputation for

I

I,

on whose

(840-55) having died on the day of he intervened, in ways to

ensure a peaceful

settlement, at least temporarily, between his

sons Lothair

II

(855-69), Louis

II

and Charles the Bald (875-77).

(855—

He

did

not hesitate to threaten Hubert, brother of

Queen

Theutberga of Lorraine, with excommunication for plundering monasteries, or to demand of Louis II that Ingeltrude, wife of Count Boso, who had fled with her lover to Lothair H's domains, should be fetched back to her husband. Ic took up vigorously, though unsuccessfully, I

the cause of four bishops in Brittany

in the

105

who

ANASTASIUS BIBLIOTHECARIUS had been uncanonically removed and request of Hincmar,

at

Rheims (845-82), he endorsed

repeatedly

as a poten-

summoned him

Rome, and when he refused

to

to

return

excommunicated, anathematized, and degraded him at synods in Dec. 850, and May, June, and Dec. 853. On Leo's death,

the con-

which

added the

he

repudiated,

and saw him

his ambition

rival,

tial

archbishop of

troversial council of Soissons (853)

Leo IV had

knew

re-

placed by the local prince; and although the

(antipope 855)

cautious proviso that his endorsement was

after

subject to the report he had received being

before the imperial consent required for his

correct.

asserted

when

Towards Constantinople he firmly Rome's primatial jurisdiction, and

invited by Patriarch Ignatius to con-

firm his deposition of

and other

Gregory

Sicilian bishops,

so until both parties had

of Syracuse

Rome

to

Aethelwulf,

king of

\\

essex

pilgrim during the

first

(839-58),

Rome

in

support,

to

instead.

The

as a

>ear of Benedict's

and not only completed the repair of the Saxon compound (near S. Spirito in Sassia) but made sumptuous gifts to the churches and people

(at

but

had been obtained, a determined attempt was made by Arsenius and the Frankish party, with Louis's full

reign,

Roman

III

Anastasius

get

appointed

envoys earning the decree

announcing Benedict's election to the emperor were met by Arsenius at Gubbio and won over to the cause, Benedict's election was disallowed, and Anastasius was

and

he had examined the case himself. with his son Alfred resided

of Benedict

election

consecration

he declined to do

come

the

irregularly elected at Orte;

accompanied by

imperial messengers, he

came

to

Rome,

took possession of the Lateran by force, and rudely ejected and imprisoned Benedict.

the pope's

I

le

caused uproar by violently pulling down,

behest) and promised annual contributions

along with sacred images of the Saviour and

of money from England

the

in future.

Benedict

restored the baptistery of Sta Maria

Mag-

BVM,

giore and several other churches, including

demned

St Paul's, and completely reconstructed the

reigned, but

cemetery of

S.

Marco. His reign witnessed

repeated floodings of the Tiber, and

him

to

make good

it

painting over the portal of St

a

Peter's depicting the synods

him. it

For

which had con-

days anarchy soon became apparent not three

only that Anastasius lacked popular sup-

man who had been formally excommunicated was totally unacceptable; the bishops of *Ostia and Albano, two of the

port, but that a

fell to

the extensive damage.

LP

2, 140-50; 151; 173; JW 1, 235 f; PL 115, 698-701; 129, 1001-12; VfCEp 5, 612-14; Mann 2, 308-28; DHGE 8, 14-27 (F. Baix);

pope, could not be induced, even by threats

LThK

of torture, to

2,

174 (G. Schwaiger);

Bertolini); f.;

Seppelt

XCE 2,

(S.

273 231-5. 2,

DBI

8,

McKenna);

three

330-7 (O. Brezzi, 60

who

consecrated

traditionally

act.

the

Even Louis's envoys were

forced to accept that the clergy and people

were united

in

wanting

Benedict,

and

grudgingly allowed his consecration to go

ANASTASIUS

BIBLIOTHECARIUS

(antipope Aug.-Sept. 855). Born

ahead. Anastasius was stripped of his papal

some time

insignia

between 800 and 817, nephew of Arsenius (d.

under

868), powerful bishop of Orte (south of

and ejected from the Lateran, but,

a bargain struck with Louis's envoys,

Benedict

refrained

from

he early acquired a thorough knowledge of Greek, probably from Greek

merely had him reduced

monks

in Trastevere.

Orvieto),

in

Rome, and

cardinal priest of S.

man

in

847/8 was ordained

Marco by Leo

IV.

A

and culture, he almost at once found himself at bitter odds with the pope and sought refuge in Emperor Louis IPs (855-75) dominions, residing of exceptional

abilities

mainly in the diocese of Aquileia. Leo,

and confined

who

After

to the

spending

and

communion

monastery of Sta Maria Benedict's

obscurity, Anastasius, by an sal

reprisals

to lay

of fortune, became

reign

in

amazing rever-

the

increasingly

important counsellor of the following three popes.

Nicholas

I

promoted him abbot of

Sta Maria in Trastevere and drew on his

106

NICHOLAS advice in drafting letters, especially in con-

man

commanding

of

1(858-67)

personality and for-

mean-

midable energy, he held an exalted view of

time he did not hesitate to get rid of docu-

secration (14 Dec. 867) his suspension as

papal office inherited from Leo I, Gelasius I, and Gregory I. For him the pope was God's representative on earth with authority over the whole church,

and he was immediately

synods serving merely as organs for carrying

his

sobriquet

out his decisions; and while the spheres of

Roman

church. In

nection with Byzantine

in the papal archives incriminating

ments

On

himself.

priest

affairs; in the

was

named

Hadrian

the day of

lifted,

(hence

Librarian

Bibliothecarius) of the

868,

through

IPs con-

involvement in

alleged

a

scandal, he was dismissed, but was soon

He

restored.

retained

position

his

as

Librarian, and a key role in the chancery, under John VIII. In 869 he was sent to Constantinople on a diplomatic mission by Louis II, and took part in the last session of the Eighth General Council (869-70). His voluminous writings are in the main Latin

of the

notably

translations,

of the

acts

Seventh (second council of *Nicaea: 787) and Eighth General Councils. For centuries he was considered the compiler of LP, but it is probable that only the notices of Nicholas pen.

I

and Hadrian

come from

II

his

have died between 29 May official mention of him, and 29

He must

877, the

last

Mar. 879, when Zacharias of Anagni mentioned as Librarian.

is first

the

church and

state

were

and any was to

distinct

interference by princes in the former

be condemned, the church had the right to watch over and influence the state, and to look to it for protection and support. A determination to make the papacy thus conceived a reality animated all his actions. First, he asserted his authority' over metropolitans tion.

A

who resented papal

interven-

notorious example was John, arch-

bishop of Ravenna (850-61),

who

tradition of his see acted as if

he enjoyed

autonomy from Rome,

in the

interfering with his

suffragans, abusing the pope's subjects

agents, and refusing to obey his

and

summons.

excommunicated and deposed him (24 Feb. 861), only restoring him after Nicholas

he had sworn (Nov. 861)

Rome

in

future.

to

be subject

to

Nicholas clashed even

141-4; 175; PL 129, 9-744 (translations, etc.);yWGEp 7, 395-442; A. Lapotre, DeAnastasia

more sharply with Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims (845-82), the most powerful metropolitan in the empire, insisting on

E.

reviewing and revising the cases of deposed

LP

2,

Bibliothecario

carius

(Berlin,

1920);

Bibliothecaire:

2,

XCE

a

DBI

480 229-33; 2 43; 2 78; 289 1,

la

le

cor-

de sa mort',

date

la

Byzantion 32 (1962), 97-1 15; Arnaldi); Zi, 42-7;

Bibliothe-

Devos, 'Anastase

P.

contribution

sa

1885);

und Anastasius

respondance pontificale;

Seppelt

(Paris,

apostolicae

sedis

Perels, Papst Sikolaus I

3, f.

f.

25-37 (G.

(P.

Devos);

303.

clergy

who had appealed

ordered

a

to

Rome. Thus he

re-examination of the deposition

of Bishop Rothad of Soissons

Hincmar

in 862,

and

in Jan.

(d. 869) by 865 rehab-

and reinstated him. On this occasion he invoked the so-called False Decretals, ilitated

attributed to Isidore of Seville (d. 636),

NICHOLAS 867).

Born

in

I,

ST

Rome

(24 Apr.

858-13 Nov.

c.820, son of a leading

named Theodore, he wielded

city official

which were in fact compiled f.850 in France, and which purported to defend the rights

of diocesan bishops against their

increasing influence in the Lateran under

metropolitans and to assert the superiority

and Leo IV, and was the trusted

of the pope over the authority of synods and

Sergius

II

Benedict

counsellor of

III.

On

death, after the cardinal priest

Benedict's

Hadrian

(to

be his successor) had refused to stand, he was elected in the presence and with the approval of

who had

Emperor Louis

hastened

to

Rome

(855-75), immediately he II

heard of the pope's death (17 Apr. 858).

metropolitans; it remains a question whether he was aware that they were forgeries.

An uncompromising

defender of the

sanctity of marriage, he did not hesitate to

intervene

A

when Theutberga, repudiated on

a false charge of incest by

07

her husband

NICHOLAS Lothair

II

to him.

A

1(858-67)

of Lorraine (855-69), appealed at Aachen (29 Apr. 862)

synod

had sanctioned the divorce, while another at Metz (June 863), attended by papal legates

who yielded to bribes, ratified

new

Formosus was already bishop of name him archBulgaria. As Bulgaria fell largely

issues; as

Porto, Nicholas refused to

bishop in

within the spiritual jurisdiction of Constan-

Archbishops Gunthar of Cologne

tinople and had recendy been evangelized by Byzantine missionaries, Photius was understandably indignant. After denounc-

and Theutgaud of Trier

ing the Latin intervention to the patriarchs

Lothair's

marriage to his mistress Waldrada.

(d.

When

(d. 873) 868) brought

Rome, Nicholas's

the synodal decrees to

fun knew no bounds; he not only quashed the decisions but, creating a precedent,

excommunicated

and

deposed

archbishops

conniving

for

Kmperor Louis

II

bigamy.

took up their cause and

Rome

threatened

two

the

at

with

forcing

troops,

Nicholas to seek refuge in St Peter's, but the end Louis had to give

in

way and constrain

of the

reconciled,

The

wife.

at

obliged

to

submit and be

any rate temporarily, with his

moral

pope's

was

victory

complete.

(Aug.-Sept.

contributed to the

867)

separation of east

final

and west. Nicholas was extensively assisted, in his

the archbishops to accept their sentence.

Lothair was

he held a synod

at Constanwhich pronounced Nicholas excommunicate and deposed. The pope was dead before the news reached Rome, but the sentence he had pronounced on Photius and the one Photius had pronounced on him inevitably

east,

tinople

policies as well as his correspondence, by

able

his

Anastasius

secretary,

the

whom

he had rehabilitated, but the responsibility for them remained his own. An outstanding Librarian, the disgraced antipope

Nicholas was no less vigorous in asserting Rome's supremacy in the east. Not only did

and masterful

he seek

respected by his contemporaries, and was

to revive

over

tion

its

long obsolete jurisdicbut

Illyricum,

when

Ignatius,

patriarch of Constantinople (847-58;

was forced

867-

858) and was replaced by the brilliant layman Photius 77),

to abdicate (late

(858-67; 878-86), the pope complained to Emperor Michael III (846-67) and dispatched envoys to Constantinople to investigate the matter, to

recognize Photius.

meanwhile refusing

When

the

envoys

able to strike

pontiff,

awe

into the

came moment, as

brief

to

most powerful

Through

princes and prelates. the papacy

he was immensely

his efforts

be recognized, for a

the

supreme authority

in

the void created in the west by the steady

erosion of the imperial power since

its

par-

of Verdun) in 843; while his assured claim to override the decisions of tition (treaty

metropolitans

anticipated

complete

the

reported in Photius's favour he disavowed

doctrine of papal theocracy. Shortly after

them, and after being one-sidedly informed by Ignatius's supporters, deposed and excommunicated Photius at a synod held in the Lateran in Aug. 863. When the emperor

his death his successor

angrily protested, Nicholas sent

him

(28

Hadrian

II

advised

the bishops attending the synod of Troyes (8

May

name included

868) to have his

the prayers at mass, but inserted in the

it

Roman

in

was not formally

Martyrology until

1630. Feast 13 Nov.

Sept. 865) a stinging rebuke, defending his actions and expounding at vast length the inalienable rights of the holy see.

Mean-

while relations were further exacerbated

when

Nicholas, responding to an appeal

LP 2, i5i-72;JW

M GEp NCE

6,

10,

from

its

king Boris

missionary

Formosus of plied

it

I

bishops

Porto) to Bulgaria and sup-

with detailed advice, often anti-

Byzantine in tone, on moral and canonical

1 1

,

506-26

441 (H. G.J. Beck);

(E.

LThK 7

,

Amann);

976

f.

(T.

860-9 (P- Rabikauskas); PRE 14, 68-72 (H. Bohmer); Seppelt 2, 241-88; F. A. Norwood, 'The Political Pretensions of Pope Nicholas I', ChHisns (1946), 271-85; F. Dvornik, 'The Patriarch Photius and the Roman Schieffer);

(d. 907), dispatched (including Bishop

1,341-68;/*/, 119,753-1212;

257-690; DTC

BSS

9,

Primacy', Chicago Studies 2 (1963), 94-107; The

108

HADRIAN Photian

(Cambridge

Schism

1948);

Mann

3,

1-148.

(867-72)

II

struggled ineffectually to secure the suc-

cession for Louis

II,

only to see Lorraine

divided (treaty of Meerssen, 870) between

HADRIAN II 872).

Born

in

(14 Dec. 867-Nov. or Dec.

Louis's uncles Charles the Bald (823-77)

Rome

and Louis the German

family

aristocratic

in 792,

of the same

Stephen IV and

as

Sergius II, he was married before ordinawas made subdeacon and in 842 car-

(c.

806-76), and to

receive himself a sharp rebuke for interfering. Equally ineffectual

and

were

his attempts to

tion,

bring

Marco by Gregory IV, and subsequendy held such important positions in the Lateran and was so highly

Carolingian realms before the papal court.

dinal priest of S.

regarded because of his charitableness that

he was twice,

in

855 and 858, proposed

as

His

civil

ecclesiastical disputes in the

demands,

imperious

drafted

intemperately by Anastasius, met with even

more imperious warnings from Archbishop Hincmar of Rheims (845-82) against inter-

pope but declined office. On Nicholas I's death (13 Nov. 867), after violent disputes between critics and supporters of the late

vening where he had no

pope's forceful policies, he accepted elec-

had written and even holding out to Charles the prospect of the imperial crown on Louis

tion as a

compromise candidate. Although

Emperor Louis

II

(855-75), then fighting Italy, readily gave his

pope had

Hadrian's

reign

started

dis-

Rome, for by Duke Lam-

make

a

title

to

do

so.

The

shameful climbdown,

privately disowning the letters his secretary

IPs death.

Apprised of the sentence of deposition

the Saracens in south

consent,

to

excommunication pronounced on I in 867 by Photius, then patriarch

and

astrously with the pillaging of

Nicholas

reasons not fully explained,

of Constantinople but recently deposed,

bert of Spoleto. His

own

daughter, too, was

raped and then brutally murdered with her

mother by

a brother of

former antipope

whom

Anastasius, the

he had made papal

As Anastasius was suspected of

archivist.

complicity in the

affair,

Hadrian

felt

obliged

Hadrian held

a

synod in June 869 which

anathematized him and his associates for their

unexampled impudence. On the inviEmperor Basil I (867-86) he sent

tation of

two personal representatives

and then (12 Oct. 868) formally excommunicate him, but it was typical of

the

him him

were not allowed

to dismiss

that less than a year later

he restored

to his offices in his chancery. vacillating,

personal impressiveness to maintain the

papacy

at

Nicholas

I

the glittering heights to which

had raised

it.

1

2th cent, recognized in the west as the

Eighth General Council), although they preside as he had

to

requested; Anastasius represented Louis

Hadrian had neither the strength of character nor the and

Elderly

to the fourth

council of Constantinople (869-70: since

He showed weak-

This

council

fully

upheld

the

II.

Roman

synod's condemnation of Photius, but also

(canon 21) placed the great patriarchates

in

the order of precedence accepted in the east:

Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria,

Rome had

ness in dealing with the burning issue of the

Antioch, Jerusalem.

broken marriage of King Lothair II (855— 69) of Lorraine, on which Nicholas had

objected to Constantinople being placed

taken a firm to take

line, for

back

while pressing the king

his lawful wife

Theutberga, he

accepted his assurances of compliance and admitted him to

communion pending

a

ahead of Alexandria, but the success of the council temporarily restored peace between east and west. Three days after its closure, however, the delegates of the eastern

summoned

patriarchates,

by

council which would reach a final decision

Basil, ruled, in the teeth

on the

papal envoys, that Bulgaria

fell

ecclesiastical

of

affair.

Again, in return for assurances

excommunication Nicholas had imposed on Lothair's mistress Waldrada. On Lothair's death (8 Aug. 869) he

he

lifted

the

hitherto

jurisdiction

tinople, not of

claimed.

109

A

Rome

Byzantine

Emperor

of protests from the

under the Constan-

as Nicholas

I

metropolitan

had was

JOHN VIII (872-82) consecrated for

the Latin priests working

it,

tirelessly to unite the states

there were expelled, and a fresh source of

against the

was opened up; Bulgaria was lost to church. As a compensation for this reverse Hadrian was able, by sanctioning the use of Old Slavonic in the liturgy

efforts

when

75), but

conflict

the

Roman

to

Moravia

retain

885),

Rome

ful to

died

ladrian

Rome

a time

II

than his half-brother Louis the

German

(c.

emperor

at

papal

the

806-76).

He crowned him

but

state,

emperor's right

to

Soon

tions.

renounced

the

have resident envoys in

the city and a guiding

hand

in

papal elec-

after (Apr. 876), to secure his

Rome

and excommunicated the most dangerous of them in their absence. They included Formosus,

position in

against the intrigues

plots of power-hungry nobles, John

an

at

For

Christmas 875; Charles in return not only extended the boundaries of

Hadrian's last recorded act was to recrown Louis II in St Peter's at Pentecost (18 May) 872, a gesture intended to show his continued confidence in the emperor after his humiliating imprisonment by Duke Adelgis of Benevento; at the same time he released him from his vow, extorted from him by force, to take no action to avenge his I

tribute.

Emperor Louis

Louis's uncle Charles the Bald (823-77) as emperor, reckoning he would be more help-

for the western church.

maltreatment.

ally in

(855on his death (12 Aug. 875) he got the clergy and senate of Rome to acclaim

Yugoslavia) and legate to the Slavs, to

in

buying them off with

he had an

renowned as in 867/ 8, and later by consecraring Methodius as archbishop of Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica (d.

Apostles of the Slavs, visited

Italy

sion with the invaders, he too was reduced

the missionary brothers Cyril (d. 869)

and Methodius

of southern

Muslim menace, but when his came to nothing through their collu-

undetermined date between mid-Nov. and 13 Dec. 872.

bishop of Porto, successful missionary to

LP 2,

suspected of aspiring to the papacy and

1

73-90; JW

1,

VfG'Kp 6, 691-765;

619-24

EC

(A. N'oyon);

Bulgaria and future pope,

368-75;/*/. 122, 1259-320; 7,

DM

403-5; 499; 1,

323-9

(().

DHGE

degraded and

341-4 (I. Daniele); PRE 7, 305-7 (R. Zoepfl and C. Mirbt); Seppelt 2, 302-6; Brezzi,

MCE

I,

145 (A.J. Ennis);

Mann

exiled.

Before long the failure of John's policies

became

Not only did Charles's when Carloman Louis the German's son,

evident.

help prove inadequate, but

3,

149-230.

(828-80),

marched

JOHN VIII

he also

(although he had earlier trusted him) in 878

1,

Bertolini);

1,

50; 65-70;

whom

into Italy to assert his dynastic

872-16 Dec. 882). A Roman, son of Gundo, for twenty years

claims, Charles retreated and died while

archdeacon,

now master of Italy, demanded

Nicholas

I,

(14 Dec. the

close

he was elected

at

an uncertain

Hadrian II's death. Although he was energetic, resourceful, and

interval after elderly,

highly experienced; in a crowded reign he

struggled to uphold the papal leadership

with

Gregory

the Great and Nicholas

I

as

Externally the urgent need was to defend

and the papal

tive raids Italy.

state against the destruc-

of the Saracens, based in south

Not content with appeals

to others for

help, John personally took charge of military

operations, building a defensive wall around

St Paul's basilica and

papal

fleet

commanding

which he founded.

a small

He worked

the imperial

crown, and John played for time. When Carloman fell ill and had to withdraw, his supporters,

Dukes Lambert of Spoleto and

Adalbert of Tuscia, accompanied by John's

excommunicated enemies, occupied Rome, imprisoned him, and forced the citizens to

vow

his inspiration.

Italy

crossing the Alps (6 Oct. 877). Carloman,

of

collaborator

all

allegiance to Carloman.

concessions, however, and

John refused when he had

secured his liberty made by ship for Provence and manoeuvred to find a suitable heir for the imperial crown. Disappointed

Louis the Stammerer (846-79), he crowned on 7 Sept. 878 but who died on 10 Apr. 879, then in Louis II's brother-in-law Boso (d. 887), he finally first

in

whom

no

MARINUS settled, in spite

German

Charles

son

second

of his repugnance for the

Franks, for Louis the German's

Fat

the

recognizing him as king of

(839-88),

879 and

Italy in

emperor in Feb. 881. As a of these moves the pope emerged as

crowning him result

as

effective arbiter of the imperial office.

The

need

desperate

whatever

quarter

encouraged John

from

help

for

Saracens

the

against

seek a rapprochement

to

The

with Constantinople.

whom

difficulty

Hadrian

here

had had been restored as patriarch and Emperor Basil I (867-86) was

was

that Photius,

anathematized requesting

in 869,

Rome

John agreed

II

to

to recognize

do

and

so,

him

as such.

send legates

to

to

omous church) was subject to

1(882-4)

that Bulgaria should

Roman

jurisdiction but

be

Greek

missionaries working there should not be disturbed.

Often considered a largely

political

pope,

John was not neglectful of his duties as a churchman. A striking initiative, frustrated by Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims (845— 82), was his appointment of Ansegise of Sens in Jan. 876 as his vicar for Gaul and Germany. He frequently intervened with authority in the nomination, or again con-

demnation, of bishops, and was in general a forceful

promoter of the indissolubility of

marriage and the freedom of episcopal elections.

When Methodius (d.

885), the apostle

German clergy

the council that Basil wanted, on the strict

of Moravia, clashed with the

condition that Photius publicly apologized

and was imprisoned, he obtained (873) his release, and although at first forbidding him to use Slavonic in the liturgy, he sanctioned it in June 880 when Methodius, summoned to Rome on a charge of heresy, completely

misdeeds and abandoned its claim

Constan-

for his past

that

tinople

to jurisdiction

in

When

Bulgaria.

Haghia Sophia

the

council

met

in

Nov. 879 with Photius presiding, these conditions had already been recognized as unrealistic, and the

vindicated himself.

papal letters containing them were drasti-

was, according to the Annals of Fulda,

modified in the Greek translations

poisoned by members of his entourage and

cally

in

The

first

pope

read out, although the passages stressing

then clubbed

the papal primacy were

LP

left virtually intact.

managed, the council, recognized in the east as the Eighth General Council, pronounced the second council of *Nicaea Seventh General Council, the (787) annulled which the synods had Skilfully

anathematized

Photius,

reaffirmed

the

2,

DTC

221-3; 8,

9,

601-13

L 'Europe

lum

doctrine of the double procession of the

Brezzi, 69-80.

ratify its decisions

with

the saving postscript that he rejected every-

thing his legates might have agreed contrary to his instructions. In fact,

peace

between

et

le

saint

siege

a

Vepoque

pape jean VIII (Paris, 1895); F- EEndgreen, 'Pope John VIII and the Arabs', Specu-

20

(1945),

318-30;

Mann

3,

231-352;

Rome did

not yet include the *Filioque. John was

statesman enough to

f.

5,

2,

because there was no discussion of the in

LThK

MGEp 7, 1-133; NCE 7, 1009

(Cambridge, 1948), 172-225; 305-29; D. Lohrmann, Das Register Papst Johannes VIII (Tubingen, 1968); A. Seppelt

Lapotre,

and the creed used

Amann);

Photian Schism

carolingien: le

Spirit,

376-442;

i;

(E.

988 f. (Th. Schieffer); 258-61 (H. Bohmer); F. Dvornik, The

creed of Constantinople (381), and forbade any additions to it; the Romans could assent

Holy

be assassinated, John

to death.

JW

(C. E. Sheedy);

PRE

to

he had secured

and

MARINUS

I (16 Dec. 882-15 May 884). Sometimes mistakenly listed as Martin II, he was son of a priest and born at Gallese, in

Tuscany, entered the service of the Roman church when twelve years old, was made

Byzantine military aid he needed; and while

deacon by Nicholas I, and as such proved the most effective of three legates represen-

the council had brushed aside the Bulgarian

ting

question, the

(though

the

churches,

compromise agreed

the

in prac-

proved ineffective because of the striving of the Bulgars for an autontice

it

Hadrian

Constantinople

II

at

the fourth council of

(869-70),

which

anath-

ematized the recently deposed patriarch Photius (858-67; 878-86). On this occa-

HADRIAN had

sion he Basil

I

from

III (884-5)

between the archbishops of Rheims and Sens over a newly founded monastery, and that he

he

entertained excellent relations with Alfred

treasurer (arcarius)

the Great of England (849-99), out of regard

Hadrian's

Roman

Later

instructions.

became archdeacon and of the

Emperor

a sharp brush with

(867-86) through refusing to depart

church, and also bishop of

Caere (now Cerveteri) in Etruria. John VIII used him for difficult missions to the future Emperor Charles III (the Fat, 881-7) in Mar. 880, and in 882 to Athanasius of Naples, when he succeeded in breaking the bishop's alliance with the Saracens.

When

he succeeded John, he was the first bishop of another see to be elected pope in violation of the ancient canons (notably canon 1 5 of *Nicaea)

prohibiting

the

translations

bishops from one see to another

(a

of

prohibi-

which Nicholas I had appealed when refusing to appoint Bishop FotMOSUS of tion to

for

whom he exempted the Schola Saxonum,

or English quarter in

Rome, from

704; LP 2,

PL

taxes.

966-70; 2476 f. (E. Amann); PRE 12, 340 (H. Bohmer); NCEg, 222 (V. Gellhaus); Brezzi, 83 f.;

J\V

1

,

DTC

425

f.;

2,

224;

26,

1

9,

Mann

3, 353-60; Seppelt 2, 297 f.; 331 f.; J. Duhr, 'Le pape Marrin I: etait-il eveque ou

archidiacre lors de son election?',

RSR 24

(1934),

200-6.

HADRIAN

III,

Born

Sept. 885).

ST in

May 884-mid-

(17

Rome,

the son of one

he succeeded Marinus

Benedict,

circumstances

which

remain

known of his

I

in

obscure.

Porto, later to be pope, to the archbishopric

Almost nothing

of Bulgaria).

but he seems to have been sympathetic to

Marinus's election was carried through without consulting Charles

III,

emperor Marinus met

in

the

visited

him

Modena, secured

Italy

but

June 883

Nonantula,

at

when

his recognition,

near

and held

One

is

short reign,

the policies of John VIII, for one of his few

recorded acts was his blinding of a high official

of the Lateran palace, George of the

Aventine, one of John's sworn enemies

whom

Marinus had permitted

The

to

return

result

from

exile.

of these was his decision to pardon Form-

lady,

perhaps the widow of another digni-

osus of Porto and others accused of con-

tary

John VIII, whom John had excommunicated and exiled, and to restore Formosus to his see and to release him from the vows he had sworn under duress to the

sion of Marinus,

important discussions with him.

spiring against

pope.

The

announce

belief

that

he

refused

to

his election to Photius, reinstated

and that he and Photius excommunicated each other, is unfounded; Photius did his best to be reconciled to his former enemies, and Marinus went out of his way to retain Zacharias of Anagni, a friend of Photius and a supporter of proas patriarch in 878,

Greek

policies at

of papal

Rome,

librarian.

A

in the key position

further result of his

was that, exasperated by the pressure of Duke Guido III of Spoleto (crowned emperor in 891: d. 894) on the papal patrimony, he persuaded the emperor to pronounce a sentence of deposition on him. conversations with Charles

Little else

is

III

known of Marinus's

reign, except that he

had

short

to settle a dispute

report of his having a noble

who had been murdered

at the

acces-

whipped naked through

the streets suggests the continuance of the

bloody vendettas which prevailed of John's

assassination.

at the

time

Like John and

Marinus, Hadrian adopted a conciliatory

approach Photius

the east,

to

(878-86)

announcing

customary

letter

summer 885 (881-8), who had

his election. In

Emperor Charles no

sending Patriarch

the

legitimate

the Fat

male heir and wished

to

secure the succession for his bastard son

Bernard,

summoned him

imperial diet at

and Hadrian its

Worms

set out

to

attend

the

to settle the matter,

from

Rome

entrusting

protection and government during his

absence to the imperial envoy, John, bishop of Pavia. This fact suggests that there was already an understanding that, in return for his help over the succession, the

would

give

him

gle with his internal enemies.

plans, however,

emperor

his full backing in his strug-

Any such

were cut short by

his death

STEPHEN V S. Cesario sul Panaro, near Modena. Foul play has been suspected, and it is significant that his body was not brought at

back to Rome but was buried in the abbey of Nonantula. His cultus developed locally and was approved by the holy see on 2 June 1

89 1. Feast 8 July.

LP

225;

2,

Bertolini);

JW

BSS

1, 1,

426

271

624 (A. Noyon); NCE 4,

1,

1307 (G. Schwaiger);

DBI

f.;

f.

329

1,

(F. Carotta);

145

f.

(A.J. Ennis);

Mann

3,

(O.

f.

DHGE

1,

LThK

360-6; Seppelt

2,332.

STEPHEN V 891).

(VI)

A Roman

885-14 Sept.

(Sept.

of aristocratic family

entered the Lateran under

Hadrian

who he

II,

(VI) (885-91)

and drew closer to Guido III, duke of (d. 894), who had seized the throne of Italy in 889; he adopted him as son and eventually (2 1 Feb. 89 1 ) was induced, probably by fear, to crown him Holy Roman emperor in St Peter's. But while Guido entered into the customary pact guaranteeing the privileges of the Roman church, he had effectively secured the supremacy over the papal state for which he had striven. Although his reign was a mainly political one, Stephen forcefully asserted his authority over bishops in France and Germany. Like his immediate predecessors, he main-

policy

Spoleto

tained

friendly

tinople,

from

Constanneeded

with

relations

more

the

all

closely as he

Although he had

was cardinal priest of SS. Quattro Coronati when he was elected by acclamation by the clergy and leading laity. Emperor Charles the Fat (881-8), annoyed because he had not been consulted about the election and

military aid

preferring a creature of his own, sent his

papal state against Saracen attacks and co-

Rome

chancellor Liutward to

have him

to

deposed. Stephen, however, was able satisfy

Liutward that he had been the

unanimous choice of the the

palace.

it.

Emperor

Basil

to

send warships

operating

defend the coasts of the

to

Byzantium

with

to

matter was dropped.

brother).

invited Charles to

Lateran,

come

Stephen

to Italy to fulfil his

duties as protector of the church; he was

threatened by party

strife in

Rome and

increasing Saracen raids. Charles

made

by the

journey in spring 886, but was almost

once obliged

to recross the

The

at

Alps to deal with

help which Stephen

the

Photius (858-67; 878-86) had to abdicate,

Stephen

of the

against

Muslim peril. When Basil was succeeded byLeo VI (886-912) and the great patriarch Stephen seems

After carrying out a thorough purge and

to

for

Marinus I, he was on good terms with him personally, asking him

new

reorganization

(867-86)

I

hostile references to

to take possession of the papal

him

The

and that had even

electors

envoy

imperial

resident

assisted

to

reprove

patriarch,

have acknowledged the I

(the emperor's

The victim of intrigues he

did not underStephen missed a great opportunity in Moravia, where Archbishop Methodius, apostle of the Slavs and promoter of the Slavonic 'iturgy, had died on 6 Apr. 885. He had designated his disciple Goradz as his stand,

German clergy summoned Goradz to Rome, for-

successor, but influenced by

the pope

urgently needed never came. In Nov. next

bade the Slavonic liturgy, and appointed Bishop Wiching of Nitra, Methodius's suf-

when he

fragan, as administrator of the metropolitan

trouble in France.

year Charles was deposed, and

on 13 Jan. 888 the empire of Charlemagne finally disintegrated. Desperate for a protector, Stephen first (890) summoned Arnulf (c. 850-99), Charles's nephew, who had been proclaimed king of the East Franks in 887, to rescue Italy from the devastations of 'pagans and evil Christians'. As Arnulf, occupied with other tasks, could do nothing for the moment, Stephen made a drastic change of papal

died

The Moravian church was

see.

to

be

organized according to the wishes of the

German

hierarchy.

As

a result the small

group of Methodius's disciples were unable to

maintain themselves and

Bulgaria, tine

rite

where they reverted in

the

Slavonic

escaped to

to the

ByzanThe

tongue.

foundations were thus laid for a Slav-speaking church which would eventually spread to include Russia, but

113

which was

alien

from

FORMOSUS (891-6) Rome and

maintained

close

Bremen-Hamburg

with

ties

Orthodox)'.

the

(P. J.

15,

1

1

94-6

Slaves, Byzance et

Dumas);

(A.

e

Rome au

and then (888-98) king of France.

1926);

2,

333-8;

FORMOSUS Born

Mann

(6 Oct.

c.815, probably at

well educated,

3,

schism between the fanatical disciples of the former patriarch Ignatius (d. 877) and Patriarch Stephen I, whom they rejected as

367-401.

891-4 Apr. 896). Rome, gifted and

named bishop of Porto

864, he proved such a brilliant missionary Bulgaria in 866-7 that King Boris

having been ordained by Photius; he pro-

posed that the ordinations of Photius's first patriarchate should be treated as invalid, but those of his second patriarchate as valid. The compromise was well intended but unrealistic, and came to nothing. He faced

in in

(852and then I Iadrian I

89) pressed Nicholas I, II, to appoint him metropolitan

of the

difficult political

country; both popes refused because of the

his

canons

Guido

prohibiting

the

translation

of

le served as papal legate in France and Germany under Nicholas I and Hadrian 11, and played a leading role at the Roman synod of July 869 which

bishops.

I

anathematized

the

him

John

in

Bald (875-7), but soon became suspicious hostile for personal and political

him excommunicated and deposed on charges of treason, deserting his see (he had fled Rome for safety), and aspiring to the papacy; but in Aug. 878 he admitted him to lay communion after he had abjectly avowed his guilt and sworn to remain in exile permanently and never to attempt to regain his reasons. In Apr. 876 he had

see.

In

the I

reaction recalled

after John's

him from

death

exile

in

France, rehabilitated him, and restored him as bishop of Porto.

secrator of

As such he was

Stephen V

in

of Spoleto

in Italy,

however,

crowned

Duke

894) as emperor. In Apr. 892 he was forced to re-crown Guido III

(d.

Ravenna and at the same time to crown son Lambert (d. 898) as co-emperor. The dominance of the Spoletan dynasty, however, boded no good for the holy see, and as early as autumn 893 he was appealing

and

Marinus

having

his

875 with the task of offering the imperial crown to Charles II the

VIII entrusted

problems

predecessor

at

Byzantine

great

patriarch Photius (858-67; 878-86).

He

maintained amicable relations with Constantinople and in 892 attempted to heal the

The Photian Schism (Cambridge, 1948), 219-37 and passim; G. Lahr, 'Das Schreiben Stephans V und Sventopulk von Mahren', NA 47, 1928, 15973; Seppelt

of

ple (879-929) against Eudes, count of Paris

F. Dvornik, Les

Steele (Paris,

ix

against the protests of

Cologne, and he defended the Carolingian Charles the Sim-

1,427-35; 2, 705; NCE 13,696 Mullins); LThK 9, 1040 (G. Schwaiger);

LP 2, i9i-8;JW

DHGE

archbishop

a con-

885, and on

Stephen's death, though advanced in years,

was himself elected pope. The fact that he was already bishop of another see was not held against him until after his death. Formosus was active in strengthening and advancing Christianity in England and north Germany. In 893 he confirmed

to Arnulf, king of the East

Franks (f.850from its tyranny. After repeated appeals Arnulf eventually invaded Italy and in Feb. 896 stormed Rome. Guido being now dead, Formosus crowned Arnulf 99), to rescue

Rome

in St Peter's in mid-Feb. 896. But the campaign they planned against Spoleto never materialized, for Arnulf was struck down by paralysis and had to abandon Rome and return to Germany; soon after his departure Formosus himself was dead. A man of exceptional intelligence, exemplary life, and strict asceticism (the only fault alleged against him was ambition), Formosus had bitter and relentless foes who included Lambert, once more ruler of Rome, and his own successor Stephen VI, and who did not scruple to subject him to the most macabre humiliation. Nine months (Jan. 897) after his death they had his decaying corpse exhumed and, propped up on a throne in full pontifical vestments,

solemnly arraigned

at a

mock

trial

presided

over by Stephen VI himself; a deacon stood

Adalgar in possession of the united see of

by answering the charges on his behalf.

114

He

STEPHEN was found

guilty

of perjury, of having

coveted the papal throne, and of having violated the canons forbidding the translation of bishops. His acts and ordinations were pronounced null and void, and his body (the three fingers of his right hand which he had used to swear and bless having been hacked off) was first placed in a common grave and then flung into the Tiber. A hermit subsequently retrieved and rein-

terred

it.

435-9; MGEp

366-70; PL 129, 837-48; und Vulgarius (Leipzig, Duhr, 'Le concile de Ravenne en 898; la

JW

i,

E.

Dummler,

1896); J.

7,

Auxilius

du pape Formose', RSR 22 (1932), 541-79; 'Humble vestige d'un grand espoir decu: episode de la vie de Formose', ibid. 42 (1954),

rehabilitation

G.

361-87;

Arnaldi,

'Papa

Formoso

e

gli

imperatori della casa di Spoleto', Annali delta Facoltd di Lettere di Napoli

Seppelt

2,

309

f.;

337-47;

1

(1951), 84-104;

Mann

4,

42-72;

DTC

594-9 (F. Vernet);Z,7/Wf 4, 214 f. (G. Schwaiger); 21,47-73; NCE 5, 1024 (S. P. Lindemans).

6,

BONIFACE birth,

VI (Apr. 896).

A Roman

by

son of a bishop named Hadrian, he

was elected almost immediately after the death of Formosus, probably on 1 1 Apr. 896. His past had been murky, for he had been twice degraded by John VIII, first as subdeacon and then, after rehabilitation, as priest,

for

immorality;

after

his

second

unfrocking he had not been restored. His election

was forced through by the rioting and may have represented

populace,

to the absent German emperor, Arnulf (896-9), and his resident governor Farold. The victim of severe gout, he died after fifteen days, and was buried in the

hostility

portico of the popes in St Peter's.

Roman

synod held by

John IX

in

The

was consecrated bishop of Anagni by Formosus, whose implacable foe he nevertheless became. Although originally loyal to the German emperor Arnulf (896-9), crowned by Formosus on 22 Feb.

presbyter, and

896, he switched his allegiance to Lambert (d. 898), whom Formosus had crowned as co-emperor with his father Guido III (d. 894) in 892, when after Arnulf's paralysis and return to Germany Lambert emerged as ruler of Italy. The sole important event of his reign which has been recorded is the macabre 'cadaver synod' over which he presided in Jan. 897, and which was instigated in part by Lambert and his mother Ageltrude, resentful against Formosus for having crowned Arnulf, but also by the bitter personal animosity which he and a powerful faction of Romans nourished against the dead pontiff. At this

of Spoleto

mock

of,

such an uncanonical promotion. 2, 228; JW 1, 439; Mansi 18, 223 f.; PL 135, 829 (Flodoard of Rheims); DBI 12, 142 f. (P. Bertolini); DHGE 9, 899 f. (F. Baix); EC 2, 1866 (P. Goggi); NCE 2, 670 (A. T. Ennis); Seppelt 2,

34i-

charges of perjury, violating the canons prohibiting the

translation

coveting the papacy.

of bishops, and

A deacon stood by and

answered for him. Formosus was found guilty, and all his acts were declared null and void, including his ordinations; his body was finally flung into the Tiber. While Stephen's participation in this gruesome affair can only be explained by near-hysterical hatred, it is evident that he personally profited by the nullification of Formosus's acts since the resulting cancellation of his

own consecration as bishop of Anagni swept away any objections that might be under the canon law of the time,

raised, to his

elevation to the papacy.

In the following active

in

months Stephen was

requiring to

clergy

produce

their orders as invalid.

duct,

however,

unpunished.

did

ordained

letters

by

renouncing

His appalling connot

long

remain

A few months later there was

a

popular reaction, and the outraged supporters of

(May 896-Aug.

Formosus's disinterred corpse,

up on a throne, was solemnly arraigned on

Formosus

LP

STEPHEN VI

trial

clad in full papal vestments and propped

898

deplored, and prohibited the repetition

VI (VII) (896-7)

Formosus, encouraged by reports of

897).

miracles worked by his humiliated corpse,

Nothing is known of his background except that he was a Roman by birth, son of a

perhaps also interpreting the sudden col-

(VII)

lapse of the Lateral basilica as a divine IS

ROMANUS (897) judgement,

rose

deposed

rebellion,

in

accession and death being unknown. Even

Stephen, stripped him of his papal insignia,

so,

and threw him

where he was

some kind of order into the confused situation in which the Roman

Dummler,

church found itself. First, he held a synod which effectively annulled the *'cadaver synod' of Jan. 897 at which the corpse of Formosus had been subjected to a macabre

into gaol,

shortly afterwards strangled.

JW

439

i,

f.;

2,

LP

705;

229; E.

2,

Auxilius und Vulgarius (Leipzig, 1866); J. Duhr, 'Le concile de Ravenne en 898', RSR 22 (1932),

DHGE

esp. 576-8; Seppelt 2, 341-3; 346; 349; 15,

1

196

f.

(A.

Dumas);

NCE

13,

696

(P. J.

Mullins).

ROMANUS Nothing

is

(Aug.-Nov.

897:

d.

When

Vincoli.

the

outraged

partisans of the posthumously humiliated

Formosus had deposed, murdered Stephen his successor at a

imprisoned, and

was elected as date which cannot be VI, he

precisely ascertained. Virtually nothing

known of his

completely rehabilitating the

trial,

?).

known of his background except

was born at Gallese, near Civita Castellana, and became cardinal priest of S. in

mock

dead pope, recognizing the validity of his ordinations, and ordering the burning of the

that he

Pietro

he threw himself energetically into the

task of restoring

of renunciation which the men he had ordained had been compelled by Stephen VI to sign. Secondly, he arranged for Formosus's body, cast up by the Tiber into which it had been flung and then clandletters

estinely interred, to be

exhumed

much honour

buried, with as its

his early death

Formosan, and that he bestowed the *pallium on Vitalis, patriarch of Grado, and on

LP

the request of their bishops confirmed the

15,

sees of Elne, in Rousillon, and Gerona, in

as possible, in

original grave in St Peter's.

is

reign except that he was a pro-

afresh, re-

clothed in pontifical vestments, and re-

2,

JW

231;

is

The

cause of

not known.

441; Mansi 18, 221; E. Diim-

1,

mler, Auxilius und Vulgarius (Leipzig, 1866);

226

Seppelt

Amann);

(E. 2,

342

f.;

NCE 14,

Zi, 59

17 (C.

DTC

M. Aherne);

f.

Spain, in the possession of their property.

He was pope

for only four

months; accord-

ing to one recension of LP, he 'was after-

wards made

a

monk',

confined

i.e.

in

a

on reliable tradition, it suggests that he was deposed by the pro-Formosan faction, presumably to make way for a pope who would take more monastery.

If this report rests

energetic steps to vindicate their hero.

On

any supposition the date of his death known.

not

JW

1,

441;

LP

2,

DTC

Vulgarius (Leipzig, 1866);

Seppelt

2,

12,641

(P.J. Mullins): Zi, 59.

13,

2847

(E.

IX

death of

(Jan.

898-Jan. 900).. On the

Theodore

II

the partisans of

Stephen VI, sworn foes of his posthumously condemned victim Formosus, seized the initiative and elected Sergius, bishop of

Caere (Cerveteri),

as pope.

Although he

took possession of the Lateran, the Form-

osan party, with help from Lambert of Spoleto, king of Italy since 891,

230; Mansi 18, 186-8; E.

Dummler, Auxilius und 342;

is

JOHN

Amann);

NCE

a Benedictine

Formosus

monk born

had

at Tivoli,

ordained.

The

records of this turbulent period have

THEODORE known

(Nov. 897). Nothing is of his background or earlier career II

except that he was a

Roman

by birth. In the

violent reaction in favour of the

ously humiliated

posthum-

Formosus which

over-

threw Stephen VI, he was elected replace

the

cribed as a

short-lived

to

Romanus. Des-

man who loved peace, he reigned

for only twenty days, the exact dates of his

whom

Formosus had crowned emperor on 30 Apr. 892, forcibly expelled him and elected John,

whom scanty left

the

course of events and their dates obscure.

With co-operation from the emperor, controlled Rome and most of Italy, John at once continued Theodore's policy

who

of restoring order in the confused situation arising out of

Stephen VI's

trial

of the dead

Formosus and the ensuing violent clashes between Formosans and anti-Formosans. He convened a synod at Rome, attended 116

BENEDICT also by bishops from north Italy, which annulled the *'cadaver synod's' sentence on

'Ignatius, Photius

[i.e.

IV (900-3)

at least his

second

patriarchate from 877-86], Stephen,

and

Formosus and burned its acts; those who had taken part in it were pardoned after pleading that they had done so under

Moravia, where the arrangements

duress; only Sergius and five close associ-

Stephen V had

were deposed and placed under a ban. The trial of dead persons was prohibited in were ordinations Formosus's future. recognized as valid, as was his anointing of Lambert as emperor; but his anointing of Arnulf, king of the East Franks, as emperor was rejected as 'barbaric' and as having been extracted from him by force. The prohibition of the translation of bishops was confirmed, the case of Formosus being

restore order by sending an archbishop and

ates

treated as exceptional.

To prevent disorders

was decreed (reviving the Constitution of Emperor Lothair I of 824) that in future, while the pope should be elected by bishops and clergy on the request of the senate and people, his consecration at

papal elections

it

could only take place in the presence of

Antony', and exhorted him to

munion with

two

numerously

protection

in the

attended,

synod

made by

John

tried to

be reproached by the

restored Argrinus of Langres, deposed by

Stephen VI,

to his see.

He

is

recorded as

having confirmed the privileges of the great

abbey

of

Monte

Cassino,

province

of

Frosinone, founded by St Benedict (f.480c.550) in 529.

LP 2,

232; JW 1,442

46; AfGLeges

1,

f.; 445; 2, 705; PL 131, 27562-5; E. Diimmler,^«^7zws und

Vulgarius (Leipzig, 1866); F. Dvornik, ThePhotian

Schism (Cambridge, 1948), 262-71^. Duhr, 'Le concile de Ravenne en SgS\RSR 22 (1932), 541—

79;Z)rC8, 614-16 f.

NCE

Amann); LThK 5, 989 (G. 1010 (P.J. Mullins); EC 6,

(E.

7,

(G. B. Picotti); Seppelt

2,

343-5;

Mann

4,

91-102.

at

presence and under the

of Emperor Lambert, which

confirmed these decisions and sought

to

ensure the support of the Spoletan royal

house for the Roman church. In particular, the synod provided every Roman, clerical or lay, with the right to appeal to the emperor and restored his supreme jurisdiction. In return Lambert renewed the ancient privileges of the holy see and guaranteed its

own position as The bright pros-

territorial possessions, his

overlord being ensured.

collapsed,

before the Magyar invaders. In France he

584

Ravenna,

clergy ordained by them. In

legates, only to

imperial emissaries.

more

com-

bishops of Bavaria for intruding. But in 906 the Moravian state was to fall in pieces

Schwaiger);

Shortly afterwards John held a second,

live in

BENEDICT

IV

(May/June

900-Aug.

An upper-class Roman, son of Mammolus, he succeeded John IX at a time when Rome was still racked by internecine 903).

strife between devotees and haters of the posthumously condemned Formosus. The

paucity of records, the result mainly of the prevailing turbulence,

makes the circum-

stances and date of his election uncertain.

Apart from the

fact that, like John IX, he had been ordained by Formosus and counted as a Formosan, only a handful of scraps

pects which these agreements

seemed

hold out were cruelly dashed

when

the

reign.

young emperor was unexpectedly killed hunting accident on 15 Oct. 898.

in a

predecessor, he held a synod in the Lateran

An

important

to

of John's indicates that he either prepared or at any rate ratified letter

the reconciliation in the Byzantine church

of the schismatic followers of Patriarch Ignatius (d. 877) with Patriarch Antony Cauleas (893-901). In it the pope assured Metropolitan Stylianos, leader of the

Ignatian faction, that

Rome fully recognized

of isolated information survive about his

Thus, following the

on 31 Aug. 900

at

line taken

by his

which he confirmed

Argrinus as bishop of Langres (he had been

deposed by Stephen VI but restored by John IX) and ratified the grant of the *pallium made to him by Formosus. Again, he formally excommunicated the murderers of Fulk, archbishop of Rhcims (d. 17 June 900), and exhorted the French bishops to

concur 117

in

this

sentence,

lie

intervened

LEO V (903) energetically

to

support the

election

How

of

Roman

archbishop of Naples on the death of the

period

controversial Athanasius

II (d.

898).

He also

man who

a

Stephen, formerly bishop of Sorrento, as

is

did not belong to the

came

clergy

not known;

and

that the clergy

be elected

to

in this

has been conjectured

it

nobility could not agree

generously took up the cause of Macla-

on

cenus, bishop of Amasea (Amasya) in Cap-

for a stranger of whose high repute they

padocia,

who had been

by

Saracens

the

driven from his see

(in

him

of

known of

his

settled

had

earlier

champion of the posthumously controversial Formosus, describes him as an admirable and holy person suggests that, like his immediate predecessors, he was a pro-Formosan.

r.930), the

and

arraigned

all

Christians.

Benedict was inevitably conscious of the by the death without

political void created

is

and therefore

career, but the fact that Auxilius (f.870-

recommending

and protection

care

the

to

Nothing

heard.

Turks),

the

fact,

furnishing him with letters

a local candidate

male heir of Lambert of Spoleto on 1 5 Oct. 898; Formosus had crowned Lambert

After he had held office for only thirty days

emperor, and John IX had made arrangements with him which seemed to secure the

clergy, the priest

papacy. Berengar

it seems likely that ChristoFormosan too, there must have been a split in the Formosan faction, perhaps prompted by resentment against someone who must have seemed to many an

I

of Friuli

(r.

there was a palace revolution and one of his

made pope. As

850-924),

pher was

king of Italy since 888, might have taken his

was disastrously defeated by 899, and then found his Italy disputed by the young king Louis 'the Blind' of Provence (887928), grandson of Emperor Louis II (85575). Encouraged by Louis's initial successes, Benedict crowned him emperor in Feb. 901. But fortune's wheel turned swiftly; Berengar recovered the upper hand, defeated Louis in Aug. 902, and forced him

place, but he

Magyars supremacy in the

in

The

result

without an imperial protector,

Rome

lapsed into the anarchy of party

outsider. Christopher himself was soon dis-

in prison,

weeks

by

Rheims

(d.

destitute.

It

the

chronicler

A

PL De

131,

39-44; LP

2,

of

233;

JW

Chr. trium. 14, 7 {PL 135,

1,

306; Flodoard,

83i);yWGSS

xiii,

624 f.; Auxilius, Lib. in defens. Steph. episcopi (ed. E. Dummler, Leipzig, 1866); DHGE 8, 27-3 1 (F. Baix); NCE 2, 273 (S. McKenna); Brezzi, 98 f.;

DBI

8,

Seppelt

337-42 (O. 2,

345

Bertolini);

Mann

4,

to join

Leo

both

misery

were

eventually-

first

appears in the

Leo V with Tutwal

identifies

nth (also

on the north coast of Brittany The legend, w hich seems of French rather than Breton origin, relates that the holy man, who in fact lived in the 6th cent, and founded a monastery at Treguier, was visiting Rome in hopes .

who was

was murdered by agents of Berengar, but no contemporary evidence supports this.

and sent

Tual, Tugdual), patron saint of Treguier,

again

966) for his generosity to the has been conjectured that he

in

III

after languishing several

legend which

cent,

that,

Flodoard

where

murdered.

strife.

Benedict was a moderate pope praised

was

a

placed by Sergius

to recross the Alps after swearing never to set foot in Italy again.

Christopher, overthrew

him, flung him into gaol, and had himself

of an audience with the pope, but

when he

arrived there found the apostolic throne

vacant and the clergy and people busy with

an election. As the result of a miracle the fell on him, and as pope he assumed

choice the

name Leo

the Breton (Britigena).

The

from a misunderstanding of the title Pabu or Papa which, like other Breton saints, Tutwal bore. story probably developed

103-10;

f.

LP

2,

234;

LEO V

(Aug.-Sept. 903: d. early 904). Parish priest at Priapi, near Ardea 37 km.

Auxilius

south of Rome, he succeeded Benedict IV.

83

und

JW

135; Flodoard,

118

1);

1,

444;

2,

746; E.

Vulgarius (Leipzig,

De

DTC 9, 3 16

Dummler,

1866), 60 and

Chr. triumph. 12, 7 {PL 135,

(E.

Amann);

XCE 8, 641

(O.

J.

SERGIUS BSS

Hlum);

723

12,

f.

(H.

Platelle:

for the

legend).

CHRISTOPHER

(antipope

priest of S.

ancient

Sept.

A Roman

Jan. 904: d. early 904).

by

903birth,

Damaso, one of the twenty-five or

parish,

churches

*'tide',

of

bishop to exclude him.

A

111(904-11)

virulent hater of

Formosus, he was elected pope by the antiFormosan faction on the death of Theodore II (Dec. 897) and was even installed in the Lateran, but had to give way to the pro-Formosan John IX, who had the support of Emperor Lambert of Spoleto

Rome, he headed a coup which overthrew Leo V, flung him into gaol, and had himself

898).

proclaimed and consecrated pope. Nothing is known of his earlier career, but on the

when the Formosan party in Rome

assumption that he,

Leo, was a sup-

like

condemned

porter of the posthumously

Formosus, there must have been a split in the Formosan faction, perhaps caused by resentment against Leo as an outsider

Roman

on the

foisted

church. Christo-

pher's triumph lasted only four months;

898 but supplanted by John IX, moved on Rome with an armed force, seized power, and was acclaimed and consecrated pope. Christopher, of whom only one bull (confirming the

904 Sergius, elected

early in

abbey of Corbie) survives,

privileges of the

Christopher

reckoned

properly

is

an

antipope.

LP

2,

lxix;

Auxilius

235;

und

JW

1,

444

f.;

Vulgarins (Leipzig,

E.

Diimmler,

1866), 60 and

i35;Flodoard,£teCAr. trium. 12,7 {PL 135,831);

Herimannus Augiensis, Chron. a. 904 (/VfGSS 5, in); Mariannus Scottus, Chron. (/VfGSS 5, 487);

DHGE

12,

778

f.

exile,

the

(G. Bardy).

Roman of aristocratic birth, made deacon by Stephen V, he was consecrated bishop of Caere, i.e. Cerveteri (unwillingly, he was to allege), by Formosus, took part in the *'cadaver synod' presided over by VI, and,

when

it

Stephen

posthumously condemned

Formosus and annulled

his

ordinations,

gladly regarded himself as reduced to the

and accepted reordination as Stephen VI; ambitious for the papacy, he did not wish the fact that he was a

later

split

and

Christopher overthrew and

priest

Leo V. Aided by Duke Alberic

of Spoleto

(d. f.925),

Rome

I

Sergius marched on

with an armed force, threw Christo-

pher into

gaol,

was acclaimed pope, and was

consecrated on 29 Jan. 904. Not long after, moved, it was said, by pity, he had Leo V and

Christopher strangled in prison. Sergius dated his reign from his original abortive election in Dec. 897, treating

all

his

predecessors from John IX as intruders. In

order to undo their work he immediately

press-ganged the clergy by threats and violence to attend a synod which overturned John LX's Roman and Ravennate synods of

898, reaffirmed the 'cadaver synod's' con-

demnation of Formosus, and once again declared null and void the orders he had during his 'usurpation'. As Formosus had created many bishops, who in turn had ordained numerous clergy, the resulting confusion was indescribable. Sergius insisted that those whose orders were annulled should be ordained afresh;

conferred

were carried out with such and violence that few had the courage to resist. One who did resist was the

his policies

threats

Frankish

SERGIUS ID (29 Jan. 904-14 Apr. 91 1). A

(d.

into

imprisoned

in

was rudely deposed, stripped of his insignia and robed as a monk, and sent to join his own victim Leo in gaol. A few months later Sergius, moved by pity (it was said) for their wretched plight, had them both executed. Although sometimes listed as a pope,

Deposed, condemned, driven he had his chance seven years

Auxilius

priest

(c.S-jo-c. 930),

whose acute and hard-hitting pamphlets defending the ordinations of Formosus of Stephen of Naples, another bishop

(also

who had moved

sees) provide invaluable

information about the controversy. His pro-

found echoes elsewhere throughout

tests Italy,

but in

had

Rome

the scandalized opposi-

keep quiet. There Sergius had the support of the noble families, notabh

tion

to

Theophylact

diaconate

that of

priest by

director of the holy see but also consul and

commander 119

of

the

(d.

f.920),

militia,

financial

and

his

ANASTASIUS

111(911-13)

ambitious, determined wife, the senatrix

a Formoso papa factis

Theodora (d. after 916). In the absence of an emperor this family effectively governed Rome, and Sergius enjoyed such intimacy

129); Flodoard,

with

it

that he

was reputed

the future pope

John

to

have had a son,

and Infensor

De

Defensor (PL

et

(PL 135, 386 f. (A. P. Frutaz); Seppelt 2, 343 f.; 346-51; L. Duchesne, 'Serge III et Jean XI', MelArchHist 33 Chr. trium.

83i);D7TCi4, 19 18-21

MCE 13,

(1913), 25-55;

XI, by Theodora's 4,

(E.

12, 7

Amann);

EC n,

12 (V. Gellhaus);

1

Mann

119-42.

fifteen-year-old daughter Marozia. His and his

immediate successors' dependence on

the family was complete, and degrading,

ANASTASIUS

causing the following decades to be casti-

913).

gated as the pornocracy of the holy see.

Apart from his campaign against Form-

was elected and died at dates which cannot be firmly determined. Nothing is known of

known of

his earlier career or of the circumstances of

osus and his ordinations, Sergius's

general

little is

activities.

Only

a

few

meagre

routine

decisions

register.

At some stage, however, he called

upon

survive

in

his

the Frankish episcopate for help in

refuting the case

made by

Patriarch Photius

(858—67; 878-86) against the Latin doctrine of the *double procession of the Holy

when

emperor Leo VI (886-912), lacking a male heir, married for the fourth time (906) and found himself banned by Patriarch Nicholas I Mysticus (901-7; 912-25), he had recourse to Rome and the great oriental patriarchates. The envoys whom Sergius sent to Spirit.

Again,

Constantinople,

the Byzantine

disregarding the greater

strictness of eastern

canon law and

its

an-

A Roman

III

(c.

June 911-r. Aug.

by birth, son of Lucian, he

Rome was dominated by Theophylact (d. r.920), consul and senator, financial director of the holy see, and his ambitious, energetic wife his election. At this troubled time

Theodora papacy

Elder

the

was

itself

(d.

after

powerful, unscrupulous family.

this

It

by is

Anastasius too, the mildness of

likely that

whose

the

916);

effectively controlled

rule

praised by the chronicler

is

Flodoard (893/4-966), was subject to its influence and did not exercise much, if any,

independent initiative. He did, however, bestow the *pallium on Ragimbert, bishop of Yercelli, and at the request of Berengar I, of

Italy

honours

to the

king

(888-924), grant certain bishop of Pavia; as both were

tipathy to tetragamy, gave a verdict approv-

important

ing Leo's fourth marriage, with the result

these actions suggest that the king valued

that Nicholas

was deposed and exiled and

good

cities in

relations

Berengar's dominions,

Rome,

with

and

was

the eastern church entered on a period of

regarded in a friendly

confusion and controversy.

Anastasius received a lengthy, forcefully

Sergius completed the restoration, begun

by John IX, of St John Lateran, which had been heavily damaged by an earthquake during the holding of the 'cadaver synod' in 897. His

own tomb

in St Peter's

bore a

eulogistic epitaph recalling his election after

the death of

Theodore

II,

his seven-year

exile from his rightful see, and his relentless war against the 'wolves' who had usurped

office before his

triumphant return. Like

own coinage, but Hadrian I to impress his

other popes, he minted his

was the

own

first

effigy,

since

wearing a conical mitre, on

his

coins.

LP 2, und

236-8; JW

expressed

445-7; E. Dvmm\zr, Auxilius

Vulgarius (Leipzig, 1866); Auxilius,

De ordin.

from Nicholas

I

912

Mysticus,

as patriarch of Constantinople

(912-25), deploring both Rome's attitude in

approving Emperor Leo VI's (886-912)

fourth marriage in 906 and the behaviour of

Sergius

Ill's

amends.

His

envoys, reply

is

and not

Nicholas cannot have found for

it

demanding known, but satisfactory,

he proceeded to remove the pope's

name from the *diptychs, and a gulf yawned between Rome and Constantinople. LP

2,

trium.

239;

Bertolini);

479

JW

12, 7

(Nicholas's 1,

letter

now restored

light there. In

1,

448; 706; Flodoard,

De

Chr.

(PL 135, 831); PG ill, 196-220 letter: No. 32); DBI 3, 24 (P.

DHGE

2,

1475 (A. Clerval);

(A.J. Ennis); Z2, 43.

NCE

1,

JOHN X (914-28) LANDO Sabine

(c.

Aug. 9i3-t- Mar. 914). Born in of Rome, son of

a wealthy

Lombard count named Taino, he

reigned,

according

Nothing

is

known of his

is

to the cathedral

Fornovo. In

all

were terrorizing and impoverishing It was because he seemed capable of doing this that the Roman aristocracy, alarmed for their estates, had taken the unprecedented step of summoning him from Ravenna. With Theophylact and his son-in-law Alberic I, duke of Spoleto (d. f.925), he skilfully organized a coalition of Italian rulers, with Count Land-

memory of his

central Italy.

of

and

recorded of his reign except

benefaction, in pious

a

father,

of Sabina, S. Salvatore in

probability he

was the can-

Capua

didate put forward, or at any rate approved,

ulf of

by the powerful family of Theophylact (d. f.920), consul and senator, financial director of the holy see, and his ambitious,

from Byzantium, and

energetic wife

Theodora

which dominated

Rome

(d.

after

at this

Garigliano

river

time and

devastated

Roman

of Bologna, he had been archbishop of

cal policies

for nine years (905-14)

when, on

carried out a wide range of ecclesiasti-

which enhanced the prestige of 920 he settled dam-

the papacy. In 915 and

aging

was elected successor to Lando (913-14). While at Ravenna, he had had close rela-

King Charles

king of

I,

Italy

Rome

(888—

III

the Simple (879-929). In

Hohenaltheim,

in

Swabia, important not

only for re-establishing church discipline

but in buttressing the shaky throne of King

Conrad I (911-18). Although his efforts were to prove unsuccessful, he struggled for years to bring Croatia and Dalmatia back to Roman obedience and to suppress the use

but the real reason for his choice was for a vigorous

and

experienced leader. His translation evoked

of the Slav language

among supporters of Pope Formosus since it made nonsense of Formosus's

decisions were

protests

posthumous condemnation for having moved from one see to another, but there is no evidence that his policies were antiFormosan. With the growing recognition of the unique position of the holy see, the old

canonical objections to a bishop's promo-

were losing

in

Sept. 9 1 6 his legate presided at the synod of

the city as a deacon,

Rome's desperate need

over the succession to the sees

the latter case favouring the candidate of

because he had been

when visiting

splits

of Narbonne and Louvain respectively,

924), a fact which also counted in his favour. Scandalous tongues alleged that Theodora in

and

More than a politician and man of action,

demand of the Roman nobility, in effect of the all-powerful family of Theophylact (d. f.920) and Theodora (d. after 916), he

Berengar

Berengar took the

patrimony of the holy see.

the

it

who had

traditional oath to guarantee the rights

John

tion to

enemies

territory for sixty years.

in St Peter's; in return

Romagna, ordained at Bologna, a deacon at Ravenna frequently sent on missions to Rome, elected but not consecrated bishop

her lover

the

At the height of his political success he crowned (Dec. 915) Berengar I as emperor

(Mar ./Apr. 914-deposed May Born at Tossignano in the

wanted him

mouth of the defeated

,

d. 929).

tions with

decisively

dread

the

fighting

448; Flodoard, De Chr. trium. 1 2, 7 (PL 135, 83i);£C7, 887 (A. Ghinato); Z2, 43.

Ravenna

after a three -month

Saracens (Aug. 915). He was later to recall proudly the part he had personally taken in

916),

LP 2, 239; JW 1

928:

negotiated naval assistance

siege of their stronghold at the

effectively controlled the papacy.

JOHN X

himself to deal

raids

days.

election,

set

with the Muslims, whose devastating

finally

contemporary

earlier career or

of his

circumstances

nothing

a

to

months and eleven

chronicler, six

the

John immediately

territory north-east

in the liturgy. His sometimes motivated by expediency, as when he confirmed the election of a count's five-year-old son to an archbishopric. On the other hand, he gave the bishops of Rouen and Rheims wise pastoral advice on dealing with converted Normans who were relapsing into pagan-

ism.

Towards

were able

force.

121

the

end of 923

his legates

to restore unity with the eastern

LEO

VI

church,

(928)

interrupted

Patriarch Nicholas

I,

when

912

since

furious that

136; Zi, 73

Mann

Rome had

sanctioned Emperor Leo VI's (886-912)

LEO

fourth marriage and refused to go back on that decision, struck the pope's

still

plification.

It is

this is

an improbable sim-

likely that they

the eastern legislation of

recognized

itself

John

thoroughly

one

in the

Lateran before John's

deposed, allegedly by popular demand, and flung into gaol in Castel Sant'Angelo.

he

be content

with their territorial boundaries.

It is likely,

Marozia and the governing clique

a pact

next year John himself was

whom

to

however, that he was entirely dependent on

926 with Hugh of Provence, now king of (926-47), and by working closely with his own brother Peter, who was becoming an increasingly powerful figure. These moves alarmed the ruthless senatrix Marozia (d. after 932), Theophylact's daughter and since his death (^.920) omnipotent ruler of Rome, and her new husband Guido, marquis of Tuscany. Together they organized a revolt against John and his brother, the story having got about that Peter had brought the Magyars into Italy; towards the end of 927 Peter was

May

Dalmatia and Croatia

to the bishops of

had granted the *pallium, and

After Berengar's death in April 924, he

down

known of Leo's

is

archbishop, John of Spalato, to

most popes of this period), to remain independent of the aristocracy which governed Rome inevitably led to his downfall.

eyes. In

titles

all-powerful ruler

'patricia',

requesting them to be obedient to their

(unlike

struck

r.920) and, with the

(d.

and

short reign, his only surviving letter being

of the clergy. His determination, however

Italy

He owed his election to now head of the house of

ceed. Virtually nothing

it

in

of

notary

Rome along with her second husband Guido, marquis of Tuscany. Like his successor Stephen VII, he was a stopgap appointment pending the time when Marozia's own son John was ready to suc-

singing school, important for the education

making

the

of

with splendid pictures, and promoted the

tried to secure his position by

of

alive in prison.

'senatrix'

Byzantine church. Early in 928 he intervened on behalf of the Benedictine abbey of Cluny, founded in 909, emphasizing that it was under the protection of the holy see.

Rome

A Roman

928).

son

origin,

Theophylact

fourth marriages as the local law of the

In

VI (May-Dec.

Marozia,

920 forbidding

reconstructed the Lateran, decorating

350-5;

Susanna and already an old man when he succeeded John X, recently deposed and

Simeon of Bulgaria, they condemn tetragamy as an

abomination, but

2,

Christopher, he was cardinal priest of Sta

writing to Tsar to

Z2, 44-75; Seppelt

f.;

149-87.

upper-class

name from

the *diptychs. According to the patriarch,

agreed

4,

in

Rome.

He died well before his hapless predecessor was murdered

in prison.

LP 2, 242;JW

453; Z2, 66, 77; Watterich 1,33.

1,

STEPHEN

VII

A Roman

931).

(Dec.

(VIII)

by

928-Feb.

he was priest of S.

birth,

when elected to succeed Leo VI, John X being still alive in prison. Like Leo, he owed his appointment to the all-powerful Marozia, now head of Anastasia

the deposed

the house of Theophylact effective ruler of

was

(d.

f.920)

when Marozia's own son John was

ready to succeed. As pope under

independent

had

he

lady

tatorial

He

and

Leo, too, he

like

stopgap appointment pending the

a

time

Rome;

initiative

ecclesiastical affairs.

this dic-

power

no except

Through

in

of

strictly

the absence

remained there several months, and in the middle of 929 he died, almost certainly

of records the period

suffocated by a pillow.

the confirmation or extension of privileges

LP

2,

240

513-40

f.;

JW

1,

449-53;

(early letters);

712; P. Fedele,

2,

Grumel

706; 1,

SA

9 (1883),

671; 675; 711;

of exceptional

obscuritv, and his only recorded actions are

to religious

LP

ASRomana

33 (1910), 177-247; T. Venni, 'Giovanni X\ADRomana 59 (1936), 1-

is

2,

242;

houses

JW

132, 1040-56;

Mann 122

4,

189

f.

1,

453

in Italy f.;

DHGE

and France.

ZPR, 37-9; Z2,

15,

1

197

f.

77;

PL

(R. Aubert);

LEO JOHN XI

(Feb. or Mar.

Jan. 936).

A Roman,

931-Dec. 935 or

at the

of

influence after

932),

may. In Dec. 932 the armed

He was

mob stormed

escape with his

life,

but Alberic imprisoned

both his mother and his half-brother the

almost certainly, accord-

Cremona

own

were installed and from which Marozia dominated the city. Hugh was lucky to

patrician

senatrix, at this time the all-powerful ruler

of Rome.

his

Castel Sant'Angelo, where the royal couple

mother and

his

who had

wedding-feast and

reasons for viewing the marriage with dis-

in his early twenties

but already cardinal priest of Sta Maria in Trastevere, he succeeded Stephen VII

through the Marozia (d.

VII (936-9)

(f.920-72),

pope, and then had himself proclaimed

but also LP, her illegitimate son by Pope

prince of Rome, senator of all the Romans,

Sergius III; she expected him to be her tool, and her object in getting him appointed was to enhance her own authority and

count and patrician. In

power.

Marozia, but John seems to have been

ing to Liutprand of

its

ern

age

its it

of

emperor Romanus (early 932) to

his

When

the

in a

(d.

slave,

while

the

966) dismissed him as 'powerless,

distinction, administering only

all

2, 243; JW 1, 454 f.; ZPR, 40-6; PL 132, 1055-62; Liutprand of Cremona, Leg. 62 (PL 1

3°> 934); Flodoard,

832);

DeChr.

trium. 12,7

Duchesne, 'Serge

L.

III

et

(PL 135,

Jean XI',

MelArchHist 33 (19 13), 25-64; P. Fedete,ASRomana 33 (1910), 211-40; Seppelt 2, 355 f; Z2,

patriarch of Constantinople, he readily gave

two

dispatched

personal

sacraments'.

I

and

his

LP

eastern

(920-44) invited him approve the appointment of

dispensation

Liutprand

that Alberic treated

contemptuous hexameter

lacking

sixteen-year-old son Theophylact as

his

as

chronicler Flodoard

time he granted similar privileges to Odo's Deols.

Cremona remarked

John

monasteries seeking reform. At the same

at

heard of

is

strictly ecclesiastical functions.

foundation in 909, and to encourto become the model for other

monastery

to gov-

house-arrest in the Lateran and limited to

and

reforming abbey of Cluny, in Burgundy, since

he was

released from prison though kept under

of abbots enjoyed by the

election

free

fact,

firmly and successfully until his

death in 954. Nothing more

One of his first acts was, on the petition of abbot Odo (878/9-942), to confirm the

privileges of protection by the holy see

Rome

77-84; 88; 97; Mann (M. A. Mulholland).

bishops as his legates to take part in the

4,

191-204;

NCE

7,

1011

boy's consecration and enthronement (27

Feb. 933). Marozia

may have had

which

decision,

this

a

hand

LEO

in

shocked the eastern church, for she was trying to arrange a marriage between her little

to Alberic

whom Romanus

had raised

II,

to the

that

he was

a

the second time but insatiably ambitious,

tine; this last fact

Hugh

(926-48), then

of Provence, king of at the

him

Italy

height of his power.

her

first

II (c.

to

deeply

John must have officiated at the wedding, although it was uncanonical by the standards of the time since Hugh was his bride's brother-in-law. The union was unpopular with the Romans, suspicious of foreign rule, and provoked a revolt, incited by Alberic

his elevation

who ruled the city

Roman by birth, cardinal priest

of S. Sisto, and in

married

owed

prince of Rome, patrician and

for

In

936-13 July 939). The

Jan.

with absolute control from 932 to 954. Nothing is known of his background except

dignity of associate Caesar.

summer 932 Marozia, now a widow

(3

senator of all the Romans,

daughter Bertha and one of the royal

princes

VII

successor ofJohn XI, he

understandably

the

all

probability a Benedic-

may have recommended prince, who was devout and

interested

in

monasticism

and

monastic reform. Although restricted by Alberic to ecclesiastical functions, he was active, with his

monastic

905-54), Marozia's son by whom I lugh had insulted

marriage,

123

revival.

full

support, in fostering

At the beginning of his

reign the great reforming abbot

Odo

of

Cluny (878/9-942) was invited to Rome, and at the pope's request negotiated a fragile settlement between Alberic and King

STEPHEN VIII Hugh

of

Italy

(926-48),

who

Rome

932 had been

since

in his public relations

Rome

himself to routine acts of administration;

neighbourhood, beginning with that

even when he supported the movement, radiating from Cluny in Burgundy, for the reform of monasteries in Rome and central

in

devoted

persistent efforts to regain control

city.

While

Odo was

there,

with the reform of religious houses in its

and

his private life

entrusted

making

and

his

Rome and the papal wholly subject to Alberic, he was allowed no independent role and confined

expulsion from

of the

(IX) (939-42)

of St Paul's

state,

same year Leo

basilica. In the

to peace. In

renewed the privileges of the restored abbey Subiaco, 80 km. east of Rome, site of the grotto of St Benedict {c. 480-^.5 50), and in at

he was collaborating with one of

Italy,

Alberic's deepest interests. In the wider

Jan. 938 those granted by his predecessor to

political sphere,

Cluny and Deols. Later he extended

early

similar

Gorze somewhat

942

however, he intervened in

in favour

of Louis IV d'Outremer

privileges to the revived abbey of

(93°-54)> son of Charles the Simple (879-

(near Metz), the pioneer of a

929),

movement in Lorraine. In 937 or thereabouts Leo sent the •pallium to Adaldag, archbishop of BremenHamburg, and appointed Archbishop Frederick of Mainz apostolic vicar and legate for all Germany, entrusting him with a comprehensive programme for the much-

different reforming

in

be

The

baptized.

papal legate to France to urge the nobility

and people of France and Burgundy, on pain of excommunication, to recognize Louis as king and give up their hostility to him. Later in the year he sent the *pallium to Archbishop Hugh of Rheims, restored to his see after being displaced for several

contemporary

years,

Rheims (d. 966), and dined with him in 936,

chronicler Flodoard of

who

visited

formed

a highly favourable

wisdom,

character,

his

2,

JW

1,

132, 1065-88;

De

455-7;

NA

2,

10 (1885), 380-6

in details, there

PL

substance.

(letters);

Chr. trium.

12, 7

STEPHEN

VIII (IX) (14 July 939-late Oct. 942). Although later sources describe him as of German descent, imposed on the I

elevation to Alberic

senator

II

and

his

(£.905-54), prince of patrician,

who was

f.;

ZPR, 60-4; Watterich

431;

Mann

4,

DHGE 212-17;

1,

15, 11 98 (R.

NC£

13,

677

II

(30 Oct. 942-early

May III,

he was a Roman by birth and cardinal priest of S. Ciriaco when elected; nothing else is known of his origins and earlier career. Like his two predecessors, he owed his elevation

last

owed

differ

946). Often mistakenly listed as Martin

and Martino when

elected. Like his predecessor, he

JW 1, 457 MGSS 22,

244;

MARINUS

quarter of the 9th cent., and was cardinal priest of SS. Silvestro

and

doubt their

(M. A. Mulholland).

(962-73), king of Ger-

by birth, born in the

late

to

appears that the pope was

It

Aubert); Z2, 84;

many since 936 and later emperor, he was in

Roman

no reason

his injuries.

LP 2,

34; 671;

holy see by Otto

is

imprisoned, brutally mutilated, and died of

{PL 135, 832); DTCg, 316 f. (E. Amann); Mann 4, 205-7; NCE 8, 641 (O.J. Blum); Z2, 88-90; 114. Flodoard,

Rome,

months Stephen seems to have and to have taken part

in a conspiracy or uprising directed against

personal

706; ZPR, 46-60;

helped

fallen foul of Alberic

him. Although the reports are

244;

fact a

this conciliatory gesture

In his last

warmth.

LP

and

to quell the opposition to Louis.

impression of

and

he dispatched Bishop Damasus as

lion;

needed reform of clergy of all grades, and encouraging him to expel Jews who refused to

who had been crowned king of France 936 but was facing a formidable rebel-

entirely to Alberic II of Spoleto

{c.

905-54),

prince of Rome, senator and patrician,

who

absolute ruler of the city from 932 to 954 and, like his mother Marozia (d. after 932),

ruled the city from 932 to 954 and had his nominees appointed to the papacy. Indeed,

A learned

Marinus is reported never to have dared to do anything without the prince's instruc-

appointed the popes of his choice.

man, Stephen was

said to

be blameless

in

124

AGAPITUS bore his

tions; while his coins

monogram

and that of St Peter on the obverse, they showed Alberic's name and his title on the

A Vatican MS

reverse.

cited by C. Baronius

monks

arranging for

to

come from Gorze

(diocese of Metz) to restore discipline in the

abbey attached

to St Paul's-without-the-

Walls. Farther afield, his legate, Bishop

(i

Marinus, was dispatched

him

the court of

538-1 607) more flatteringly represents as shunning warlike conflicts and devoting himself to the reform of both secular clergy and monks, the restoration of church buildings, and the care of the poor. His recorded acts in fact consist largely of routine

administrative

more

the

significant

Among

decisions.

were

bulls (1) rebuking

Bishop Sico of Capua for alienating proper-

Monte

of the abbey of

ties

Cassino; (2)

King Otto

I

in spring

:

(936-54) over the important synod of Ingelheim (7 June), which not only settled contested

the

Rheims

succession to

the Great, to

to St Paul's-without-the-Walls.

A

fourth

the

of

see

King Louis's candidate, but attempted to remedy the troubled situation in the kingdom of France in favour of Artaud,

by ordering Louis's rebellious

privileges;

to

73 in 962 emperor), and then presided with Otto and Louis IV d'Outremer of France

and (3) placing (summer 945) Abbot Baldwin of Monte Cassino in charge of the monastery attached and

948

of Germany (936-

confirming (21 Jan. 944) the abbey's possessions

11(946-55)

vassal,

Hugh

make his submission on pain of

excommunication. Agapitus decisions at a

Roman synod

a bull dated 2 Jan.

ratified these

early in 949. In

948 he had extended the

bull (early 946) confirmed the appointment

jurisdiction of the metropolitan of Hamburg

of Frederick, archbishop of Mainz

over

(d.

954),

Denmark

and

He worked

northern

other

and envoy to Germany with authority to hold synods and root out abuses among clergy and monks an office and dignity granted two centuries earlier to St Boniface (680-754), apostle of Germany.

countries.

The

prince) to negotiate for the imperial crown,

as papal vicar

—

exact date of Marinus's death in early

May 946

is

LP 2,

JW

245;

uncertain. 1,

DTCq, 2477 Ghinato); Mann 4,

458; ZPR, 64-72;

EC 8, 163 (A. NCE 8, 223 (M. A. Mulholland).

Amann);

(E.

218-23;

and Saxon king crossed the Alps in autumn 951, assumed the royal power at Pavia, and sent envoys to Rome (significantly to the pope and not the admired, Otto, and

closely with,

when

the

Agapitus would gladly have offered it to him had he been free to do so. He was obliged to refuse, however, since Alberic, who had no wish to see Rome dominated by a foreign emperor, was firmly opposed to the project. In spite of this Agapitus continued his active

AGAPITUS The

(10

II

May 946-Dec.

successor of Marinus

II,

955).

he owed

his

promotion to Alberic II (c. 905-5 4), prince of Rome and from 932 to 954 its all-powerful ruler. Except that he was a Roman by nothing

known of

support

for

jurisdiction

Otto,

over

granting

him broad

monasteries,

in

954

permitting his brother Bruno, archbishop of

Cologne (953-65), will,

to

wear the *pallium

at

endorsing the king's plan to transform

previous career. While the other popes

monastery of St Maurice he had founded at Magdeburg in 937 into a

appointed by Alberic were largely restricted

metropolitan see with oversight of the mis-

birth,

is

to ecclesiastical functions,

any rate

at the

his origins or

he was

able, at

beginning of his reign, to

exercise considerable initiative in the political

field

outside

appeared on coins

name

in

full

in contrast to the simple

monogram of Alberic's

He

his

Italy;

co-operated

earlier

fully

nominees.

the

sion to the Slavs, and (as emerges from a

of protest addressed to the pope in 955 by William, archbishop of Mainz) giving him authority to establish archbishoprics and bishoprics and define letter

ecclesiastical

He

with Alberic in

fostering monastic reform, confirming the special status of Cluny, near

which was

Macon, and

in 962.

125

boundaries as he thought

fit.

thus played a definite role in the process to lead to the imperial restoration

1

JOHN

XII (955-64)

Notwithstanding

and

energy

his

independence, the weakness of Agapitus's position was

when

revealed

dying. Anxious that

Alberic

power

all

should be

as well as temporal,

spiritual

concentrated

in

assembled the

nobility

and

pope, in St Peter's and

prince

the

family,

his

lay

Rome,

in

clergy, with the

made them swear

that after Agapitus's death they

would

who was

his bastard son Octavian,

elect

to suc-

ceed him as prince, as supreme pontiff as well. Agapitus was thus forced to be a party

every opportunity to assert

activity, seizing

the papal authority. His standing in the

church

at large

The Spanish to

was not apparently

affected.

church, for example, subject

Muslim domination, sought

his counsel,

and noteworthy visitors to whom he presented the *pallium were the newly appointed archbishops Oskytel of York (957) and Dunstan of Canterbury (960). He shared his

father's interest in

monastic reform,

materially assisting the abbeys of Farfa,

Alberic died on 31 Aug. 954, being succeeded by Octavian as temporal ruler, and

40 km. north of Rome, and Subiaco, 80 km. east of Rome, and going on pilgrimage to the latter in May 958. Meanwhile his political situation was deteriorating. An ill-

Agapitus a little more than a year was buried behind the apse of

state

to this profoundly uncanonical undertaking.

later;

St

he

John

Lateran.

LP

2,

1866)

JW

1,

P. JafTe, Biblwtheca

111,

345-50; /WGLeges

Hal. di numismatica f.

(G. Arnaldi);

Mann

JOHN

1,

133,

DBI

*>

3^7

P- Kirsch);

M. AhcrncJ.

XII (16 Dec. 955-14 May 964). named Octavian and born f.937,

Romans

to

swear

Agapitus

they would elect Octavian,

who was

Symmachus

agreements

forbidding

II

died,

to suc-

(i

Mar. 499)

during a

pope's

lifetime about the choice of his successor,

was carried

name

out,

it

Octavian changing his

second pope known

(the

to

do

so;

John II in 533 was the first) to John. Already was hardly eighteen, and contemporary reports agree about his disin-

in orders, he

terest

spiritual

in

things,

addiction

to

life.

and uninhibitedly Gossipy tongues accused

him of turning

the Lateran palace into a

boorish

pleasures,

debauched brothel.

However scandalous his conduct, John show of administrative a

maintained

(950-63),

who conquered

his weakness, John dispatched

two envoys in

960 to Otto I, since 936 king of Germany, demanding help and offering him the imperial crown. This was a complete reversal of Alberic's policies, but John was probably not a free agent and acted under pressure from the Roman opposition increasingly influenced by reforming ideals and outlate

raged by his deplorable behaviour. Otto,

that,

ceed him as prince, as supreme pontiff as well. Although this undertaking violated the decree of Pope

Italy

the duchy of Spoleto in 959. Conscious of

195 (C.

the reigning pope

king of

II,

19-26; Rnhta

he was the bastard son of Alberic II (^90554), prince and all-powerful ruler of Rome from 932 to 954. On his deathbed Alberic

when

northern ter-

2,

Originally

obliged the leading

its

were being plundered by Berengar

Germ. (Berlin,

33 (1920), 225-7; 1, 890-2 0-

\CE

to enlarge the papal

rer.

DHGE

224-40;

4,

958

miserably, while

ritories

459-63; 7PR, 72-98; PL

in

by attacking Capua and Benevento

failed

245;

889-932;

judged attempt

crown

who had

vainly sought the imperial

951, welcomed the invitation. First, he made a compact with the envoys to in

protect the pope and the patrimony of Peter,

which was to remain inviolate, and to refrain from interference in Rome's internal affairs. He then marched to Lombardy in late summer, quickly restored his sovereignty there, and was in Rome on 3 Jan. 962. On 2 Feb. John anointed and crowned him, with his queen Adelaide, in St Peter's, and with the leading Romans swore to be loyal to him and refuse support to Berengar. Thus was reinaugurated the Holy Roman Empire (to last until the abdication of Francis II in 1806). A synod was then held which, after admonishing John to improve his way of life, decided certain issues affecting the ticular,

126

German church;

in par-

John met the emperor's wishes by

LEO raising

Magdeburg to an

archbishopric with

work among

oversight of missionary

the

on 13 Feb. Otto published

Slavs. Finally,

the 'Ottoman privilege', solemnly confirm-

donations

the

ing

of

and

Pepin

Charlemagne, with significant additions which extended the papal state to about two-thirds of Italy, binding the emperor to defend the church's rights and possessions, and also restoring (this section may have

been added in Dec. 963) the rules for free papal elections subject to imperial approval

man

elected, his obligation to swear

fealty to the

emperor, and the recognition of

of the the

emperor

laid

as overlord in the papal state, as

down in the Constitution of Lothair I of

824.

departed later in Jan. to rejoin his army, he

was able to re-establish himself in February. Leo had fled, but John inflicted savage reprisals on such of his opponents as he could find. At a synod held on 26 Feb. he quashed the acts of the imperial synod, deposed Leo as a usurper, and pronounced his ordinations invalid. But his triumph was short-lived. Otto marched on Rome, and John, who was hoping to patch up an agreement with him, prudently sought refuge in

Campagna

the

in

Pope and emperor had been mutually and when Otto left Rome to fight Berengar, John, who had looked for a protector not a master, immediately began intriguing against him with Berengar's son Adalbert, and also with the Magyars. On 1 Nov. 963 an infuriated Otto returned; John, who at first thought of armed resistance,

There, in early

April.

May, he suffered a stroke, allegedly while in bed with a married woman, and a week later he died,

PL

in his

still

middle twenties.

LP

JW 1, 463-7; 23-7 (Ottonianum); 532-6; Watterich 1, 41-62; 672-9; K. Hampe, 'Die Berufung Ottos des Grossen zu Rom durch Papst Johannes XII', Festschrift fir K. Zeuner (Weimar, 1910); P. Schramm, Kaiser, Rom und 133, 1013-41;

246-9;

2,

ZPR, 98-139; AfGConst

mistrustful,

VIII (963-5)

1,

Renovatio (2nd edn., Darmstadt, 1957); W. Ullmann, 'The Origins of the Ottonianum', CHjf 1 (1953),

1

14-28;

DTC 8, 619-26 (E. Amann); Zi, Mann 4, 241-72; NCE 7,

77-92; Z2, 134-52;

ion

(S.

McKenna); Seppelt

2,

361-71.

fled with the papal treasure to Tivoli. After

making the Romans swear never in future to elect a pope without his consent, Otto

LEO VIII (4 Dec.

presided over a synod in St Peter's

the

the clergy had charged

after

at

which,

John with him of

appalling misbehaviour, he accused perfidy and treachery.

wrote

and

to John asking

justify

The synod

him

to

thrice

appear before

it

himself, but he refused and

excommunication.

threatened

In

his

absence he was deposed on 4 Dec, and Otto, begged by the synod to replace the 'apostate' by a

highly

worthy successor, proposed

placed

Lateran

official

a

(protos-

Roman

963-1 Mar. 965). When synod of 4 Dec. 963 presided

over by Emperor Otto

(962-73) deposed

I

(955-64) in his absence, the man elected by acclaim, with Otto's approval,

John XII

was Leo, an experienced Lateran

official

of

exemplar}' character, chief notary {protoscriniarius)

once

of the church.

A layman, he was at

installed in the Lateran, in spite of

canonical impropriety rushed through the

lower orders

in a single day, and consecrated by the bishops of # Ostia, Porto, and

criniarius),

Leo, who was elected and conLeo VIII two days later. The validity of John's deposition, which violated the ancient principle that the holy see can be judged by no earthly power, has been called

Albano on 6 Dec, the

secrated as

first

in question.

that the section of the # 'Ottonian privilege'

On 3 Jan. 964 a revolt in Rome, provoked by John, was repressed with bloodshed. As a

prescribing such an oath was inserted

Leo

VIII,

that before consecration

likely

fealty to the

date.

and the ill-judged John had so improved

his standing in the city that,

used

(for the

revised ones introduced to Italy by Otto.

result of his intrigues

actions of

rites

time in the case of a pope) being the

The

least until

when Otto 27

emperor, and

it

It is

he swore

has been argued

at this

legitimacy of Leo's pontificate,

at

John XII's death, has been condepends on the validity, debated

tested;

it

among

canonists, of John's deposition.

,

BENEDICT V (964) Neither

masterful

Otto's

and on

3 Jan.

964

nor,

rule

Leo was

apparently, the choice of

popular,

a revolt threatening their

at Tivoli, had to be crushed by the imperial troops. Anxious lives, instigated

by John XII

to halt the bloodshed,

Leo unwisely per-

suaded Otto to release the hostages the Romans had given him and be content with a renewed oath of loyalty. So far from winning Leo support, this led, when the

emperor and

Rome

his forces left

Jan., to violent disturbances ally

in midwhich eventu-

forced the pope to seek refuge in the

resume the reins of authority. At a synod in St Peter's on 26 Feb. he deposed and excommunicated Leo as a usurper of the holy see, uncanonically ordained, and guilty of perfidy to his lawful pope. Anyone he had ordained was compelled to confess that his orders were void. imperial court and enabled

On

John's

death

(14

John

to

May

964) besought

the

Romans, ignoring Leo, the emperor to be allowed to elect the cardinal deacon Benedict. For Otto the restoration of Leo involved his personal prestige, and he flady refused. The Romans notwithstanding elected and enthroned Benedict as Benedict V, and only gave in and surrendered him when Otto's army besieged the hunger-stricken

on 23 June and

Otto re-entered

city.

reinstated Leo,

who

a

it

few

days later held a synod which deposed and

degraded Benedict. Apart from a few routine decisions little else is known of Leo's reign. Three documents attributed to him (the Cessatio donationum, the Privilegium maius, and the Privilegium minus), which purport to restore to Otto and his successors a number of territories in the patrimony of St Peter, as well as granting them the right to nominate and install archbishops and bishops, have been shown to be nth-cent, forgeries by Italian supporters of Emperor Henry IV in the *investiture struggle; they reflect the

conviction that

Leo was

the

mere creature

of Otto.

LP 2, 246-50; JW 532-6

1

,

(deposition);

2, 706; /WGConst 1 663-78 (forged privileges);

466-70;

DTC 9, 3 17-20 (E. Amann); Sep367-72; Zi 88-95; 235-51; Z2 150-4; Th. Klauser, HJf 53 (1936), 186-9; M. Andrieu, 'La carriere ecclesiastique des papes', RevSR 21 ZPR,

1

20-50;

pelt 2,

(1947), 109

f.;

Government

W. Ullmann, The Growth

(3rd

London,

edn.,

of Papal

1970),

esp.

352-8.

BENEDICT V (22

May-deposed 23 June

4 July 966). A Roman by birth, described by contemporaries as devout,

964:

d.

morally exemplary, and learned (grammaticus),

who

he was a deacon

movement

reform

for

favoured the the

in

church.

Although he apparently took part in the election of Leo VIII on 6 Dec. 963 after the (temporary) deposition of John XII, he did not play a prominent role in the bitter factional strife at the time;

when John resumed 964 and had who was in John's death on

control of the holy see in Feb.

Leo deposed, he the

city,

May

left

Benedict,

undisturbed.

On

Romans, instead of recalling Leo, sent envoys to Emperor Otto I (96273), at Rieti, begging leave to elect Benedict; they wanted a reformer in place of a libertine, had no liking for Leo, and perhaps hoped that Otto would be prepared to drop him in favour of such an irreproachable 1

4

the

candidate. Otto, however, angrily refused. In spite of this the clergy and people elected and enthroned Benedict, promising to defend him at all costs. Only when Otto laid siege to the city and looked like starving it out, notwithstanding the anathemas Benedict hurled at the besieging army from the walls, did the citizens yield and hand him over (23 June). A synod was immediately held in the Lateran, presided over by Leo and Otto, which condemned Benedict as a usurper (he was in fact one if Leo VIII was

pope).

legitimate

Humbly

refusing

to

defend himself, he was formally stripped of his pontifical robes and insignia, and had his pastoral staff (the

first

recorded mention of

the papal sceptre) broken over his head by

Leo himself as he

lay prostrate; the story

of

972) that he removed his robes himself is a canard the chronicler Liutprand

intended

to

voluntarily.

28

suggest

On

(d.

that

he

abdicated

the emperor's intervention

JOHN to retain the rank of

he was allowed

deacon

but was exiled to Hamburg, where the bishop, Adaldag, treated him with marked consideration. call,

On

Leo's death there was a

which went unheeded,

for his restora-

He died at Hamburg, deeply respected

which

it

had

XIII (965-72)

Measures were taken,

lost.

probably inspired by Otto, to promote cleri-

and continue favours

cal celibacy

to the

Macon. For his raised Magdeburg to

monastery' of Cluny, near part

John

definitively

for his holy life, on 4 July 966. His remains were brought back to Rome by Emperor

an archbishopric, a project dear to the emperor's heart, agreed by John XII in 962 but hitherto obstructed by the bishops of

Otto

III in

Mainz and

LP

251;

tion.

2,

273-81; 8

988.

JW

DBI 8,

(F. Baix);

469 342-4

1,

Seppelt

(P.

2,

had been

ZPR, 139-51; Mann

f.;

Delogu);

371;

McKenna); Zi, 92-5; Z2,

NCE

DHGE 8, 3 1273

2,

f.

Halberstadt. Otto's original idea

to

make

it

the base for the conver-

4,

(S.

sion of

the Slavs east of the Saale and

Elbe, but in his bulls (20 Apr. 967 and 18

Oct.

15 1-3.

all

968) confirming

granting the *pallium to

JOHN

XIII (1 Oct. 965-6 Sept. 972). A Roman, son of John Episcopus (a surname)

but not related, as

is

often supposed, to the

powerful Crescentii, he was brought up in the papal court, held successive offices and was librarian under John XII, and was then promoted bishop of Narnia in Umbria. Five months after Leo VIII's death (in the interval the Romans had vainly asked for the restoration of Benedict V) he was elected pope with the agreement of two bishops

whom Emperor Otto (962-73) sent to Rome to represent him. He was a comproI

mise appointment; but

he

could

if Otto

Rome

rule

reckoned that with

better

an

seemed dependence on

disastrous, a

German

for

city. In Dec. 965 was assaulted, imprisoned, and banished to the Campagna, but he

to escape,

made

contact with the

emperor, and on 14 Nov. 966, the Romans having repented of their foolhardiness, returned in triumph. Otto reached

creation

'the

of

new

bishoprics

not

to

the

emperor but to the metropolitan: evidence, it has been claimed, that he retained some independence.

At Christmas 967 John crowned Otto's twelve-year-old son Otto

emperor.

The

II

urgency,

(955-83) as coview of the

in

restoration of the western empire in

962 and

of Otto's efforts to extend his control in territories in

southern

Italy

under Byzantine

suzerainty, of putting relations with

Con-

stantinople on a constructive footing

now

obvious.

was

Otto formed the plan of

Rome

at

avoided;

when John,

of Constantinople retaliated by making the bishop of Otranto an archbishop with

were punished with gruesome brutality. From now onwards John was protected by the emperor, who resided in Italy until summer 972. Although John was a mainly subservient partner, two worked the together to their mutual benefit. At a synod at Ravenna in Apr. 967 Otto confirmed the

check

including the former exarchate,

of Otto's

Capua and Bene-

vento into metropolitan sees, the patriarch

suffragans under

restoration to the papal state of large ter-

in support

political designs, erected

Christmas, and the participants in the revolt

ritories,

to

on 14 Apr. 972 John married Otto II and the Greek princess Theophano, niece of Emperor John I Tzimisces (969-76), and crowned her. Even so, tension between the eastern and western churches could not be

commade him

revolted; John

managed

see

achieving this by a diplomatic marriage, and

hated in the faction-riven it

the

recently converted Slavs' and assigned the

at

sovereign

bined with his high-handed rule

limited

archbishop,

John's

establishment figure as pope, his choice first

Adalbert, John

and

privileges

its

its first

Roman

five

him and attempting

to

influence in the Byzantine

provinces of Apulia and Calabria.

Although

it

lasted only a year, John

made

Vich, in north-east Spain, a metropolitan its own. In 972 Oswald (d. 992), newly appointed archbishop of York, visited

see on

him, ostensibly to receive the *pallium but probably also to discuss the reorganization

of monastic

129

life in

England on the reformed

;

BENEDICT VI lines

(973-4)

now becoming

tinent. John's

accepted on the Con-

empire

of the Crescentii, a member of which had fought for him in the troubled days of 965, to

enhance

its

power

buried in St Paul's-without-the-Walls.

LP

2,

253-4;

JW

203; Watterich

and

470-7; 2, 706 f.; ZPR, 15044; 684-6; Brezzi, 142-8; A.

sovereignty in

Italy,

the

or

process

1,

1,

crisis in the

German

overthrow

to

had a hand in the revolt. In June 974 Benedict was seized by the rebels and imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo to await trial. Nothing is known of

Rome. He was

in

anxious to exploit the

tines,

patronage assisted the family

of the charges brought

against him, but the deacon Franco

was and consecrated pope with

Brackman, 'Die Ostpolitik Ottos des Grossen', HZ 134 (1926), 242-56; DTC 8, 626-8 (E. Amann); Mann 4, 282-304; Seppelt 2, 372-8;

hastily elected

Zi,95-8;Z2, 153-85.

hurried to

Rome

demanded

Benedict's release, but in vain.

the

BENEDICT VI (19 Jan. 973-July 974). Nothing is known of his background except that he was a Roman, son of a Hildebrand who became a monk, and was cardinal priest of S. Teodoro when he was elected. The exact date and circumstances of his election are obscure, but the increasingly dominant Crescentii family strongly backed a candidate of its own, the deacon Franco. Benedict, however, had the support of both the imperial party and, in

He must

credible

in July

and peremptorily

if its

legitimate tenant

were out of

Two privileges purporting to emanate from Benedict VI and to settle a dispute between Archbishop Frederick of Salzburg and Bishop Piligrim of Passau over jurisdicHungary have been shown

tion in

255-7; JW

DHGE

x

38-43

8,

Delogu);

was caused by

be

to

forgeries.

LP 2,

have been elec-

to his consecration

imperial

the way.

ted in Sept. or Oct. 972; the delay in pro-

ceeding

The

Boniface had him strangled by a priest

reforming circles opposed to a purely political appointment.

VII.

Count Sicco of Spoleto,

named Stephen, probably judging that his own title to the holy see would look more

probability, of

all

name Boniface

representative,

P. E.

>

477

(F.

-9;

2 » 7°7; ZP/?,

Baix);

Schramm,

DBI

8,

203-1

344-6

'Kaiser, Basileus

Papst in der Zeit der Ottonen', //Z33

(1

1

(P.

und

924), esp.

Mann 4, 305-14; Zi, 99 f.;Z2, 202

the necessity, under the *Ottonian privilege

436 f.;

of 962, of obtaining the authorization of Emperor Otto I (962-73), then in

Seppelt

Germany. For the moment

BONIFACE VII (antipope June-July 974; Aug. 984-20 July 985). A Roman, son of Ferrucius and himself named Franco, he was a cardinal deacon in 972, and on the death ofJohn XIII on 6 Sept. seems to have been the candidate favoured by the

swallow

their

the Crescentii had to

Benedict

disappointment.

embarked on policies characteristic of the Ottoman papacy, confirming the precedence of Trier as the oldest see in Germany, favouring reforming monasteries, and strictly forbidding bishops to charge fees for ordinations

fatally

undermined

May

Crescentii family, then dominant in

his position in faction-

weakness was exposed on Otto's death

May

Theodora

the

Younger

I

(d.

Germany,

984), son of

(d. c.950)

and head

of the Crescentian clan. Although concrete evidence

is

sparse,

it is

likely that the

Byzan-

I

in

June 974, when the new emperor Otto II (973-83) was preoccupied with difficulties in Germany, there was a

a nationalist party arose against him, led by

the consul Crescentius

Rome.

the imperial party,

(962-73), was Benedict VI, who had little following among the aristocracy and whose

Rome, and a year later, at a juncture when the new emperor, Otto II (973-83), in

209;

however, and approved by Emperor Otto

973,

riven

was preoccupied with troubles

f.;

377-9.

The man chosen by

and consecrations. The

death of Otto, however, on 7

2,

973.

In

rising against Benedict led by Crescentius

I

de Theodora; he was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo, and Franco was consecrated

pope with the 130

title

Boniface VII.

The

BENEDICT VII (974-83) emperor's

Count Sicco, demanded

representative,

from

hastened

and his corpse, was dragged and exposed naked

detestation against him,

and

Spoleto

of

stripped

vestments,

its

Benedict's release; but Boniface, aware that

through the streets

Sicco was certain to restore the legal pope,

beneath Marcus Aurelius's statue, then in front of the Lateran, but now on the Capitol,

had him strangled. Horror

at the

murder

turned the populace against him, and soon

where people trampled on

he had

with their spears. In popular speech his

to take refuge in Castel Sant'Angelo.

Sicco stormed the fortress but Boniface

name was

escaped, taking part of the papal treasure

'Malefatius'.

with him, and in

south

made

for Byzantine territory

Classified since

Sicco and, apparently, the Crescentii.

One

measures was to hold a synod at which Boniface was excommunicated, the sentence being circulated in the east as well as the west. The usurper was far from finished, however, and was even able, in

summer

980, possibly during the pope's absence, to establish himself temporarily in

(F. Baix);

LThK

589 (G. Schwaiger); EC 2, 12, 143-6 (P. Delogu); 378-83; Zi, 99-103; Z2, 202-4; 206;

Seppelt

fled to Constantinople.

213; 225-7.

1866

Byzantium

returned

powerful

to

with

Rome

allies,

in

Roman

Prince Alberic

had John

deposed, and four months

he

funds,

984, found imprisoned,

Apr.

Aug.

later (20

aristocrat,

son of David, kinsman of

who had ruled Rome 932-54, and connected with the powerful Crescentii family, he was bishop of Sutri, near Viterbo, when with the consent of

a second, suc-

ample

2,

DBI

BENEDICT VII (Oct. 974-10 July 983). A

cessful if short-lived, comeback. Supplied

by

2,

Goggi);

(P.

confusion

following Otto IPs death on 7 Dec. 983 and the unpopularity of Benedict's successor

made

II,

Count

Sicco,

Otto

(973-83), he succeeded

II

whom

VI,

his reign, but the fact that

recognize Boniface,

the intruder

had had assassinated. Sicco refused

lasted eleven

months without imperial intervention

Emperor Benedict pope Boniface VII

representative of

984) murdered, and then re-ascended the papal throne. Almost nothing is known of it

of popes,

255-9; JW 1, 485; 2, 707; 747; ZP*> 21 1 f.; 231-3; 253-6; Brezzi, 148-57; DHGE 9, 900-4

accompanied by the emperor and armed soldiers. Boniface was driven out and

Boniface

an antipope, he

official lists

974-

981

later, exploiting the

as

to

LP 2,

Rome. Benedict sent an urgent appeal to Otto, and managed to return only in Mar.

John XTV,

1904

it

though usually described as an intruder; the next pope to assume the name Boniface was reckoned the eighth. Some have argued that he was legitimate pope at any rate from the date of John XIV's death in Aug. 984. He himself professed to regard Benedict VII and John XIV as intruders, and insisted on dating his reign from his consecration in

first

Four years

and stabbed

from 'Bonifatius'

appears in the ancient

Italy.

Meanwhile Benedict VII (974-83) was elected pope in Oct. with the approval of of his

twisted

it

Italy,

is

and

who escaped

a fresh election

was

to

to south

held.

The

proof not only of the weakness of the government but of the support which, in

choice of Benedict was a useful compro-

which he had the cardinal deacon John blinded), he must

party,

have enjoyed.

which Boniface was excommunicated, but even so his position was not secure. Based on Byzantine territory in south Italy, Boni-

mise: though the candidate of the imperial

spite of opposition (to quell

On

20 July 985 he died suddenly.

The

conjecture that he was assassinated, the victim of a palace conspiracy,

is

plausible

but not supported by the sources.

was

There

certainly a revulsion of public opinion,

for his

he was also acceptable

families.

death saw a furious outburst of 1.31

He

to the

noble

immediately held a synod

at

face carried out a coup in summer 980 which compelled the pope to leave Rome. Benedict appealed urgently to the emperor, and succeeded in returning onl\ in Mat.

JOHN

XIV

(983-4)

981 when Otto had established himself

were

there

in

considerations

practical

Italy.

favour of this rearrangement,

A deeply religious man, Benedict promoted monasticism and monastic reform;

was

he also collaborated obediently with the emperor. Thus many of his enactments in his early years aimed at settling, in the confusion resulting from recent wars, the

who was now

German

relative status of great

example,

Mainz

Italy,

obedience independent of Byzantine-controlled Bari.

For

vicar,

of

Glum, near Macon

Christian west. Visits by leading prelates

and

by the

Aventine, which

with

eastern,

Christianity.

He

and had

Subiaco, east of Rome,

a

increased:

site

became more frequent;

not

only

the

Rome, but James,

of Carthage

bishop

elected

in

came

circumstances,

to

of

Sergius

did

Damascus seek refuge

Rome

in

difficult

to

be con-

was buried in Sta Croce Gcrusalemme, one of the seven ancient patriarchal basilicas of Rome; at some date prior to his election he was reputed to have gone as a pilgrim to Jerusalem and to have secrated. Benedict in

brought back

the

LP 2

Slav,

keen interest

the thresholds',

of referring issues to the pope

practice

maintained contact especially

(i.e. 'to

Paul: a technical expression for formal visits

monastery of SS. Bonifacio and Alexio on the

adlimina

to the holy see)

in

Arabs),

layfolk

or the tombs, of the Apostles Peter and

under the refugee patriarch Sergius of (expelled

emperor,

his subservience to the

of the holy see in the consideration of the

Burgundy, and placed the island of I.erins under Gluny. In Rome in 977 he refounded,

Damascus

all

Benedict's reign witnessed an enhancement

1

abbot

making Salerno an archbishopric and up Trani as a bishopric of Latin

setting

and permitted Dietrich of Trier singular ceremonial privileges and assigned him the cell of SS. Quattro Goronati on the Gaelian (the first foreigner to possess a *title church in Rome). In early 976 he approved the appointment of Thietmar as bishop of the new see of Prague, originally planned to have oversight of Moravia as well as Bohemia. At the same time he gave active support to bishops who, especially in Germany (e.g. Dietrich of Trier), were restoring monasteries on reformed lines. le himself was in touch with Maiolus, the saintly fourth

translated to the grander see

with Otto's anti-Byzantine policies in south

sees; for

primacy as apostolic

his

of Otto's

Bishop Giseler of Merseburg,

of Magdeburg. Benedict also co-operated

the right to

confirmed

in

real object

ambition

the

gratify

favourite,

975 he granted the bishop of crown German kings and

in

to

its

1

3-58;

315-27;

PL

fragment of the true cross. 1,

479-84;

2,

(F. Baix);

707; ZPR, f.;

Mann 4,

EC 2,

1271

DBIS, 346-50 (P. Delogu); Zi,

Z2, 204-7; Seppelt

of St Benedict's

where he consecrated the church of Sta Scholastica on 4 Dec. 980. His relations with Otto became even

JW

137, 315-58; Brezzi, 152

DHGE 8, 46-61

(B. Pesci);

in

a

256; 258;

2, lxx;

2,

101

f.

f.;

378-80.

grotto,

closer after his return to

981.

The emperor now

Rome

resided in

XIV

(Dec. 983-20 Aug. 984).

the death of

Benedict VII

Emperor Otto

in spring Italy,

JOHN

and

first

II

(973-83) seems

to

have

offered the papal throne to Maiolus,

abbot of Cluny (965-94), who thereupon nominated his

was present with him at an important synod in St Peter's in Mar. 981 which prohibited

saintly fourth

simony, or the sale or purchase of any rank

former

of holy orders; the decision was communi-

Canepanova, from 966 bishop of Pavia,

cated to the entire Christian world. At the

birthplace.

declined

it.

He

arch-chancellor

The

for

Lateran synod of 9 and 10 Sept. 981 Benein compliance with the emperor's

had

vacancy.

wishes, suppressed the see of Merseburg,

Peter without consulting the

its

territory

among

the dioceses of

Halberstadt, Zeitz, and xMeissen. Although

to

Peter his

conduct explain the length of the Otto appears to have imposed

and people; there election.

132

Italy,

time-taking negotiations he

dict,

dividing

On

(10 July 983)

As

is

Roman

clergy

no evidence of a regular

a result the

new pope, who took

JOHN XV (985-96) the

name John

so as to avoid that of the

Prince of the Apostles, had no section of

Roman

allies in

any

and depended

society

wholly on his patron's protection.

(973-83), being preoccupied in Germany,

John Crescentius acted

Rome and tide

No doubt Otto looked for loyal co-opera-

as political ruler

of

the papal state with the official

'patrician'.

Although

ecclesiastical affairs, the

restricted

to

new pope threw

in

from his trusted former minister, and in fact John's only surviving bull is one bestow-

his lot with the nobility, thereby alienating

ing the *pallium, in furtherance of the

him.

tion

emperor's south

Italian policies,

on Arch-

his clergy; his rapacity also set

The

taken

them

against

imperial government, which had

no

part

the

in

papal

election,

when

bishop Alo of Benevento. Unfortunately he

acquiesced in the arrangement, and

had scarcely been installed in the Lateran when Otto, who had returned to Rome from

Theophano spent some months

winter 989/90 and asserted her youthful

the south stricken with malaria, died in his

son's sovereignty, she maintained amicable

arms

after

relations with both

983).

Empress Theophano was obliged

receiving absolution

return at once to

Germany

to

(7

Dec.

defend the

interests of her three-year-old son

Otto

III

(980-1002). Without friends, regarded by the

Romans

as forced

then defenceless and

Boniface VII,

raised

upon them, John was an easy prey

fell

up

as antipope

to

by the

powerful Crescentii family in 974, excommunicated by Benedict VII, but now biding his time in Constantinople. In Apr.

984 he

returned, and John was seized, brutally

and flung into gaol in Castel Sant'Angelo; no details of the charges or trial survive. Four months later he died in the fortress of starvation; according to some reports, he was poisoned. His epitaph in St Peter's, which records 20 Aug. as the date of his death, was engraved during Boniface's lifetime and, signifiassaulted, formally deposed,

pope and

However reduced

to

in

Rome

in

patrician.

his role at

home, John

acted vigorously in the church at large.

When war seemed imminent between King Aethelred

of England (978-1016) and

II

Duke Richard

I of Normandy (946-96), he mediated and arranged a peaceful settlement (1 Mar. 991). In 992 Duke Mieszko I of Poland (c. 960-92) presented his whole

realm to St Peter and the pope, his object being to ensure more effective protection it against Germany and Bohemia. In Germany John co-operated with the church

for

policies of the imperial government,

and on

31 Jan. 993, at a synod in the Lateran, solemnly canonized Ulrich, bishop of

Augsburg

the first ritual (923-73), canonization of a saint by a pope. In 992, spurred on by the German episcopate, he

intervened in the affair of the deposition of

candy, did not describe the circumstances

Arnoul, archbishop of Rheims (988-1021),

of his end.

at the instigation

LP2,

259JW 1, 484

Mann 1012 2,

4,

(S.

ZPR, 2$o- 5 ;PL 137, 357; 330-8; DTC 8, 628 (E. Amann); NCE 7> McKenna); Zi, 102; Z2, 223 f.; Seppelt f.;

3 8of.

of

Hugh

Capet, king of

France (987-96), by the synod of SaintBasle, Verzy (June 991), and his replacement by Gerbert of Aurillac (the future pope Silvester II). The French bishops had acted independently, convinced that

JOHN XV

they were within their rights and that the

Roman, son of a

papacy had

(mid-Aug. 985-Mar. 996). A priest Leo, a learned man and the author of books, he was cardinal priest of S. Vitale when he was elected, in

lost all

moral authority; when

John's legate, Abbot Leo, with

Hugh Capet and

summoned them,

his brother Robert, to

the turbulent situation following Antipope

present

Boniface VII's death

(late

July 985), as the agreed candidate of leading curial officials

rejoindered, at the synod of Chelles (993 or 994), that a pope who transgressed the

and John Crescentius

(d.

decrees of the fathers was no better than a

powerful Crescentii

family.

988), head of the

The

regent

Theophano, widow of Emperor Otto

II

themselves

heretic.

Nevertheless

through

his

133

legate,

at

Rome,

John to

was

have

they

able,

Gerbert

GREGORY V (996-9) suspended by the synod of Mouzon in the Ardennes (995). The incident has been described as one of the first and most

him was

serious manifestations of Gallicanism,

their maltreatment ofJohn

i.e.

French church to more or complete freedom from the authority of

the claim by the less

on him at Ravenna begging nominate a new pontiff; their attitude

nobility waited to

a

measure of

their fear of his

anger

at

XV. Otto chose

a

twenty -four-year-old relative born in 972, Bruno, son of his cousin Duke Otto of

the papacy.

Carinthia, a priest of first-rate education

After Theophano's death (15 June 991) John's position in Rome had deteriorated.

who had

John Crescentius died in 988, and his brother Crescentius II Nomentanus seized power in the papal state and ruled it as a tyrant. The French bishops at Saint-Basle

bishop

complained

that

gained experience of business in

Worms, Otto's chancellor, Rome, was formally elected, and at his consecration as the first German pope took the name Gregory V, adopting Hildibald

Gregory

from dealing with their business unless lavish bribes were provided. Abbot Leo had

model.

'in

On

summer he

king Otto

III,

Ger-

sent envoys to the

now

fifteen

and deemed

The news

of

this demarche,

decision

to

move

Otto's

Roman

Crescentius and the

make

their

back

to

south,

reinstall

JW

1,

486-9;

2,

707

f.;

in

ZPR, 256-96;

iojahrhundert', HJ 55 (1935), 527-44; K. G. von Zimgrod-Stadnicki, Die Schenkung (Fribourg, 191

1); F.

Schneider, 'Johann XV, Papst, und Ottos

628

f.

(E.

MIOG

Amann);

III

39 (1923), 193-218; DTC 8, 1012 (W. M. Pldchl).

own and

his son's

(3

Otto

ing from

May 996-18

Germany

XV's appeal

III

in

Feb. 999).

(996-1002), movresponse to

John

for help, reached Pavia at Eashe learned that the pope was dead (March). Soon a delegation of the Roman

ter 996,

the

Roman

new pope own,

became clouded between

names, and

to restore the

demanded. Gregory did not hesitate (May 996) to declare Gerbert (future pope Silvester II), whom John XV had to the papal state, as Gregory'

For

his part

suspended but who had become a close friend of Otto, an intruder on the see of

Rheims Arnoul

and its

his

deposed

predecessor

lawful bishop (988-1021).

In early June Otto

cooler climate.

GREGORY V

powerful

*Pentapolis (part of the *donation of Pepin)

NCE 7,

When Emperor

as

him and the emperor. Otto refused both to renew the pact with the holy see which Emperor Otto I (962-73) had issued in his

the

Romsim

Romfahrt',

Meanwhile,

relations quickly

him

invite

him

f.; Z2, 227-54; Seppelt 2, 381-7; W. Koelmel, 'Beitrage zur Verfassungsgeschichte

Polens an

in St Peter's,

ting the curia's point of view as his

to

Zi, 104

Papst Johannes XV

his

asserted his independence and began adop-

from Regensburg in Feb. 996, but before he Rome John had a violent attack of fever and died. 260;

as

and of

reached

2,

to conciliate the

families.

Lateran with every honour. Otto set out

LP

(590-604)

obliged

nobility

peace with the pope,

Rome, and

Great

Ascension day (21 May) he crowned

hoping

of age, begging for help against his oppressors.

the

making him thus protector of the church. On 22 May Otto passed judgement on the dictator Crescentius II Nomentanus, who had persecuted John XV; he was sentenced to banishment, but was pardoned on the illadvised intercession of Gregory, who was

and oppression' that he could vouchsafe no answer to them or others. In Mar. 995, persecuted by Crescentius, hated b> his clergy for his avariciousness and nepotism, John was forced to seek refuge in Sutri;

man

to

Otto as emperor and patrician

such tribula-

tion

in the

of

Bruno went

he had refused their envoys

admit that he held John

of

Willigis

access to the pope, and had prevented him

to

Accompanied by ArchMainz and Bishop

the royal chapel.

now aware

left

A month

Rome, seeking later

a

Gregory, by

of the resentment aroused in

Rome by the

appointment of a foreign pope and feeling his position threatened, besought him to return, but he declined, pleaded ill-health, and referred him to the dukes of Tuscany and Spoleto for protec-

134

JOHN XVI (antipope 997-8) tion. In early Oct., Otto being now in Germany, the Romans led by Crescentius II revolted and drove Gregory, stripped of

everything, out of the in

Spoleto,

city.

to recover

Rome

they both

failed.

In Jan. 997 Gregory moved to Lombardy, he held discussions with local

and against the emperor's

in fact

he

under

thirty, a

fell

a victim to malaria.

preach in French and

ability to

from a diplomatic mission to Byzantium. In early Feb. he held a synod at Pavia at which Crescentius was excommunicated and the old rules (going back to Symmachus, 1 Mar. 499) prohibiting agreements about his successor during a pope's lifetime and the purchase of clerical offices with money were re-enacted. Later in the month, on the pretext that the papal throne was vacant, Crescentius and his adherents, with active support from the Byzantine envoy Leo, had John Philagathos elected and installed with the title of John XVI. The usurper was soon excommunicated by the western episcopate, but as the

emperor had immediate preoccupations in Germany it was only in Feb. 998 that he could take possession of Rome. Here

He was still man of

hard and determined

resdess energy; his epitaph celebrated his

well as Latin.

archbishop of Piacenza, recendy

Mer-

His unexpected death in Feb. 999 started rumour that he had been poisoned, but

bishops; probably also with John Phila-

returned

he took

the

where

gathos,

will

seburg, suppressed in 981.

He sought refuge

and although he made two

armed attempts

ried;

steps (early 999) to restore the see of

German

as

LP

2, 261 f.; JW 1, 489-95; ZPR, 296-342; Zi, 104-13; Z2, chap. 10; Seppelt 2, 387-92; K. Guggenberger, Die deutschen Ptipste (Cologne,

1916), 15-28; K. and

M.

Uhlirz, Jahrbucher des

deutschen Retches: Otto III (Berlin, 1954), passim;

Mann 4, 389-446;/. ThK 4, MT£6,77i (F. Dressier).

JOHN XVI d.

182 (Th. Schieffer);

(antipope Feb.

26 Aug. 1001).

Calabria,

1

997-May

998:

A Greek from Rossano in

John Philagathos was appointed

chancellor for Italy (980) and then (982)

near Modena, by Emperor Otto II (973-83). After Otto's death his widow Empress Theophano made him (987) tutor to her seven-year-old son, King Otto III (emperor 996-1002), and then bishop of Piacenza (988), Pope John

abbot of Nonantola,

XV raising this

see for his sake to an arch-

presided over a

bishopric and detaching it from Ravenna. In

which John Philagathos, already mutilated, was deposed and imprisoned in a monastery; Crescentius was beheaded on the battlements of Castel

991 he again became chancellor for Italy, and in 994 was sent as special envoy to

Sant'Angelo.

accompanied by a Byzantine ambassador, Bishop Leo of Synada, in early November

Gregory,

synod

finally restored,

at

appallingly

For the

of his reign Gregory worked

rest

Constantinople to find a Byzantine princess as bride for Otto

III.

He

returned to

Italy,

conceptions of their respective roles did not

996, shortly after the Roman rising against Gregory V and his expulsion by Crescen-

make

tius II

closely with Otto, although their different

taken part in the deposition of Arnoul of

Nomentanus, now dictator of Rome. While Leo went to Rome, John Philagathos spent some weeks in north Italy, where he was in touch with Emperor Otto III at

Rheims and

Aachen

for easy relations.

uphold

Determined

to

he suspended the French bishops who had the

papal

point

ratified

his

of

view,

restoration

as

as well as with Crescentius. In early

bishop (Pavia, Feb. 997); but when Otto made Gerbert archbishop of Ravenna, he

Feb. 997, when Gregory, still exiled from Rome, held a synod at Pavia, there were

had

rumours

to accept his

the *pallium.

A

appointment and send him keen reformer, he excom-

municated King Robert

II

of France (996-

visiting

1031) for refusing to give up his cousin Bertha,

whom

that a fresh papal

election

was

pending, and shortly after John Philagathos,

Rome

allowed himself

he had uncanonically mar-

as John XVI.

'35

ostensibh to

.is

a

pilgrim,

be elected and installed

SILVESTER

(999-1003)

II

What prompted

his decision, apart

from

vain ambition, was powerful pressure from

Crescentius and the Greek envoy Leo; the

former hoped that the emperor, alienated

from

V

Gregory

and

aware

of

his

unpopularity, would be content to see such a trusted friend on the papal throne, while

the latter (as he boasted in letters

home)

Constantinople in separating Rome from its German master. But the usurper was not

could

advantage

only

see

allowed to enjoy his

new

for

role for long. In

Mar., by order of emperor and pope, he was replaced as abbot of Nonantola and arch-

bishop of Piacenza; either then or soon after

excommunication followed. In

his formal

summer 997 he letter

from

received a highly critical

his saintly compatriot,

Nilus of Rossano (^.910-1 004),

Abbot

and ritually stripped of his pontifical robes. Abbot Nilus, who had interceded in vain for him, was furious and left the city on the same day, placing a curse on both Otto and Gregory. Finally, the broken and humiliated man was shut up in a Roman monastery, where he was allowed to receive occasional visits and where he lingered on until 26 Aug. 1001.

LP 2,

261 f.;JW 1, 495 f; ZPR, 313-35; 378; Zi, 105-13; Z2, 259-64; Seppelt 2, 388 f.; M. Uhlirz, Jahrbucher des dtutschen Reiches: Otto III (Berlin 1954) (index); T. De Luca, Giovanni Filagato, Almanacco Calabrese (Rome, 1955), 81-92; P. E.

Schramm,

'Kaiser, Basileus

und Papst in der

Zeit

HZ

129 (1924), 424-75; 'Neun Briefe des Byzantinischen Gesandten Leos', BZ

der Ottonen',

25 (1925), 89-105.

who sharply

rebuked him for his unchristian ambition, and also severe remonstrances from his

SILVESTER II 1003). On the

former pupil Otto, for the moment detained

must by now have become that he was no more than

Emperor Otto III (996-1002), advised by Abbot Odilo of Cluny (d. 1049), appointed his friend and tutor, Gerbert, then arch-

Crescentius's creature, confined to purely

bishop of Ravenna, to succeed Gregory.

autumn he was

The first Frenchman to become pope, he named himself after Silvester I (314-35),

Germany. clear to him in

It

spiritual functions.

promising

to

By

submit

early

emperor's

to all the

demands, but Crescentius prevented any negotiation by putting the imperial messengers under lock and key. In Dec. 997 Otto marched with his army into Italy; John abandoned his cause as lost and fled to the Campagna a fact which explains the attribution to him, in most

—

of a reign often months. In Feb.

papal

lists,

998

Otto,

entered

accompanied

without resistance. led

by

Gregory,

Rome, which opened

A

discovered

fortified castle, seized

handed him over

gates

detachment of troops

by Count Berthold

usurper in a

its

to a

Roman

the

him, and

monastery.

more probably, consent of emperor and pope,

Either at his capture or, later

with the

he was blinded and appallingly mutilated in his nose, tongue, lips, and hands; he was then paraded around the city, sitting back to front on an ass. Later, probably in May, a formal trial was held under the presidency of Gregory, and he was condemned, deposed, degraded from his priestly rank,

(2

Apr.

death

999-12

May

Gregory V

of

regarded as the model of papal

traditionally

partnership with the emperor.

Born

f.945

Auvergne

in

of humble

parentage, he received a thorough education, first at Aurillac

he

became

and then

exceptionally

at

Vich, where

proficient

in

and astronomy. Taken to Rome in 970, he impressed John XIII by his brilliance and was introduced to Emperor Otto I (962-73). In 972 he went to study dialectic at Rheims, where the archbishop, Adalbero, soon appointed him head of his cathedral school. His renown as a mathematics

wide-ranging, spread, and

strikingly

when

original

visiting the court

teacher

of Otto

(973-83) at Ravenna with Adalbero in 980 he debated in the emperor's presence II

with Otric, head of the cathedral school

at

Magdeburg. Otto was so delighted that he named him abbot of Bobbio, 60 km. northeast of Genoa; but in spite of the attractions of the great library he encountered, as a foreigner,

36

such administrative and other

SILVESTER practical difficulties that in

984 he resumed

Becoming involved

he assisted getting Hugh Capet

in politics,

Bishop Adalbero in king of France

elected

On

(987-96).

Adalbero's death (23 Jan. 989) Gerbert hoped to succeed him at Rheims, but Hugh

Capet nominated Arnoul, bastard son of the former Carolingian king Lothair (954-86). Only when he discovered that Arnoul, who had sworn fealty, was intriguing against him with his rival Charles, duke of Lorraine (d. ^.994), did the king, after vainly awaiting the

assent of John

XV, have him deposed and

replaced by Gerbert

the synod of Saint-

at

June 991). Bishop Arnoul of Orleans, furnished with arguments by Basle, Verzy (17

Gerbert,

rejected

the

plea

papal

that

the eight counties of the *Pentapolis

tative,

which Gregory V had demanded in vain, making it clear, however, that he did so of his own free will and not in fulfilment of the *Donation of Constantine, which he dismissed as a forgery. As Otto's conception of his role in the renewed Christian empire developed, Silvester was inevitably the junior partner, but joint

archbishoprics at Gniezno and Esztergom

crown

was

and determined by

clear

and that in any case the holy see had moral credibility. John XV, however,

ism), lost

refused to

recognize

resignation,

and

Arnoul's enforced

at the

synod of

Mouzon

(June 995) his legate suspended Gerbert, who in the meantime had been openly

100 1 Silvester sent the royal I of Hungary.

King Stephen

to

In Feb. 1001, dissatisfied with foreign

Romans revolted, and emperor and pope were forced to quit the city. Otto died of malaria on 23 Jan. 1002 before he could re-establish his authority. John II rule, the

Crescentius a firm

hand

(d.

101 2)

now ruled Rome with

as patrician (1003-12), but

spiritual leader until his

Rheims now became untenable, and in spring 996 he betook himself to the court of Otto HI, becoming his close friend and

year

adviser,

and ably defending himself

at the

he

allowed Silvester to return and function as a

attacking the papal pretensions. His position at

their successful

the church in Poland and in Hungary, with

respectively; in

law (an early manifestation of *Gallican-

among

achievements was the organization of

claiming that synods could judge bishops the case

whose imagina-

he helped to shape the vision of a renewed, Christian Roman empire. Otto esteemed him so highly that he handed over to him (Jan. 1001), as St Peter's represen-

tion

approval for the deposition was necessary,

when

(999-1003)

abbots by monks. Throughout he worked in close concert with Otto, in

Rheims.

his teaching at

II

later.

death less than a

Overshadowed

politically

emperor, but an astute statesman in touch with

by the

who

kept

most of the leading personali-

of the day, Silvester dazzled con-

ties

coronation synod in May. His problems at

temporaries by the versatility and brilliance

Rheims were solved when

of his

in Apr.

998 Otto

intellect.

work

His reputation

on many-

rests less

churchman than on

procured his appointment as archbishop of

his

Ravenna.

sided culture, especially in the fields of

Once

installed as pope, Silvester

showed

himself an intransigent champion of the traditional rights of the earlier

papacy which he had

Thus he

assailed.

authorized his old

rival

immediately

Arnoul

his functions as archbishop of

to resume Rheims on

literature (e.g. the collection

tion

of manuscripts

terrestrial

high

metropolitans and bishops disapproval.

An

active

hand

against

who incurred

his

reformer,

he

denounced simony and nepotism, called for celibacy, and insisted on the free election of

Latin

a pioneer of the abacus,

celestial

globes,

and the

he was a magician who had made a pact

that

a

and

and preserva-

of classical

organ. Later credulity invented the legend

with the

with

He was

authors).

sanctioned by the holy see, and proceeded act

his

science, music, and mathematics, but also in

the ground that his deposition had not been

to

as a

devil, to

whom

he owed his unpre-

from Rheims to Ravenna, and then to Rome; the three initial Rs were deemed portentously significant.

cedented

PL

139,

promotion

57-338 (works); A.

Ollcris (ed.), (l.uvrcs

de Gerbert (Clermont-Ferrand, 1867); N.

37

Huhnov

JOHN

XVII

(1003)

Gerberti opera mathematica (Berlin,

(ed.),

(MG,

von Reims

WlY,MeL4rchHist

1899;

Die Briefsammlung Gerberts

repr. 1963); F. Weigle,

629

his

Papal r

DTC

see

index;

chrehente au

Geschichte: Otto

2075-83

14,

J.

Leflon,

Gerbert:

Xv

Steele (St

Wandrille, 1946); P. E.

1

P. Lattin)^

XVII (16 May-6 Nov. 1003). Silvester IPs successor was John Sicco, son of a father also named John and born in Biberetica

of the

district

Trajan's column. Nothing

is

city

near

known of

his

earlier career or of the circumstances of his

election except that he

from 1003

nominee of John

Crescentius

II

his part in the revolt against

since the death of

power

without

—with

(d.

1012),

998

in

Gregory

Emperor Otto held

heir

for

V, III

effective

the rank of patrician of the

Romans (1003-12)

— over Rome, the papal

and the papacy

state,

itself.

John was prob-

ably related to the family of the Crescentii,

and he seems patrician.

A

to

to

(as

have been the puppet of the

chronicler reports that he was

he well might have been)

to

new German Henry II (1002-24), Dut was prevented from taking any steps by John Crescentius. His only recorded act of significance is establish relations with the king,

his authorization of the Polish missionary-

Benedict, a disciple of Bruno of Querfurt,

and

his brethren to

engage

in evangelistic

work among the Slavs. It is not known how he died or how old he was. Three of his kinsmen a bishop, a deacon, and a high

—

dignitary of the Lateran chancery (secundicerius)

—

are

commemorated

in

an epitaph

dated 1040; they evidently took pride in being related to a pope, even one so shortlived

LP 2,

and obscure.

265; 'Note sur

JW la

1,

01

2,

with whose family he

have taken a vigorous

501; ZPR, 386-8; R. Poupardin,

chronologie du pontificat de Jean

initiative in

church

By putting pressure on the new German king, Henry II (1002-24), ne

brought about (1004) the restoration of the see of Merseburg, which Benedict VII had

Gregory V had sought to 1007 he approved the foundation

suppressed and

of the see of Bamberg (Bavaria) by Henry, who wanted to make it both a base for missionary work among immigrant Slavs

and

a political centre

made

it

suffragan to

Wurzburg, and placed

on the upper Main; he

Mainz

rather than to

as the latter's bishop desired, it

under papal protection.

he learned

(late

Sens

Orleans

and

When

1007) that the bishops of

had

threatened

the

privileges of the abbey of Fleury, ordering

burn the bulls granting it papal he peremptorily summoned them to Rome on pain of excommunication, and even threatened King Robert II of its

keen

1

affairs.

must have been the

son of the Crescentius executed

(996-1002)

to

may have been connected. Although Crescentius's nominee, John seems (from the sparse reports that survive)

revive. In

who

Rome

Crescentius, all-powerful ruler of

also

JOHN the

XVIII (25 Dec. 1003-June or July Fasanus ('Cock') by name, son of Ursus and Stephania, he was cardinal priest of St Peter's when he succeeded John XVII. Like him, he owed his appointment to the patrician John II

A Roman, John

1009).

HI

Amann); Z2, Humanxsme et

(E.

Schramm, Kaiser, Rom und Renovatio (Darmstadt, 1957); Seppelt 2, 384-6; 390-40 ;.\C£ 13,8586o~(H.

8,

JOHN

(New York, 1961); LP 2, 496-501; ZPR, 343-86; K. and ML Privileges

263 f.;JW 1, Uhlin',] ahrbucher der deutschen (see index);

DTC

Briefe der deutschen Katserzeit 2

(1966)); H. P. Lattin (ed.). The Letters ofGerbert

and

21 (1901), 387-90;

Amann).

(E.

abbot

to

exemptions,

France (996-1031) that he would place his entire kingdom under a ban if they failed to appear.

The chronicler Thietmar of Merseburg (975-1018) noted that John was eager for Henry II to visit Rome, presumably in May 1004 when he was crowned king of Italy at Pavia,

but that Crescentius set his face

against the idea.

On

the other hand,

it

may

have been Crescentius, with his pro-Byzantine

sympathies,

who brought about

temporary suspension during cate of the schism

between

Rome and

eastern church. At any rate there that the

138

the

this pontifi-

is

name of John XVIII was

the

evidence at

some

BENEDICT VIII date restored to the *diptychs at Constan-

Following the precedent set by

tinople.

John XV, he 1004)

me

solemnly canonized (mid-

nve Polish martyrs, Benedict,

patriarch Sergius

II (1001-19), after the temporary recognition of John XVIII, again struck the pope's name out of the *diptychs

of Constantinople, but no credence should

John, Isaac, Matthew, and Christian. He Archbishops *pallium to the sent

was himself responsible

Meingandus of Trier and Elphege

to

(d.

1012)

When he died, John is stated to have been monk at The general

be given

to the suggestion that Sergius

Constantinople,

announcement of his

of Canterbury.

(1012-24)

of

by sending

along

with

the

election, a profession

containing the *Filioque clause.

faith

IV

for this

An

obscurity; the possibility that his withdrawal

which he purports to appeal to the faithful everywhere to prepare an armed expedition to avenge the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem by Caliph alHakim on 18 Oct. 1009 is almost certainly

was forced upon him rather than voluntary

spurious; the elements of truth in the story

Paul's-without-the-Walls.

St

a

view

he retired there,

that

is

possibly having abdicated, shortly before his

death, but the circumstances are

is

wrapped

in

are

a very real one.

LP

2,

266;

JW

DTC 8,

629

NCE-],

1

501-3;

1,

M.

708; ZPR, 388-409;

2,

Amann);

(E.

f.

01 2 (W.

encyclical in

Brezzi, 185; Zi,

1

14;

and

arrival

in

Rome

news of the

in

disaster,

his attempts (unrelated) to mobilize the

Italian

Plochl); Seppelt 2, 401.

undoubted

the

Sergius's reign of the

powers

to

drive

the

Arabs from

Sicily.

SERGIUSIV(3i July 1009-12 May

son of Peter, a shoemaker of the

Ad

district,

Pinea

and

originally himself

his wife Stephania,

named

Peter with the

nickname Os or Bucca Porci ('Pig's Snout'), he had been bishop of Albano for five years when he succeeded John XVIII. The circumstances of his appointment remain

owed it to Crescentius, Rome's

obscure, but like John he

John

patrician

II

powerful dictator from 1003

name

altered his

to 1012.

it is

is

II of Germany (1002-24), sending envoys to the consecration of the

10 1 2) and ratifying the privileges granted

Rome, but any such

it

project

was

frustrated not only by the political situation in

Germany but by

the unyielding opposi-

tion of Crescentius.

bishop

(the

At the request of

chronicler

Thietmar:

its

975-

1018) he confirmed (1009) the possessions of the recendy restored see of Merseburg.

There

is

a

tradition

that

the

which took place and the immediate pope of the rival Tusculan

at the time,

election of a

family have given rise to the suspicion that

neither

man may

have died a natural death.

his eulogistic epitaph

can

still

be

LP

2, 266 f.;JW 1, 504 f.; ZPR, 409-24; PL 139, 1499-528; A. Gieysztor, 'The Genesis of the Crusades: the Encyclical of Sergius IV,

5 (1948), 3-34; Mann 5, 142-54; DTC 14, 1921 f. (E. Amann); J. Gay, Les papes du XT siecle et le chretiente (Paris, 1926);

Medievalia et Humanistica

Seppelt

2,

401

f.

(Apr.

by John XVIII: It is probable that he took advantage of this occasion to sound the king a visit to

Rome

read.

touch with Henry

on

in

where

noteworthy that he was in

Bamberg

(12 and 18 May), the

He

from the routine

cathedral of his beloved

week of each other

all-

granting or confirmation of privileges, sparse, but

a

violent political upheaval

Sergius was buried in St John Lateran,

out of respect for the

activities, apart

disappearance of both Sergius and

Crescentius from the scene within less than

the

Prince of the Apostles. Reliable information

about his

The

1012).

A Roman,

eastern

BENEDICT 1024).

The

VIII (17

May 1012-9

Apr.

almost simultaneous deaths (12

and 18 May) of Sergius IV and the patrician John II Crescentius coincided with a political upheaval in Rome in which the family of the counts of Tusculum, descended from the senator *Theophylact (d. probably 926), wrested power from the Crescentii, the ruling house since 1002. In bitter rivalry the Crescentians elected one Gregory, while the Tusculans chose and 39

BENEDICT VIII (1012-24) installed Theophylact, second son of Count Gregory of Tusculum, born c.gSo, still a layman, who assumed the name Benedict. In June-July he used armed force to crush the Crescentians in their mountain

John XIX)

took over the

ment of Rome. His

civil

force of arms he restored papal authority

Campagna and Roman Tuscany.

Forming an

alliance with Pisa and Genoa, he defeated Arab invaders in north Italy in a sea-battle in which he himself took part and liberated Sardinia (1 01 6). At the same time, with an eye to the papal possessions and

Romanus

strongholds, while his brother (later

By

in the

govern-

Gregory fled to Germany to plead his cause before Henry II (1002-24), but before the year's end the

claims in south

king effectively recognized Benedict, asking

insurgents' leaders.

him

rival

confirm the rights of his

to

much

man

authoritatively

with

dealing

in

One

German

Feb.

01 4 was crowned emperor in St he had first sworn to be the church's

already authorized him,

at

Ravenna

Jan., to restore his half-brother

also

coronation the pope

south

dict

request that the creed (with the addition of the *Filioque) should be sung at mass, a

Ravenna, where they held a reforming synod which settled the minimum ages for holy orders and legislated against simony and other abuses.

Henry now

him

much

political centre

of

lost,

and Bene-

be satisfied that the advance of

Italian

been

halted.

expedition enabled

Henry

admired Odilo, fifth abbot of Cluny (d. 1049), and favoured reforming abbeys, his chief concern (as his address at the synod made clear) was for church property, liable to be dissipated when the clergy indulged in

of

Italy.

to

and Benedict to extend the reforms on which they had embarked in 1014, and at the synod of Pavia (1 Aug. 1022) they promulgated drastic canons prohibiting marriage or concubinage for all clerics,

families.

A man of action and statecraft rather than

the next six years in campaigns aimed at

making Rome the

but although he scored some

these reforms; while Benedict personally

there, while

likened to a feudal baron, he spent

fulfilled his

and reducing the children of such unions to serfdom; it was important that Henry at once embodied these canons in the imperial code. It was he who was the leading spirit in

left for

visit

He

including those of the rank of subdeacon,

Germany, pressing on his instructions Benedict by force of arms restored to the abbey of Farfa, 40 km. north of Rome, certain possessions which the Crescentians had seized. An efficient administrator and soldier who has been the pope to

Italy,

had

The

secrated .Arnold, but yielded to Henry's

at

aid.

in

the Byzantines had at least

not only con-

to

962, including the rights of

conferred on the emperor; he

successes these were soon

Arnold as

Rome. Pope and emperor then moved

it

1022 when, accompanied by the pope, he marched with a powerful army to

in

northern practice previously not accepted

in

promised military

promise

archbishop there. At the synod following the

I

sovereignty

Benedict had

when

Henry gave Bene-

reproduced the *Ottonian privilege granted

but had not insisted on

suzerainty.

the

the Byzantines

an imperial privilege which verbally

by Otto

Peter's;

traditional

Nor-

of

The personal appearance of the pope German soil created an immense

on

dict

Rome. The king agreed, and on

visit

faithful protector,

When

ferred at Bamberg, and

royal

should

the

disposal

impression. At Easter 1020 the two conto

house, and he not only confirmed the rights of Bamberg but proposed that Henry

1

the

help.

Aug. and Oct.).

of Benedict's achievements was

restore relations with the

at

personal invitation but really to seek his

the

granting the *pallium to archbishops of

Mainz

knights

at Cannae in 1 019 and advanced north, he betook himself to Germany, ostensibly in response to Henry's

church's business in ways that gratified him (e.g.

he supported revolts

crushed the insurgents

loved

Bamberg. He must have known that Benedict was in full possession of the holy

see,

see,

Italy,

against Byzantine rule there, putting

spirituality,

140

Benedict wielded more power,

JOHN XIX (1024-32) time nothing is known. It is not clear whether he was actually installed or not, but his subsequent actions make it certain that there was a prima facie legal basis to his appointment. With Benedict established in the Lateran, however, and waging war on the Crescentians, his position was hopeless from the start, and there is no record of any

as a contemporary noted, than any of his immediate predecessors. Tenacious of the rights of the holy see, he did not hesitate to take the strongest measures against Aribo,

when

archbishop of Mainz (1021-31),

the synod of Seligenstadt (1023) he

appeals

Rome,

to

There

is

over

on

metropolitans,

at

banned

heads

the

of

matters.

disciplinary

Sergius

a report that Patriarch

had been restored true, the cause

is

in

XVIII's time;

and

against Byzantine rule in south

revolts

Italy.

A man

made

his

German

to

to the court of

Rome,

royal

house

King Henry

II

seek recognition. At Christ-

mas 10 1 2, robed bitterly

ejected from

of the traditional hostility of the

way

(1002-24)

who

of energy, perspicacity, and decision,

in spite

Crescentians to the

if

for

summer he was

in the

have been Bene-

support

enthusiastic

dict's

John

likely to

him. At some date

official acts attributed to

(1001-19) removed the pope's name from the *diptychs at Constantinople, to which it

in

and

pontificals

full

complaining of his expulsion, he

perceived the importance of co-operation

appeared before the king

between the papacy and the German crown,

ony. According to the chronicler Thietmar

Normans,

championed

and

courtesy, promised to settle the disputed

the

Roman custom' once he got to Rome, but took his ceremonial cross from him and bade him in the mean-

independence of Italy against the Saracens, he enhanced the prestige of his office in an

election 'according to

age of eclipse.

LP 2, 268; JW

1,

506-14; ZPR, 425-501

;

PL

time desist from the exercise of his

139,

Italy',

Speculum 23 (1948), 353-96; II e Benedetto VIII ed

Ravenna

M.

Fornasari,

canoni del

i

RSTI

presunto concilio

di

(1964), 46-55;

G. Wappler, Papst Benedikt VIII

P.

(Leipzig, 1897); 5,

155-21

2,

274

1;

(V. Gellhaus);

1012).

May

DHGE6, 61-92

DBI 8, 350-4

GREGORY On

(VI)

(F. Baix);

2,

the death of

the

NCE

ZPR, 425

in

f.;

(MGSS NS

435;

this

moment from

disappears

Papstum

1973),

25-7;

Sergius IV on 12

1

5; 7;

15-17; Seppelt

Thietmar, Chron. K.

394);

9,

Tuskulaner

May-Dec.

2,

EC 402

J.

(1012-1046) 6,

1

6,

101

Herrmann, Das (Stuttgart,

129 (A. Frutaz); Zi,

f.

1012, followed almost immediately by

John

II

Crescentius on

8 May, the Crescentian family, which had

ruled

Gregory

luckless

history.

403-8.

(antipope

From

only a matter of weeks.

18

Mann

(G. Tellenbach);

Seppelt

that of the patrician 1

del 1014',

office.

Gregory complied, doubtless expecting that the king would treat his rival similarly. In fact Henry was already in touch with Benedict, and his formal recognition of him was

1579-638; K.J. Herrmann, Das Tuskulaner Papstum (1 01 2-1046) (Stuttgart, 1973); E. Joranson, 'The Inception of the Career of the Normans in 'Enrico

Pohlde, in Sax-

(975-1018), Henry received him with cool

prepared the alliance of the holy see with the

at

Rome

since

Emperor Otto

1002 and had nominated the

popes, found control of the

Ill's

death

last

three

city

name

or the

Apr. 1024-20 Oct. 1032).

On

Benedict

as their private property,

wrested

at

VIII (1012-24)

had

his

younger

Romanus elected and enthroned, the name John. A layman who held

brother with

office as 'consul, dux,

and

said to have obtained

senator', he

was

the succession by

lavish bribery; his elevation from layman to pope in a single day also shocked many. Although generally reckoned an ineffectual pontiff, he was politically astute, and both strengthened his own position and ensured

name he assumed),

about whose antecedents and position

the death of

the Tusculan family, regarding the papacy

from it by the rival family of the counts of Tusculum. In a bitter struggle for power the Tusculans elected and enthroned Theophylact as pope with the style Benedict VIII, while the Crescentians put forward and elected one Gregory (either his original

JOHN XIX (19

the

141

BENEDICT

IX (1032-44;

1045; 1047-8)

peace by conciliating other noble families,

archbishop of Aquileia, he obliged the com-

including the displaced Crescentii, and by

pliant

transferring his brother Alberic from the

defiance of an earlier decision of his own,

city judiciary to the

the

In

if

the

chronicler Rudolf Glaber

(c. 990- 1046/7) can be trusted, he received a delegation from the eastern patriarch and emperor

Basil

II

(976-1025) seeking

his

agreement

to the recognition of Constantinople as hav-

ing universal jurisdiction in the east parallel to

Rome's

tion of the

in the west; title

when

it

The

of

and John was got abroad that he was

delegation brought rich attracted; but

was the old ques-

it

*'ecumenical patriarch'.

a storm of protest, esfrom the monks of Cluny, near (Burgundy), and Abbot William of

Dijon (990-1031), and he had

down. As

it

stands, the story

is

climb

to

suspect;

it

making any such

however,

disagreements,

these

his

a great impression in 1027 on King Cnut, who obtained from him, in return for the regular payment of Peter's

Pence, the remission in future of the exorbitant

sums he was

in the habit

of charging

for granting the *pallium, as well as the

exemption of the English compound in Rome from the customary tribute. For most

is

inconceivable that the curia would have

countenanced

in

He made

primacy there was

Macon

Grado,

prestige stood high in the church at large.

gifts,

thinking of compromising Rome's universal

pecially

to decree not only that

was subject to Aquileia, but that Aquileia was 'metropolis of all the churches of Italy' (Apr. and Sept. 1027). Again, when Bishop Warmann of Constance complained that John had granted the abbot of Reichenau the right to wear pontifical vestments at mass, Conrad promptly ordered the abbot to hand the bull and the insignia to the bishop, who publicly burned them. In spite

Lateran palace.

year of his reign,

first

pope

deal.

It

of his reign he enjoyed excellent relations

form

a

with Abbot Odilo of Cluny, twice confirm-

serious attempt by the Byzantine authori-

ing the privileges of the abbey in the most

may ties,

his

however,

recall,

in

garbled

not least in view of Benedict VIII's anti-

Byzantine policies in south

Italy, to

absolute terms and taking effective action against Bishop Gouzlin of

reach

Macon when he

agreement with Rome about their respective zones of influence. It remains a fact that from this time the pope's name ceased to be mentioned in the *diptychs of

attacked them. In France his decision in

Constantinople.

June,

Early in 1027

cessor as

Conrad

German

II

(1024-39), suc-

king to Henry

24), having received the

II

(1002-

Lombard crown

at

came to Rome, and on 26 Mar. John crowned him emperor in St Peter's, in the presence of kings Rodolphe III of Burgundy (993-1032) and Cnut of England and Pavia,

Denmark (1016/17-1035). It is significant new emperor neither swore to protect the Roman church nor renewed the

May

103

1

Martial,

that

3rd-cent.

first

bishop of Limoges, should rank as an

commemorated

apostle and be

was

accepted

by

yearly

on 30

parties

all

as

authoritative.

LP 2, 1

,

269;

70; 75

;

JW

i,

708- 1

1

514-19; 2, 709; 748; Watterich Rudolfus Glaber, Hist. 1 4 (ed.

;

,

M.

Prou, Paris, 1886: 93 f.); K.J. Herrmann, Dai Tuskulaner Papstum (1012-1046) (Stuttgart, 1973), see index;

DTC 8,

630-2

—und

Michel, 'Die Weltreichs bei Rudolf Glaber', 5,

212-37; Seppelt

HJ 70 2,

(E.

Amann); A.

Kirchenteilung

(1950), 53-64;

Mann

408-12.

that the

BENEDICT

IX

(21

Oct.

1032-Sept.

Indeed, far from establishing a

1044; 10 Mar.-i May 1045; 8 Nov. 104716 July 1048: d. 1055/6). On the death of

relationship of co-operation with John such

John XIX his brother Alberic III, now head

Henry II had had with Benedict VIII, Conrad regarded him as a person of little

of the ruling Tusculan family, bribed the

*Ottonian privilege granted by his predecessors.

as

consequence

whom

he could use, or even

humiliate, as suited his gratify

his

loyal

friend

whim. Thus, to Poppo, German

electorate and

had

his

son Theophylact,

nephew of both John XIX and Benedict VIII, elected

Benedict IX.

142

and enthroned, with the style Still a layman, he was not, as

BENEDICT often or twelve but

promptly excommunicated Silvester, and

on 10 Mar. expelled him from Rome and reassumed the papacy. His second term in the Lateran, however, lasted less than two months; on 1 May he made out a deed of

even allowing for exaggerated reports, was scandalously violent and dissolute. If for twelve years he proved a comsonal

1045; 1047-8)

in his late twenties; his per-

later gossip alleged, a lad

was probably

IX (1032-44;

life,

petent pontiff, he

owed

this in part to native

abdication in favour of his godfather John

who was then elected and took the Gregory VI. A feeling of insecurity

resourcefulness, but in part also to an able

Gratian,

entourage and to the firm contro' which his

style

Rome. He was

father exercised over

the

based on awareness of the

hostility

of the

only pope to hold office, at any rate de facto,

people, probably also pressure from friends,

for three separate spells.

and according

In general his policies followed those of his

predecessors.

1037, however, he

In

made important changes at centralization,

of

German

in the curia

perhaps also

control.

aimed

at getting rid

Emperor Conrad

II

(1024-39) found him less pliant than John XIX; when he invited him to Cremona in 1037, expecting him to ratify his deposition of Aribert, the rebellious archbishop of

Milan (1018-45), me P°P e fi rst sought to arrange a compromise. Only a year later did he excommunicate Aribert and recognize his imperial replacement. Meanwhile, as a result of his aunt's marriage to Pandulf,

Waimar of

brother of Count

was able

Salerno, he

to play a helpful role in

expedition to south

A

Italy.

Conrad's

beneficiary was

Monte Cassino, midway between Rome and Naples, which on 1 July 1038 he placed under papal protection. With Conrad's successor, Henry III

the Benedictine abbey of

(1039-56).

his

were

relations

initially

Roman

seem

to

some

to

the desire to marry,

have impelled him to

this surprising

But John had to raise and hand over to him a huge sum of money; this has been implausibly represented as an inducement step.

to stand

down

payment was almost

rather than as strict

for the papal office,

which

it

certainly intended to be.

Benedict ties

now withdrew

to family

proper-

near Tusculum (close to Frascati). In

autumn 1046 Henry

III

reappeared

in Italy,

on church reform and on receiving the imperial crown from unsullied hands. Benedict was cited, with Silvester III and Gregory VI, to appear before a synod which he held at Sutri, near Rome, on 20 Dec. Having failed to do so, Benedict was formally deposed at the Roman synod of 24 Dec. Henry had already deposed Silvester and Gregory at Sutri, and now appointed Suidger of Bamberg as pope with the name Clement II. Clement's sudden death after a reign of less than eight months was the

intent

show of

synod of Apr. 1044, however, he asserted his independence,

signal, after a

Grado which John XIX,

the patriarchal status of

Benedict, on a wave of popular enthusiasm

in abject deference

assisted by bribery,

friendly.

At the

restoring to

Conrad, had deprived In Sept.

1

it

044 there was

of his fortunes.

a

sudden reversal

An insurrection

which growing disgust

to

in 1027.

at

Rome,

at his loose life

to

and,

imperial

faction,

for

resistance by the

the

restoration

of

on 8 Nov. 1047; the evidence sometimes adduced for a fresh election by the

Roman clergy and people From that date he was de

cannot hold water.

facto pontiff until 16 July 1048,

when Count

Tusculan

Boniface of Tuscany, reluctantly yielding to

contributed, forced him to abandon the city. Bloody fighting ensued, but on 20 Jan. 1045 me Stephanian branch

Henry's orders, forcibly ejected him and

of the Crescentian family succeeded

homeland Benedict continued himself as rightful pope and

even more, resentment

at

the

domination

ting their local bishop, installed as

who had whose

in get-

John of Sabina,

Pope Silvester

III.

Benedict,

installed

Poppo of Brixen

the papal

throne.

as

DAMASUS

at

partisans were based in Trastevere,

in

143

on

regard

to to

breathe

at Damasus II and, after his death, Leo DC A synod meeting in the .ateran Apr. 1049 summoned him to face the

defiance

never been formally deposed and

II

Safe in his Tusculan

1

SILVESTER

III (1045)

charge of simony, and when he declined to appear excommunicated him. Later Leo IX is

said to have lifted this sentence,

deathbed

his

recalcitrant

have

to

prayed

man would come

truth.

Benedict was

1055,

when he

is

and on

that

the

to see

the

on 18 Sept. recorded as making a still

alive

donation, along with his three brothers, to the monastery of SS.

Cosma and Damiano

Rome; but he was dead by 9 Jan. 1056, when his brothers arranged for masses for in

He was buried, and

his soul.

at Grottaferrata, in the

that

Alban

hills;

the story

he had settled for the contemplative

in the

LP

probably died,

monasters there

is

life

difficult to assess.

270-2; 331; JVV 1, 519-23; Warterich 1, 71-6; 711-17; R. Lane Poole, 'Benedict IX and 2,

Gregory VT, Proceedings of the British Academy 8 (1917-18), 199-235; K. J. Herrmann, Das Tuskulaner Papstum (101 2-1046) (Stuttgart, 1973), indev; DHCP 8, 93-105 (F. Baix and L Jadin);

Mann

Capitani); Zi,

5, 1

212-37; f>BI

10-35; Seppelt

8,

2,

354-66

after

bitter

and protracted

and deprivation of orders. The sentence must have been suspended, however, for he continued to function, and to be recognized, as bishop of Sabina until at least 1062; he must have died before Oct. 1063, when the

name of a

successor

recorded. Succeed-

is

him undisturbed because he was known to have no ambition ing popes probably

left

for the papal throne.

His right

an

pope

sidered

authentic

to

is

be con-

open

to

question.

JW 1, 523 525; Watterich 1, 70; 72-6; 713-15; DTC 14, 2083 (E. Amann); Seppelt 2, 414-17; Zi, 2 1-34; J. Gay, Les papes du XP siecle et la f.;

f.

1

chretiente (Paris, 1926).

GREGORY 1046:

d. late

VI

(1

1047).

May 1045-20 Dec. elderly man respec-

An

ted in reforming circles, possibly related to

(O.

the wealthy banking family of the Pierleoni,

412-18.

SILVESTER III (20 Jan.- 10 Mar. 1045: d. 1063). When Benedict IX was violently ejected from Rome in Sept. 1044, the Romans,

demned as an invader of the holy see, and sentenced to confinement in a monastery

in-

John Gratian was archpriest of St John at the Latin Gate when his godson Benedict IX, recendy restored to the papal throne,

made on

out a deed of abdication in his favour

May

1

^

1045.

is

widely conjectured that

and installed Bishop John of Sabina (the homeland of the Crescentian family) in Jan. 1045. The Crescentians were behind the move; they were using him, probably as a reluctant instrument, to win back the supreme power the Tusculans had wrested from them in 1012. He was later

John was among those who persuaded him to take this step. A huge sum of money apparently changed hands; according to most sources Benedict sold the papal office,

charged, probably libellously, with having

deliberately kept dark at the time; but the

fighting, elected

used bribery

to

adopted the name of his

get himself elected. Silvester,

appointment

He

but on hearing

Benedict

promptly

undermine any legitimacy he might have by excommunicating him. His reign was short, for on 10 Mar. Benedict staged a comeback and expelled him with sought

to

ignominy.

He

returned to his original see,

which he had not relinquished; here the protection of the Crescentians enabled him to ignore the papal ban and carry on with his episcopal duties. Some eighteen months later, when King Henry III of Germany (1039-56) intervened, he was cited before the synod of Sutri (20 Dec. 1046), con-

Roman The whole

according to others the to

be

bribed.

people had transaction

remains obscure, probably because

most

likely

explanation

is

was

it

that John, eager to

secure Benedict's resignation, paid over the

money with

trusting naivety as

tion, either for

him or

compensa-

his relatives or for

both, for his relinquishing the papacy and

emoluments. Although designated by Benedict successor there

is

its

as his

itself a

gross irregularity),

some evidence

that the forms of an

(in

were observed; it is said that the new pope was given the name Gregory by popular acclaim. His accession was at first election

greeted

with

enthusiasm by

friends

of

reform, and Peter Damiani, reformer and

doctor

144

of the

church

(1007-72),

con-

CLEMENT gratulated

him

blow

a

at

who

cleric

became

close

a

Gregory

sition

was

Henry

III

far

was Hildebrand But Gregory's po-

from assured.

When King

Germany (1039-56) crossed autumn 1046, his main object

of

the Alps in

may have been

receive

to

the

VI', ASRomana 39 295-410; R. Lane Poole, 'Benedict IX and Gregory VI', ProceedBritAcad 8

went

meet him

to

at

ill

at ease,

Piacenza; he

Tuskulaner

1973), 154-60; Zi, 122-36; Seppelt 2, 415-18; D. Freymans, 'Gregoire VI etait-il simoniaque?',

Gregory said to

is

Revbelge 11

have been courteously received, but nothing in fact

is

Gregorio

199-235; K. J. Herrmann, Das Papstum (1012-1046) (Stuttgart,

(1917-18),

a general prohibition

di

142-252;

(1916),

were also in his mind. A synod over which he presided at Pavia prepared for what was of simony. Evidently

,

,

deposizione

condition of which he had been informed,

come by publishing

since

1 524 f.; LP 2, 270 f.; Watterich 1 72 f.; 75-8; 79-80; 712-16; Anselm, Gesta episcop. Leod. (/WCSS VII, 228 f.); G. B. Borino, 'L'elezione e la

JW

imperial

crown, but church reform and the restoration of order to the papacy, of the parlous

to

of Liege

invalid, the

friend, VII).

Wazo

his deposition had been pope being incapable of being judged by anyone. Henry was not persuaded, and in any case Gregory died at Cologne, of an illness which has not been identified, towards the end of the year.

restored

out).

served him in the curia, and

(later

(1046-7)

(1042-8) argued that Gregory should be

simony (news

of the financial deal had not yet leaked

A

about a successor, Bishop

fulsomely, claiming that his

had struck

election

II

130-7;

(1932),

EC

6,

1129

f.

(L.

Spading).

known of the meeting. On 20 Dec.

CLEMENT

he appeared before the synod of Sutri, near Rome, to which he had been cited along with Benedict IX and Silvester III. After the circumstances of his election had been

his

office,

1046-9 Oct.

Suidger, as bishop

King Henry III of Germany (1039-56) to Italy in autumn 1046 and, after the deposition of Silvester III, Gregory VI, and Benedict IX on 20 and 24 Dec, was

emperor and the synod pronounced him guilty of simony in obtaining the papal office, and deposed him. According to some accounts, he was brought to acknowledge his culpability and

down

Dec.

(24

named

of Bamberg, in Bavaria, he accompanied

investigated, the

voluntarily laid

II

1047). Originally

elected pope on the nomination of the king,

the

of four

first

German popes he was

Henry's

impose.

judging

first

to

choice

had been

of

Hamburg-

himself unfit to hold

it. But these, like the was Gregory and not Henry who summoned and presided over the synod, reflect later embarrassment that the emperor should have presumed to preside over a council and judge the supreme

Adalbert,

reports that

Bremen, who declined. Suidger had long

pontiff.

archbishop of

it

The synod had

to take

him back with him

many. In the spring he by Hildebrand, for

where

Bishop

set out,

'the

banks of the Rhine',

Hermann

imperial chancellor for

Geraccompanied

to exile in

Italy,

Cologne, was commis-

of

Of

Saxon

canon

II (9

had

he

been

noble

of

become chaplain to his Hermann, when he was appointed

Hamburg

Hermann's death royal chapel. Still

secrated,

in

1032, and after

1035 had entered the a deacon, he was con-

in

on Henry's nomination, bishop of

Bamberg on 28 Dec. Henry's

1040.

rescuing the papacy from feuding Roman families was generally approved in reforming circles. Suidger shared his concern for reform in the church; his choice of the name Clement underlined initiative in

his resolve to look for inspiration to primi-

watch over him. When the emperor, on the sudden death of Clement sioned

stock,

provost,

to be done with Gregory. For the moment he was kept in custody, but eventually Henry decided, in view of the danger of

Rome,

enjoyed the king's confidence. Halberstadt, had

not determined what was

allowing a deposed pope to remain in

archbishop

to

tive

Christianity.

Enthroned on 25 Dec.

1046, he crowned Henry and his queen

Agnes

Oct. 1047), questioned the episcopate

145

as

emperor and empress on the same

DAMASUS

11(1048)

Henry then had himself invested with empowered him

day.

the rank of patrician, which

appointment of

to take the lead in the

Romans had

pope, and the

a

undertake

to

afresh not to elect a pope in future without the approval of emperor and patrician.

The

Clement started his reform programme, presiding on 5 Jan. 1047 over a synod which sharply condemned simony and decreed a forty days' penance for any who had knowingly been constitutional issue settled,

1,

(PL 144, 297

3

Regesten derBischofe berg (Wurzburg,

1093-6

of

Emperor Henry

bishop after checking that he had obtained

stock, he

open

gates to the emperor. At the end of

its

Feb. he returned to Rome, conferring there in

the spring or

Odilo,

fifth

publishing a bull leading

summer

abbot of

with the aged

Ouny

commending

personalities

1049), and

(d.

his

abbey

France.

in

to

The

(17 July-9

II

Aug.

the

III

first

is

Brixen, in Tyrol,

(1039-56).

Of Bavarian

mentioned as bishop of on 16 Jan. 1040, when it is

plain that he already stood high in the king's favour.

I

le

was

he travelled

in

Henry's entourage

to Italy in

took a prominent part in the

of

Roman

Germany with the emperor in mid-May. On the death of

Clement

on 9 Oct., the embassy to

II

successor.

In late summer he moved to the Marches (some think he had to leave Rome because of serious disturbances there), and on 24 Sept. he issued a bull, lyrical in tone, confirming the privileges of Bamberg, his 'most sweet spouse' from whom he could not bear to be separated; in fact he remained its

argued that

near Pesaro; he was seriously there on 9 Oct. tion, that

IX

is

On

1

Tommaso,

the abbey of S.

ill

A rumour, soon

and died

in circula-

he had been poisoned by Benedict

probably groundless. His body was

taken

to

cathedral.

22 Oct.

1

Bamberg and buried in his When the tomb was opened on

73

1,

he was found

to

have been a

man well over six feet tall with yellow hair. was again opened on remains

subjected

3

It

June 1942 and the

to

an

exhaustive

examination which disclosed that he probably died of lead poisoning.

JW

1,

terich

525-8; 1,

73

f.;

LP 2, 272; PL 142, 577-90; Wat77-80; 714-17; Peter Damiani, Ep.

synod

1047; he probably returned to

5 Jan.

the slow progress of his reforming policies.

at

when

autumn 1046, and

clergy and people dispatched an

Oct. he was

1048).

named Poppo, he was the second German popes nominated by

reformer Peter Damiani (1007-72) also wrote to him expressing disappointment at

bishop throughout his pontificate.

12,

Bamberg (Munich i960).

Feb.) confirming John of Paestum as arch-

refused to

DHGE

3,

',

DAMASUS

it

99-108;

chung 19 (1959), 265-74; S. Muller-Christiansen, Das Grab des Papstes Clemens II im Dom zu

Originally

when

1,

NCE

928 f. (F. Dressler);Zi, 132 f.; Seppelt3,a-n; A/D#3, 281 f.; K. Guggenberger, Die deutschen Pdpste (Cologne, 1916), 29-37; K. Hauch, 'Zum Tode Papst Clemens IP Jahrbuch fiir frdnkische Landesfors-

synod he accompanied Henry (mid-Jan.) on his progress to south Italy, at Salerno (18

the see without simony, and placing Bene-

1932)

(F. Foreville);

ordained by simoniacal bishops. After the

vento under an anathema

f.); E. von Guttenberg, Die und des Domkapitels von Bam-

1

lenry

at

Cologne,

to name a Wazo of Liege had Gregory VI, now in exile at

Pohlde with the request Bishop

whom

he considered wrongfully

deposed, should be restored, but on 25 Dec. the emperor, in his capacity as patrician of

Romans, nominated Poppo. Meanhowever, Benedict IX had reemerged from his Tusculan retreat and the

while,

seized the papal throne, bringing over Boni-

powerful count of Tuscany, to his Poppo, who retained the see of Brixen

face, the side.

Rome, but was

until his death, set out for

prevented from getting there by Boniface,

who pleaded

that Benedict

re-established

himself

had successfully

as

pope.

When

Poppo returned and informed him, the emperor threatened Boniface that, unless he carried out his orders, he would come himself and give the Romans a new pope. Boniface judged it wise to obey, had Benedict expelled from Rome on 16 July, and on 17 July had Poppo consecrated and enthroned. To mark his devotion to the ancient and pure church, he adopted the

146

LEO Damasus

style

II,

but within twenty-three

renewed; his

IX (1049-54)

wish was to degrade them,

first

where he had gone to escape the heat. Although poison was hinted at in some quarters, the most likely

but they were too numerous for

cause of his death was malaria.

Lorraine, to assist

days died

at Palestrina,

528

f.;

LP 2,

Watterich

1,

74; 78-80;

JW

i,

Elze);

9-1

1

274; 332

716

f.

(/Innales

f.;

NDB

Romant);

3,

498

(R.

DHGE

;

14, 53 f. (A. van Roey); Seppelt 3, K. Guggenberger, Die deutschen Pdpste

(Cologne 19 16), 38-40;

Mann

5,

286-92.

Meanwhile he

practicable.

like-minded

Gregory Liege

Born 21 June 1002

Hugh

as

1049-19 Apr. 1054). Bruno, son of Count

of Egisheim, Alsace, related to the

Candidus

Humbert of Moyenmoutier (d. Can-

061), later cardinal bishop of Silva

retary of state.

and

virtual sec-

By using these as his

of the curia.

He also relied on the counsel of Hugh of

leading reformers, such as Abbot

kinsman King Conrad II (1024-39) in Lombardy in 1025/6 at the head of troops supplied by his ailing bishop. On the bishop's death Conrad appointed him to the see (9 Sept. 1027). As bishop he was

he adopted the revolutionary

energetic in raising the moral standards of

(1050, 105

monasteries and clergy in his diocese, while

Vercelli (1050),

was shown in negotiations he conducted in 1032 between Conrad and King Henry I of France (103 1-60). On the death of Damasus II (9 Aug. 1048), brushing aside the preference expressed by

his chief

house,

his

his diplomatic skill

a

Roman

delegation for Halinard of Lyons,

Henry III nominated Bruno, whose reforming zeal he appreciated, at

Worms

in

Dec.

1048. Bruno only accepted, it is reported, on the condition of the choice being ratified by the Roman clergy and people; he also retained the see of Toul until 1051. When he reached Rome, deliberately in the garb of a pilgrim, he was received with acclamation and crowned on 12 Feb. 1049, adopting a

name intended

to recall the ancient,

The new pope demonstrated ing resolve at his

first

synod

(at

his reform-

Rome, 9-15

Apr. 1049), fulminating against simony and clerical unchastity. Several simoniacal bishops were deposed, and the penance

imposed by Clement

II

on clergy knowwas

ingly ordained by simoniacal bishops

Cluny Lyons

1109), Archbishop Halinard of

(d.

1052),

(d.

and

Peter

Damiani

(1007-72).

To

give the widest impact to his policies

impressive

ing

tactic

progresses

of mak-

throughout

Europe and pressing home the need renewal Pavia,

at

for

synods in the principal centres

Rheims, and Mainz (1049), 1,

Rome

1053), Siponto, Salerno, and

Mantua and

Bari (1053). If

was with clerical unchastity and simony (such was his horror of the latter that he on occasion reordained

men

concern

at these

ordained by simoniacal bishops),

at

Rheims he insisted that bishops and abbots must be elected by clergy and people, and also seized the opportunity to publish a

vigorous affirmation of the pope's unique

primacy over the universal church; while

Rome

(1050) and Vercelli he

at

condemned

the teaching of Berengar of Tours

(c.

1010-

88) that, while the bread and wine in the eucharist

become

Christ's

body and blood,

they do so figuratively, remaining substantially

what they were. last years were clouded with

Leo's

still

pure church.

advisory

senate he started a radical transformation

he was the third and greatest of the popes nominated by the German emperor Henry III (1039-56). Educated at Toul, a canon of its cathedral and already known at court, he served under

imperial

of

1020-^1098), Frederick of Stephen IX), and, most

dida, his closest confidant

LEO IX, ST (12 Feb.

(later

(c.

(later

notably, 1

— Hildebrand

Hugh

VII),

Remiremont

be

from

mostly

personalities,

him

this to

enlisted able,

failure

and disappointment. In May 1053, to protect the papal state and its population from the marauding raids of the Normans in south

Italy, he personally led a small, illequipped force against them; he had failed, through opposition from imperial chancel-

lor

Gebhard of

Eichstatt (destined to suc-

ceed him as Victor

147

II),

to get reinforce-

,

VICTOR

(1055-7)

II

ments from the emperor, but hoped to link up with the Byzantines led by Argyros,

in his native

governor of south

precursor of the Gregorian reforms,

Italy.

died a

Before he could do

army was overwhelmed near Civitate and he himself was captured on 1 8 June. Although the Normans treated him respectfully, they kept him prisoner for nine months, though allowing him to maintain so, his

after

him

after

decades

of humiliation

who

brilliantly

restored the prestige of the papacy, he was

soon saluted as a saint; in 1087 Victor III is said to have had his body disinterred and placed over an altar in St Peter's because of the miracles it had caused. Feast 19 Apr.

contact with the outside world, and only released

month later, breathing his last prayers German. A real, if limited,

he had, probably, made

significant

,4ASS Apr..2 (1675), 648-727; JW 1, 529-49; PZ, 43, 457-800 (letters, decrees, etc.); Watterich 1 93-i 77; 73i-8;^«^ 25 (1906), 258-96; EB (15th edn.) io, 804 f. (\V. Ullmann); BSS 7, 1293-301 (J. Choux); DTC9, 320-9 (E. Amann); K. Gug-

event of his reign, the breach with the

genberger, Die deutschen Ptipste (Cologne, 19 16),

humiliating

While

concessions.

he

was

1

sharply criticized in reforming circles for this military

prove,

adventure,

historically,

it

led to

most

the

what was

to

41-71; Seppelt 3, 12-31; L. Sittler and P. Stinzi, Leon IX: le pape alsacien (Colmar, 1950); P. P.

eastern church. Angered by his interference

5".

in south Italy in areas

claimed by Byzan-

tium, not least by his holding of a synod

Bruckner, Leben Papstes Leos DC (Strasbourg,

at

1902); D.

M.

Siponto and his naming Humbert arch-

the

bishop of

Sicily, the fanatically anti-Latin

19-182.

patriarch

Michael Cerularius (1043-58) the Latin churches in Constan1053 and launched a violent

VICTOR

shut

down

tinople attack as

in

on western

the

Silva

religious practices, such

On

Leo's behalf

Candida prepared

Humbert of

a ferocious riposte,

Roman

arguing the case for the

primacy

with extensive quotations from the (forged)

*Donation

of

Constantine.

A

political

alliance being urgently necessary, however,

an attempt

at conciliation

emperor and pope, and still

a

prisoner,

Leo

headed by Humbert,

was made by both

in Jan. 1054, while

sent to

an embassy,

Constantinople.

Through

the intransigent behaviour of the

principals

on both sides the mission proved

a disastrous failure, and on 16 July 1054

Humbert,

in full

view of the congregation,

placed on the altar of Haghia Sophia a bull

excommunicating the patriarch and his supwith Cerularius responded counter-anathemas on 24 July. The schism between the eastern and western churches is conventionally dated from this event; although Leo was dead at the time, it must be attributed to his pontificate since the Roman legates were acting in his name. Carried back to Rome from Benevento on 12 Mar. 1054, ill and broken in spirit, he

porters.

c.

N'icol,

ith century',

II

A Swabian,

use of unleavened bread in the

eucharist.

1

1018,

'Byzantium and the Papacy

JEH

13 (1962), 1-20;

(13 Apr.

Mann

in 6,

1055-28 July 1057).

son of Count Hartwig and born

Gebhard of Dollnstein-Hirschberg

was the last of the four German popes nominated by Henry III (1039-56). Promoted bishop of Eichstatt in 1042 when still in his twenties, his great administrative gifts

enabled him

to

render important services to

whose indispensable counsellor he became in the early 1050s. An example of his influence was his blocking of military aid for Leo IX's campaign against the emperor,

the Normans in 1053. On Leo's death (19 Apr. 1054), after protracted discussions at Mainz with Roman legates headed by the

deacon Hildebrand

(later

Gregory

VII),

Henry named (Nov. 1054) Gebhard as pope. The legates would probably have preferred someone else, but Henry wanted to have an imperial pontiff loyal

to

himself in

Rome, not least as a counterweight to his old enemy Duke Godfrey of Lorraine (c. 1040-96), now married to the widow of Count Boniface of Tuscany (c. 986-1 05 2) and threateningly established in central and upper Italy. Gebhard hesitated for four or five months, only agreeing at Regensburg in Mar. 1055 when assured that certain territories and properties taken from the holy 148

STEPHEN see would be restored to

it.

Enthroned

almost a year after Leo's death, he took the

name

and while pope remained

Victor,

bishop of Eichstatt. Primarily a powerful minister, Victor was

concerned for church reform: a great synod held by him and the emperor at Florence on 4 June 1055 anathematized not also

through

IX (X) (1057-8) of

election

the

Frederick as abbot of

brother

his

Monte Cassino and

on 14 June, before consecrating him abbot, made him cardinal priest of S. Crisogono. But he was already stricken, and after holding a local synod at Arezzo on 23 July died there of fever on 28 July. His German entourage wished to take his body back to

only simony and clerical unchastity but also

Eichstatt for burial in his cathedral, but the

the alienation of church property; several

citizens of

bishops were deposed. Similar decisions

interred

were published

in

France in 1056 by synods

by local bishops as his representatives and by Hildebrand as his legate. But Henry had political aims in coming to Italy in summer 1055. His

presided

over

vigorous action caused Godfrey of Lorraine

and step-

to flee for safety, while his wife

daughter

Matilda

(future

countess

of

Tuscany) were seized as hostages; Godfrey's brother Frederick, chancellor of the

Roman

Monte

church, prudently retired to

Cassino as a monk.

To

just outside the walls

LP 2, 2775333 Watterich

1,

Norman

increasingly preoccupied with the

city.

(Annates

Heidingsfelder, Die Regesten der Bischofe von Eichstatt

(Erlangen, 191

Lib. de

5),

episc. Eichstet.

66-76; Anon. Haserensis,

(MGSS

7,

263-6); Chron.

(vWGSS 35, 1980: index); DTC 15, Amann); Mann 6, 183-206; Seppelt

monast. Casin.

2863-6 3,

(E.

32-5; K. Guggenberger, Die deutschen Pdpste

(Cologne, 1916), 72-8;

NCE

14,

646

Italy,

and

in

autumn

STEPHEN IX 1058).

ately

(X) (2 Aug. 1057-29 Mar.

consulted

Frederick

of Lorraine,

abbot of Monte Cassino, about a successor.

He proposed

five

(later

names, including those of

Gregory VII) and Hum-

bert of Silva Candida

(c.

1000-61), but in

short illness, entrusting the care of the

the event was himself elected

empire and his five-year-old son

consecrated next day; he took the

to

his

trusted pope. With great political skill Victor was able to ensure at Aachen the succession of Henry IV (105 6-1 106) and the appointment of his mother Agnes as regent, with

the right to designate a successor

At Cologne

in

if

her son

Dec, with

skill

and foresight, he negotiated a reconciliation between the imperial house and both Godfrey of Lorraine and Baldwin, count of Flanders (1036-67), its two most powerful to

Italy

in

mid-Feb.

1057, Victor held a synod in the Lateran on 18

To

Godfrey of Lorraine, now a powerful support in central and north Italy to both papacy and empire, he pushed Apr.

gratify

on

2 Aug.

and

name of

Stephen I, whose feast fell on 2 Aug. No approach was made to the German imperial family, which had nominated the four previous popes, and this omission has been interpreted as an attempt to take advantage of the minority of Henry IV (1056-1106) and the weakness of Empress Agnes, the regent, to free the papacy from

its

control.

A

more likely explanation is that speedy action was deemed necessary to forestall any move by aristocratic

vassals.

Returning

J.

pected death on 28 July 1057 reached Rome, the reform leaders there immedi-

Hildebrand

to Germany to seek (ironically, Leo IX) reinforcements against them. 5 Oct., however, Henry died after a

die.

(O.

When the news ofViCTOR IPs unex-

1056 went

should

f.

Blum).

like

On

of the

Romani);]^ 1,549-53; 177-88; 738; Mansi 19, 833-62; F. f.

strengthen Victor's

Tuscany and the Normans in the south, Henry appointed him duke of Spoleto and count of Fermo. After emperor's departure, Victor was the

position vis-a-vis

expansion in south

Ravenna seized it; he was finally Sta Maria Rotonda (the mausoleum of Theodoric the Great: d. 526) in

Roman

families to recover

their influence in papal appointments; the fact that, if trouble arose, the

pope chosen

could rely on the support of his powerful brother Godfrey, duke of Lorraine

count of Tuscany

49

(1.

and

1040-96), must have

BENEDICT X (antipope told in his favour.

It

is

1058-9)

significant that a

delegation led by Hildebrand reached the

court

Pohlde, in Saxony, in

at

Dec, where

it

must have obtained retrospective approval of the choice that had been made. Stephen's earlier career argued for

a

Youngest son of Duke Gozelon I of Lorraine, educated at Liege, he had been a canon and then archdeacon there under bishops sympathetic to reform in the church. Leo IX, who probably met him at the reforming synod of Mainz in Oct. 1049, brought him to Rome as one of his close collaborators, making him chancellor and librarian of the Roman church on 12 Mar. 1051. He accompanied Leo on his campaign against the Normans, and was one of his legates to Constantinople in 1054. Although a leading member of the curia, he judged it prudent in 1055, in view of the forthcoming visit to Italy of Emperor Henry III (1039-56), his brother Godfrey's enemy, to retire as a progressive pontificate.

strong,

monk

Monte Cassino. He

to

II,

who

on Henry's death (3 Oct. 1056) reconciled Godfrey with the royal house, and next summer had Frederick elected (23 May) abbot of Monte Cassino (Humbert having forced the existing one to resign), and then (14 June) promoted him (an unprecedented cardinal

of

priest

S.

Crisogono. In

his

impetus

brief reign

reform.

At

Stephen

Monte

gave

an

Cassino,

where he remained abbot, he tried to restore the rule of poverty. He opened up a wider role for Peter Damiani, propagandist of reform (1007-72), by making him, in spite

Ostia.

of his protests, cardinal bishop of

Humbert of

Silva Candida,

whose

view that episcopal appointments should be

he probably shared, and Hildebrand a close adviser. He frequently denounced clerical marriage and marriage within the forbidden degrees; and in summer 1057 he showed free of lay interference

was

his chancellor,

interest in the Patarenes (Pataria), a revolu-

tionary reformist to

simony and

movement at Milan hostile

clerical unchastity,

sending

Leo IX's policies, he campaign against the Nor-

a

mans

Italy, to

in

south

be financed out of the

Monte Cassino, and seems to have considered crowning Duke Godfrey as treasure of

emperor so

he also

as to enlist his support;

proposed sending envoys

to

Constantinople

common

an alliance against the

to negotiate

Mar. he travelled to Florence to consult Godfrey about the enterprise, died there, and was buried in S. Reparata. Being already seriously ill, he had bound the clergy and people, before leaving Rome, by a solemn oath not to elect a successor, in the In

foe.

event

of

his

death,

Hildebrand

until

German

returned from his mission to the court.

He

probably wished to ensure that a

pope would be chosen who would continue the work of reform.

LP

2, 278; 334; 356; JW 1, 553-6; Watterich 1, 188-204; 738; 748 f; PL 143,865-84; V. Robert, i n pape beige: Histotre du pape Etienne IX (Brussels,

1892); G. Depsy, 'La carriere lotharingienne du

pape Etienne

DHGE 1

04

1

15,

IX', Revbelge 31

198-203

1

(1953), 955-72;

Schmale);

(F. J.

(K. Rendel); Seppelt 3, 34-8;

LThK

NCE

13,

9,

697

(J. Gilchrist).

BENEDICT X (antipope 5 Apr. 1059:

d.

after

1073).

Stephen

IX, while

clergy, in

obedience

deferred

to

to investigate its adherents. In

was planning

enjoyed,

however, the confidence of Victor

appointment)

Hildebrand

spring 1058, reviving

electing

On

the

the

1058-Jan. death of

leading

Roman

to their oath to

a

successor

him, until

Hildebrand (later Gregory VII) returned from a mission to Germany, a clique of nobles led by Gregory of Tusculum and Gerard of Galena saw their chance to seize control of the papacy and, winning over the people by bribery, had John Mincius, cardinal bishop of Velletri, elected and enthroned with the style Benedict X. Their choice was astute, for although John, a Roman by birth, belonged to the Tusculan family, he was highly esteemed in reforming circles and had been one of the five proposed by Frederick of Lorraine (later Stephen IX) when consulted in July-Aug. 1057 about a successor to Victor II. But if his backers hoped that, taken by surprise, the reformers would accept the fait accompli,

50

NICHOLAS

11(1058-61)

Florence from 1045, he was a leading figure nth-cent, reform movement when

They all fled from Rome, anathematizing Benedict, who had they were mistaken.

in the

On Stephen

IX's death (28 Mar.

be irregularly consecrated since Peter Damiani, who as bishop of *Ostia had the right to officiate, refused to do so. Nevertheless for some nine months,

Velletri as

while the reformers concerted their plans,

cardinals, loyal to their promise to the dying

Benedict managed to function as pope; one of his few recorded acts was to send the

Stephen

*pallium to Archbishop Stigand of Canterbury (d c.1072). In Dec. 1058, however, the

sion to

elected.

to

Nicholas

1058) a powerful anti-reformist aristocratic clique on 5 Apr. elected Bishop John of

(later

Benedict X, but

to take

Gregory

no action

the reform

until

VII) returned

Hildebrand from a mis-

Germany, refused to recognize him, abandoned Rome, and eventually through

Siena.

Hildebrand's influence, after securing the

Early in Jan. 1059 Nicholas held a synod at

agreement of Duke Godfrey of Lorraine and Tuscany (c. 1040-96) and then satisfying itself of the good will of the German court, elected Gerard at Siena in Dec. The

cardinals elected

at

II

Sutri, with the imperial chancellor

Guibert

representing the regent Agnes, and excom-

municated Benedict as an 'invader' of the holy see and as a perjuror for breaking his oath to the dying Stephen IX. When Nicholas took possession of Rome on 24

surrendered

it

When

after

in

autumn

anathematized

token of this, and retired to a family prop-

from which Benedict had

tried,

to

fled,

by

Rome,

and was

a

month

now archdeacon,

gaoled

popular opinion by lavish largesse.

The

him. Finally, his voluntary abdication not

being deemed

moved

there enthusiastically installed on 24 Jan. 1059, Hildebrand having swung over

Maria Maggiore; but

Hildebrand,

and

Supported

Benedict.

Godfrey's troops, he then

later

of the

Guibert,

chancellor

imperial

1059, Benedict renounced all claim to the holy see, removed his pontifical insignia in erty near Sta

after

I

in early Jan. 1059, in the presence

Gerard eventually

two sieges

himself

called

and retained the see of Florence, held a synod at Sutri, near Rome,

Jan., Benedict sought refuge in Gerard's castle at Galeria.

who

new pope, Nicholas

sufficient,

friend of Desiderius of Monte

Cas-

sino (later Victor HI), Nicholas was greatly

he was publicly

with Hildebrand as his accuser, in

influenced by reformers like

Candida

Humbert of

Apr. 1060 and, in spite of protesting that the

Silva

papal office had been forced upon him

(whom he

created archdeacon), and Peter

was ceremonially deposed and degraded. Sentenced to confinement in the hospice of Sant'Agnese on the Via Nomentana, he lived on there at least until the accession of Hildebrand as Gregory VII (1073). When he died, his old adversary relented sufficiently to arrange for him to be honourably buried in that church.

Damiani

(1007-72),

against his will,

7,

695); Bonizo of Sutri, Adamicum

vi

(/WGLiblit

1,

592

(PL 144, 291);

366-70 (O.

f.);

Hildebrand

propagandist

for

1059 he promulgated a momentous electoral

decree providing that papal elections

should

conform to the reformers' it also had the immediate objects

principles;

of

stamping

Benedict's

election

as

uncanonical and legitimizing the irregular features in his own. This decree ruled that,

2, 279; 334-6 {Ann. Romani); JW I, 556 f.; Watterich 1, 203-5; 738; Leo Ostiensis, Chron.

99 (/WGSS

1000-61),

reform. At the Lateran synod of 13 Apr.

LP II,

(c.

to

exclude simony, the cardinal bishops

should effectively choose the pope, the car-

Peter Damiani, Ep. 3, 4 105 f. (J. Gay); DBI 8,

dinal clerks should then be brought in,

DHGE 8,

and

the remaining clergy and the people should

Capitani); Zi, 141-6.

finally give their assent;

it

circumstances warranted

NICHOLAS II (6 Dec.

non-Roman

1058-19 or 26 July c. 1010 in Lorraine or French Burgundy, bishop of

also permitted, it,

if

die choice of I

and the holding of the a vague clause about the emperor's right to approve,

1061). Originally Gerard, born

cleric

election outside

5

Rome. There was

ALEXANDER

II

(1061-73)

which was not envisaged as unconditional; it had to be granted to each successive ruler, and could be forfeited by misuse. The synod then legislated against clerical marriage and concubinage, for the first time investiture by forbidding clerics to acquire

synod of 1060, accepting his ring from the pope and thereby acknowledging that his previous investiture by the emperor had been simoniacal. Meanwhile Nicholas's alliance with the Normans on the one hand and his stiff disciplinary demands on the other had aroused the fierce resentment

churches from laypersons, and required the

both of the

issued

general

a

of

prohibition

clergy of one church to share a

*lay

common life.

*Berengar of Tours appeared before it and was forced to sign a crudely realistic statement, drafted by Humbert, of the real presence

in the eucharistic bread.

Politically

reaching

decision,

Desiderius previous

and

1

southern

on

cies,

he was not received. Worse followed,

for a

synod of

to

He cemented

reverse

and broke off communion with him. Before he could react he had died in Florence. Like

this

synod of Melfi (23 Aug. 1059),

at

Stephen IX, he was buried there

capital of

LP

Apulia, at which, in addition to

2, 280; 335 f.; 537—51 Watterich

passing

measures

Xicholas

enforce

clerical

;

principality

Guiscard

(c.

of

Capua

and

military assistance.

Thus

at

a stroke

H.

A

G.

Krause,

'Das

Paps-

DTC

Amann); Mann

LThK

977

f.

(E.

(Th. Schieffer);

226-60;

5,

\CE

10,

441

f.

(W.

1

1,

7,

M.

Plochl); Seppelt 3, 37-50.

the

Roman church gained feudal suzerainty over much of south Italy; an immediate

ALEXANDER

dividend was that Richard stormed the

nent family

where Antipope Benedict had sought refuge, and handed

at

him over as a prisoner to Nicholas, who

at the

stronghold

557-66; yVfCConst 1, Clavel, Le Pape

rwahldekret von 1059', StGreg 7 (i960);

526-32

Apulia and Calabria and the lordship of

and the promise of

1,

206-35;

1,

son entire disciplmaire (Lyons, 1906);

89-94;

1916),

Robert

1015-85) with the duchies of

Sicily in return for fealty

II:

JW

K. Guggenberger, Die deutschen Pdpste (Cologne,

celibacy, he invested Richard of Aversa with

the

S.

in

Reparata.

the

Norman

to

bishops close to the

court declared Nicholas's acts null and void

make an alliance papacy and the Normans in

Italy.

German

of

advice

lildebrand,

as a papal legate at

the court in 1061 to justify the pope's poli-

took the far-

the

Stephen appeared

dinal

and

policies

between the

now

Nicholas

German royal house and of the German episcopate, led by Archbishop Anno of Cologne (1056-75). When Car-

II

(30 Sept. 106 1-2 1 Apr.

1073). Originally Anselm, born of a promi-

of Galeria,

ordained

later

at

Baggio, near Milan, a student

(c. 1010-89) school at Bee, Milan c. 1055, a familiar figure

Lanfranc's at

Emperor Henry III (1039named bishop of Lucca in 1057, he

court of

formally deposed and degraded him.

56) and

Further synods were held in 1060 and 06 1 dealing in the main with simony and the problems raised by simoniacal ordinations; and Nicholas used legates to strengthen the growing spirit of reform in western countries. In northern Italy he advanced the cause of reform, and reinforced the position of the holy see, by sending Peter Damiani and Anselm of Lucca (later Alexander II) to Milan in 1059 to make contact with the

was elected, at the instigation of Archdeacon Hildebrand (later Gregory VII), to

1

succeed Nicholas

II,

being installed by

Norman

troops because of disturbances in

Rome.

Earlier

he

been

had

involved

sympathetically in the beginnings of the revolutionary *Pataria at Milan;

proved

a

now he

champion both of church reform

and of the rescue of once Christian lands from Islam.

A strik-

In the spirit of the *electoral decree of

ing result was the (temporary) conversion of

1059 the cardinals did not consult the German court, with which a rift had opened in

populist

movement of the

*Pataria.

Archbishop Guido of Milan and his clergy to the ideals of celibacy and the repudiation of simony; Guido attended the Roman

Nicholas IPs

nominated 52

a

last

rival

years.

The court now Honorius II

pope,

HONORIUS (Cadalus of Parma), with

whom

Alexander

contend for several years. Although the court eventually dropped Honorius, Alexander had the humiliation of having to

had

to

withdraw in May 1062 to Lucca, of which he had remained bishop, to await its decision, and of having to appear in May 1064 at a synod at Mantua, over which he presided but which the government had summoned, to clear himself of charges of having obtained the papacy by simony and force of

1061-4)

(II) (antipope

Even King

a suspect bishop of Constance.

Henry

IV, in face of the pope's objections

voiced

by the reformer Peter Damiani

(1007-72)

in 1068,

deemed

prudent

it

abandon the project of divorcing

to

his wife

Bertha.

came

Relations between court and curia

on the death of Archbishop Guido of Milan (23 Aug. 107 1). Henry tried to force his nominee Godfrey on the Milanese as his successor and got the to breaking-point

arms. This he successfully did by taking an

Lombard bishops to consecrate him, but the

oath of purgation before Anno, archbishop

outraged adherents of the Pataria, with the

of Cologne (1056-78) and now regent for

papal legate's

Henry IV (1056-1 106). Even before the decision of Mantua, the main lines of Alexander's programme, in

Atto,

carrying out which he was firmly guided by

cated

Hildebrand,

were

made

clear.

At the renewed

Lateran synod of 1063 he Nicholas IPs decree against simony, for-

full

who was

support, elected the priest

sympathetic to their cause.

Schism was the

result;

last

five royal

counsellors for simony at his

Lenten synod.

made con-

Early in his reign Alexander tact

with Byzantium, the

bade attendance at masses celebrated by married priests and the acceptance of *lay

since the breach under

investiture without the diocesan's permis-

his representative to

and recommended the common life to From 1063 onwards the pace quickened, and a series of reforming synods and inquisitions was held by his legates in France and Spain; in 1068 King Sancho V Ramirez of Aragon (1063-94) placed his country under the feudal protection of the pope, and in 1071 substituted the Roman for the Mczarabic liturgy. On Hildebrand's advice Alexander backed Duke William of Normandy (1028-87), an active promoter of reform, against Harold of England, and blessed his campaign by sending St Peter's banner; under it William fought and won

and since Henry

stood by Godfrey, Alexander excommuni-

in

such move

first

Leo IX in

107 1 he sent Peter of Anagni

1054, and

(d.

1

105) as

Emperor Michael VII

sion,

Ducas (107 1 -8). Concrete negotiations

the clergy.

union must have been begun, but no

ment was reached. LP 2, 281; 358-60; JW la

566-92;?!

146,

1271-

235-90; C. Violante, La pataria riforma ecclesiastica (Rome, 1955); V.

430; Watterich milanese e

1,

for

settle-

1,

Grumel, 'Le premier contact de Rome avec 1'Orient apres le schisme de Michel Cerulaire', Bulllitteccl

43 (1942), 21-9;

Violante);

Mann

Ryan); Seppelt

3,

5,

DBI

261-369;

2,

NCE

176-83 (C. 288 (J- J-

1,

50-64.

HONORIUS (II) (antipope 28 Oct. 31

May

1064:

d.

1071/2).

1061-

On Nicholas

IPs death in July 1061 Peter Cadalus, born

the battle of Hastings (1066). In 1063 he

1

009/ 10 10 of wealthy German stock near

sent banners and granted indulgences to

Verona, by 1041 comptroller of the see of

Norman warriors and French knights

Verona, bishop of Parma by

fight-

ing against the Muslims in Sicily and Spain respectively,

and

in

1072 blessed a similar

May

1046, was

elected pope, on the nomination of Empress

Agnes

as regent for the youthful

Henry IV

expedition undertaken by the French Count

(1056-1106), by a miscellaneous assembly

Ebolus of Roucy. In Germany he took an

at Basle;

Honorius II. The on seizing the papacy themselves, had sent an embassy to the

inflexible line, only

Roman

Udo

for

handing the *pallium to of Trier when he had proved himself

guiltless

German

of simony, in 1070 citing powerful

Rome

he took the

court bearing the insignia of the

to clear

themselves of the

patrician of the

same charge, and forcing

the resignation of

in virtue

prelates to

53

style

nobility, set

Romans

of that office, to

to request

name

a

I

Icnry,

new pope;

GREGORY VII (1073-85) there had also arrived, led by Guibert, the royal chancellor, a delegation of

Lombard

attitude of the

bishops hostile to the reform movement.

J\V

Because of

prominence, his close relations with the royal house, and his wealth,

60; Watterich

Cadalus was an obvious choice; he was also, although founder in 1046 of the monastery

176-82

his

of S. Giorgio

at

Verona, an opponent of

One month earlier (30 Sept.) the reform at Rome had elected Bishop Anselm

party

1062,

after

defeating

his

II.

In Apr.

rival's

troops,

installed himself in

failed to exploit his success. In

Rome, but May Duke

Godfrey of Lorraine, arriving with superior forces, persuaded both popes to withdraw to dioceses

their

until

the

decided on their claims.

German

1

530; 566-94;

,

1,

LP

281; 284; 336

2,

DHGE

235-90;

(C. Yiolante:

11,

358-

II);

(F.

DBI

1949);

on Alexander

f.;

53-99

2,

Zi, 148-

58; Seppelt 3, 5 1-6; F. Herberhold, 'Die AngrifTe

des Cadalus von Parma

und

1062

1063',

.

.

auf Rom

.

StGreg

2

in den Jahren (Rome, 1947),

477-5°3-

reform movement known as the *Pataria.

Honorius

court would again

Baix: complete bibliography to

reform, in particular of the revolutionary

of Lucca as Pope Alexander

German

alter in his favour.

court

This meant in

Anno, the Cologne (1056-78), who had now replaced Agnes as regent and who personally favoured Alex-

GREGORY May

VII,

ST

(22 Apr.

1073-25

1085). Originally Hildebrand, born

1020 of humble parentage

in Tuscany, he and was educated in Sta Maria all'Aventino and in the Lateran palace. I laving received minor orders, he c.

came

Rome

to

as a child

became chaplain accompanied him ogne.

Gregory VI and

to in

1046

to exile at

Col-

On

Gregory's death (1047) he probentered Cluny, near Macon, or a

effect that the decision lay with

ably

reform-minded

Leo IX soon sumRome, ordained him subdeacon, and appointed him treasurer of the Roman church and prior of St Paul's monastery. He was now a marked man in

ander.

After

archbishop

of

investigations,

first

at

Augsburg in Oct. 1062 and then at Rome at the end of the year, judgement was given in Alexander's favour. But Honorius was far from finished. Anathematized by Alexander (20 Apr. 1062), he anathematized him in turn from Parma, and in May 1063 attacked

Rome,

and holding it for several months. As the schism dragged on and Alexander's title continued to be disputed, Anno was persuaded by the seizing

Castel

Sant'Angelo

Cluniac monaster), but

moned him

reforming

F ranee

to

circles,

being sent on missions to

1054 and 1056 and Germany in 1057. Archdeacon since 1059, he became the chief shaper of policy under Nicholas II

and,

in

still

more, under Alexander

II.

On

Alexander's death he was elected pope

popular

Gregory

acclaim, I

naming himself

by-

after

the Great and deferring his con-

secration out of regard for the apostles Peter

reformer Peter Damiani (1007-72) to convene a synod of German and Italian bishops at Mantua in May 1064 to which both popes

and Paul

were

cloud with the holy see for continuing to

Honorius refused to attend since his request to preside was not granted, but Alexander attended, presided, and, after disclaiming simony on oath, was definitively acknowledged as pope. Honorius was then formally anathematized. He now returned to Parma, remaining its acknowledged bishop until his death towards the end of 107 1 or the beginning of 1072. He never abandoned his claims to the papacy, and at least twice, in 1065 and 1068, had serious grounds for hoping that the invited.

He

until after their feast

on 29 June.

did not notify or seek the approval of

King Henry IV (1056-1 associate with advisers

106), then

whom

under

Alexander

a

II

had excommunicated.

A man tion,

of exceptional

ability,

and experience, whose

determinaintellectual

stature shines out in his letters, Gregory-

made reform

the keynote of his programme. His exalted mystique of the papacy, set out in the twenty-seven propositions of his Dictatus

papae (Mar. 1075), included not only

the pope's personal sanctity inherited from

St Peter, but his supremacy over, and right

54

GREGORY VII (1073-85) to

depose,

princes, temporal as well as

all

were subject to the pope, who had supreme legislative and judicial power. With the object of rooting out moral abuses in the church and freeing it spiritual; all Christians

from lay control, he first reinforced, at his Lenten synods of 1 074 and 1 075, his predecessors' decrees against clerical marriage

and simony. This provoked great resistance, especially in France and Germany, but special legates armed with overriding powers were able to overcome most of it. Secondly,

was

sentence

bishops

of

council

the

Gregory deposed

declared

imperial

Brixen (25 June 1080), which

at

A

and

elected

Clement

Guibert of Ravenna as

to

III

compromise was still possible, for Henry was eager to be crowned emperor, but Gregory was not the man for compromise; indeed, his inflexible replace him.

political

caused many of his supporters,

attitude

including thirteen cardinals, to desert him.

When Henry the

seized

Rome

in

Norman Robert Guiscard

Gregory,

rescued

eventually

Mar. 1084, 1015-85)

(c.

but

however, his prohibition of *lay investiture i.e. interference in church appointments

populace was antagonized by the excesses of

through the right

to install clerics in their

his troops

terms in 1075 but later synods, created an

pope.

—

offices

more

—issued

in general

precisely at

even greater storm and brought him into collision with

Henry

IV; his

programme

and vented

He had

their

the

wrath on the

to leave the city, first for

Monte Cassino and then

for Salerno,

where

he died, protesting that he had loved

justice

and hated

iniquity.

He was

buried there.

envisaged the abolition of royal control of

Gregory's reign was remarkable apart

involved in the Saxon

from his dramatic conflict with the empire. His letters attest his keen concern for the

bishops. At revolt,

first,

the king

seemed prepared

to co-

operate, but after defeating the Saxons (9 June 1075) he proceeded to nominate his own creatures, not only to Milan and sees in Germany but to Fermo and Spoleto. When Gregory sharply rebuked him (Dec. 1075), he convened a synod of German bishops at Worms (24 Jan. 1076) which deposed the pope, and himself called on him to abdicate; at

Piacenza the

German his

Lombard bishops

joined the

episcopate. Gregory's reaction, at

Lenten synod, was

excommunicate

to

church's fortunes in countries as distant as

Norway and Denmark in the north, Spain in the west, Poland and Hungary in the east.

He

was

forever

striving,

varying

by feudal ties; while with the aim of centralizing authority in the church he extended the use of legates, insisted that to the holy see

metropolitans should

come to Rome to made little use

receive the *pallium, and

himself of the college of cardinals. His

Henry, suspend him from exercising royal

relative

powers, and release his subjects from

France (1060-1108),

alle-

with

degrees of success, to bind temporal rulers

moderation towards Philip in

spite

I

of

of having

complaints and vehement

Henry's and in his imperilled situation he found it prudent to promise the pope obedience and seek

uttered

bitter

threats,

as well as the

absolution in penitential garb at Canossa,

refusal to

near Reggio in north

evidence of his shrewd political realism

giance.

their

gave

this

Initially

opponents

chance,

Italy, in Jan.

Gregory's pastoral clemency was

1077. But to

prove a

enjoyed

with

(1066-87)

when

in

budge on

that

was required.

1077, but in 1080, persuaded that the king

his

intransigent, he again also

much

deposed him

debated

Rudolf as lawful

at

(his

the

excommunicated right to do so was

time),

recognizing

king. Henry's reply to this

Conqueror

lay investiture,

signal success in Spain

was and

relations he

the

England, in spite of the king's

For three years he tried to mediate between Henry and his rival Rudolf of Swabia (d. 1080), elected antiking in

political mistake.

good

William

He

provide

achieved a

when Alfonso VI of

Castile

(1072-1109)

Roman

liturgy, already in

established

the

use in Aragon, in

realms in 1080 in place of the old Mozarabic rites. In the early years of his reign he was much preoccupied with plans for a crusade, to be led by himself personally, which would free the Byzantine

155

CLEMENT

1084-1100)

III (antipope 1080;

empire from the Turks and then restore

court in 1054 and, on the nomination of

union with the eastern church; his appeals

Empress Agnes, was imperial chancellor for Italy 1058-63. As such he was present in Jan. 1059 at the synod of Sutri at which

envisaged the recover) of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem as the goal of the enter-

The distraction of other controversies

prise.

Nicholas II anathematized Antipope Benedict X; the claim that the reference to

caused the dream to come to nothing, although he maintained friendly contact with Emperor Michael VII Ducas

Nor should

(1

the king in the *electoral decree of that year

was

07 1 -8).

sound doctrine be overlooked; in 1079, a ^ter on S debates, he brought *Berengar of Tours to accept a eucharistic statement which admitted a substantial change in the consecrated bread and wine. Acknowledged generally as one of the greatest popes and most impressive figures

much

the

among

contemporaries.

authoritative

and unyielding, but with

foundly religious passion for

a

Rome

at

elected

Alexander

Cadalus

of

election

as

spirits in

Antipope

by King Henry IV (1056-1 106); Alexander II

was

at first reluctant to

backer of his

a

rival,

consecrate the

but was persuaded to do

so by his archdeacon, Hildebrand, after

Guibert had taken the oath of allegiance.

When

pro-

'justice',

open

Honorius II at Basle in Oct. 1 061. In 1072 he was nominated archbishop of Ravenna

general

In

is

On Nicholas's death, when the

Guibert was one of the moving

II,

of controversy today as he was

subject

compromise suggested by him

reform party

'

of the medieval world, he remains as

a

to question.

his interest in

Hildebrand

Gregory

he

became

pope

VII in 1073, Guibert at

as

first

co-

operated with him, but soon moved into the

pursued his vision of a 'pure' and 'free' church with a single-minded fanaticism

camp of

his enemies. In 1075 Gregory suspended him for failing to appear at his Lenten synod; in Feb. 1076 he was excommunicated for his part in the meeting of Lombard bishops which had purported to depose Gregory. When the final break between Henry IV and Gregory came, the king had Guibert elected pope at Brixen in

which dismayed some of his closest friends. Although his efforts seemed to end in failure, the ideas for which he struggled were to prevail through his successors and helped to shape western Christendom. Beatified in 1584, he was canonized by Paul V in 1606. Feast 25 May.

When Henry at last took possesRome four years later, the Roman

June 1 080. J\V

594-649;

1,

(ed.),

Das

PL

148, 283-645; E. Caspar

Register Gregors

(AfCEpsel

2:

sion of

1955);

and people elected Guibert pope, and he was enthroned in the Lateran basilica on 24 Mar. 1084 with the style Clement III. On 31 Mar., while Gregory clergy

293-546; E. Caspar, 'Studien /urn Register Gregors VII', NA 38 (19 1 3), 145-226;?.

Watterich

Jaffe,

1865);

1,

Monumenta II.

Gregoriana

(Bibl.rer.Germ.,

E.J. Cowdrey, Epistolae Vagantes (with

ET, Oxford,

1972);

Mann

1-2 17; H. X.

7,

still

Whitney,

Hildebrandine

1932); A.

J.

Essays

The approach

(Cambridge,

Macdonald, Hildebrand (London,

Apulia

1932); A. Murray, 'Pope Gregory VII and his Letters', Traditio 22 (1966), 1

183-5 (Th. Schieffer);

Miccoli);

65-120

149-201;

BSS

7,

LThK

294-379

(also index).

to the counts to

the

as a

of

German

emperor

in St Peter's.

1015-85), however, with a Nor-

obliged Henry and Clement to abandon Rome. The antipope betook himself to Ravenna, of which he had remained archbishop and which from c. 1 080 onwards he organized as a centre of pamphlet war against Gregory and the Gregorian party. Clement impressed friends and foes alike

4,

(G.

NCE 6, 772-5 (W. Ullmann); Seppelt 3,

1025 of a family related Canossa, Guibert came

(c.

as

of Robert Guiscard, duke of

man army

CLEMENT III (antipope 25 June 1080; Mar. 1084-8 Sept. 1100). Born at Parma c.

held out in Castel Sant'Angelo, he

crowned Henry

Arquilliere, Saint Gregoire VII (Paris, 1934); J. P.

man

of irreproachable character,

first-

and education, and remarkable eloquence. He was no tool, as has rate ability

156

VICTOR

May

on 25

sometimes been supposed, of the emperor,

in exile at Salerno

but developed policies of his own, and was

the reform party in

III (1086; 1087)

1085 threw

Rome, weakened by

Clement

personally responsible for effective anti-

desertions to Antipope

Gregorian propaganda. Because of the sup-

confusion; almost a year elapsed before,

port he enjoyed

among

the clergy (thirteen

of the cardinals had come over

to

him) and

into

III,

under pressure from the Norman prince of Capua, the cardinals, much

Jordan

Rome

against his will, elected Desiderius, abbot of

pope throughout reign and most of Urban IPs.

Monte Cassino. Although not one of the three recommended by the dying Gregory,

with differing

he seemed the right choice because of his

degrees of success, to have his legitimacy

Germany and north

influence with the Normans, whose support was now more than ever necessary, and

but in England, Portugal, Denmark,

because his record suggested that he might

the people, he was able to return to

and exercise

his role as

Victor Ill's He made strenuous

efforts,

recognized not only in Italy,

Hungary, Croatia, and Serbia; and he negotiated with both Archbishop John II of Kiev and the eastern emperor and patriarch in the interest of union. No opponent of

Roman synod in 1089 against simony and clerical marriage and in favour of clergy living in common; he

reform, he legislated at a

also

condemned

the uncanonical practice of

the Gregorians of treating the sacraments of

schismatic

priests

as

invalid.

indirectly responsible for the

He was

development

of the college of cardinals, for he allowed so

much

influence to the cardinal priests

came over treat the

who

Urban II had to ones who supported him with like to his side that

consideration.

In

the

mid-nineties

power and authority began

to

his

wane; he was

Rome by the Pierleoni family and Castel Sant'Angelo, the last Clementine stronghold in the city, fell to Urban II on 24 Aug. of that year. On the accession of Paschal II in 1099 he prepared to renew the struggle, but was ejected from Albano by Norman troops. He died at Civita Castellana, 57 km. north of driven out of

in 1098,

Rome,

JW

in Sept.

1

100.

649-55; Watterich 1, 293; AfGLiblit 1, 621-6; 2, 1 69-72; AfG'Const 1, 541-6 n. 383; O. Kohncke, Wibert von Ravenna (Leipzig, 1888); P. Kehr, 'Zur Geschichte Wiberts von Ravenna',

SAB

1,

(1921), 355-68; 973-88; K. Jordan, 'Die

Stellung

Wiberts

Investiturstreites',

Seppelt

LThK

3,

10,

in

MIOG

der

62

Publistik

(1954),

93-134; NCE 6, 836 1087 f. (K. Reindel).

f.

des

155-64;

(F. Dressier);

effect a rapprochement with

IV (1056-1106). Victor

Henry

II,

HI,

BL.

16 Sept. 1087).

May 1086; 9 Maydeath of Gregory VII

(24

The

Emperor Henry

adopted the name of

Ill's

(1039-56) nominee IV, as a token of

and guardian of Henry conciliation.

Originally

Daufer

or

Daufari,

born

1027 and related to the Lombard dukes of Benevento, he had early tried out the life of

c.

a hermit, then

become

a

monk at Benevento

(where he took the name Desiderius), and finally, after service

Monte Cassino

Leo

with

IX, entered

becoming abbot on 19 Apr. 1058. His rule marked a golden in 1055,

period, for he not only completely rebuilt

the abbey, but expanded

and encouraged

its

property and

and the on St Benedict's miracles. In Mar. 1059 Nicholas II named him cardinal priest and

library, arts;

literature

he himself (1076-9) wrote a

treatise

papal vicar of the monasteries of south

Italy.

That summer he negotiated the alliance between the papacy and the Normans, with whom he had cultivated good relations, and in June 1080 reconciled Gregory VII and the Norman Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia (c. 1015-85). In 1 082 he incurred the pope's wrath, but probably not excommunication, by attempting to mediate between him and Henry IV and promising the latter to do what he honourably could to help him to

obtain

imperial

the

crown;

sheltered Gregory, fleeing from

spring 1084,

with him

at

at his

hour days

VICTOR

He

but

he

Rome

in

Monte Cassino, and was

deathbed.

after his election, before he

could be consecrated, Victor was forced by rioting

157

and other disturbances

to

leave

URBAN

II

(1088-99)

Rome. Disheartened, perhaps

aware of

also

sacked the

papal insignia, retired to

Aug. 1087 and presented A prudent and cautious pontiff, he evidently regarded himself as the trustee of the Gregorian

Cassino, and resumed his functions

cause, and as such was viewed by the anti-

Mar. 1087, however, at the instigation ofJordan of Capua, he convened a synod at Capua, not as pope but as ex officio

pope's party as an intruder on the holy see.

the indignation his elevation had caused

among

more

the

aside

laid

Monte

the

he

fanatical Gregorians,

as abbot. In

papal vicar in southern

On

Italy.

was

election of the previous year

During the council of Benevento his condiand he hastened to Monte Cassino and there died. His cult began soon after his death, and his beatification (feast 16 Sept.) was confirmed by Leo XIII in tion deteriorated,

this his

activated

and he was persuaded, in the teeth of bitter opposition from a minority led by Archbishop Hugh of Lyons {c.\ 040-1 106), finally to accept office. On 9 May, after Norman troops had wrested the *Leonine city from Antipope Clement III, he was at last

consecrated

Despite friends,

1887. Desiderius,

it

Jordan of Capua and the Countess (1 046-1 1 15), he found it

was by Clement

15-18.

1

week returned

to

URBAN

at

1099).

the urgent pleading of the countess, he went

back

Rome

Benedicti

S.

Ill's

Cassino. In early June, however,

troops, and after about a

Monte

100;

Rome,

impossible to establish himself in

miraculis

Geschichte-] (1867), 1-1 12; H. E.J. Cowdrey, The Age of Abbot Desiderius (Oxford, 1983); DTC 14, 2866-72 (E. Amann); LThK 10, 769 f. (K. Reindel); NCE 1 4, 667 (H. Bloch); Seppelt 3, 95-

Matilda of Tuscany largely occupied as

de

sino als Papst Victor IIP, Forschungen zur deutschen

powerful

of his

efforts

Dialogi

(/VfCSS 30/2, iiii-52);JW 1,655; Watterich '> 549-71; F. Hirsch, 'Desiderius von Monte Cas-

in St Peter's.

the

city in

part of the spoils to St Peter's.

II,

BL.

Of noble

(12 Mar.

1088-29 July

parentage, born

Chatillon-sur-Marne,

c.

1035

at

Odo (Eudes) studied

forces. In mid-July, faced with

from the antipope's rumours of

under St Bruno, founder of the Carthusians (c. 1 032-1 10 1), at Rheims, was made canon and then archdeacon there, and c. 1068 became a monk at Cluny, near Macon, and

Henry

IV's arrival in Italy, he returned to

rose to be prior. Joining the service of

Monte

Cassino, and in

to

and on

by sea

of the

control

city

important council seriously

ill

continued

Monte

in spite

of

health,

ill

July succeeded in gaining

1

all

at

late

Aug. held an

Benevento. Although

the time, he

unremittingly

Cassino,

full

seems

to

have

both

active

at

of which he remained

abbot until three days before his death, and in the

wider church, where there

evidence

is

he made an impact not only in north Italy but in France and Germany. Although its decisions are hard to assess, the council of Benevento seems to have republished

that

Gregory

VII's

of

prohibition

*lay

investiture, declared simoniacal ordinations invalid,

ent

Hugh

and anathematized not only Clembut the Gregorian

III

ultras,

including

renewed on Henry IV should be rejected. His reign also saw a momentous Pisan and Genoese naval expedition against the Saracens at Mahdia (eastern Tunisia), which of Lyons; the report that

the ban

it

Gregory

VII,

bishop of Ostia legate in

he was created cardinal c. 1

Germany

080, and served as his in 1084-5.

He

loyally

supported Gregory during his conflict with

Henry IV (1056-1106), presiding over synod

a

Quedlinburg, in Saxony, in 1085 which anathematized Antipope Clement III.

at

On Victor

sino,

Ill's

death

at

Monte Cas-

Rome being controlled by Clement III

and the reform cardinals unable to gain access to it, he was elected after long delay at Terracina,

south of

Rome

near Gaeta,

and adopted the name Urban. Faced with a hostile emperor and a successful antipope, he judged it his immediate task to establish his

position

as

legitimate

pontiff

and,

announcing his devotion to Gregory's reform programme, was prepared for a time to apply it with diplomatic although

circumspection.

158

URBAN Thus

while renewing Gregory's legisla-

tion against clerical marriage, simony,

and

*lay investiture at Melfi in Sept. 1089,

down

laid

moderate guide-lines

relatively

He

Germany.

for his legate in

when

ferred to dispense

he"

able to

do

bishop

who had been

it

himself pre-

seemed reason-

so, recognizing, for

example, a

by his

invested

II

(1088-99)

country ecclesiastically; in 1088 he restored

Toledo

as

an archbishopric, and granted the

new archbishop

the *pallium as primate of

The Normans

the whole of Spain. Italy

and

Sicily

were his especial

in

south

and Roger

allies,

to maintain his fruitful relations with

count of Sicily (1072-1101), he even

I,

conceded

July 1098) to

(5

him and

his

sovereign but canonically elected, and the

successor quasi-legatine powers of control

validity

of the masses of properly ordained

over the church in the island (the so-called

priests

who had gone

'Sicilian

over to the schism.

methods,

Gregory's

Modifying

he

By 1095,

temporarily abandoned the use of standing reforms.

enforce

This con-

legates

to

ciliatory

approach brought him criticism

Gregorian

in

but led to a softening of

circles,

the conflict and a gradual strengthening of his position.

did not, however, ease rela-

It

whose successful Italian campaigns of 1090-2 forced him to surrender Rome to Clement III and seek tions

with

Henry

refuge with the

But by

skilful

IV,

Normans

in southern Italy.

diplomacy and by exploiting

the emperor's misfortunes he was able to neutralize

remained

his

domination. While Henry

for several years bottled

Urban was

region of Verona, definitively to

astute

Rome

bribery to

Lateran in 1094; too that he

it

up

in the

able to return

in late 1093,

and by

1

098.

in other countries.

difficulties

with England,

087-1 100),

(1

him

in

at

first

1095

in

return for significant concessions, notably that legates

needed the

royal

permission to enter the kingdom; and he

never reached a

of the continuance of

s Pi te

and he embarked on a triumphant series of synods. At Piacenza in Mar. 1095 he declared the ordinations of Clement III and his adherents void,

condemned

afresh the

eucharistic teaching of *Berengar of Tours (c.

enacted

1010-88),

and

in

reform

legislation,

response to an appeal from the

Byzantine emperor Alexius

I

Comnenus

(1081-1 118) called on Christian warriors defend the eastern church. Moving

to to

France, he again renewed Gregory VII's

reform

legislation

1095, extending

and

clerics to

it

at

Clermont

in

Nov.

by forbidding bishops

become vassals of their king or

Truce of God, i.e. the suspension of hostilities on days ordained by the church, should

neutral, only recognized

agreement

m

the schism, Urban's position was secure,

was probably by bribery

His realism and conciliatory approach

his

withdrawn

other laymen; he also decreed that the

brought him successes II

finally

possession of the

get

won Castel Sant' Angelo in

He had special where William

monarchy', to be

only in Oct. 1867 by Pius IX).

final

decision in the long-

be

observed weekly throughout Christendom. This synod is chiefly famous, however, for his initiative in issuing a sum-

mons

Crusade (1095-9) on 27 on Christians to deliver Jerusalem from Muslim domination. At Bari, where he sought to reach an accommodation on doctrine and practice with the Greek bishops of south Italy, he was able, Nov.,

to the First

calling

standing quarrel between the king and

assisted by the subtle reasoning of

Anselm of Canterbury (1 093-1 109). But in France, where he took a cautious line with

of Canterbury, to convince the easterners of

(1060- 1 108) adulterous marriage, he found increasing backing for the reform papacy and its policies. In Spain he encouraged successfully the reconquest from the Moors, extended the feudal

procession of the Holy Spirit,

suzerainty of the holy see over states like

Byzantium,

Aragon and Catalonia, and reorganized the

ultimate goal, on which he had

Philip

I's

Anselm

the propriety of the belief in the *double

Son

i.e.

from the

as well as the Father (the *Filiouue).

Urban's launching of the crusade, which was his most memorable achievement, was the climax of a policy of rapprochement with

59

with

church

union

as

the

embarked

as

PASCHAL

(1099-1118)

II

088. If his success in preaching the

of closer relations with the eastern church

At first the omens seemed favourable. With the help of Norman gold he ejected Clement III from the neighbourhood of Rome; when Clement died (8 Sept. 1100)

was doomed

he

early as

1

crusade illustrated the remarkable recovery the papacy had

an

made under him,

his vision

His pontificate saw

to failure.

soon

disposed

of

antipopes

the

a

(Theoderic, Albert, Silvester IV) who were successively set up. Henry IV had no hand in their elevation and, Clement being dead, wanted reconciliation, always pro-

bull of 1089) as an institution analogous to

vided that he could exercise his right to

increased

church

of

centralization

government, the reorganization of the papal

emergence of the curia

finances, the

expression curia

Romana

(the

appears in

first

the royal or imperial court, and a growth in

himself, he had special concern for

and abbots with ring and This was the issue to which the struggle between the empire and the reform

monasticism, and fostered the position of

papacy over the control of church appoint-

canons regular, rule; he was also

chal

the influence of the college of cardinals.

monk

canons

i.e.

whose decisions were

many of

be incorporated

to

invest bishops crozier.

ments had now been narrowed, and

under

living

learned canonist

a

A

could not be delayed.

Urban died two weeks

after the taking of

First,

Jerusalem by the crusaders (15 July 1099). He was beatified by Leo XIII in 1881, his

Urban's

feast

LP

293-5;

Paulot,

I

n

1.

657-701;

PL

life);

Watterich

1,

JW

(with Ruinart's

pape /runouts:

Becker, Papst I rban

151,

9-582

II, Pt.

1

(Stuttgart, 1964);

H.

1089',

EB

BZ

the royal right of investiture. Finally, after

I

und Papst Urban

28 (1928), 38-66;

(E.

Amann);

Baldwin); Seppelt

new

55 (1970), 177-88; W. L nionsverhandlungen zwis-

(15th edn.) 18, 1044

2269-85

that,

after initial signs of compliance, the

king was no less tenacious than the old of

First Crusade', History

chen Kaiser Alexios

3,

1

f.

Mann

II

7,

14,

477

f.

DTC

vento 15,

(M. W.

18-34.

banned

PASCHAL

II (13 Aug. 1099-21 Jan. Born at Bieda di Galeata in the Romagna, of modest family background, Rainerius as a boy became a monk in a community which cannot now be identified. Gregory VII appointed him abbot of S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura and c. 1078 cardinal

18).

Clemente;

Urban

investiture at synods at

Guastalla (1106), Troyes (1107), Bene-

250-346;

(A. Becker);

XCE

the pope had

imjahre

(1108),

Henry V crowned

and the

set out for

Lateran

Rome,

emperor

investiture dispute.

1 1

and

to

At Sutri

investiture

Henry should renounce and allow free elections, and in

return the

render the

German churches regalia, i.e. all

which had come retaining

only

to

should sur-

property and rights

them from strictly

Henry accepted

concordat, unrealistic though

II.

Timid and weak, but

also inflex-

a hostile

and

emperor (Henry

his antipope

IV:

(Clement

1056-1106)

III).

when

like tithes.

the empire,

ecclesiastical

revenues

he inherited the investiture controversy, and like Urban was initially faced with

mi)

Paschal, to avoid further conflict, proposed

to Spain.

ible,

Feb.

a radical solution:

entrusted

Paschal

the

settle

(9

II

Sixteen days after Urban's death (29 July 1099) he was elected pope with the style

(11 10),

resolved to be

him with an important mission

priest of S.

him from

he soon found

his oath of loyalty; but

Urban IPs Preaching of the

E.J. Cowdrey, 'Pope

Holtzmann, 'Die

prohibition

revolt against his father, releasing

571-620; L.

rban II (Paris, 1903); A.

i

Mar. 1102 Paschal reiterated

in

of investiture and renewed the ban on Henry and his advisers imposed by Gregory VII. Then in 1105 he supported Henry V's (1106-25) successful

being 29 July.

2,

as Pas-

the abolition of *lay investiture

the central article of his policy, conflict

in

the church's legal code.

made

it

this

was; but

was read out at the coronation on 12 Feb., it was greeted with a tumult of protest, and the coronation had to be brought to a halt. Henry's reaction was to withdraw his acceptance and arrest Paschal and the carit

service in St Peter's

dinals. After

60

two months' harsh imprison-

THEODERIC (antipope ment, and the threat

Antipope

to recognize

Silvester IV in the event of refusal, he forced

the pope, in the 'privilege of Ponte

Mam-

molo' (near Tivoli, 12 Apr. nil) to concede the king's right to invest bishops and abbots with ring and crozier after canonical election with royal consent and before con-

Next day Paschal, who had also had to swear never to excommunicate Henry, crowned him as emperor in St secration.

Peter's.

Paschal's capitulation aroused a storm of

seemed the reversal of all the reform party had struggled for. He himself was abashed by what he had done, and in criticism;

it

mi

summer

considered abdication.

He

acquiesced in the annulment of the pravile-

gium

(i.e.

mocker}' of a privilege, as the

privilege of Ponte

Mammolo was

satirically

described) at the Lateran synod of 11 12,

and expressly withdrew

it

in

1 1

16,

renewing

the prohibition of investiture. Meanwhile,

however, a practical solution of the vexed issue had been reached in England, where

Henry I (1100-35) renounced investiture but retained the right to receive homage from bishops before consecration (council of London, Aug. 1107), and, less formally, in France, where the king also renounced investiture but was content with an oath of

1100-1)

Paschal with a view to reunion (he had political objectives in

mind

but they

too),

foundered on the pope's insistence on recognition of the primacy of the holy see as a precondition. Paschal's last years were troubled. Riot-

Rome

caused him to leave the city in and he again left it for Benevento when Henry V arrived there for a few months in 1 1 1 7; from Benevento he excommunicated Archbishop Maurice of Braga ing in 1 1

16,

Gregory

(Antipope

who

VIII),

without

crowned Henry and his wife Easter. He had hardly returned

authority had

Matilda

at

to the strife-ridden city in early

he died

under

1 1

when

18

in Castel Sant'Angelo, a pontiff

whom

the papacy suffered a

marked

set-back.

JW

1,

LP

702-72;

AIGConst

2,

296-310;

PL

134-52; 564-74;

1,

143-56;

3,

163, 31-448;

C. Servatius, Paschalis II (Stuttgart, 1979); J. G. Rowe, 'Paschal II and the Relation between the Spiritual

and Temporal Powers

in the

Kingdom

of Jerusalem', Speculum 32 (1957), 470-501; 'Paschal II, Bohemond of Antioch and the Byzantine Empire', 14,

717-24

BullJRL 49 (1967), 165-202; PRE LThK 8, 128 f. (Th.

(C. Mirbt);

DTC

Schieffer);

1049 (J8,1-119. 10,

11,

2057-74

(E-

Gilchrist); Seppelt3,

Amann); 134-52;

NCE

Mann

THEODERIC

(antipope Sept.

reflected a distinction developed chiefly by

1101:

102).

On

Ivo of Chartres

(c. 1 040-1 115) between the and the temporalities attaching to it, were approved by Paschal although they had been reached without his direct

Clement

III (8

Sept. 1100) his adherents

spiritual office

in

participation.

Albano

These

allegiance.

The news of the

settlements,

which

capture ofJerusalem

(1

d.

1

Rome, meeting

Peter's,

noo-Jan.

the death of Antipope

secretly

by night

consecrated,

elected,

in St

and

enthroned Theoderic, cardinal bishop of (not

S.

Rufina,

as

mistakenly

recorded), as his successor. Little

is

known

July 1099) by the First Crusade reached

about him except that he was cardinal dea-

Rome shortly after Paschal's enthronement,

con of Sta Maria in Via Lata in 1084, became one of Clement's leading supporters and served him as legate in Germany, and probably sheltered him in the Alban hills when he was driven out of Castel Sant'Angelo. As Pope Paschal II was absent from Rome in south Italy at the time, he was able to maintain his position for one hundred and five days, but on Paschal's

and he warmly encouraged the crusading movement. In 1105 he gave his blessing to

Bohemond

I's

(£.1052-1111)

expedition

against the eastern empire, having been

deceived into thinking that

it

was

really a

crusade and not just a self-interested mili-

was to sour the Greek church to western Christendom. In 1 1 1 2 Emperor Alexius I

tary adventure; his support

attitude of the

(1081-1

1

make his escape Emperor Henry IV (1056-1 106), who

return attempted to

18) entered into negotiations with

161

to in

ALBERT (antipope

1101) (Clemens

fact had had no hand in his elevation and was not averse from an understanding with the new pope. He was quickly arrested by Paschal's supporters, brought before him and sentenced to confinement in Holy Trinity monastery at La Cava, near Salerno, where the Normans could be relied upon to ensure his custody. There he became a monk, dying in 1 102. He was buried in the community cemetery; the gravestone recording his name and the date is

1,

1

2 Apr.

was made

Roman

2;

339;

f.;

EC

stated, adherents of the

Clement

malcontents

III

but imperially

belonging

the

to

Meeting in Sta Maria Rotonda (the Pantheon) and alleging that Paschal was guilty of simony and heresy,

1921, 981-8; C. f.;

to

antipope

late

298; 345 (/inn.Romani); Watterich 2, 89P. Kehr, 'Zur Geschichte YYiberts von

SAB

7r

d.

:

Paschal II. not, as commonly

2,

III)',

f.;

IV (antipope 18 Nov. 1105?). In Nov. 1 1 05 an attempt set up another pope in place of Those involved were probably

1 1 1 1

LP

Ravenna (Clemens

^79), 42

SILVESTER

minded

Servatius, Paschalis II (Stuttgart, 1979), 42

ig2r, 980-8; C. Servatius,

(P. Brezzi).

687

preserved.

91;

SAB

III)',

Paschalis II (Stuttgart,

70-

they

339-

aristocracy.

Maginulf, archpriest of S.

elected

Angelo. Nothing reliable

is

known about

him; Paschal stated that he was a stranger

ALBERT

or

ADALBERT

(antipope

Rome

1 1 01: d. ?). Immediately after the arrest and imprisonment of Antipope Theoderic in

early

11 01,

antipope

III

gathered

in

that

to

who had

he had no idea

ordained him, while his enemies accused

him of dabbling

the adherents of the earlier

Clement

and

have

the

gone

in

magic. Things cannot

according

plan,

to

for

partisans had to appeal for help to

his

Count

church of SS. Apostoli and elected Albert, cardinal bishop of Silva Candida (S. Rufina), to succeed him. Little is known about him except that he must have been appointed

Werner of Ancona. No doubt hoping to do Emperor Henry V (1106-25) a service, Werner came at once to Rome with a con-

and consecrated bishop by Clement by 1084, and that when the Clementine cardinals wrote in Aug. 1098 summoning their Gregorian opponents, with the promise of a safe conduct, to a synod to meet in Rome on 1 Nov., his name headed the list of signatories. When news of his election got abroad there was rioting in the city, and he sought refuge in the house of a Clementine sympathizer near S. Marcello (a Clemen-

Rome itself in the *Leonine city, Maginulf went under Werner's protection to the Lateran and was there consecrated and enthroned on 18 Nov. as Silvester IV. On Paschal's return there was a period of bloody fighting in which the usurper's troops more than once soundly defeated the

tine centre). Before

it

came

tingent of soldiers. Paschal being outside

to a serious

pope's.

When

he found himself obliged After a short stay

succumbed and handed him over to Paschal

Werner's

to bribery'

Ancona). Here he lived

II.

After being stripped of his insignia,

in a

tower

at the

to lifelong

spring

in the

tutelage

1 1 1 1

at

he settled under

Osimo

(prov.

of

in obscurity until

when Henry

V, wishing to put

pressure on Paschal, had him brought to his

Lateran, he was sentenced

confinement

ran out,

to leave the city.

at Tivoli,

struggle, however, his protector

publicly humiliated, and briefly imprisoned

money

Silvester's

however, his following crumbled away and

camp near Rome

monastery of

that, if

as a

he did not

warning

fall

in

to the

pope

with the king's

S. Lorenzo at Aversa, just north of Naples, where the Normans could be relied upon to ensure his safe custody. Nothing is known

wishes, there was a rival at hand to replace

of his later

king's orders, he

LP 2,

history- or the date

JW

of his death.

i,773;yWGLiblit2,405-7;P. 298; 345; Kehr, 'Zur Geschichte Wiberts von Ravenna

him. Once he had obtained what he wanted, Henry- dropped him; on 12 Apr., on the

renounced

all

claim to the

papacy and promised obedience

He 162

passed the remainder of his

to Paschal. life

under

GREGORY the care of his patron

known when he

Werner.

It

is

not

LP 2, nr.

298; 348 f.;JW I, 773 f.;AfGConst 1, 146 98;yVfGSS 19, 281 f. (Ann. Ceccanenses); C.

denouncing

Apr., and by sending letters

him

died.

(VIII) (antipope 1118-21)

to

major centres he effectively

all

crushed any hope Gregory may have had of

When Henry

obtaining recognition.

Servatius, Paschalis II (Stuttgart, 1979), 43; 71-4;

Rome

2201232:245; 251.

city

left

Gelasius was able to return, but the

was controlled by the antipope and

other hostile elements and he could not

GELASIUS 1 1

19).

The

11 18-29 Jan. II (24 Jan. successor of Paschal II, John

of Gaeta came of a respected family, as a boy studied and

became

a

monk

at

Monte Cas-

and there wrote three lives of saints which reflect the stylistic influence of his sino,

teacher author.

deacon

the

Alberic,

Urban

II

1088 and chancellor

in

Cassinese

noted

appointed him cardinal in 1089.

He

himself in the Lateran or St Peter's;

install

on 21 July he was again set upon by the Frangipani during mass in Sta Prassede. Although he managed to escape, he deemed it prudent to withdraw to France, and with several cardinals sailed from Genoa, reaching Marseilles on 23 Oct. At Saint-Gilles, near Nimes, Norbert of Xanten (c. 1080founder

be

to

1134),

of the

austere,

held this key office for three decades, being

evangelistic Premonstratensians or

responsible both for enlarging the staff of

Canons,

the chancery and for reviving the fine rhyth-

sion to preach the

mic style of papal documents. As chancellor he collaborated loyally with Paschal II, shared his imprisonment by Emperor Henry V (1 106-25) from Feb. to Apr. 1 1 1 1, and at the Lateran synod of 11 16 stoutly defended him against the critics of his capitulation on the *investiture issue. Already elderly, he had an exceptionally harassed reign. Elected in Sta Maria in Pallara on the Palatine, he was at once brutally attacked and imprisoned by Cencius Frangipani, head of a patrician family which detested Paschal and his associates, and was only set free in response to the demands of the Romans led by the city prefect. On 1 Mar. fear of Henry V, who hastened from Lombardy to Rome on hearing of his election, forced him to flee with the cardinals to his native Gaeta, where he was ordained priest and consecrated bishop and pope on 9 and 10 Mar. Henry now

thought

visited

fit.

gospel wherever he

Gelasius held a synod

in early Jan.

1 1

retired to Cluny, near

died

at the

LP 2, 3 1 1-2

JW

1,7751 347; PL 1 63, 473-5 14; 80; Watterich 2, 91-1 14; R. Krohn, Der pdpstliche ;

Kanzler Johannes von

Mann

1918);

Gaeta

120-38;

8,

1 1

21: d.

c.i

1

40).

meaning cated

'ass')

was taken

Rome

purpose

Milan

at

or

Cremona

in

the

autumn. In his exasperation Henry had Archbishop Maurice of Braga proclaimed pope as Gregory VIII (8 Mar.). Gelasius retaliated

by

emperor and

anathematizing his antipope at

both

the

Capua on 9

f.

(H.

1118-

in southern

to

Spain and edu-

Bernard

of

Toledo, became archdeacon of Toledo, and by 1099 was promoted bishop of Coimbra. his metropolitan

ing that he planned to hold a council for this

Born

by Archbishop

there

visited

he refused, explain-

Marburg,

316

France of modest parentage, a Cluniac at Limoges, Maurice Burdinus (a nickname

When

investiture dispute, but

6,

GREGORY (VIII) (antipope 8 Mar. Apr.

amicable

the

(diss.,

MCE

Bloch); Seppelt 3, 15 1-4.

his return so that they could

of

Vienne

Macon, where he end of the month without being able to organize the council which would settle the issues dividing church and empire. He was buried in the abbey there.

ill,

reach

settlement

at

19 and then, falling seriously

demanded an

White

him and was given permis-

Maurice

autumn

in

11

Gerald of Braga

summer

1103, he placed charge of the see. Between in

04 and spring 1108 he was on

pilgrimage in the Holy Land, and in Jan. 1

109 himself became archbishop of Braga, Rome from Pas-

receiving the *pallium in

II. He was soon at loggerheads with Bernard of Toledo over the boundaries of

chal

their dioceses, but in

63

Nov. 11

14, alter

he

CALLISTUS had gone

11(1119-24)

Rome in person,

to

Paschal settled

listus

w ithdrew

enjoying his triumph briefly

Apr.

again

at

the papal court in

at

Braga, he was

autumn

1 1 1

1

to the stronghold

of Sutri, but in

121 Callistus besieged the town and

To

the citizens surrendered him.

6, this

time to protest against decisions favouring

Gregory

his objective. In 11 19

II

the dispute decisively in his favour. After

Rome

ruin his

made him mock triumph, mounted

once for

credibility

all

the pope

Santiago de Compostela to the detriment of

traverse

Braga. Paschal, impressed perhaps by his

eloquence and diplomatic

backwards on a camel and exposed to the jeers and peltings of the populace. He was

patched him

then gaoled for the rest of his

sion to

skill, now disLombard} on a peace misEmperor Henry V (1106-25), wri o

wanted

a definitive clarification of his re-

to

Rome, then

entourage when he entered 1

1

17 (Paschal had

moved

to

Rome south

1

At

mass

Easter

(25

at

and excommunicated him and

BeneventO,

instructed

authorities to elect

a

a

the

synod

When GELASIUS 1

1

18),

II

succeeded Paschal at

once came

Rocca Iemolo near

at

2,

LP 2, 3

7 1 5;

2, 15;

19

1

QFIAB

f.;

162 f.; 169; 1 5; 347; 3, C. Erdmann, 'Mauritius

19 (1927), 205-61; P. David,

la

Galue

et

le

Portugal

(Lisbon,

1947),

441-501.

at

CALLISTUS

new archbishop of

Henry

first in

La Cava

.'enigme de Maurice Bourdin', Etudes historiques

s.ur

Spanish

Braga.

(24 Jan.

t.;

Burdinus', 'I

once deposed at

1,821

Watterich

1

several prelates. Paschal

—

1

|\\

Mar), at which monarchs customarily donned crowns, it was Maurice who crowned lenry, notwithstanding the anathemas placed on him by the

at

Monte Cassino, and in 11 25 at Castel Fumone near Alatri and Frosinone. In Aug. 37 he was still alive, back at La Cava.

in early Italy).

life

Passerone, then

near Salerno, then

Maurice the emperor, and was in his

lation to the holy see. At this point

defected to

at

in

II

to

Rome and requested the new pope, who had retreated to Gaeta (his home town), to

II

(2

Feb.

11

19-14 Dec.

Son of Count William of Burgundy, born c. 1050 and related to the German, French, and English royal houses, Guido became archbishop of Vienne in 1088. 1

124).

Although he did not scruple

to use forged

remained

Henry returned to Germany in the summer in Rome, master of St Peter's,

documents to promote the primatial claims of Vienne against Aries, he was an indefatigable champion of reform, leading the attack on Paschal IPs enforced capitulation on investiture to Emperor Henry V (1 106-25), and in Sept. 1 1 1 2 presiding over a synod at Vienne which denounced *lay investiture as heresy and declared the 'king' (it did not recognize him as emperor) excommunicate. On the death of Gelasius II at Cluny on 29 Jan. 1 1 19, the handful of cardinals with him elected Guido, who was crowned as Callistus II at Vienne on 9 Feb.;

Castel Sant'Angelo, and the parts of the city

in the difficult situation of the

dominated by the towers of the Frangipani family. But Gelasius, who had excommunicated him with his master on 8 Apr., had also denounced him in letters sent throughout Europe, effectively destroying any hopes he may have had of being recognized. Henry, too, had no further use for him; on Gelasius's death (29 Jan. 1 1 19) he soon made rapprochement with Cal-

majority of cardinals at

return so that the long-standing dispute

between church and empire over the control of church appointments could be amicably settled. WTien Gelasius refused, the exasperated emperor, advised by his jurists (notably Irnerius of Bologna: d. c. 1 130), had Maurice proclaimed pope on 8 Mar. 1 1 18. Taking the style Gregory VIII, he made peace between church and empire the theme of his early sermons, and when

clergy and people, had

church the

Rome, with

little

ratify the election retrospectively (1 1 1

the

choice but to

Mar.

19).

Notwithstanding his previous intransigence, Callistus was alive to the importance

of reaching an honourable settlement of the investiture

issue

between

church

and

empire, and sent envoys to treat with Henry

164

HONORIUS at

Strasbourg.

The emperor,

too,

was ready

for rapprochement; the practice prevalent in

France convinced him

that

abandoning the

required

11(1124-30)

and investiture with

at elections,

the temporalities was to follow within six

months

The

right of investiture did not entail losing the

after consecration.

concordat of Worms ended the long

and allegiance of churchmen. The two sides agreed a draft treaty which was to be signed at Mouzon, on the Meuse, but its terms proved too vague for Callistus; through misunderstanding and

struggle between church and empire over

mutual

initiative

eloquently attested in frescos celebrating

Callistus

the settlement with which he embellished

services, tribute,

mistrust

foundered.

this

first

Disillusioned,

and Rheims (29 and

reiterated the prohibition of investiture

Henry

the anathema on

30 Oct.

1 1

19).

at

He

then made a triumphal Lombardy and Tuscany

progress through

Although he had made conces-

investiture.

had secured the freedom of

sions, Callistus

church

the

the

in

central

investiture; his pride in his

the Lateran. In Mar. great council (the

1 1

first

of

issue

achievement was

23 he convened a

Lateran council; to

be recognized in the west as the Ninth General) which solemnly ratified the con-

and was enthusiastically received at Rome on 3 June 11 20. Antipope Gregory VIII, whom Henry had by now dropped, had fled

cordat. At this he

to Sutri, but after a siege

tolerated for the sake of peace, not accepted

rendered him

to

its

Callistus,

citizens sur-

who

publicly

of

a monastery.

repeating

time was

now

resumpwas Wiirzburg in

ripe for the

The

in principle.

twenty-two

Urban

had

he

concessions

humiliated him and then had him shut up in

The

overcame the objections

Gregorians by arguing that the

strict

made were

be

council also published

canons,

disciplinary'

earlier

mostly

renewed

legislation,

indulgence

IPs

to

crusaders,

for

tion of negotiations: Callistus's position

declared Antipope Gregory VIII's ordina-

greatly strengthened, while at

tions void,

and provided protection

for pil-

autumn 1 1 2 1 the German princes agreed that Henry should recognize him, under-

grims and penalties for violators of the

taking in return to mediate a settlement

LP

between him and the church which would not damage the honour of the empire. An embassy was sent to Rome in early 11 22; Callistus received it favourably and sent Lamberto of Ostia (later Honorius II) and two other cardinals as plenipotentiaries to Germany. After three weeks' arduous negotiations the famous concordat of Worms was agreed there on 23 Sept. 1 122. Under this the emperor renounced the right to invest with ring and crozier, symbols of spiritual authority, and guaranteed canonical election and free consecration. To Henry personally Callistus conceded that elections to bishoprics and abbeys in Germany should be held in his presence, and that he should invest the person elected with

Bullaire du pape Calixte II (2 vols., Paris, 1891);

the temporalities by

means of

the sceptre,

*Truce of God. 2,

322-6; 376-9; JW

1,

780-821; U. Robert,

2, 115-53; MGConst 1, 159-61 (Worms); MCLiblit 3, 21-8; DBI 16, 761-8 (G.

Watterich

EC

Miccoli);

3,

391-3

(P. F.

1081 (D. D. McGarry);

Palumbo);

DHGE

NCE

2,

424-38 (E. Jordan); Seppelt 3, 153-64; S. A. Chodorow, 'Ecclesiastical Politics and the Ending of the Investiture Contest', Speculum 46 (1971), 61340;

Mann

8,

139-230.

HONORIUS 1

130).

11,

The

II (21

Dec.

1

124-13 Feb. Callistus

election following

IPs death was a turbulent one. First, a majority of cardinals, with the Pierleoni family, put forward Cardinal

Saxo of

S.

Stefano; they then dropped him, and the cardinal priest

Teobaldo was unanimously II. While his

proclaimed as Celestine installation

was

in progress, the

Frangipani

the symbol of temporal authority. In dis-

family, with the connivance of the chancel-

puted elections the emperor was

lor Aimeric,

in favour of 'the

sounder

party'.

to

decide

Outside

broke into the assembly and

sword-point had

Germany, the emperor's presence was not

Cardinal

at

Lamberto of

Ostia acclaimed pope. Celestine resigned,

.65

HONORIUS and

(1124-30)

II

Aimeric and Leo Frangipani had

after

chancellor Aimeric.

The

majority both of

and the Pierleoni with substantial bribes Lamberto, who had laid down the papal insignia, was duly elected and enthroned as Honorius II. Often explained in terms of the rivalries

the cardinals he created and of his legates

of patrician families, these proceedings

the old orders to collaborate in the work. In

squared the

city prefect

fact reflected a struggle

shared

aspirations for moral and reform in the church; he also

their

spiritual

showed marked regular, believing

in

among the cardinals

same

the

favour

to

canons

the

them better qualified than

spirit

he

sanctioned

the

themselves, with the old -school Gregorians

Premonstratensian

who formed

founded by Norbert of Xanten (c. 10801 134), in 1 1 26; two years later, through his legate at the council of Troyes, he approved the rule of the Knights Templar,- in preparing which Bernard of Clairvaux, Aimeric's close friend, had taken a large part. His

oeuvred by

the majority being outmanyounger group led by Aimeric

a

who, regarding the *investiture issue as settled, were now concentrating on the inner renewal of the church.

Humbly born

near Imola (prov. of Bologna), -reputedly

canons,

learned,

Lamberto Scannabecchi was one

interventions

of these.

Made

demned and imprisoned

Paschal

II

Gelasius

cardinal bishop of Ostia by

in 1117,

II

to

II,

and taken

negotiating

in

*Worms

the

a decisive

concordat

(1122). Like Aimeric,

whom

of

as

between the older and younger generations Honorius

Honorius used the peace with the empire which the church had secured at Worms to strengthen its position and promote reform. In 1 1 25 he backed Count Lothair III of Supplinburg for the German crown (1 125to

new king unprecedentedly asked

confirm his election.

He

diplomatic patience,

strife

when he

removed

dom

to the

Norman

king-

and in Apr. 1 Roger II, count of Sicily (1095-1154), as duke of Apulia in return for his oath of

by

his

increasingly

powerful

When

had

him temporarily buried

II

moved

had been

Ende des Reformpapstums',

DA

(1939), 372-412; F. J. Schmale, Studien

3

zum

11 30 (Cologne,

1961); G. Tellenbach, 'Der Sturz des Abtes Pontius von

Schisma

des jfahres

Cluny und seine Geschichtliche Bedeutung', 42 f. (1963), 13-55; H. E.J. Cowdrey, 'Two Studies in Cluniac History 1 049-1 126', StGreg 11; Mann 8, 228-305.

QFIAB

Honorius's internal church policies were

guided

monastery of S. Gregorio on

Lateran once Innocent

1957); 'Das

in southern Italy

fealty.

died and determined to

1, 823-39; 2, 755; PL 166, 1217-320; LP 2, 327 f.; 379; 3, 136 f.; 170 f.; LPDert, 203-17 (more reliable); Watterich 2, 157-73; DTC 7, 132-5 (E. Amann); NCE 7, 125 f. (J. M. Muldoon); Seppelt 3, 165-71; H. W. Klewitz, Reformpapstum und Kardinalkolleg (Darmstadt,

125. His efforts to

were less successful, 1 28 he was forced to recognize

130, and

monastery so that an election could proceed

able to secure the admission of papal 1

1

without any delay. His body was then

In France his

elected.

after

to the

he

JW

England

in Jan.

immediately in a makeshift grave in the

which aroused the

prevent the formation of a

ill

the Caelian, protected by the strongholds of

Bernard of Clairvaux (1 090-1 153), eventually led King Louis VI (1 108-37) to settle his conflicts with the hierarchy; while he legates to

gravely

ensure a congenial successor, had him

indignation of the increasingly influential

was

fell

Aimeric, foreseeing the resurgence of party

Feb.,

who had crowned

Conrad king of the Lombards.

frictions

the pope died during the night of 13/14

128) not only his rival Conrad but Arch-

bishop Anselm of Milan,

inevitable

the sympathetic Frangipani family.

maintained

his support for Lothair by anathematizing (1

the

illustrating

of reformers.

regular.

him

he con-

the former abbot

he

confirmed as chancellor, he was a canon

37); the

Cluny, where

Pontius in 11 26, and at Monte Cassino, where he forced the resignation of Abbot Oderisius shortly after, have been explained

he had accompanied

France, been a trusted

adviser of Callistus part

at

recently

166

INNOCENT CELESTINE 1

(II)

(15/16 Dec. 1124:

d.

125/6). In the turbulent election following

Callistus

II's

death a majority of cardinals

supported the candidature of Cardinal

first

LPDert, 204 Chron.

211; Watterich

f.;

mon.

Klewitz, 'Das

DHGE

Saxo of S. Stefano. They then dropped him, and on the motion of the cardinal deacon

INNOCENT

Jonathan, a close friend of the powerful

1

Pierleoni

family,

the

cardinal

priest

Teobaldo was unanimously elected with the style Celestine II. No sooner had he been clothed in the red mantle and the singing of the Te Deum been started than Robert, of

157-9; Peter, 804);

6,

12,

58

f.

II

(14 Feb. 1130-24 Sept.

of patrician family, Gre-

gorio Papareschi was cardinal deacon of S.

Angelo by

1 1 1

6, in

1 1

22 helped to negotiate

the concordat of * Worms, and next year was legate in France with his later rival Pietro Pierleoni.

When Honorius

died in S.

II

assembly with armed troops and acclaimed

Feb.

powerful

Cardinal Lamberto of Ostia as pope. There

Aimeric,

which Teobaldo suffered blows and severe wounds, but the outcome was that he was either forced or persuaded to resign while Lamberto was

sympathetic

was a

broke

into

the

violent struggle in

elected and installed as

A Roman

Honorius

Teobaldo Boccapecci had been promoted cardinal priest of Sta Anastasia by Callistus II in 1 123. Previously he had been cardinal deacon of Sta Maria Nuova for at least twenty years, having been appointed by

Paschal

II.

In spite of the appearance of

church and empire and the younger reformto concentrate

that,

in

putting Teobaldo

It is

forward,

the

former group hoped that he would seem an acceptable

compromise

group because of the

when

in

ties

to

the

younger

he had formed,

charge of Sta Maria Nuova, with

the neighbouring Frangipani,

whom

they

were using to accomplish their plans. If so, their hopes were frustrated, and Teobaldo himself, already an elderly man, seems to have died soon after the election, a victim of the violent treatment he had received. Because he had not been consecrated or enthroned although he was canonically elected, he does not feature in the officially

accepted

list

of popes but

unfairly, as an antipope.

is

a to

minority the

of cardinals

newer

reform

tendencies, mostly from north Italy and

France, hastily buried the dead pope in a

temporary grave and then clandestinely II,

enthroning

him at daybreak in the Lateran. When the news got abroad, the majority of cardinals, most of them old Gregorians from Rome and south Italy, refused to accept the coup and, meeting later in the morning in S. Marco, elected Cardinal Pietro Pierleoni as Anacletus II. Both elections were

ceptions of reform) competing for recog-

who

thought in terms of conflict between

who wished now

with

of 13/14

chancellor

on the

cardinals between older Gregorians

deeper renewal of the church.

the

probable

reflected a partisan struggle in the college of

ers

130,

irregular, Innocent's glaringly so, but both popes were consecrated on 23 Feb., Innocent in Aimeric's titular church of Sta Maria Nuova by the bishop of *Ostia. The result was an eight-year schism, with both claimants (they stood for different con-

family in-fighting, this disorderly election

still

1

elected Gregorio as Innocent

II.

of the Boccapecorini family,

3

A Roman

in the night

family,

DA

(R. Mols).

Gregorio monastery

Frangipani

the

H. W.

Ende des Reformpapstums',

(1939), 400-2;

143).

2,

(MGSS

Cassin.

(1130-43)

II

classified,

nition.

Anacletus had an

through his mastery of alliance with the

initial

advantage

Rome and

Norman Roger

his

(10951154) to whom he granted the crown of Sicily, Apulia, and Calabria. Innocent had to flee to France, but very soon his title was acknowledged everywhere except in Scotland, Aquitaine, and south Italy. He owed this to the close ties which Aimeric and his other electors had with influential reform circles, notably the canons regular. lis most effective advocates were Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153), who won Louis VI of France (1108-37) and Henry I of England (1 100-35) l° r mm il,u Archbishop Norbert of Magdeburg (1 126II

1




election

to

Baldassare,

the

suggestion

who had been

of Cardinal

first

thought

of,

had taken an oath that, if elected, he would not disperse the council until he had reformed the church.

and

236

like all the cardinals

JOHN he

Although

shrewd and Alexander the hopes placed on him.

was

a

administrator,

experienced

scarcely fulfilled

Not only was his reign unexpectedly short, but it was already apparent that the schism was far from over. Although France, EngBohemia, Prussia, and northern and Gregory XII and Benedict XIII retained each his diminished allegiance; there were thus land,

central Italy rallied to Alexander,

three popes instead of two.

Nor

did the

eagerly awaited reforms materialize.

His

was to make a lavish distribution of bishoprics and other favours to friends and clients, and then (i July) to publish decrees ratifying everything the cardinals had done since May 1 408 and uniting the two colleges into one. On 7 Aug. further decrees were first

act

promulgated, securing in their benefices

and possessions council,

all

who adhered

confirming

their

announcing

a fresh council to

three years.

He

acts,

and

be held

in

then dissolved the council,

deferring reforms to the future one.

pressing

the

to

need

than

reform

A more

was

the

Umbria and Rome itself were occupied by King Ladislas of Naples (1 386-1 41 4) in the name of Gregory XII. To weaken Gregory Alex-

reconquest of the papal

cism by

(XXIII) (antipope 1410-15)

a bull (12 Oct.

1409) extending, to

the detriment of the secular clergy, the

preach and hear

rights of the

mendicants

confessions.

He was also an admired scholar

to

and teacher whose Principia and commentary on the Sentences, markedly nominalistic in their tone, have been increasingly recognized as throwing important light on the development of medieval thought. Usually classified as an antipope, his claim to be an authentic pope is still debated, and some historians give him the compromise description of 'council pope'. F. Ehrle,

Der Sentenzenkommentar Peters von Can-

did (Miinster, 1925); A.

Emmen,

Petri de

Candid

Trdctdtus qudttuor de immdculdtd conceptione; Tractdtus de

immdculdtd Deiparae conceptione (Florence,

1954 and i955);Muratori3.2,842A;LP2,5ii 53

1

B. Platina,

;

cum2i2

De vitd

Christi dc

omnium

(207) (ed. G.Gaida, 1913); A. B.

f.;

pontifi-

Emden,

A Biographical Register of the University of Oxford to

AD

MC

1; N. 1, 345 f.; grand schisme d'Occident

1500 (Oxford, 1957-9)

Valois,

Ld Frdnce

(Paris,

1896-1902); P

Petrucci);

EC

1

,

et

794

f.

le

1;

DBI

193-6

2,

(P. Paschini);

(A.

NCE 11,213

(F.J.Gray).

state;

ander excommunicated Ladislas, invested

JOHN (XXIII) May

1

41 5

:

May 1410-29

(antipope 17

22 Nov. 14 19).

d.

A Neapolitan

of noble but impoverished family, Baldassare Cossa began his career as a piratical

141 7) with his kingdom, and dispatched an army commanded

adventurer in the naval war between Louis

by Louis and Baldassare Cossa against

(1386-14 1 4).

Rome. The expedition had

graduating

Louis

II

of Anjou

but captured the

initial

city only after a

success,

lengthy

(d.

141 7) and Ladislas of Naples

law

studying

After

doctor

at

Bologna,

appointed archdeacon of the

he

city

and was

by his

the teachings of the reformer

administrative as well as soldierly abilities,

poisoned him. devoted Franciscan (he was buried,

appropriately, in the church of S. Francesco at

of Anjou

compatriot Boniface IX who, noticing his

14 10. Alexander,

John Wycliffe (r. 13 30-84) on 12 Dec. 1409, did not take up residence there, but under pressure from Baldassare settled in Bologna. Here he received on 2 Feb. a deputation of Romans offering him homage and begging him to come to their city. He delayed, and died suddenly on 3 May 14 10 at Bologna; there were mischievous, but probably false, rumours that Baldassare had

A

II

who had

siege in Jan.

condemned

(d.

Bologna), he provoked a storm of

criti-

later

made

him

papal

treasurer.

unscrupulous, grasping and ambitious well

as

as

an unblushing

libertine,

An man he

pope in his dubious moneyraising policies, and in Feb. 1402 Boniface created him cardinal deacon of S. Eustachio and sent him as legate to Romagna and Bologna. Here he continued his profligate habits (gossip had it that he seduced two hundred women during his legation), but by his ruthless severity restored Bologna to the papal state. When the ( ireat Schism 3784 7) reached its climax, he was oik- ol the

assisted the

( 1

1

237

1

JOHN

(XXIII)

(antipope 1410-15)

cardinals who, impatient at

with him in

Gregory XII's

against John; he

May

1408 and joined forces

with the cardinals of Benedict XIII

was forced

to flee

from

Rome precipitately and seek shelter outside

reaching a solution, broke

ciilatoriness in

the

who

of Florence. In his desperate

gates

had abandoned him. Along with Cardinal

he appealed for help to Sigismund, German king and later emperor (1433-7),

straits

Pietro Philarghi he took the lead in arrang-

who was

ing the council of Pisa (Mar -Aug. 1409),

council could resolve the schism and

and

demanded

after

it

had deposed Gregory XII and

convinced that only a general

now

the holding of one at Constance

Benedict XIII engineered the election of

as the price of his support. Although he

Pope Alexander V. His was the paramount influence on Alexander during his short reign, and when he died suddenly at Bologna Baldassare was accused, libellously, of having poisoned him. Meeting at

would have preferred

a council on ground of his own choosing, John had no option but

Pietro as

Nov. 1414.

Bologna, the Pisan cardinals unanimously elected

him

as Alexander's successor.

After the sudden death of Ladislas on 6

The

Aug.

simony apart, included pressure from Louis II of Anjou, fear of the menacing armed forces at Baldassare's disposal, and their own apprefactors

influencing their choice,

ciation that a

pope of

and on 9 Dec. 1413 issued a bull a council to meet at Constance in

to agree,

convoking

military experience

1414, John's first instinct was to devote himself to winning back the papal state,

but under strong pressure from his

cardinals

(his

own

creations

included

went Constance and on 5 Nov. solemnly opened the council (reckoned, in part or several outstanding personalities) he to

was indispensable if Rome was to be recovered from Ladislas of Naples, Gregory

whole, the Sixteenth General Council). At

XII's chief protector.

the

While there were

still

commanded much

the papacy, John

gathering

the

widest support, with France, England, and

German

several Italian and

states recogniz-

ing him. With the help of Louis of Anjou,

who

May in

defeated Ladislas

at

Roccasecca on 19

he was able to establish himself Rome. He had already, in conformity

with

141

1,

Pisan

the

decisions,

summoned

a

common John

Louis having failed to exploit his victory, John came to terms with Ladislas, and in return for being enfeoffed

back

to

against Ladislas.

with the kingdom of Naples Ladislas was

persuaded

summer

to

abandon Gregory

XII.

this

impressively

In

141 3, however, Ladislas turned

the

attended

Italian

party

for confirma-

tion of the acts of the council of Pisa, which would have eliminated Gregory XII and Benedict XIII while leaving John secure, but, after it had been agreed that voting should be by 'nations', Germany, France, and England argued on 1 5 Feb. 1 4 1 5 for the

meet there on 1 Apr. 14 1 2. It duly met, but was so poorly attended that all it accomplished was the condemnation (10 Feb. 1413) of all the English reformer John Wycliffe's writings; John had had John Huss, the Bohemian reformer (c. 1369-1415), banned in Feb. 141 1, and in Aug. 141 2 imposed on him major excommunication (which included being cut off from all intercourse with other Christians) for denouncing his crusade reform council

of

start

numerous accompanying John pressed

three claimants to

abdication of

finally

all

three claimants.

yielded to the pressure, but

haggled for a week about the terms of his abdication.

May

he

Then during the

night of 20/21

fled the city disguised as a

groom

and sought refuge at Freiburg. By his flight he hoped to disrupt the council, but it provoked the assembly, at its fourth and fifth sessions (30 Mar. and 6 Apr. 1415), to publish revolutionary decrees proclaiming the superiority of the council over the pope,

then to suspend him (he had been brought as a prisoner) from his functions as pope on 1 4 May, and finally, after a trial at which he was accused of simony, perjury, and the grossest misconduct, to declare him deposed at the twelfth session (29 May). Now a broken man, John admitted the

238

MARTIN V (1417-31) Giorgio in Velabro, but in summer 1408 he broke with Gregory XII and was active in

wrong he had done by his flight, acquiesced the judgement of the council and declared it infallible, and of his own accord

in

ratified

its

preparing the council of Pisa (1409). At Constance he remained loyal to John XXIII

(canonically irregular) sentences

of suspension and deposition, renouncing any right he might have to the papacy. John kept his word never to appeal

until his precipitate flight.

an authoritarian of iron self

Martin

in strict

For three years in Ger-

election.

he was held

many

custody of the elector Ludwig

for John

against his condemnation.

in the

and

of Bavaria, but in 141 9 purchased his liberty from him for a huge sum. He then III

went

made

Florence and

to

to the recently elected

he held

this office for only a

loss

512

f.;

De

536

f.;

Muratori

vita Christi ac

854

3.2,

omnium

(208) (ed. G. Gaida, 1913); Dietrich of Niem,

De

1896- 1928); J. Blumenthal, Johann Wahl und seine Personlichkeit',

MC

PRE

1;

EB

(1961

Lawrence); Seppelt

4,

271

9,

EC

641-4 (G. Mollat);

Paschini);

provisions,

and Master John Hus of Bohemia

(London, 1910); 8,

He

at

once reconstructed

with papal taxation and abuses of papal

21 (1901), 488-516; E.J. Kitts, Pope John

the Twenty-third

DTC

of revenue.

published seven reforms dealing mainly

XXIII: seine

ZKG

then

on curial officials of both the Roman and Avignon obediences, but his regulations (26 Feb. 1 4 1 8) for his chancer)' failed to remove abuses and retained the pope's rights in collating benefices. On 20 Mar. 141 8 he

B.

f.;

pontificum 213

schismate 3 (ed. G. Erler, Leipzig, 1890); Acta concilii Constanciensis (ed. H. Finke and others,

Minister,

and

VIII held out as antipopes until

the curia as the council stipulated, drawing

Florence. 2,

own deposition,

XIII

carried out some limited reforms, but he was resolved to reassert, not lessen, papal authority, and he could not afford serious

sombre effigy and the papal insignia, the work of Bartolomeo di Michelozzo and Donatello, can be seen in the baptistery at

Platina,

Benedict

the council expected

few months. His magnificent tomb with his

LP

his

1429 they had only minute followings. But if him to promote reform 'in head and members', it was disappointed. Out of respect for public opinion Martin

Martin V

appointed him cardinal bishop of Tusculum (Frascati), but

although

he styled him-

of the day of his

ended the schism,

effectively

XXIII accepted

Clement

submission

his

pope.

after the saint

His election

confinement

Unassuming but

will,

edn.)

4,

13,

708

87

f.

relinquishing the pope's

then negotiated separate concordats with

(P.

(C.

e.g.

claim to the revenues of vacant sees, and

(B. Bess);

f.

Germany, France,

H.

Italy,

Spain, and Eng-

land. If these curtailed the papal preroga-

241-53.

tive,

MARTINV(n

they were restricted, save in England's

Nov. 1417-20 Feb. 1431). After the council of Constance (14 14-18), called to end the Great Schism (137 8—

case, to five years, after which he returned to

14 1 7) and reform the church, had deposed

had considerable success, both in northern (1425) and southern (1426) France, in

the old policy of papal reservations so far as particular governments allowed.

John XXIII and Benedict XIII and received the abdication of Gregory XII,

recovering privileges

there were lengthy discussions on electoral

but he failed

in his

lost

Thus he

during the schism;

repeated efforts to get

procedure; and then a unique conclave of

the English Statutes of *Provisors (checking

twenty-two cardinals and

papal

tives

of the

thirty

five 'nations'

three days elected Cardinal

Sole

member

1368, studied law

Urban VI became created

at

nomination

He

to

vacant

benefices)

closed the council on 22 Apr.

present in only

revoked.

Oddo Colonna.

and in a constitution of 10 May, 1 41 8, which was not published, forbade am appeal from the pope to a future council. Martin at once set about rescuing the papal state from the chaos Into which it had fallen during the schism. Although pressed

of that powerful family to

become pope, he was born

VII

representa-

at

Gennazano

in

Perugia, and under

protonotary.

INNOCENT

him cardinal deacon of

S.

239

CLEMENT

(VIII) (antipope 1423-9)

to reside in either

Germany

or Avignon, he 1418 and, after Mantua and Florence,

Constance on 16

left

lengthy

entered

stays

at

obeyed the decree Frequens (5 Oct. 1417) of Constance requiring councils to be held at

May

regular intervals, and

Rome on

concessions to

28 Sept. 1420. Through Queen Joanna II of Naples

meet

(1414-35) he had secured the removal of the occupying Neapolitan troops. His chief obstacle

now was

the formidable condottiere

at

summoned one

He did not attend it himself, and because of an outbreak of plague his legates transferred it to Siena. Since anti-papal tendencies,

as

at

Constance,

Montone, who dominated central Italy. Martin first contained him by recognizing him as lord of Perugia and other cities, and then defeated him in battle

manifested themselves, he

June 1424); a revolt by Bologna which involved the whole of north Italy he crushed by force of arms in 1429. His reorganization of the papal state enabled him not only to recoup his treasury but to enrich his Colonna relatives with vast

judged

estates in papal territories.

ing,

Braccione

di

L'Aquila

at

Martin advanced the prestige of his in

attendance

March to

(2

France,

War

to

locked in the

still

(1337-1453)-

He

office

and the

was

the

against

adherents

ac

omnium

De

vita Christi

pontificum 214 (207) (ed.

E.

G. Gaida,

von Ottenthal, 'Die Bullenregister

und MIOG: Eugen IV, V Erganzungsband 1 (1885), 401-589; K. A. Fink, 'Martin V und Bologna'; 'Die aJtesten Breven und Marrins

V

1427 he reformer

programme of reconstruction of ruined

CLEMENT

(1

to the sacred college

ally distinguished,

his

cardinals

were exception-

but he kept a tight rein on

and

did

not brook

their

interference.

Averse though he was to councils and the popes were subject to them, he

theory- that

Rom

NCE 9, 301

f.

(K. A. Fink);

258-76; J. Haller, 'England und unter Martin V, QFIAB 8 (1 905), 249-304. 4, esp.

(VIII) (antipope 10 June 1423-26 July 1429: d. 28 Dec. 1446). Before his death Benedict XIII, last of the Avignon popes in the Great Schism (1378-

churches and public buildings, enlisting the services of celebrated artists. His appoint-

ments

23

MC

197-202 (G. Mollat); Seppelt

of Siena

QFIAB

(1935/6), 292-307; P. Partner, The Papal State 2;DTC 10, under Martin F (London, 1958);

380-1 444) and approved the cult of the Holy Name propagated by him. In Rome he carried out a vast Bernardino

Korrespondenz

nach den Brevenregistern'

(193 1/2), 182-217; 25 (1933/4), 292-307; 26

forbidding compulsory baptism of Jewish

Franciscan

of the curia and

Brevenregister'; 'Die politische

towards the Jews, denouncing (1422 and 1429) violent anti-Jewish preaching and

the

1425), concerned

Martin

of the

Huss (c. 1369-1 4 15) in Bohemia. He showed unusual moderation

received

May

life-style

the end of 1430 public pressure for

19 1 3);

reformer John

children under twelve; and in

(16

Muratori 3.2, 857-68; B. Platina,

He

also unsuccessful with the crusades he

declared

own

brass can be seen.

Byzantine emperor's far-reaching demands this.

it

was mountand Martin reluctantly yielded to it. On 1 Feb. 1431 he nominated Cardinal Cesarini, whom he had recendy sent as legate to Germany, as its president, with authority to suspend or dissolve it as he saw fit. Hardly three weeks later he died suddenly of apoplexy. He was buried in St John Lateran, where his recumbent effigy in

maintained contact

of

in Basle in 143 1. Meanwhile he wise to publish a reform constitu-

be held

By

England and

moment came

in

the council to be held at Basle

to the holding of a reunion council there,

nothing for the

it

the residence of prelates.

Hundred Years

political situation

soon

the sparse

pretext for dissolving

mainly with the

with Constantinople and agreed in principle

but because of the

a

made

1424, announcing a further council

tion of his

Europe, sending numerous embassies on

peace missions, notably

to

Pavia in five years (22 Sept. 1423).

1417),

made

his four cardinals

swear

to

and on 10 June 1423, at Pehiscola on the Spanish Mediterranean coast, the three who were available chose Gil Sanchez Muiioz. Born at Teruel c. 1360, elect a successor,

240

EUGENE he had an uncle of the same name

who had

IV (1431-47)

as Benedict XIII. At the time of Benedict's

and in conclave with his carwent through the motions of electing 'Oddo Colonna' (Martin V) as pope. Three weeks later (14 Aug.) the papal legate formally reconciled him, and he took an oath of allegiance to the pope. Martin V bore him no rancour, and on 26 Aug. 1429 nominated him bishop of Majorca. He held this office until his death on 28 Dec. 1446; his splendid tomb is in the chapter house of the

death he was provost of Valencia as well as

cathedral at Palma.

tifical

played a notable role in the events leading to the success in the west of the schism result-

ing from the double election of

and

Clement

Urban VI

VII in 1378. His

nephew

shared the same ideas and, on his uncle's death in 1389, replaced him in the entourage of Cardinal Pedro de Luna,

becoming

a close associate after his election

archpriest of Teruel.

He

took the style

M. de

Clement VIII out of respect for Robert of Geneva (Antipope Clement VII). Although censured by Queen Maria of Aragon (acting as regent for Alfonso V (1416-58), absent in Italy) and for a while

dignitaries.

an

Among

(Teruel,

DHGE

circle

of

other acts he excom-

Munoz

(A.

Amore);

d.?).

as

Clement

VIII (10 June 1423),

away

in the

county of Armagnac, acting as Benedict's vicar-general. Rejoining his colleagues 1

2

Dec. 1423, he decided,

after a

on

prolonged

examination, that their election of Sanchez

Munoz was

invalid

other irregularities.

because of simony and

On

12 Nov. 1425 he

upon himself to nominate as pope a certain Bernard Gamier, a sacrist of Rodez, and consecrated him. Out of therefore took

it

respect for Benedict XIII this suddenly elevated pontiff adopted his name, but from that

moment he disappeared into oblivion. is known of his earlier or sub-

Nothing

sequent career, or of the date of his death; but

the pope, he sent a delegation headed by his

in

some

private secretary Alfonso de Borgia (later

Callistus III) to Peniscola to counsel the antipope and his curia to abdicate voluntarily. Clement complied with good grace, and at a dignified ceremony on 26 July 1429 revoked the condemnations passed by him and his predecessors on the lawful pope, renounced his rank and removed his pon-

f.

the fourth, Jean Carrier, was far

had nominated on his own another antipope, Benedict XIV; he also stripped him of his cardinalate. At Rome Martin V, hearing of Clement's election, instructed the archbishop of Tarragona and the bishops of Tortosa and Barcelona to acquit the misguided prelates involved provided they returned to their senses. But the comedy of Peniscola could not last. Alfonso V of Aragon, although never regarding Clement as true pope, certainly found him useful for putting pressure on Martin V, and in Aug. 1423 suspended the measures taken by Queen Maria against him. When he eventuoutstanding difficulties with

cisma de Occidente

1749 1245-9 (R.Mols). 10,

(XIV) (antipope 12 Nov. While the three of Antipope Benedict XIII's cardinals who were at Peniscola, on the Spanish coast north of Valencia, when he died elected Gil Sanchez 1425-?:

municated Jean Carrier, the cardinal who had been absent during his election and who, judging it invalid because of simony,

ally settled his

12,

la solution del

EC

1954);

BENEDICT

and surrounding

appropriate

Munoz y

Sanchez

nable promontory of Peniscola, Clement

himself with

Paderborn,

Ehrle,

(ed.

Mansi XXIII, 11 17-24; S. Puig y Puig, Pedro de Luna (Barcelona, 1920), 363-453; 60617; M. Garcia Miralles, La personalidad de Gil 1906);

presided over a papal court in miniature, cardinals

Alpartils, Chronica actitatorum temporibus

domini Benedicti XIII

blockaded by royal forces in the impreg-

creating two

dress,

dinals

1467, in the region of Armagnac,

fanatics

were

still

awaiting the vindi-

cation of Benedict XIV. A.

Degert, 'La

fin

du Schisme d'Occident',

Melanges Leon Couture (1902), 223-42;

1247 (R. Mols); Seppelt

EUGENE IV (3

241

DUCK

1

2,

273.

Mar. 1431-23 Feb. 1447).

On Martin V's death ful

4,

the cardinals, resent-

of his harsh yoke,

all

undertook that

EUGENE

IV (1431-47)

whoever should be elected would not only devote himself to reform at the impending council at Basle, but would accept the full

man

collaboration of the sacred college in the

dissolution (15 Dec. 1433) and acknowl-

government of the church and the papal state. Their choice fell on Gabriele Condulmaro, who was born of wealthy

edge the council's legitimacy and unbroken continuance in humiliating terms.

bourgeois parents

young man

at

Venice £.1383, who as

monk

king Sigismund

whom May

(1410-37),

Eugene crowned emperor at Rome 1433. But he had to withdraw his

in

bull of

At home Eugene faced a chaotic tion,

a

some

situa-

with the condottiere F. Sforza occupying

an Augustinian house in the

the papal state, and a revolution fomented by the vengeful Colonna breaking out in

lagoon, and whom his relative Gregory XII promoted bishop of Siena in 1407 and then

pelted by the crowd, he fled to Florence,

friends

at

settled as a

with

Rome

in

May

1434. Disguised but

still

appointed him governor of the March of

where he mainly resided until 1443; it was a stay which brought him and the curia into touch with the artistic and intellectual aspirations of the Renaissance. Meanwhile his concessions to the council had only

Ancona and of Bologna. Once

whetted

cardinal at his controversial creation of

1

May

1408. After Gregory's abdication (4 July 141 5) he took part in the council of

Constance

(14 14- 18),

and

V

Martin

elected, he

pact, although

he was

to

pay

little

heed

to

Eugene

first

moved against the Colonna them to disgorge vast ter-

and

which Martin V had granted to his nephews; his violent measures produced all

set

about cutting both papacy and curia

down to size. Eugene denounced its pretensions in a memorandum circulated in June

ritories

lasting troubles in

appetite for radical solutions.

reforms, it decreed (9 June 1435) the suppression of *annates and other papal dues,

it

during his stormy pontificate. family, forcing

its

While carrying through some much needed

published a bull confirming the electoral

1436 to Christian princes, but it was over union with the eastern church, an item on

parts of the papal state,

and made the Colonna his lifelong enemies. But the continuous shadow over his reign was the reform council of Basle, which Martin V had summoned, for which he himself confirmed Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini (d. 1444) as president, and which was opened in Cesarini's absence by papal representatives on 23 July 1431. The initial attendance was sparse and this, combined with profound mistrust of its intentions, caused Eugene to dissolve it on 18 Dec.

the council's agenda to which both he and

it

attached importance, that the final rupture

came. While the great majority of the council proposed Basle itself or Avignon or

Eugene preHaving won over the Greeks, he transferred the council on 18 Sept. 1437 to Ferrara. He opened it there through his legate Cardinal Albergati on 8 Jan. 1438, but moved it because of an Savoy

for the negotiations,

ferred a city in

Italy.

alleged danger of plague (really for financial

43 1, promising a new council to be presided over by himself in eighteen months' time. His precipitate action created consternation at Basle, shocked Cesarini,

Here an

1

reasons) to Florence in Jan. 1439.

and

between the two churches, destined to be ephemeral but forced on the Byzantine emperor John VIII Palaeologus (1425-48) by the imminence of a Turkish invasion, was promulgated in the decree Laetentur coeli on 6 July 1439. Later Eugene signed agreements, on the basis of

alienated

opinion

generally.

act of union

The

council refused to disperse, on 15 Feb.

1432 appealed to the teaching of the council of Constance that a general council is superior to a pope, and on 18 Dec. 1432 issued an ultimatum to him. As only six of

orthodoxy, physite

with

the

Armenians

nominally

*mono-

in 1439, with the

Copts

the twenty-one cardinals were on his side,

or Jacobites of Egypt in 1443, and with

was averted Ger-

certain hitherto dissident Nestorian groups

schism seemed inevitable, but

it

largely through the mediation of the

in

242

Mesopotamia

in

1444 and

in

Cyprus

in

FELIX V (antipope

he did not intend by these to derogate from the authority or privileges of the holy

1445; but a crusade he financed in 1443 at Varna, in Bulgaria (10

that

ended disastrously Nov. 1444).

The

see.

union, with

its

of

Although Eugene's reign was a troubled it resulted in victory for the papacy over the council, and dealt a death-blow to the attempt to introduce democracy into the government of the church. But he himself, impulsive and lacking in political capacity, deeply pious but prone to blunders, was more at the mercy of events than their controller. As he lay dying, he is said to have

recognition by the

Greeks of the pope's primacy and acceptance

agreed

statements

one,

their

on

Purgatory, the eucharist, and the *Filioque, as well as the fact that

abandoned Basle left at

most of the fathers Ferrara-Florence,

for

greatly strengthened

The rump

1439-49)

Eugene's authority.

Basle suspended him on

24 Jan. 1438, deposed him on 2 5 June 1439, and on 5 Nov. 1439 elected Felix V as antipope. Eugene riposted (4 Sept. 1439) by

having

ever

regretted

bitterly

left

his

monastery.

challenging the earlier phases of the council

E.

and condemning that of Basle. The council was encouraged by the declared neutrality of France and Germany, and by the incorporation by France of twenty-three of its reform decrees restrict-

of Constance

von Ottenthal, 'Die Bullenregister Martins

und Eugens IV, MIOG: Erganzungsband

V 1,

1885; J. Gill, Eugenius IV: Pope of Christian Union (Westminster, Maryland, 1961); F. P. Abert, Papst Eugen der Vierte (1884); i5»

1355-9

ing the pope's authority in the Pragmatic

Paschini);

Sanction of Bourges, which the French

274-306.

on 7 July 1438 and which upheld the right of the French church to temporal property administer its

(P-

NCE

P

de Vooght); 5,

626

f.

MC 2; DHGE

1;

EC

{].

5,

Gill);

802-4

(P.

Seppelt

4,

clergy issued

FELLX V 1449:

Eugene elected Amadeus VIII, duke of Savoy, in his place. The election was irregular, being

independently of the holy see and disal-

lowed papal nominations to vacant benefices. But its puppet pope had little follow-

carried out by one cardinal and thirty-two

and Eugene's recognition in spring 1443 of the claims of Alfonso V of Aragon (1416-58) to the crown of Naples deprived it of its most substantial support, since the king withdrew his bishops from it. It also

ing,

enabled Eugene to return to

1443

Rome

after a nine years' absence.

(antipope 5 Nov. 1439-7 Apr.

7 Jan. 145 1 ). After deposing IV the council of Basle (1431-49)

d.

electors

nominated by a commission, but

demonstrated

the

council's

resolve

it

to

choose someone ofwealth and international standing as well as holiness. Born

at

Cham-

Amadeus succeeded Count Amadeus VII in 139 1, and

bery on 4 Dec. 1383,

in Sept.

Here he

his father

strove to counter the effects of the schism.

by astute diplomacy so extended his realm

Antipope Felix V's ablest adviser, Enea

that

had made peace with Eugene in 1442, and in Sept. 1445 helped to arrange an agreement between him and Frederick III, the new German king (1440-93). Eugene's protests against the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges were ineffectual, but through the Con-

stretched from Neuchatel in the north to the

Silvio Piccolomini (later

Pius

II),

it

eventually included

Piedmont and

Ligurian coast. In recognition of his power

Sigismund,

German king and

later

emperor

(1433-7), raised Savoy to a duchy in 141 6. In Oct. 1434, deeply affected by the deaths

1447, the whole of Germany declared for him. Concessions were made by both sides,

of his wife (1422) and eldest son (143 1), he withdrew to the chateau of Ripaille, near Thonon on the Lake of Geneva, where he founded and governed an order of knightshermits of St Maurice. I le planned to keep the diplomatic business of Savoy in his own

but Eugene safeguarded his position by

hands, while

leaving day-to-day

publishing on his deathbed a bull declaring

istration to his

second son LudoviCO.

cordat of the Princes, negotiated by Pic-

colomini with the

German

electors in Feb.

243

admin-

NICHOLAS V (1447-55) A

profoundly

spiritual

he

layman,

for twenty years,

moving with him in 1 426 to

accepted his election only with great hesi-

Rome and

so joining the curia.

On

on 14 Dec. 1439, abdicating as duke on 6 Jan. 1440 and, after ordination and consecration, being crowned as Felix V at Basle on 24 June. He failed to secure recognition, however, beyond his own territories and a few smaller states; the greater powers held aloof or were hostile. He nominated several eminent men as cardinals, although

colo's death

Eugene

notice he

tation

some declined

Silvio

Piccolomini

II)

the

was

in

as papal

legate to the diet of Frankfurt,

and with his it round to the recognition of Eugene IV. For this service he was created cardinal in Dec.

colleagues succeeded in swinging

(later

as his secretary.

1446. At the conclave following Eugene's

rump

death he emerged as a compromise can-

council,

didate because the favourite, a Colonna,

was blocked by family the

as

his

He

vicars.

prudently

stood

granted

unruly

to

aside

from

succeeded and so

Geneva on

at

in undisputed papal possession.

left

the

ratified the settlement

Ripaille.

His Bullarium

(8 vols., imprinted)

is

in the

with the

Archi-

Amadeo

VIII

German

recognition by Frederick

MC

once

church, and by the con-

papal

B. Picotti);

at

cordat of Vienna (Feb. 1448) obtained the

(Turin, 1930);

DBI 2, 749-53 (F. Cognasso); 166-74 (G. Mollat); EC 5, 1 136 f. (G. 2; Seppelt 4, 295 f.; 299 f.; 302 f.

He

Eugene had reached

DHGE 2,

1

and power

March of Ancona

at

vio di Stato of Turin. F. Cognasso,

the

the condottiere Francesco Sforza eventually

of the antipopes, he did

not long enjoy these dignities but died

he was buried

virtual

Bologna,

struggle that ensued on the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, content that

Sabina, with a substantial pension, and also

papal vicar and legate in Savoy and adjacent

7 Jan. 1451;

took

church needed. Enjoying good relations with the Roman families, he had considerable success in restoring order in the city, while in the papal state he got rid of the mercenary troops, won or bought back cities, and recognized petty princelings

independence

(18 June) cardinal bishop of Sta

last

He

conciliator the

his adversaries. In return Nicholas appoin-

The

jealousies.

out of regard for his old

More patient and politically adroit than Eugene, Nicholas proved the constructive

solemnly abdicated on 7 Apr., having first retracted all the censures pronounced on

dioceses.

name Nicholas

patron.

(1422-61), an accommodation was at last reached with the new Roman pope, Nicholas V, as a result of which Felix

him

city

autumn 1446 he went

revolt. In

the mediation of Charles VII of France

ted

with

discussions

the

Nic-

at

he could not take up because the

But his relations which should have been his chief support, were never happy; on 17 Nov. 1442, wearied by the fathers' studied insults, he retired to Lausanne and then Geneva. By 1445 he was beginning to look for release from an impasse as embarrassing to himself as it was becoming dangerous to his family. In 1449, through Pirs

with the

whose

Florence (1439), named him bishop of Bologna in 1447, an appointment

Greeks

he

his invitation; for a time

employed Enea

came during

IV, to

rights

to

appointments

in

#

III

annates

Germany.

(1440-93) of and church

A

notable

achievement was his peaceful liquidation of

NICHOLAS V 1455).

La

(6

Mar. 1447-24 Mar.

the schism with the

A doctor's son, born at Sarzana, near

Spezia, on 15 Nov.

Parentucelli

was

1397,

Tommaso

a student at Bologna; to

earn his keep he for a time tutored wealthyFlorentine families, being thus introduced

and culture. After in theology he served Bishop Niccolo Albergati of Bologna

to leading figures in art

completing his doctorate

rump

council of Basle

pope Felek V. As early as 1447 he prevailed on Charles VII of France (142261) to mediate, and, by patience and tactful concessions, was able to persuade Felix to abdicate (7 Apr. 1449) in return for an honourable status and income, and the council, now at Lausanne since Frederick III had withdrawn its safe-conduct for and

244

its

CALLISTUS

whom he had and revealed the deceptiveness of Rome's outward calm. He had Stefano and his fellow-conspirators executed, but was worried and suspicious from then on. Then in June 1453 the news of the sack of Constantinople by the Turks (29 May) filled Europe with horror and dread. Nicholas tried to rally Christendom to a crusade (30 Sept. 1453), but to no dreamer, Stefano Porcaro,

Basle, to dissolve itself (24 Apr.) after hav-

ing gone through the motions of electing

earlier treated leniendy,

'Tommaso of Sarzana' as pope. The mutual censures and processes were annulled, the possession of benefices was confirmed, and several of Felix's cardinals

Roman

the

In

college.

were admitted

111(1455-8)

to

thanksgiving for

1 450 a year of and the thousands of pilgrims flocking to Rome not only confirmed it as the usefully of Christendom but centre replenished the papal finances. In the same

unity restored he proclaimed jubilee,

effect.

He

summoned

also

a congress of

Italian states to

Rome

to

year he canonized the Franciscan reformer

settlement for

Italy,

but again in vain.

Bernardino of Siena (1380-1444), and sent Cardinals Nicholas of Cusa and Capistrano

Venice and Milan led to the peace of Lodi

to

Germany and Cardinal

initiate

programme of reform, Nicholas brought the intellectual and

any

far,

artistic

A scholar and man

Alfonso

king of Naples and Sicily

I,

peace covering

Genoa was

of

all

years.

lation of numerous

enfeebled by gout, he

as well as patristic, into Latin.

When

classical

A compulsive

on the

he spent vast sums on collecting manuscripts and having them copied; at his death he left some 1,200 Greek and Latin MSS, and was the real founder of the Vatican library. The impulse he gave to the Renaissance was equally strong in architecture and the decorative arts. He took in hand not only the rebuilding of coundess churches, palaces, and bridges in Rome, but a planned strengthening of its fortifications; in the papal state he erected numerous strongholds. To adorn his buildings he employed outstanding artists, including Fra Angelico and his assistant Benozzo Gozzoli. In all these enterprises his aim was to advance the church by makbibliophile

ing

it

all

his

Nicholas

in Mar. 1455, disappointed and

dream of himself as Rome, patron of men of

the harsh realities of the tinople, the

fall

and

his

as the

dimmed by of Constan-

new responsibilities

his shoulders,

it

placed on

own The first of the

awareness of his

unfitness to undertake them.

Renaissance popes, he was untouched by nepotism, but left the urgent problem of religious reform untackled.

Vespasiano da

Bisticci, Vile di

uomini

illustri (ed.

d'Ancona and E. Aeschlimann, Milan, 1951); B. Platina (ed. G. Gaida, in Muratori 2 3.1, 32839); G. Manetti in Muratori 3.2, 907-60; G. P.

the leader of culture.

Sforza, Ricerche su Niccold

V

Pleyer, Die Politik Nikolaus

J

1-314;

NCE

19 Mar. 1452 Nicholas crowned Frederick III emperor in St Peter's (the last

10,

MC

443-5

3;

CALLISTUS

Notwithstanding,

1

over-

458).

245

III

(Lucca, 1884); K.

7 (Stuttgart, 1927);

P 541-8 (G. Mollat);

11,

Scppclt

Apr.

(8

4,

307-26.

1455-6 Aug.

Son of a small landowner, Alfonso de

Borja or

his closing years. In early Jan.

1453 a plot against his life was brought to light. It was inspired by a republican

DTC

(J. Gill);

imperial coronation to take place in Rome).

shadowed

felt

leader of civilization had been

2,

clouds

died

and assertor of the papacy

letters,

On

dark

twenty-five

for

defensive. His

the restorer of

life,

powers except

Italian

established

he enjoyed the company of scholars and humanists, and arranged for the transletters,

Greek authors,

(9

(1442-58), was persuaded by Nicholas to accept it too, and on 26 June 1455 a solemn

deliber-

aspirations of the Renaissance into partner-

ship with the church.

peace

between

negotiations

secret

a

Apr. 1454), in which Florence soon joined. Although irked that he had been left out so

d'Estouteville to

France on missions of reform. Although he himself failed to ately

Eventually

work out

Borgia was

born

at

Jati\.t,

in

Valencia, on 31 Dec. 1378. Alter studying

and then teaching law

at

1

.crida,

he became

CALLISTUS

111(1455-8)

a respected jurist at the court of Aragon

private secretary to 58).

1429 he negotiated

In

V

King Alfonso

abdication of Antipope

him

for

Clement

and

tion with papal interference

(1416-

It

the

called for

his

VIII and

new

and exactions.

the ingenious diplomacy of

cardinal

Pius

(later

all

II) to

Enea

Silvio Piccolomini

fend off German demands

was rewarded with the wealthy see of Valencia. He again showed diplomatic skill

for the equivalent of the Gallican liberties of

in

1443 D >' detaching the king from the council ot Basle (1431-49) and reconciling him with Eugene IV; for this he was created

with his old patron Alfonso, king of Aragon

cardinal priest of SS. Quattro Coronati.

He

and Naples, infuriated by the king's diversion of a crusader fleet to attack Genoa and advance his own territorial aims instead of

his

fighting the Turks.

had no twelve

prominence

special

cardinalate

years'

austere, retired

life in

during

but

as

Nicholas

I

V's

lis

that a

listus

man

captured

If

crippled with

armed

with

May

in

his

life,

indulgences

and

on the holy throughout

fixed

galleys in the Tiber, raising funds by selling

gold and silver works of art, even valuable book bindings. His enthusiasm, however, met with a lukewarm response from the immersed in their Christian powers, national concerns. As a result the sporadic

tithes created

resentment

Rome,

The

and

his natural

parsimony but

were

to

favours he lavished on relatives

and compatriots aroused great bitterness. To feel secure he garrisoned the fortresses of the papal state with Spanish commanders, while he appointed his nephew Pedro Luis, duke of Spoleto, as governor of Castel Sant'Angelo and prefect of Rome. Two other nephews he created cardinals in their early twenties; one of them, Rodrigo Borgia (later Alexander VI), he promoted vicechancellor of the curia. His Spanish nominees dominated the papal court, but the benefices he awarded them w ere mostly Callistus

Italian.

reopened the case of Joan of

Rouen on 30 May 43 1 on charges including witchcraft and heresy, and on 16 June 1456 the original judgement passed on her was quashed and Arc, burnt at the stake at

Turks before Belgrade (July 1456), the defeat of their fleet off Lesbos (Aug. 1457), and the relief of several Christian islands in the Aegean, though rapturously received, could not be exploited. Meanwhile CalTurkish

self-willed,

the needs of the crusade

Spanish, not

military successes, such as the rout of the

listus's

more

blame.

1 Mar. 1456 for the departure of a combined fleet and army. In Rome he set about building

taxes,

and

he halted Nicholas's grandiose plans for

still

dispatched preachers and legates

Europe, imposed

also obstinate

rebuilding

1453, lurks. This was his overriding

need be

was

disappointed humanists, but he was not

preoccupation; he himself vowed to expend

He

(1458-94), the king's natural

I

positively hostile to them, as they suggested.

gout, into organizing a crusade to reconquer

his efforts, if

own should become

After Nicholas V, his disinterest in the arts

Callistus at once flung himself, with an

all

his

did not brook opposition from his cardinals.

caretaker pontificate.

war.

quarrel continued,

Austere, rigidly pious, charitable, Cal-

a

Colonna family, the other (the distinguished Greek theologian and humanist John Bessarion: 1403-72) as a Greek. His great age was taken to presage a

from the

out

son.

friend of the

Constantinople,

nephew of

Ferdinand

successor

resulted from a compromise, one of the two

energy amazing in an old

fell

king of Naples instead of Ferrante, or

surprise

obvious candidates being unacceptable as

The

home he

and on Alfonso's death Callistus schemed

an

his palace, reputedly

averse from luxury and display. election

lived

the French church. Nearer

1

her innocence declared. In the same year he revived the harsh legislation, allowed to

in

lapse

by his predecessors, banning the

France, where the university of Paris called

social intercourse

and in Germany, where they fuelled the growing dissatisfac-

Among the saints he canonized was (1 Jan. 1457) Osmund of Salisbury (d. 1099). To

for a general council,

246

of Christians with Jews.

PIUS commemorate

Turks

the victory over the

at

abandoned

dissolute

his

11(1458-64)

had

(he

life

Belgrade he ordered the feast of the Transfiguration to be universally observed on 6

fathered several bastards), and on 4 Mar.

Aug. His death on that day in 1458 was the signal for an outbreak of violence against the

years he was largely responsible for per-

hated 'Catalans'.

tors

Regesto Iberico de Calixto III (ed. J. Rius Serra,

Madrid, 1948 339-45;

LP

ff.);

2,

ecclesiastici (for

2 B. Platina, in Muratori 3.1,

546-60; O. Raynaldus, Annates 1455-8) (ed. J. D. Mansi, Lucca,

1747-56); M. E. Mallett, TheBorgias: The Rise and Fall of a Renaissance Dynasty (London, 1969: see index); P. Brezzi, 'La politica di Callisto

Romani 7 (1959), 31-51; (G.

Voigt);

steenberghe); 16,

DHGE NCE

769-74 (M.

2,

MC 3; P

1

438-44

11,

1081

f.

(M.

III',

Studi

PRE 2, 642 (E-

f.

Van-

Batllori);

DEI

326-31.

E. Mallett); Seppelt 4,

PIUS II (19 Aug. 1458-15 Aug. 1464). Born on 18 Oct. 1405 at Corsignano (he was to rename it Pienza), near Siena, son of noble but impoverished parents, Enea Silvio Piccolomini worked as a boy in the fields,

1446 was ordained

III and the German elecabandon their neutrality in the schism and recognize Eugene IV. For his services Nicholas V made him bishop of Trieste in 1447 and of Siena in 1450, while

suading Frederick to

Frederick continued to use his diplomatic abilities until

listus

as

III,

1455. On 18 Dec. 1456 Calreward for successful negotia-

Aragon and Naples (1416-58), raised him to the cardinalate which he had long coveted. To this tions with Alfonso V, king of

period belongs his important History of

Emperor Frederick. At a conclave marked by lobbying in which he himself took part Enea,

only

but

fifty-three

already

prematurely old, was elected to succeed Callistus

III;

he chose the name Pius in

reminiscence of Vergil's 'pius Aeneas'.

The election of a connoisseur and practi-

then steeped himself in humanist

culture for eight years as a student at Siena

tioner of letters

and Florence. From 1432 to 1435 he was at the council of Basle (1431-49) as secretary to Cardinal Domenico Capranica and then

ists,

other prelates, and in 1435 travelled widely on diplomatic errands with or for Cardinal

priest. In the following

was acclaimed by human-

but although he continued a vol-

uminous author (writing, for example, his memoirs) Pius proved a friendly critic of them rather than their patron. Having for years called for resistance to the Turkish

Niccolo Albergati. In 1436 he became an official of the council, being thus enabled to

advance into Europe, he now made

display his brilliance as an orator. A firm opponent then of Eugene IV, he was appointed secretary to Antipope Felix V (elected 5 Nov. 1439), and wrote dialogues

check

defending the authority of the council.

while, faced with a choice between

When Felix sent him to the diet of Frankfurt

duke of Anjou (1436-80), and Ferrante, or Ferdinand I (1458-94), natural son of

in 1442,

King Frederick

III

of

Germany

moned meet

at

a congress of Christian rulers to

Mantua on

V

Alfonso

and invited him to exchange Felix's service for his. Enea accepted, and became close friends with Frederick's chancellor, Caspar Schlick. To this period belong his widely read novel, Lucrelia and Euryalus, celebrating Schlick's amorous adventures, and his

balance of power in

comedy

Chrysis. In

connection with Felix

1445 he severed

V and was

formally

reconciled with Eugene IV. In the sameyear,

moved

by

a

serious

illness,

he-

his

it. So he at once (Oct. 1458) issued a crusade bull in impressive terms and sum-

(1440-93) noticed him and his astonishing literary flair, crowned him poet laureate,

erotic

it

overriding aim to organize a crusade to

1

June 1459. Mean-

Rene

I,

of Aragon, for the throne of

Naples, he decided, in the interest of the

rante.

When

start, his

Italy, in

the congress

favour of Fer-

met

after a slow

proposals for raising troops and

money at once ran into opposition. France would do nothing, angry because of his rejection of Duke Rene. The Germans eventually promised an army, but although a three years' war was agreed upon, the- congress was a failure. Convinced that the decline ol papal influence

247

WU

due

to the

PIUS

11(1458-64)

inflated prestige of councils, Pius published

ing, in defiance

of his

own

able,

still

problematical, 'Letter to Sultan

condemn-

Mehmet IP, containing a detailed refutation

earlier views, all

of the Koran, an exposition of Christian

a bull (Execrabilis: 18 Jan. 1460)

Mehmet

appeal from the pope to a future council.

faith,

Hastening back from Mantua, Pius found himself faced with war between the French

Islam, be baptized, and accept the

and Spanish

in

southern

the barons in the

Italy

and a

Campagna. He

The

dealt with

sent, but throws light

sonality

and Utopian

letter

abandon crown of was never

to

on the pope's peraspirations.

In Oct.

1463, encouraged by the agreement of

at the

still

further alienating the French,

Venice and Hungary

whom

he was seeking the withdrawal

called for a crusade,

cost of

from

to

the eastern empire.

rising of

these troubles without difficulty, but

and an appeal

to join forces,

he again

making Ancona the the following summer; to

of the *Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges.

rendezvous for

When

shame Christian rulers into action, he would personally lead it. While there was

Louis XI (1461-83) came to the throne in 1461, he announced that he had abolished

it,

but

this

was a manoeuvre

some popular

to

support, the rulers held back.

change his mind over Naples; when Pius continued to support Ferrante, Louis yielded to French opinion

Nevertheless he held

and reintroduced the traditional liberties of the French church by decree. In Germany, where there were powerful anti-papal curexcommunicated Duke rents, Pius Sigismund of Tirol for his hostility to the reform programme Nicholas of Cusa wanted to introduce in Brixen, and the duke appealed to a general council. At the same

Ancona. There he found, to his disappointment, only a handful of crusaders; but when

time Pius became embroiled with Diether

popes of

his epoch. If his favouritism for

von Isenburg, archbishop of Mainz, who sided with George of Podebrady, king of

relatives

and Sienese compatriots was a

Bohemia (1458-71),

allegiance did

induce the pope

Frederick

III

to

in his efforts to replace

king

as

of the

Romans.

Diether, too, appealed to a general council,

the

Compacts of Basle agreed (1437)

between Catholics and conservative Hussites,

at last the

Venetian galleys came in

died, and the enterprise

him credit. Although ambiand opportunism played their part, he

was genuinely disillusioned with the council of Basle, and was sincere when he challenged

critics, in his 'bull

lasting,

and he had a vision of a united

Christian Europe which was original and refreshing. Opera quae extant omnia (ed.

the claims of the crusade, prevented Pius,

1

than

anyone of the grievances throughout Europe against the curia, from carrying out the programme for general and curial reform on which he had been working since his election.

The

crusade was never

thoughts, and in

European

1

far

from Pius's

460-1, deserted by the

princes, he prepared his remark-

of retractation' (26

Apr. 1463), to 'reject Aeneas, listen to Pius'. His moral conversion, too, was profound

Christianity. All these difficulties, as well as

aware

he

serious fault, his often criticized transfers of

crusade and traditional position as arbiter of

thoroughly

sight,

to nothing.

accomplishment, he stood out among the

and

openly challenged his direction of the

who was more

came

His heart was interred at Ancona, while his body was taken to Rome. With his brilliant gifts, unrivalled experience, and literary

tion

and Pius declared him deposed. He also crossed swords with George of Podebrady, who, angered by the pope's refusal to accept

fast to his great proj-

took the cross in St Peter's in June 1464 and then, although seriously ill, made for ect,

551); Orationes politico*

Mansi, Lucca,

M. Hopperus,

Basle,

et ecclesiastical (ed. J.

1755-9); Opera inedita (ed.

D. J.

Cugnoni, Rome, 1883); Epistolae (ed. R. Wolkan, Vienna, 1909-18). For lives by G. A. Campano

and B.

G. C. Zimolo, Raccolta degli For his Commentarii, or memoirs, see L. C. Gabel, Memoirs of a Renaissance Pope (London, i960). C. M. Ady, Pius II (London, 191 3); R.J. Mitchell, The Laurels Platina, see

storici Italiani

and

the Tiara:

Paparelli,

248

iii,

2 (Bologna, 1964).

Pope Pius II (New York, 1963); G.

Enea Silvio Piccolomini:

L 'umanesimo sul

PAUL (2nd edn., Ravenna, 1978); J. G. Rowe, 'The Tragedy of Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II)', ChHist 30 (1961), 2883, P 3; DTC 12, 1613-32 (E. Van313;

NCE

11,

393

f.

Seppelt 4, 331-48; 350-52; 361

(J-

G

Rowe);

f.

PAUL

II (30 Aug. 1464-26 July 1471). Born at Venice on 23 Feb. 141 7, Pietro Barbo belonged to a rich merchant family and was originally intended for a business

when his maternal Eugene IV. Through

career, but took orders

uncle became pope as

him he

rapidly

became archdeacon of

Bologna, bishop of Cervia and then of Vicenza, protonotary of the

and

(in

dinal

1440 when

deacon.

Roman church,

just twenty-three) car-

He was

influential

Nicholas V, who named him

under

cardinal

church of S. Marco, and Callistus III, but less so under Pius II, whose successor he was unexpectedly elecpriest of the *title

ted at the

first ballot.

The

items in the accepted.

he

He

he

fully

Paul

create the peaceful conditions

1 469 to intervene in where the death of Francesco Sforza of Milan in 1466 had brought dangerous instability. It was unfortunate

Had

north

of the so-called Renais-

sance papacy might have been checked

were

necessary he sought in

implemented the reform prescrip-

tions, the excesses

it,

pact which

He at once began collecting funds

To

1468).

forced a modified version of them on the its full trust.

electoral

and gave support, financial if not military, to sorely pressed Hungary and the heroic Albanian leader George Skanderberg (d.

and requiring the

sacred college, thus losing

as quindemia.

discovered near Tolfa to finance

calling of a general council within three

accepted these rules only as guide-lines.

known

continuation of the war against the

Turks, and the use of the great alum mines

Dissatisfied with Pius's

years, but Paul immediately declared that

often scholars or

in 1466,

every fifteen years

independent style and nepotism, the conclave had sworn an 18 -point electoral pact defining the future pontiff's conduct and relations to his cardinals

men,

Italy,

that the prince best qualified

in

Handsome, vain (he toyed with adopting name Formosus II), without intellectual

Podebrady, king of Bohemia (1458-71),

was under suspicion of Hussite heresy

the

the people by sports and entertainments.

Rome. When Paul came efforts were made to settle

He was

ably, but in

and delighted

promoter of carnivals, to the expense of which Jews were obliged to contribute. His decree of 19 Apr. 1470 that, beginning with 1475, holy years should be held every twenty-five years was characteristic. His taste for magnificence is illustrated by the Palazzo S. Marco (now the Palazzo di Venezia), which he began building as cardinal in 1455 and made his chief residence in Rome from 1466. 1 lis abolition of the college of abbreviators, or papal a great

lead a

to

campaign against the Turks, George of

advance.

distinction, Paul loved display

(1464-71)

and his imprisonment and torture of the historian Bartolomeo Platina ( 1 42 1 -8 1 ) when he protested, made him hated in humanist circles. So did his suppression of the Roman academy (1468), which he suspected of cultivating pagan rituals and ideas, and his ban on the study of pagan poets by Roman children. But, far from being hostile to culture or humanism, he surrounded himself with scholars, restored ancient monuments, and eagerly collected artistic objects; he installed the first printing-press in Rome. Beginning in 1469, with the citizens' consent, he revised the statutes of Rome; and he frowned on the acceptance of presents by officials in the papal state. He also, in 1470, imposed on corporations owning benefices a tax payable literary

MC

steenberghe);

who were

draughtsmen,

soglto di Pietro

II

to

at

the throne,

the affair amicDec. 1 466 the pope felt obliged to excommunicate the king, and even call for

crusade

a

Negroponte (Ewia)

in

Greece, the

post of Venice in the Levant,

Mehmet

II

When

him.

against

fell

last

to

out-

Sultan

(conqueror of Constantinople

in

1453) in 1470, Paul issued a general summons to a crusade against the Turks and

convened the

Rome,

but

sive alliance

249

Italian

all

powers

to a

congress

he could obtain was

a

ai

defen-

concluded on 22 Dec. 1470.

SIXTUS

IV (1471-84)

His diplomacy was more successful

scholarship.

in the

where he made an alliance against the Turks with the Iranian prince Uzun-Hassan. Paul had excellent relations with Emperor Frederick III ( 1 440-93), who paid him a private visit in 1468 but failed to persuade him to organize a general council

Middle

Constance.

at

Paul

East,

The

threat in his difficult, in the

him

duke of Milan, who strongly backed

who

Pietro Riario,

but

Strict

his

in

as a

a

ruthlessly

of

line

who

pontiffs

systematically

secularized the papacy.

he was enthusiastic for a crusade

against the

Turks and spent

*Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. In his

equipping a

fleet,

months

was

Paul

planning

Rome

arranging a marriage between Ivan

Initially

the

to

fleet only

of

Aegean, taking

Smyrna

Russia (1462-1505) and the daughter, now-

Thomas Palaeologus, exiled Morea (d. 1465), but before the

negotiations were completed he died sud-

denly of a stroke.

The

part,

(Izmir) in

e.g.,

1472.

in

landings at

He

proclaimed

another crusade in 1481, when Otranto on the Italian mainland fell to the' Turks (11

Catholic, of

despot of

on

lavishly

but in spite of his appeals

European powers hung back, and his achieved modest successes in the

by

III

personal

determined

and unscrupulous about means, he inaugurated

life

end unsuccessXI of France

reconcile the Russian church with

and

it,

acted as his attendant, to

leading cardinals.

(1461-83) for the removal of the 'liberties' claimed by the French church under the closing

following

by the preferments promised by his nephew

negotiations with Louis

ful,

indecision

unexpected favourite of the conclave. His election was assisted by lavish gifts to the

prospect of a general

council was constantly held over

the

In

IPs sudden death he emerged as the

Aug. 1480), but

owed more

papal biographer

its

to the

recovery in Sept. 1482 sudden death of Sultan

Platina, as Vatican librarian (1475), took his

Mehmet II

revenge on him by painting his portrait

His relations were strained with Louis XI of France (1461-83), who firmly upheld the

in

the blackest colours.

Ammanati,

J.

Epistolae

commentarii

et

Muratori

3.2,

whose ordinance

Muratori 2

994-1022; 1025-50; B. Platina

12

f.

(M. Franqois); Seppelt

4,

342

f.;

He

con-

for the reunion of the Russian

church with

11,

Rome, and

348-53.

the

SIXTUS IV

1475) requiring

tinued (1474 and 1476) Paul IPs negotiations with Ivan III of Russia (1462-1505)

MC

Beurath);DrCi2,3-9(E. Amann);NCE

(8 Jan.

decrees in France he denounced.

3.1,

ecclesiastici (for

(C.

the papal galleys.

royal approval for the publication of papal

363-98; O. Raynaldus, Annales 1465-71) (ed.J. D. Mansi, Lucca, 1747-56); R. Weiss, L'n umanista Veneziano: papa Paolo II (Rome, 1958)^4; 4; PRE 15, 28-31 in

May) than to

*Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438) and

(Milan,

1506); Michael Canensius and Caspar da Verona in

(3

also for

Turks,

but

Russian support against to

no

avail.

A

loyal

Aug. 1471-12 Aug. 1484). Born at Celle, near Savona, of impoverished parents on 21 July 1414, Francesco della

Franciscan, he gready increased the privi-

Rovere was educated by the Franciscans,

tion with

early joined the order, and, after studying at

canonized (1482) the Franciscan theologian Bonaventura (d. 1274). On 1 Nov. 1478, at

(9

Bologna and Padua, lectured universities.

was

also

A

at

leges of the mendicant orders, approved

(1476) the feast of the Immaculate Concep-

several

who wrote

office,

and

up

the Spanish Inquisition, in 1482-3 sought

on issues dividing the Franciscans and the Dominicans. After serving as provincial of Liguria, he was elected general of his order on 1 9 May 1 464; on 1 8 Sept. 1 467 he was promoted cardinal of S. Pietro in Vincoli on the recommendation of the Greek John Bessarion, who admired his treatises

own mass and

the request of the Catholic kings, he set

sought-after preacher, he

an acute theologian

its

to

its abuses, and in 1483 confirmed de Torquemada (1420-98) as grand

check

Tomas

1478 he annulled the decrees of the council of Constance (14 14-17). To Sixtus, however, the routine business inquisitor. In

of the holy see took second place to the aggrandizement of the papal state and of his

250

INNOCENT VIII (1484-92) own

Soon

family.

general councils. His death next year was

after his election, flouting

he made two youthful

his election oath,

lucrative preferments.

of other

relatives

advanced on a scale.

When

Pietro

succumbed

created little

Girolamo,

now

in

a

count and married to a

daughter of Duke Galeazzo Sforza of Milan

Italian politics.

into

he did not give his consent fully

As

to the

cognizant. Lorenzo

escaped wounded, but Giuliano was

attractive aspect

consequence Sixtus entered into a fruitless and inglorious war with Florence (1478-80), and then, at the prompting of

streets

and was the second founder of the

Vatican library. His tomb, in the Vatican Grottoes,

a masterpiece

is

B. Platina, Vita, Muratori 2 3.1,

1483 he changed sides and turned against Venice, imposing spiritual

sura, Diario della

Ferrara; in

it.

The peace

1484 did not bring the

Romagna he and

his

but instead dangerous risings in Rome and Latium. What with his costly military and building operations as well as the his

3.2,

greedy

relatives,

papal

bronze by

citta

diRoma

1890); Diario di

1071-108; V.

1053-68; InfesO. Tommasini,

(ed.

Roma di Notajo, Muratori Un carme biografico di

Pacifici,

IV del 1 47 j (Tivoli, 1924); AFrH 28 (1935), 198-234; 477-99; C. Bauer, 'Studi per la storia

Sisto

nephew were hoping

for,

demands of

Rome,

of Bagnolo of

territorial gains in

in

Antonio del Pollaiuolo.

Girolamo, incited the Venetians to attack

on

of

of his

Sistine choir, established the Vatican archives,

killed.

a

penalties

men

—

murder of Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici was planned and of which the pope, if

A more

he

cardinals

—

affair

which Girolamo dragged Sixtus was the in which the

even

thirty- four

the

of them nephews) were

city, opening and widening and paving old ones, building the Ponte Sisto, erecting churches Sta Maria del Popolo (his family burial place), Sta Maria della Pace, the Sistine Chapel with its walls painted by Umbrian masters and restoring the Ospedale di S. Spirito. He drew to Rome the greatest painters and sculptors, improved church music and founded the

Pazzi conspiracy of 1478,

bloodshed, was

(six

worth.

up new

and turmoils of

The most disreputable

Italy.

medieval into a Renaissance

(1447-76). Men of demonic energy, he and Giuliano involved the pope, often feigning to protest, in the disputes

of

chosen role as a Renaissance prince was his munificence as a founder and restorer of useful institutions and as a patron of letters and art. He transformed Rome from a

to his dis-

influence

cities

Most of

enriched

1474, his place of sinister was taken by his brother

sipations

and

A swarm

and completely unprecedented

were

at

having peace forced on him by the princes

nephews, Pietro Riario and Giuliano della Rovere (later Julius II), cardinals, loading

them with

been hastened by vexation

said to have

delle finanze papali durante

W\Arch. Rom.

DTC

il

pontificato di Sisto

Soc. Storia Patria

1

(1927), 3 14—

MC

2199-217 (A. Teetaert); 4; P 4; LThK 9, 810 f. (G. Schwaiger); XCE 13, 272 f. (E. G. Gleeson); EC 11, 780-2 (P. Paschini); 404;

expenditure increased enormously during

Seppelt

and in spite of creating new, highly dubious sources of revenue and exploiting the granting of indulgences he left a huge deficit to his successor. The widespread disquiet at the abuses of the papal court found an outlet in Mar. 1482 when a reform-minded archbishop, the Croatian Andrea Zamometic, in earlier days

4,

14,

353-70.

his reign,

Sixtus's friend,

made an

INNOCENT VIII 1492).

death was

a

aware

a

hotbed of intrigue, with

that

della

Rovere

(Ji

1

.11

his

S II),

he himself stood no chance,

lobbying for the election of someone he

could dominate.

abortive attempt to

renewed ban on appeals

(29 Aug. 1484-25 July conclave following Sixtus IV's

nephew Giuliano

The man chosen,

alter

endorsing the petitions of several cardinals

reconvene the council of Basle (1431-49) and have him suspended until it had passed judgement on him. Sixtus responded in

1483 with

The

for favours in his cell the night before,

the easygoing but ineffective tista

Cib6. The son

was born

to

251

at

Genoa

of a in

(

KovaiUU

Roman

WIS li.il-

senator, he

1432, spent his youth

ALEXANDER VI (1492-1503) at the

court of Naples and then studied at

and the

Padua and Rome, took orders and, through the favour of Cardinal Calandrini, was made bishop of Savona in 1467 and then Molfetta in 1472, and was created a cardinal

potential rival

fled to

hat,

at

Rhodes, and the grand master of the in return for a cardinal's

handed him over

to the

pope,

who was

glad to have such an important hostage for

ill,

i486 Innocent formally recognized as rightful king of England on the threefold ground of conquest, inheritance, and national choice. He is also remembered both for his bull Sumtnis desiderantes (5 Dec.

but per-

In

Henry VII

question of church reform in Innocent's like Sixtus IV's,

was

as

colourful and loose as any Italian prince's,

and his cardinals, mostly Sixtus's creations, were worldly grands seigneurs. He inherited vast debts from Sixtus, and the financial of the curia continued

to get worse.

1

unneeded

484) ordering the Inquisition in Germany proceed with the utmost severity against

to

To

he resorted to the expedient of

it

confinement

in close

Knights of St John,

sonally affable as he was, there could be no

alleviate

Jem

the sultan's good behaviour.

Irresolute, lax, chronically

state

cruci-

at his

Rome. To escape from Bayezid Jem had

princely houses.

His court,

of the Holy Lance (supposed to

he detained his fugitive brother and

fixion),

by Sixtus IV' in 1473. He had little experience of politics, and, having fathered several illegitimate children before ordination, he now provided for them by marriage into

reign.

gift

have pierced Christ's side

supposed witches, which gave a powerful stimulus to the persecution of witchcraft, and for his ban (1 486) on the discussion and

and

study of the theses of Pico della Mirandola

other offices and then selling them to the

(1463-94), the exponent of Renaissance Platonism. As his ineffective reign drew to

creating countless

highest bidder.

curial

His insolvency was not

Rome were filled with news of the expulsion of the Moors from Granada (2 Jan. 1492), but the triumph was due to Ferdinand V and

in 1485, persuaded by Giuliano, with the rebellious Neapolitan

helped by his siding

barons

against

(1458-94),

who

Ferdinand

I

of

its

Naples

refused to pay the papal

were disastrous for Rome and he had to accept a disadvantageous peace in Aug. i486. Freed for a time from Giuliano's influence, he now made an alliance with Lorenzo de' Medici, to whose daughter he married his undeserving son Franceschetto, and whose thirteen-

dues.

The

results

and the papal

state,

474-1 504), not

Isabella of Castile (1

Ferdinand and his successors the

however, broke out

Diarium Romanae

uriris

and in Sept. Innocent excommunicated and deposed him. A reconciliation was patched up in Jan. 1492, but the papacy lost L'Aquila and most

1189-243);

his side of the peace,

(Muratori 2 Beurath);

attempts Innocent

made

to

rally

1070-108 and

Burckard, Liber notarum ab anno

PRE

23.3);

MC

Bonniwell);

meet the Turkish menace proved abortive. The fact that he was the first pope to enter into relations with the Ottoman

J.

1483 usque ad annum 1506 (Muratori 2 23.1.2); J. da Volterra, Diarium Romanum (1479-1484)

political prestige.

The

of

ab anno 1481 ad 1492 and

Infessura, Diarium (Muratori 3.2,

of its

title

As pope he was incapable of exercising firm control over Rome and left the papal states in anarchy, and his death was the signal for an outbreak of 'Catholic Kings'.

afresh in 1489, since Ferdinand failed to fulfil

to the

holy see; in recognition of this he awarded

unprecedented violence and disorder.

year-old son he raised to the cardinalate. Hostilities with Naples,

he and

close,

jubilation by the

EC

4; 7,

P

5;

18

9,

NCE

137-9 526

7,

(P. Brezzi);

f.

(Zopffelf.

(W. R.

Seppelt

4,

369-76.

action to

empire may have contributed to this. In 1489 he agreed an arrangement with the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II (1 481 -15 12) whereby,

in return for

40,000 ducats yearly

ALEXANDER VI (1

1

Aug. 1492-18 Aug.

1503). Rodrigo de Borja y Borja (Borgia in Italian) was born on 1 Jan. 1431 at Jativa, near Valencia. His maternal uncle, then

bishop of Valencia but after 1455 Callistus III, loaded the youth with benefices,

252

ALEXANDER VI (1492-1503) him to study at Bologna, and in Feb. 1456 named him cardinal deacon. As well as holding a string of bishoprics and abbeys,

reform, and had a bull

full

proposals drafted; but

remained

Rodrigo became vice-chancellor of the holy

ality;

see in 1457, a lucrative office he held under the next four popes, amassing such vast

family

sent

He

same time he

an openly licentious

life,

of admirable a draft.

lacked the resolution to abjure sensu-

he soon resumed his pleasures and

now

Cesare

with

machinations,

increasingly his evil genius.

Family interest conditioned the

wealth that he was reckoned the second richest cardinal. At the

it

Alexander's Italian policy.

lived

shifts

of

odds

Initially at

with Ferdinand

I of Naples (1458-94), he supported him against the claims of Charles

fathering several

was fondest of those born to the Roman Vannozza Catanei

VIII of France (1483-98) after the marriage

Juan, Cesare, Lucrezia, Goffredo. In 1460 his scandalous behaviour earned him a

of his son Goffredo in 1493 to the king's grand-daughter (whose dowry was the rich

sharp but unheeded rebuke from Pius

principality of Squillace).

children; he aristocratic

II.

he worked hard but unsuccessfully

talents,

Sixtus

for election as successor to

the conclave (6-1

cent

1

IV.

At

5).

Aug.) following Inno-

at first

Ferdinand's

At

this Charles, incited

by Alexander's

deadly enemy, Cardinal della Rovere

VIII's death, however, although as a

Spaniard not

On

death (25 Jan. 1494), he recognized and crowned his son Alfonso II as king (1494-

Possessed of ambition, energy, and versatile

Julius

II),

invaded

Italy,

of a council to depose the pope,

regarded as a serious

(later

breathing threats

who

in his

candidate, he eventually emerged as victor.

difficult straits did

He had swung

cause by barefaced bribery and promises of

from the Turkish sultan Bayezid II (148115 12). He could not defend Rome and had

rich preferments.

to

An

several cardinals over to his

experienced

administrator,

ander made a favourable order

in

vigorously,

Rome,

start,

dispensing

with

justice

only eighteen,

bishop of several sees, including the wealthy a year later, along with

mistress),

a

cardinal.

it.

easily

him

Eventually, by allying himself in a

ling the marriage of the

Alessandro Farnese (brother of Giulia, his current

who

'holy league' (31 Mar. 1493) with other powers which threatened Charles's rear, he forced him to withdraw from Italy, and in June 1497 sent Cesare as legate to Naples to crown Frederick of Aragon (1496-1501). From 1498, however, under the influence of Cesare, whom he released from the cardinalate, he moved closer to France, annul-

menace. It was soon evident, however, that his consuming passion, gold and women apart, was the aggrandizement of his relatives, especially Vannozza's children. Thus

one of Valencia, and

terms with Charles,

in spite of strong pressure, to invest

restoring

and promising reform of the

still

to

conquered Naples; but Alexander refused,

Alex-

curia and a united effort against the Turkish

he soon named Cesare,

come

not hesitate to seek help

XII.

He

where

Cesare's

new

king, Louis

sent Cesare as envoy to France,

a grateful

Louis created him duke of

him

brother Juan, duke of Gandia, he married to

Valentinois and gave

a Spanish princess, and in 1497 enfeoffed

bride. Alexander's volte-face

him with

plete that in 1501 he ratified the partition of

the duchy of Benevento, which he

carved out of the papal

state.

sometimes

left

while Cesare proceeded, with French aid,

after

Rome

he

her as virtual regent

in

the other; in his absence from

was so com-

Naples between France and Spain. Mean-

For Lucrezia

he arranged one magnificent marriage

a princess as his

to

subdue Romagna, being created duke of

this largest

province of the papal state

in

charge of official business. In June 1497 he was momentarily shattered by the murder of

50 1. But the ambitions of Cesare and Alexander, now wholly under his SWty,

Juan, his special favourite, with suspicion

envisaged the appropriation of die entire

1

on Cesare. Grief-stricken, he vowed devote himself henceforth to church

falling

papal state and central

to

family,

253

and

this project,

ltal\

In the Borgia

with the systematic

PIUS

111(1503)

crushing of the great the rest of the reign.

required for

its

assassinations,

Roman families, filled The enormous sums

realization

followed

were raised

by

of

property, and by the cynical creation of

who had

cardinals elevation.

0. Raynaldus, Annales

P. de

given

(for

ecclesiastici

1492-

Roo, Materials for a History of Pope Alexander and his Times (Bruges, 1924); G.

17, his Relations

In 1493, at the instance of the Castilian sovereigns,

Alexander

Parker, At the Court of the Borgia (Folio Society,

demarcation

a

London, 1963); G. Pepe, La politico dei Borgia (Naples, 1945); G. Soranzo, Studi intorno a papa

drew a line of hundred leagues west of the Azores between Spanish and Portuguese zones of exploration in the new world; as it favoured Spain, it was modified by the

Alessandro

M

Borgia Pope

(ET London, 1942)^.

(Milan,

1950); O.

',

Ferrara,

The

Schnitzer, Der

Tod Alexanders 17 (Minister, 1929); 'Um den Tod (1 930), 256-60; P 5 and 6; 4 and 5; DBI 2, 196-205 (G. B. Picorti); EC

Treaty of Tordesillas of 7 June 1494. He also granted the monarchs control of the

Alexanders VT, HJf 50

MC

church in the lands they colonized. In 1495 he began his long duel with the preacher and reformer Girolamo Savonarola (145298) which, started with patience, ended in May 1498 with the excommunication,

1, 795-801 (G. M. Pou y Marti); NCE (M. Badlori); EB (15th edn.) 1, 467 Murphy); Seppelt 4, 396—94.

examination under torture, and execution of

Siena in 1439, Francesco Todeschini was, through his mother, a nephew of Pius II,

the Florentine

Alexander found

friar;

PIUS

his

III (22

who

French

(Piccolomini) and arms, took

coalition

inconvenient as his

as

denunciations of papal corruption and his

him

deacon), and a few weeks later

from

indulgences

to

of Siena (he was only twenty-one, and a

sums accruing

finance

—

e.g. for

Cesare's

II

the reform of

monasteries, for the religious orders, and for

missions in the

new world

markedly second place goals. He had a genuine art and,

to

—took

a

more worldly

love,

however, for

although a less lavish patron than

Sixtus IV or Julius

II,

richly restored Castel

the Borgia apartments decorated by Pin-

and persuaded Michelangelo to draw plans for the rebuilding of St Peter's. Involved in political and family scheming till the end, he and Cesare were suddenly taken ill in Aug. 1 503, and while the younger man turicchio,

survived with difficulty, Alexander died. His is

Mar.

then sent him as legate to the

March of

Ancona, and in 1464 left him in charge of Rome and the papal state when he himself went to Ancona to lead the crusade. For many years cardinal protector of England and Germany, he became the trusted friend of both nations. Paul

II appointed him Germany, where his fluency in German helped him to defend the interests of the church with the emperor and before the diet of Regensburg (147 1). Although he continued influential under Alexander VI, who sent him on an abortive mission to Charles VIII of France in Nov. 1494, he kept his distance from him; he had angrilyrefused to be bribed to vote for him at the conclave of Aug. 1492, and in June 1497 he

legate in

Sant'Angelo, embellished the Vatican with

death

(5

1460) cardinal deacon of S. Eustachio. Pius

expeditions. In general his concern for the

needs of the church

name

into his

made him archbishop

celebrated the holy year of 1500 with suitvast

at

and arranged for his legal had obtained his

doctorate, his uncle

pomp, using the

X.

studies at Perugia. After he

depose the pope. Devout and a stickler for orthodoxy in spite of personal profligacy, he able

290-2 (F.

allowed him to assume his family

household,

reform the church and

1, f.

Sept.-i8 Oct. 1503). Born

opposition to Florence's joining the anti-

calls for a council to

.

to

mistakenly

1503) (ed. J. D. Mansi, Lucca, 1747-56X208416; J. Burckard, Liber notarum (Muratori 2 32.1);

pay dearly for their

to

at

dinner which was themselves.

by-

seizures

intended for a cardinal who was their host

usually explained as due to malaria,

protested,

but there are strong grounds for believing that father and son were victims of poison

alone

of the

sacred

college,

against his proposed transfer of substantial

papal territories to his son Juan, duke of

254

JULIUS A man

Gandfa.

of culture

integrity,

he founded the

colomini

at

well

as

Libreria

as

Pic-

Siena to house his uncle's

library, entrusting the

decoration to Pin-

turicchio (1502).

11(1503-13)

between Louis XI (1461-83) and Maximilian I of Austria (i486— 1519) over the latter's Burgundian inheritance. He was prominent under Innocent VIII, whose election he managed, but an enemy of

Alexander

VI. Fearing assassination, he

clave (16-22 Sept. 1503) following Alex-

fled in

to

ander VPs death less to his intrinsic merits (he had been considered seriously more

aged Charles VIII (1483-98) to undertake the conquest of Naples. He accompanied

Francesco owed his election

the con-

at

1494

France, where he encour-

than once before) than to the need to find a

the king on his campaign (1494-5), but his

neutral candidate to break the deadlock

efforts to get his

caused by competing national interests and the threat of interference by Cesare Borgia.

depose Alexander for simony were foiled by the wily pope. Although he negotiated

His fragile health (he was racked with gout) and premature old age also stood in his favour, for a short pontificate which would

princess in 1499, he was lucky to escape Alexander's plots and remained in hiding

provide a breathing-space was desired. In the event his reign proved even briefer than

His health was so weak that

expected.

had to on 8 Oct. he died. His death

several of the customary ceremonies

be omitted

his coronation

at

1503, and ten days later was regarded by contemporaries as a misfortune, for there were signs that, had he lived, he would have summoned a general council within two years and promoted the serious reform measures that were desperately needed.

ASRomana

E. Piccolomini, 'La famiglia di Pio IIP,

26 (1903), 146-64; 'II pontificato di Pio \W\AstIt 32 (1903), 102-38; J. Schlecht, Pius III und die deutsche Xation (Miinster, 1914);

(Zopffel-Beurath);

6;

DTC

12,

15,

1632

1496 (G. B. Picotti); XCE (D. R. Campbell); Seppelt 4, 394 f.

Amann); f.

P

PRE

EC 9,

435

f.

f.

(E.

11,

394

backing for a council

to

Cesare Borgia's marriage with a French

until his death. At the ensuing conclave he was not chosen, but Pius III reigned only twenty-six days; on his death Giuliano at last attained his ambition, and with the help of lavish promises and bribes was unanimously elected pope at a conclave

lasting a single day.

A

ruler, ruthless and violent, eschewed family aggrandizement and strove, with all diplomatic and military means available, to restore and extend the papal state, which the Borgias had alienated, and to establish a strong, independent papacy in an Italy free from

forceful

Julius

foreign

domination.

terously got rid of the

First, still

having

dex-

dangerous Cesare

Borgia (d. 1507) by making Italy too hot for him, he vainly urged Venice to evacuate

Romagna

della

she had occupied Then, having allied himself with France and Germany, he won back all Romagna from her except Rimini and Faenza in 1504. In 1506, in a brilliant campaign led by himself in full armour, he

uncle

wrested Perugia and Bologna from their

those parts of

earlier in 1503.

JULIUS

II (1

Born on

5

Albissola,

intended

Nov. 1503-21 Feb. 1513). 1 443 of poor parents at near Savona, and originally

Dec.

for

commerce, Giuliano

Rovere was educated, through

his

Francesco's influence, by the Franciscans Perugia, and took orders.

became

Sixths

IV

When

(1471),

at

Mar. 1509 he joined the League of Cambrai formed in 1508 between France, Germany, and Spain, excommunicated Venice on 27 Apr., and in

petty tyrants. In

his uncle

named

he

Giuliano bishop of Carpentras and

(1

6

1

)ec.

May

471) cardinal priest of S. Pietro in \ incoli; he soon acquired other bishoprics, abbacies 1

and

benefices,

bishopric in

of

1480-2

including

the

Sta Sabina. As legate

he

successfully

defeated her so disastrously that she

was forced

to surrender Rimini and Faenza and also the control oi chun appointments and taxation rights that she had usurped. le

cardinal

li

Prance mediated

in

I

had no wish, however, unduh 255

to

weaken

LEO X (1513-21) Venice, indispensable in any war with the

now decided

and

Turks,

to

later

Catherine

France,

that

marry his brother's widow, of Aragon. Nevertheless, he

powerfully established in the north, was the

published a bull (dated

and must be driven out. He therefore made peace with Venice and, to win the support of Spain, enfeoffed Ferdinand II of Aragon (1476-1516) with Naples (3 July 15 10) in disregard of

declaring

real

danger

to Italy

first

simony, and founded the

South America. the

fifth

attacked Ferrara, an

of

ally

win Ferrara, and had

was

Bologna

fall

and by

calling, in the

at

pope.

Pisa on

It

1

Sept. 15

assembled on

1

1 1

to

name to

Oct., held several

On 151

in

Rome

the fifth in 15 12.

the political plane he formed 1)

the

(Oct.

Holy League with Venice and

Spain for the defence of the papacy; Henry VIII of England (1509-47) joined

The

it

later in

were Ravenna (1 1 Apr. 15 12), but its fortunes changed with the arrival of Swiss troops, and before the end of 1 5 1 2 the French had to quit Italian soil. Parma, Piacenza, and Reggio Emilia were added to the papal state, of which Julius the

year.

severely

defeated

League's

1

Emperor

sessions held in his

schismatic

Pisan

council

and inspirer of

Michelangelo,

The

artists,

youthful

the last

Peter's, assisting at the laying of the

depose the

now summoned

5

he comfounda-

on 18 Apr. 1506, and arranging for the cost to be defrayed by the sale of indulgences (later to be bitterly criticized by the Protestant reformers). In spite of expensive wars and building projects he was a frugal administrator who, having inherited an empty treasury, left it more than full. As a man he was headstrong, irascible, sensual tion stone

and decreed the suspension of Julius. To meet the threat, especially as Emperor Maximilian I favoured the Pisan Lateran council to meet

five

Raphael, and Bramante.

sessions,

council, Julius

1

General)

missioned to prepare plans for the new St

France

of a group of rebel cardinals, for a council

the

as the patron

notably

(1498-15 15) counterattacked by holding a synod at Tours (Sept. 15 10) which renewed the *Pragmatic Sanc-

meet

(Eighteenth

(1511-12) and the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. His most enduring achievement

rowly escaped capture. Meanwhile Louis

tion of Bourges,

by

bishoprics in

were concerned mainly with con-

demning

temporarily to the French; he himself nar-

of

first

He opened on 3 May

Lateran

Maximilian; but the lifetime

to see

1505)

nullified

council (15 12-17), being gratified at the

France and the only vassal state still unsubdued. His troops seized Modena in 15 10 and captured Mirandola in Jan. 151 1, with himself at their head. He failed, however, to

XII

14 Jan.

elections

third session by the adhesion of

France's claims. Julius

papal

armies

at

(as cardinal he fathered three daughters), and was nicknamed il terribile'; as pope he had policies which were at least disinterested and intelligible even if they aimed no higher than making the papal state the first power in Italy. When he died of fever, he was mourned as the liberator of Italy from foreign domination, and has subsequently been saluted as the promoter of

unification.

its J.

Burckard, Liber notarum (index), Muratori 2

3 2. 1

13)

;

O. Raynaldus, Annates ecclesiastici (for 1 503D. Mansi, Lucca, 1747-56); M.

(ed. J.

could claim to be the re-founder.

Brosch, PapstJulius II unddie Griindung des Kirch-

and wars dominated Julius's reign; Erasmus in his Praise ofFolly (1509) caricatured his military ardour, and the Florentine historian Guicciardini remarked that there was nothing of the priest about him except the dress and the name. His stricdy church activities were largely routine: in 1503, for instance, he issued the dispensation which enabled Henry VIII

enstaates

Politics

fical

(Gotha, 1878); E. Rodocanachi, Le ponti-

de Jules II (Paris, 1928); F. Seneca, Venezia e

MC

Papa Giulio II (Padua, 1962); P 6; 5; DTC 8, 1918-20 (G. Mollat); NCE 8, 52-4 (D. R. Campbell);

EB

(15th

edn.)

10,

333-5

(H.

521).

The

Kiihner); Seppelt 4, 394-408.

LEO X (11

Mar. 1513-1 Dec.

1

conclave of Mar. 15 13 elected, swiftly and without simony (owing to Julius IPs stern

256

LEO X (1513-21) ban),

the

cardinal

thirty-seven-year-old

Second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, he was born at Florence on u Dec. 1475 and was early

Giovanni

de'

Medici.

Medici and, more important, to arrange a with France which, though

concordat accepted

with

remained

by

difficulty

operative

the the

until

curia,

French

destined for the church, being tonsured

Revolution. Although this involved unpre-

when still seven and named

cedented concessions, allowing the crown

cardinal deacon

Leading humanists tutored him and he was a student of theology and canon law at Pisa from 1 489 to 1 49 1 At seventeen he joined the sacred college at Rome, but soon returned to Florence on his

nominate

higher church offices and

at thirteen.

to

as a boy,

reserving only lesser benefices to the pope,

.

He

father's death later in 1492.

left it

when

was exiled in 1494, and travelled 494-1 500) in France, Holland (meeting Erasmus), and Germany. Returning to Rome in May 1 500, he immersed himself in literature, the arts, the theatre, and music, but after Alexander VI's death began acquiring political influence. Appointed legate of Bologna in 151 1, with charge of the papal army, he was taken prisoner at Ravenna in Apr. 1 5 1 2, but escaped. In 1 5 1 he was able to re-establish Medici control of Florence, of which he remained effective ruler until the conclave, and indeed during his family (1

polished Renaissance prince,

Leo was

and double-tongued politician and an inveterate nepotist. His aim was to keep Italy and his own Florence free from foreign domination and to advance his also a devious

family outside Florence. In 15 13, faced with a

French attempt,

in alliance

with Venice, to

recover Milan and Naples, he reluctantly joined the League of Mechlin (5 Apr.) with

Emperor Maximilian I (1493-15 19), Spain, and England. After the defeat of France at Novara (6 June), he reached an understanding with Louis XII (1498-15 15) under which France withdrew support from the schismatic council of Pisa Louis's

successor

(1 5

Francis

1

1-1 I

2).

When

(1515-47)

removed the *Pragmatic Sanction

finally

of Bourges. Less creditable was the war he

waged

in 15 16 to replace Francesco della Rovere as duke of Urbino by his own nephew Lorenzo, son of his brother Piero de' Medici; it resulted in political and financial disaster. In 15 17 he turned the tables on some disaffected cardinals who

him by executing

plotted to poison

leader

(Alfonso

lege by creating

July) thirty-one

(1

The problem of the imperial

cardinals.

cession in

1

5

19 showed his diplomacy at its at first he seemed to favour

Francis

I

of France,

at

times worked for the

Elector Frederick of Saxony

when

it

became

Habsburg Charles alliance against

I

of Spain (Charles V,

1521 concluding an France with him.

In his electoral oath

continue the

1525), and

May

1519-56), in

to

(d.

inevitable accepted the

fifth

Leo had undertaken

Lateran council

(1 5

second council of Pisa (1511-12) by Louis XII and the adhesion of the French episcopate; the eighth session also ratified a

policies and, against the cardinals' advice

remaining sessions

meeting the lung

revealing an

settlement with him.

The

a

holy see had to

surrender Parma and Piaccnza, but he was able to maintain Florence intact for the

dog-

matic definition on the individuality of the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction

Bologna, agreed

2-

respectively the disavowal of the anti-papal

human

at

1

and as constructive proposals for reform were in the air great hopes were placed on the lead he would give. He duly opened the sixth session on 27 Apr. 15 13, and at the eighth and ninth sessions (19 Dec. 15 13 and 5 Mar. 15 14) received 17),

Marignano (13/14 Sept. 15 15), recovering Milan for France, Leo switched at

new suc-

most tortuous;

revived France's claims and defeated the allies

the

imprisoning

Petrucci),

several others, and packing the sacred col-

only

his pontificate.

A

it

to all

Leo's

soul.

The

concordat

council later ratified the

with

Francis

touched

on

I.

and

The

reform,

awareness of the principal

abuses crying OUl lor removal; but while a reform commission was set up ami reform decrees published, these in the main

257

HADRIAN VI (1522-3) tightened up existing legislation without

failure of himself and the curia to appreciate

providing the means for

the significance of the revolution taking

When Leo

its

enforcement.

closed the council on 16 Mar.

place in the church.

When he died suddenly

15 17, after decreeing a crusade against the

of malaria he

Turks and

northern Europe in growing religious disaf-

a

three-year tax on benefices to

it, it was evident that there had been no sense of the urgency of the situation and no real direction from the pontiff. Easygoing and pleasure -loving, the patron of artists and re-founder (Nov. 15 13) of Rome university, Leo was reck-

finance

lessly extravagant, so desperate for

that he

pawned

pay

P.

Bembo, Libri xvi epistolarum Leonis P.M. nomine

vio, Vita Leonis (Florence, 1548); P.

diario di Leone lini,

Rome,

and

P 7 and

extensively and

Peter's

renewed

he

Leone 8;

X e la sua politico (Florence,

MC 6; DTC 9,

(J-

1892);

329-32 (G. Mollat);

6, 950-2 (G. Schwaiger); NCE G. Gallaher); Seppelt 4, 408-30.

8,

643-5

indulgence

the

II,

1884); J. Hergenrother, Regesta Leonis

LThK

sold offices, even cardinals' hats. For St

authorized by Julius

de Grassis, // D. Delicati and M. Armel-

1884-91); W. Roscoe, The Life and Pontificate ofLeo the Tenth (London, 1853); E. Rodocanachi, Le pontifical de Leon X (Paris, 1 93 1 ); F. Xirri,

money he borrowed

X (ed.

X (Freiburg i.B.,

and

not least the construction of St Peter's; to raise

in

scriptarum (Venice, 1535-6; Basle, 1539); P. Gio-

he had to

for his wars, the projected crusade,

and the papal treasury deeply

debt.

money

his palace furniture

plate. In addition to his pleasures,

fection,

turmoil,

left Italy in political

and by

HADRIAN

a lucrative

VI

(9

Jan.

1522-14 Sept.

of

1523). Deeply divided between powerful

Brandenburg, archbishop of Magdeburg

contenders (who included the English lord

and Mainz

chancellor,

simoniacal

but

deal

with

Albrecht

490-1 548), arranged for the indulgence to be promoted by preachers in his dioceses. When the Dominican John Tetzel (c. 1465-15 19) began preaching it in Jan. 1 5 17, the Augustinian monk Martin Luther (1483- 15 46) reacted by posting his ninety-five theses of protest on the church door at Wittenberg. When a summary of (1

Luther's ideas reached

Leo

Rome

silence him.

He

Leo X's

A

carpenter's son born at

Utrecht on 2 Mar. 1459, Adrian Florensz Dedal was educated by his widowed mother with the Brethren of the

Common Life and,

entering Louvain university at seventeen,

and

then tried to win over

a professor of note, twice rector,

(1497) chancellor. His lecture notes on The Sentences of Peter Lombard (d. finally

60) and his twelve Quodlibeta reveal

Luther's protector, the Elector Frederick of

1 1

Saxony, but had no success. After debates

as a late scholastic with a canonical

between the theologian John Eck (14861543) and Luther at Leipzig in 15 19, Leo published the bull Exsurge Domine (15 June 1520) condemning Luther on forty-one counts; then on 3 Jan. 1521, Luther having publicly burned the bull, he excommuni-

moral

cated cem.

him in

On

1 1

the bull Decet Romanum pontifi-

Oct. 1521 he bestowed the

title

by

as well as

conclave after

death eventually elected a cardinal then absent in Spain.

became

early in 15 18,

instructed the general of his order to

Thomas Wolsey)

political rivalries, the

him

and 1507 Emperor Maximilian I

bias. In

(1493-15 19) appointed him tutor to his grandson Charles V (1519-56), and in 15 15,

now

a counsellor of Margaret, regent

of the Netherlands, he went

to

Spain

to

ensure

his

throne.

On

the death of King Ferdinand of

Aragon

in

15 16 Adrian acted as regent

charge's

succession

to

the

'Defender of the Faith' on Henry VIII of England in recognition of his book defend-

along with the humanist Cardinal Ximenes

ing the seven sacraments against Luther.

of Tortosa and Aragon and Navarre in 15 16, inquisitor for Castile and Leon also in 1 5 1 8, he was created cardinal of Utrecht in 15 17 During special request. Charles's at

The

15 17.

and delays in his dealings with the reformer are partly explained by his preoccupation with political and family manoeuvres, but even more by the complete hesitations

(1436-15 1 7) inquisitor for

258

until

Named

Charles took over in

bishop

CLEMENT VII (1523-34) Charles's absence in

1

same time his attempts to European front against the Turks were marked by diplomatic gaucherie and ended in failure. First, he

5 20-2 for his corona-

he served as viceroy and

tion

dealt,

carried out. At the

though

mobilize

The now emperor, as

incompetently, with a serious revolt.

confidence of Charles, well as his

own high moral standing con-

alienated Charles V,

Hadrian (he retained his baptismal name) saw his principal tasks as checking the Reformation by reform of the central

Turks

Christian uniting and Europe against the Turks, who under Sultan Siileyman I the Magnificent (152066) had stormed (1521) Belgrade and were Hungary and besieging threatening Rhodes. This programme he expounded at his first consistory on 1 Sept. 1522, having

his

and

His

people,

reception

who were

by

was

hostile,

and was

made more so both by the drastic economies forced on him by Leo X's crippling debts and by sance

The

by his reluctance to distribute lucrative

way and by

determination curia. Instead

hampered

to

purge

1862); Syntagma doctrinae theologicae Adriani VI

Papst,

Der

by

Francesco

Chieregati,

whose

instruction contained the frank admission that

blame

for the disorder in the

church

lay

Adrian VI (Freiburg

deutsche Papst Adrian

1962);

NCE

P

1,

9;

147

MC f.

(K.

6;

LThK

M.

CLEMENT VII

of the situation. At the diet of

Nuremberg (Dec. 1522) he was represen-

di concistori del pontificato di

ST

(Louvain, 1862); E. Hocks, Der

improve-

from them and dependent on a few Spanish or Flemish intimates. In dealing with the Lutheran revolt in Germany Hadrian did not appreciate the

ted

3

157 (1951), 83-113; E. H. J. Reusens,Analecta historica de Adriano VI (Louvain,

ments, and he became increasingly isolated

gravity

on

Adriano YT,

of collaborating with him they

his efforts to introduce

Austria,

cities,

A. Mercati, 'Diarii

his

secularized

the

Milan, and other Italian Aug. 1523. Shortly afterwards, disillusioned, worn out by his exertions and the summer heat, he fell seriously ill and sank to his death after a reign full of good

land,

M. von Domarus and P. KalkofT, HJ 16 (1895), 70-91539 (1918), 31-72 (on sources for his life);

cardinals were consternated

benefices in the traditional

make a Eng-

intentions but too short to be effective.

his evident disinterest in Renais-

art.

I,

defensive alliance with the empire,

disgusted by the choice of

a northern 'barbarian',

who was

bardy. Hadrian had no option but to

Roman

the

his arrest of Cardinal Soderini,

provoked the king to open rupture; he stopped the transfer of money from France to Rome, and prepared to invade Lom-

independence of both France and the

empire.

to the

(21

discovered secretly plotting with Francis

underline

to

strictly

fell

Dec. 1522), he sought to impose a three -year truce on Christendom on pain of the severest ecclesiastical penalties. This,

administration

by sea so as

Then, when Rhodes

neutral.

to

of France

I

(1515-47), by his endeavour to be

Ascetic and devout, but always a professor,

Rome

who expected him

join his league against Francis

tributed to his election.

travelled to

a

letzte

deutsche

1939)^. Posner,

i.B.,

VI (Recklinghausen, 4,

1309 (R. R. Post); 4, 426-38.

Sanu); Seppelt

(19 Nov. 1523-25 Sept.

The fifty-day conclave following Hadrian VI's death resulted in the election J

534)-

of the

cardinal

Charles

V

favoured

Emperor

by

(1519-56), Giulio de' Medici. Bastard son of Giuliano de' Medici by his

primarily with the curia itself— an admis-

mistress Fioretta, he was born

sion aptly described as the

on 26 May 1479 shortly alter his lather's murder and was brought up by his uncle, Lorenzo the Magnificent In 1513 his

first

step towards

was strongly change and demanded that Martin Luther (14831546), whose opinions he had condemned the Counter-Reformation.

opposed, however,

I

le

to doctrinal

as inquisitor in Spain, should be punished for heresy

May

1

and

that the edict of

Worms

(8

521) banning his teachings should be

cousin

Leo

ment

of

at

Florence

X, brushing aside the impedi-

illegitimacy,

made

him

arch-

bishop of Florence and cardinal, and as vice-chancellor from Mar. largely

259

responsible

for

1517 he was Leo's polieies,

CLEMENT VII (1523-34) including his measures against the

German

483-1 546). From May 15 19 he governed Florence, and in 152

reformer Luther took

the

lead

(i

arranging an

in

alliance

then Viterbo. By now he saw that his interest lay with the emperor, and in June 1529 he

and Charles agreed on against heresy in

between the pope and Charles V. Under Hadrian VI he again became powerful in the

reconciliation

curia, contributing to the defensive alliance

onation

between the holy see and the empire. His election was widely acclaimed, but it soon

became evident that, excellent as secondin-command, he lacked the character and capacity for supreme office at a time of crisis.

Cultivated, experienced, and hard-

couraged, he was narrow in outlook and Failing

comprehend

to

going on in the church,

he acted mainly

an

as

Medici, and even

Italian prince

in secular affairs

and

was too

policies.

Caught

in the struggle between Charles and Francis I of France (1515-47) to dominate Italy, Clement worked for peace

V

the

Christian powers, ostensibly to meet

Turkish

threat

but

Florence and the papal

to

secure

state. First,

he dis-

also

appointed Charles by declining

Hadrian VFs impressed

defensive

by

to

alliance.

Francis's

in

reconquering Milan (Oct. 1524), he made an alliance with him and Venice (Dec. 1524

and Jan. 1525) which infuriated Charles. Next year, however, the defeat of the French at Pavia and the capture of Francis forced him again to seek the emperor's protection. In May 1526 he changed sides again, joining the League of Cognac with France, Milan, Florence, and Venice to check Charles's growing power. The inevitable result was the imperial invasion of Italy and the sack of Rome (6 May 1527). Clement took refuge in Castel Sant'Angelo but

had

to surrender,

and

for six

prisoner of Charles's troops.

months was

By agreeing

a to

the occupation of important cities in the state, promising neutrality, and paying huge indemnity, he procured his release on 6 Dec. 1527, but until Oct. 1528 lived away from the devastated city at Orvieto and

papal a

Clement had most of

his

temporal power

restored, but had to remain subservient to

Even so, moved by family and fear of Charles's predominance in Italy, he made a fresh approach to France in 1531, travelling perthe emperor.

I's second son in Oct. 1533, and earning out lengthy discussions with

the king there.

This precarious relationship between pope and emperor prevented an effective rejoinder to Turkish successes in Hungary in 1526 and assisted the spread of the Reformation in Germany. In Jan. 1524 Clement sent Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio (1 472-1 539) to the diet of Nuremberg Charles of support for the edict of

to assure

renew Then,

success

was sealed by Charles's corBologna (24 Feb. 1530: the last imperial coronation by a pope) and by the restoration of Medici rule in Florence. at

niece to Francis

a

timid and vacillating to pursue consistent

among

Turks, then advancing on Vienna; their

sonally to Marseilles to marry his grand-

the

spiritual revolution

action

against the

interests

working, but also indecisive and easily disinterests.

common

Germany and

Worms fact that

(1521) outlawing Luther, but the

Charles was

at

war with the pope

enabled the diet of Speyer (June 1526) to reject the edict and give the reformers a breathing

valuable

space.

Clement's

obliviousness to the needs of the times

came

out particularly in his refusal, despite pressure put on him by Charles and his

own

summon

the

conditional

promises,

to

general council which, even at this stage,

might have taken constructive action. In his handling of Henry Mil's divorce from Catherine of Aragon he displayed the same wavering and procrastination, at first appearing ready to accommodate the king, then under pressure from Catherine's nephew, Charles V, transferring the case to Rome (July 1529), and only on 1 1 July 1533 pronouncing Henry excommunicate (a deferred sentence) and his divorce and remarriage void. The English church now inevitably

moved

into schism.

His efforts

to

prevent the adoption of Lutheranism in

260

PAUL Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, and to check Zwinglianism in Switzerland, proved unavailing; and he had no time for the movements of reform and renewal already

III (1534-49)

Breaking off his liaison with his mistress in 15 13, he reorganized his private after ordination in June tified

1

5

1

9,

life

and,

became iden-

with the reform party in the curia.

Clement

On

was the oldest

was small consolation that, while these losses were taking place in Europe, he was able to

cardinal (67), dean of the sacred college,

preside over the erection of new bishoprics

ness,

Mexico and the spread of Catholicism in South America. A true Medici, Clement was a patron of

two-day conclave.

men

Rome

university,

library,

and exploited the

at

work within the church.

It

in

of letters,

like the historian

Francesco

Guicciardini and the political theorist Niccolo Machiavelli, and of artists, like Cellini,

VII's death he

respected for his experience and shrewd-

A

and was unanimously elected

after a

true Renaissance pope, Paul favoured

artists, writers,

and

and scholars.

architects,

enriched

He

restored

the

Vatican

talents

of painters

Michelangelo,

notably

Raphael, and Michelangelo.

whom

he commissioned the

'Last Judgement' in the Sistine Chapel and

From the last monuments to mem-

bers of his family in the Sagrestia

Nuova of

S. Lorenzo, Florence, and, just before his

he commissioned

complete the

work on the new St

to supervise

The

to

Peter's.

Palazzo Farnese, which he began,

Under him the

death, the 'Last Judgement' in the Sistine

attests his pride in his family.

Chapel.

Vatican resounded with masked balls and

1536 he revived the cardetermined nepotist, he provoked

BullRom VI; H. M. Vaughan, The Medici Popes, Leo

brilliant feasts; in

X and

nival.

Clement III (London, 1908);

St.

Ehses,

'Die Politik des Papstes Clemens VII bis zur

vom

Schlacht

(1886), 553-93;

1175-224 speri);

HJ

Pavia',

P 9 and

4,

10;

DBI

(R. Mols);

Seppelt

6 (1885), 557-603; 7

426

f.;

MC

26,

5;

DHGE

12,

(A. Pro-

237-59

437"53-

A

protests by

he worked hard, often

at the

expense of the

church's interests, to establish the Farnese

among

family

PAUL

naming two grandsons, boys of

14 and 16, cardinals in Dec. 1534 and then promoting them to key offices. Throughout

1534-10 Nov. 1549). Born at Canino on 29 Feb. 1468, descendant of a famous condottiere family with properties around Lake Bolsena and III (13 Oct.

the powerful houses of Italy.

Yet despite these preoccupations his pontificate

marked

a fresh approach to the great

issues agitating Christendom.

Though

not,

Farnese

pope of Catholic reform, Paul sensed the need to meet the

received a polished humanist education at

challenge of Protestantism constructively,

Rome and

and took certain hesitant steps to encourage renewal within the church itself. He therefore placed a general council and reform in the forefront of his programme. Although the council, announced for Mantua in 1537 and for Vicenza in 1538, had to be postponed because of objections from Francis I of France (1515-47) and Emperor Charles V (1519-56), he at once reduced the expense of the sacred college and revitalized it by a series of brilliant

south

of Viterbo,

Alessandro

Florence, was a student at Pisa,

and was made treasurer of the Roman church (1492) and cardinal deacon (1493) by Alexander VI; his nickname was 'cardinal petticoat' because his sister Giulia was the pope's mistress. Although not ordained priest till 151 9, he held many bishoprics and lucrative benefices, combined wide artistic and philosophical interests with diplomatic missions, and kept a noble Roman mistress who bore him three sons and a daughter. Named bishop of Parma by Julius II in

1509,

he

seriously,

took

his

new

nominations, (later

holding a diocesan synod and council

(15 12-17)

mto

Paul

first

including

Giovanni

Carafa

Gasparo Contarini (14831542), Reginald Pole (1500-58), and Marccllo Ccrvini (later March lis II). In 1 536 he set up a commission to examine the

responsibilities

putting the reform decrees of the

Lateran

as often claimed, the

fifth

effect.

261

IV),

JULIUS state

111(1550-5)

of the church; on 9 Mar. 1537 it a plain-spoken, far-reaching

was to alienate England still further. Throughout his reign he sought to observe neutrality between Charles V and Francis I, although regarding France as the natural

submitted

(Consilium

report

emendenda

t

once

set

about

restoring order lo the papal stale, which

Bompiano, Hittoria pontificates Gngorii XIII (Rome, 1655); L. Karttunen, Grtgoirt Mil comme politiacn el WUVerum (Helsinki, 1911); G. 1742);

of regard

out

Franciscan VIII; A. Ciappi,

whom

his unanimous election as successor Gregory at a conclave virtually free from

great-power influence.

in

itself.

BullRom

the

Goti (near Caserta), and in 1570 named him cardinal; he was bishop of Fermo

widespread banditry caused by the disposlatter years serious

of

Franciscans and bishop of Sant'Agata dei

GregOiy had

left

lable banditry.

1

1c

in the grip

of uncontrol-

did so in two

yt are,

using

ruthkssK repressive measures Thousands

alle rela/ioni

271

SIXTUS V (1585-90) of brigands were publicly executed, and the nobles

they

on

relied

mercilessly punished.

economic and

shelter

for

He

were

then turned to

financial reforms.

By regu-

bone

By

cutting expenditure to the

personal

(his

Franciscan), raising

new

taxes, exploiting

the sale of offices, and floating

accumulated

in

were

standards

590) a version so

Franciscans, and declared the Franciscan

and encouraging agriculture and the wool and silk industries, he improved the lot of his subjects. His success in replenishing the papal treasury, left empty by Gregory, was lating food prices, draining marshes,

spectacular.

full of blunders that it had be withdrawn after his death. Cool towards the Jesuits, he was generous to the 1

to

new loans, he

theologian St Bonaventura

In international affairs Sixtus's interests

ranged widely. In visionary moments he dreamed of using his treasure to crush the

Turks and create a Christian state around the Holy Sepulchre. More practically, he helped Kings Stephen Bathory (1576-86) and Sigismund III Vasa (1 587—1 632) to advance Catholicism

Castel Sant'Angelo, in spite

1274) a doc-

(d.

tor of the church.

Poland, induced

in

of enormous expenditure on public works, a

Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy (1580-

sum of over four million scudi, most of them in gold. This made him one of the richest

promised Philip

princes in Europe, and assured him an

unprecedented financial independence. Sixtus's prestige as pope rests on of

reorganization

lasting

the

total

sible,

John

He also remodelled

a

balance

obliged

to maintain

of Catholic powers, but

felt

Philip

the

to

assist

against

Huguenot Henry of Navarre (Henry IV of France, 1589-16 10), whom he excomin

1585. In his

last

months,

however, the prospect of Henry's making

fif-

nephew Alessandro caused

teen-year-old

1588). Distrustful of

Spanish domination, he sought

municated

respon-

although his appointment of his

and

—

XXIII. His

in general

to his realm,

of Spain (1556-98) huge subsidies for the invasion of England but

Armada Qu\y-Aug.

his

church's

On 3

not exceeded until

own nominations were

Geneva II

refused to pay them after the defeat of the

Dec. 1586, by the constitution Postquam verus, he fixed the maximum number of cardinals at seventy, a

central administration.

1630), to attach

a

good

his claim to the

French crown and

the secretariat of

being converted to Catholicism caused him

1588) fifteen permanent congregations of cardinals, six to over-

to resist Philip's demands, even at the risk of open rupture. In the wider world he promoted missionary efforts in Japan, China, the Philippines, and South America. Aptly called 'the iron pope', Sixtus was a splendid patron of building and scholarship

shock.

state, creating (22 Jan.

see secular administration and the rest to

supervise spiritual affairs. This arrange-

ment, which remained broadly unchanged until the Second Vatican Council (1962-5), reduced the importance of the consistory and thereby the claims of the sacred college to co-rule with the pope. Sixtus used his new curial machinery to enforce effectively the decrees of the council of Trent, in particular its prohibition of simony and

pluralism.

A

turning-point in the Catholic

reformation was his re-enactment (20 Dec.

1585)

of the

regularly visit

rule

the

that

bishops

holy see

should

reports on the state of their dioceses. also, in

commission

to

impatient with into his

revise its

the

He

set

up a

Vulgate

but,

compliance with Trent,

progress, took the task

own hands and published

(2

through his constructions

baroque imaginatively remodelled magnificent

up boulevards

May

Rome became

a

he also its layout, opening city;

to link the seven pilgrimage

churches, planting cross-crowned obelisks

on key Felice'.

and building aqueducts to supply, the 'Acqua rebuilt the Lateran palace and

sites,

provide a

and submit

of the Catholic renewal. Largely

in the spirit

new water

He

completed the dome of St Peter's. He also constructed a new, more spacious Vatican

and established the Vatican press, 1587 published an edition of the Septuagint. His end, brought on by successive attacks of malaria, was hastened by library,

which

272

in

GREGORY XIV (1590-1) acrimonious

confrontations,

in

his

The election of such a moderate, earnest,

last

weeks, with the Spanish ambassador over

and

the French kingship. Generally reckoned a

hopes, and such indications of future policy

was execrated by his subjects; on hearing of his death, the Roman mob tore down his statue on the Capitol.

as

experienced

aroused

prelate

high

he was able to give confirmed his generous and reforming aims. Although

great pope, he

robust in health, however, he was struck

down by

malaria on the night following his

BullRom VIII and IX; J. A Santorio, 'Acta consistorialia Sixti \\Analecta iurispontiJiciiXl, 83074 (Rome, Paris, Brussels, 1872); G. Cugnoni,

election and

'Document* chigiani concernenti Felice

sonal fortune, amounting to 30,000 scudi,

Peretti,

V, ASRomana 5 (1882), 1-32; 210-304; 542-89; J. A. de Hiibner, Der eiserne Papst (GerSisto

man

trans., Berlin, 1932); L.

M.

P

Roman

Moroni, Dizionario

5,

URBAN

12 (R. Ciasca);

NCE

14,

GREGORY

XIV

(5

480

f.

(E.

EC 12, 910-

D. McShane).

Dec. 1590-16 Oct. more than two

1591). After a conclave of

to succeed Sixtus V. Born at Rome on 4 Aug. 1521, son of a Genoese nobleman and a Roman mother, he studied at Perugia and Padua, graduated

months, notorious for factional intrigues

Castagna was elected

and brutal intervention by the Spanish government, Cardinal Niccolo Sfondrati, the most generally acceptable on seven, was elected successor to

Bologna, and in 155 1, his uncle, Cardinal Girolamo Verallo,

when

G.

di erudizione storico-ecclesiastico

(Venice, 1857)^01.46,36-41; P 22;

175-209.

VII (15-27 Sept. 1590). Largely through Spanish influence, Giambattista

doctor of laws

girls.

L. Arrighi, Vita Urbani VII (Bologna, 161 4);

V

DTC 14, 2217-38 (A. (G. B. Picotti); NCE 13,

EC 1 1, 780-7 273-5 (D- R- Campbell); Seppelt

his per-

to the provision of dowries for impoverished

21 and 22;

Teetaert);

He bequeathed

Persone, Sisto

Quinto (Florence, 1935); R. Canestrari, Sisto (Turin, 1954);

died before his coronation

could take place.

at

Born

at

its list

of

Urban VII.

Somma, 49 km. from Milan, on

1

France as legate to Henry II (1547— 59), served on his staff. Returning home, he

Feb. 1535, he was a student at Perugia and Padua, graduated doctor of laws at Pavia,

became a high official in the Signatura, the supreme tribunal of the church, and in 1 553 was named archbishop of Rossano, in Calabria. Having served briefly under Paul

and was then ordained. A decisive influence on his life was his friendship with (St)

went

to

IV as governor of the papal

state,

Charles Borromeo (1538-84). When just twenty-five, he was named bishop of

Cremona by Pius

he took an

IV.

Soon

he

after,

562-3) of the council of Trent. In 1564 Pius IV commis-

attended the reconvened council of Trent

him Boncompagni

ism and for the obligation of bishops under

active part in the final

sioned

phase

(1

accompany

to

(1562-3), where he argued against plural-

Cardinal

Gregory XIII) on his He remained as nuncio

divine law to reside in their dioceses.

(later

legation to Spain.

The

council over, he devoted himself assidu-

there until 1572, and at a critical point in the

ously to his diocese, introducing religious to

between Pius V and Philip II (1556-98) was responsible for preventing a complete rupture. Resigning the see of

putting the reform decrees of Trent into

Rossano, he became nuncio

dinal of Sta Cecilia

1573,

such

relations

to Venice in and then governor of Bologna. Gregory XIII appointed him a consultor (expert adviser) of the Holy Office, and on 12 Dec. 1583 promoted him cardinal priest. Sixtus V, whose election he had not supported, appreciated his abilities, confirmed him as governor of Bologna, and used his services on the Inquisition. -

make up operation.

and

for the shortage of clergy,

Gregory

XIII

named him

full

car-

on 12 Dec. 1583. As was given only modest curial responsibilities, but was admired lor his reforming zeal and devotion to (St) Philip Neri (1515-95) and the Oratory. Physical!] weak, weaker still in willpower, and often in pain, Gregory (he took his patron's name) was u| 1 \emplar\ silt he

,

effacing piety, hut almost wholrj

273

without

INNOCENT

IX

(1591)

curial or political experience.

him

led

this

make

to

A7F(Rome,

Awareness of

his

NCE 6,

nephew, 29 -year-old Paolo Emilio Sfondrati, a cardinal (19 Dec. 1590) and entrust him as secretary of state with the conduct of

No more

business.

Paolo

uncle,

power-base

Inclined,

college.

as

threatened by the

still

sent

Avignon

sent a

Protestant

list

II

of those

(1556-98).

as

his

representative

to

and then entrusted business at Parma. Pius IV

560; two years later he took an active part

in the final

(since

him

for four years

him with his made him bishop of Nicastro, in Calabria, in 1

Aug. 1589 Henry IV of France), supported the Spanishbacked Holy League, renewed (1 Mar.

Henry of Navarre

acceptable to King Philip

who

substantial monthly subsidy to the city of Paris,

Gregory XIV. Spanish

of laws in 1544. Moving to Rome, he joined the staff of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese,

a

Gregory abandoned Sixtus V's endeavour to maintain a balance and gave full backing

He

144-6 (R. Ciasca);

Born on 20 July 15 19 at Bologna, where his family had moved from Verona, he studied at the university there and graduated doctor

Milanese, to defer to Spanish interests,

to Spain's aspirations in France.

1

background, but he was on the

and the new direction he gave to papal policy, aroused resentment and complaints sacred

6,

pressure on the conclave was kept in the

All this, especially his handling of

the

EC

(R. L. Foley); Seppelt 5, 210-12.

f.

elected to succeed

a

for himself and placing his rela-

business properly appertaining to the pope

in

D. L. Castano, Gregorio XIV

22;

INNOCENT

important positions in the papal

in

tives state.

781

1);

P

IX (29 Oct.-30 Dec. 1591). Cardinal Giovanni Antonio Fachinetti was

experienced than his

once began building

at

191

(Turin, 1957);

self-seeking

phase of the council of Trent.

From 1566 to 1572, under Pius V and Gregory XIII, he was nuncio in Venice and

591) Sixtus's excommunication of Henry,

negotiated the anti-Turkish league which

declaring him ineligible for the French

resulted in the naval triumph at Lepanto

1

crown, and dispatched a papal army

(Oct.

to

During

his brief reign

scourges

the

to

Inquisition, but named him patriarch of Jerusalem (12 Nov. 1576) and then cardinal (12 Dec. 1583). One of the leading prelates

food

of the day, his election was no surprise, for

Gregory strove of plague,

571). For health reasons he resigned

his diocese in

hastened his conversion. mitigate

1

1575 and returned to Rome, where Gregory XIII not only appointed him to responsible positions in the curia and the

France financed out of Sixtus's painfully accumulated treasure. These measures proved largely ineffective, except that they rallied moderate Catholics to Henry and

shortage, and brigandage which afflicted

he had been a serious candidate

Rome, although the inefficiencies of his nephew contributed to the second. From

conclaves. For the anti-Spanish party his

his

sick-bed he continued the work of

reform,

strictly

residence,

enforcing

episcopal

May

1591) the

defining

(15

ted, a

pro-Spanish policy in France, sup-

porting Philip

forbidding mass to be said in private houses,

against the

for the revision of Sixtus V's

defective Vulgate.

He

also

banned

(21

previous

age and fragile health presaged a short reign which would give them a breathing-space. Like Gregory XIV, he followed, as expec-

qualifications of candidates for bishoprics,

and arranging

at

still

II

and the Holy League Henry IV (1589-

Protestant

16 10), but with characteristic thriftiness

Mar.

drastically

Even

reduced his financial subsidies. successes of Henry compelled

591) all betting on papal elections, the length of a pontificate, or the creation of

him, shortly before his death, to allocate

cardinals.

36,000 ducats

1

A. B. Ciaconius, Vitae

et res

Romanorum (Rome, 1601 and Gregorio

XIV (in

Venice, 1685);

gestae sutnm. pontif.

1602); A. Cicarelli,

continuations of B. Platina,

M.

e.g.

Facini, II pontificate di Gregorio

so, the

to the papal

army which was

attempting to raise the siege of Rouen.

Concerned to put the papal finances on a sound basis, he revealed in consistory (3 Nov. 1 591) his plan to establish, like Sixtus

274

CLEMENT VIII (1592-1605) V, a substantial reserve in Castel Sant'-

Angelo for use in emergencies, and on 4 Nov. he renewed, in stricter terms, Pius V's ban on the alienation of church property. One of his first acts was to divide the work of the secretariat of state into three sections,

one

for

France and Poland, one for Italy and

He

Spain, and one for Germany.

took steps

around Rome, to reguthe course of the Tiber, and to improve

to repress banditry late

sanitary conditions in the Borgo.

Dec. he

fell

ill,

On

18

but insisted on making a

dangerous dispute between King Sigismund III Vasa (1 587-1632) and the house of Habsburg. He was seriously considered at the three conclaves of 15 90/1, and although not the Spanish favourite had enough Spanish support to be elected to succeed Innocent IX. As pope Clement VIII mirrored the ideals of Catholic reform. Not only was he a settled a

worker, conscientiously attentive to

tireless

detail

even when confined to bed by gout,

but his piety and austerity were transparent.

pilgrimage to the seven churches; as a result

He

and died within a few days. A scholarly man, he had written on Aristode's Politics and other subjects; but these works have never been published.

confession with exemplary frequency, and

he caught a

chill

A. Cicarelli, Vita Innocentii

DC (in

continuation of

B. Platina); A. B. Ciaconius, Vitae

et

res gestae

sumtn. pontif. Romanorutn (Rome, 1601 and 1602); BullRom XIX; P 22; EC 7, 19 (P. Brezzi); NCE 7,

527

f.

(R. L. Foley).

CLEMENT

VIII (30 Jan. 1592-5 Mar. at Fano on 24 Feb. 1536, Ippolito Aldobrandini was son of a noted 1605).

Born

Florentine barrister

whom

hostility to the

Medici had driven from Florence. The generosity of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese enabled him to study law

and Bologna.

at

Padua, Perugia,

He was then taken up by Pius

V, the protector of his family,

him

who

appoin-

fasted, meditated, said mass,

went on

foot every

month

made

his

to the pilgrimage

churches. Philip Neri was his intimate, and

Cesare Baronius historian

Among

and

(1

538-1 607), the church

Oratorian,

his

confessor.

promoted was the saindy Jesuit theologian Robert Bellarmine (1 542-1 621). Against this, he was indecisive, prone to put off business, and driven by painful illness to be forever changing his abode. This put a heavy burden on the papal finances (his household cost four times as

much

the cardinals he

as Sixtus V's), as did his love for

and his excessive generosity Although as cardinal he had

brilliant display

to his family.

nepotism, he promoted his nephews Cinzio and Pietro Aldobrandini to the purple in autumn 1 593 and surrendered

criticized

the conduct of affairs almost entirely to

later

them. Other relations basked in his favour,

(1569) auditor of the *Rota or supreme tribunal. In 157 1/2 he accompanied the

and he so doted on a fourteen-year-old grand-nephew that he made him a cardinal. Although the movement of renewal was beginning to flag, Clement continued the

ted

consistorial

pope's nephew,

advocate and

Cardinal

Bonelli,

on

a

diplomatic mission to Spain and France

which,

him

though

to the

Gregory

unsuccessful,

wider

introduced

task of applying the decrees of the council of

Under

Trent. In a series of measures he promoted

political world.

XIII he was in the shade, but in

1580 was ordained priest, probably through the influence of (St) Philip Neri (1515-95). His promotion was rapid under Sixtus V, who in 1585 made him datary, i.e. head of the department responsible for appointments reserved to the holy see (15 May), and then cardinal priest (18 Dec). After serving as grand penitentiary in 1586, he earned diplomatic laurels as legate to Poland in 1588/9, when he satisfactorily

late

the reform of religious houses. In 1592 he

published

version

corrected

a

(the

'Clementine edition') of Sixtus V's defective Vulgate (1590) which remained authoritative until the 20th cent. He then issued revised versions of the principal liturgical

books: the pontifical (1596), the breviary (1602), and the missal (1604).

enlarged Index, including books, came out ible political

275

in

a

A

stricter,

ban on Jewish

1590; but iear

ol

poss

repercussions prevented him

LEO

XI

(1605)

would

return

from bringing out a collection of decretals supplementing that issued by Clement V.

Britain

He

sharpened the severity of the Inquisiwhich in his reign sent more than thirty' heretics (including the ex-Dominican phil-

interest

tion,

In Sweden, too, his

osopher Giordano Bruno: 15 48- 1600) to the stake. Both his concern for orthodoxy and his indecision were attested by the

Sigismund

to

Catholicism,

nourished by Machiavellian professions of

by James VI and

I,

proved

dream of

illusory.

a Catholic

when the Catholic who succeeded to

restoration collapsed

of Poland,

III

from 1595 to 1605 to the dispute between Jesuits and Dominicans over the theory of Luis de Molina (1 535-1600) concerning grace, free will, and God's

was defeated by his of Sodermanland (Charles IX: 1 604-11) in 1598 and deposed. Clement left the papacy stronger and more independent than he had inherited it. To reinforce its freedom of action he took

foreknowledge.

steps to reduce Spanish influence, hitherto

the throne in 1593,

Protestant uncle,

attention he devoted, without reaching absolution,

In the political sphere

momentous and long

Clement took the

disproportionate, in the sacred college. jubilee of 1600,

decision, with heart-searching

hesitation, to recognize

I

Duke Charles

Rome

pilgrims to

lenry IV,

The

which brought millions of (80,000 witnessed his

since 1593 a Catholic, as king of France

opening of the Holy Door, or Porta

(1589-16 10) and to absolve him (17 Sept. from Sixtus Vs excommunication. 1 595) This entailed his reluctant acceptance of the Edict of Nantes (13 Apr. 1598) allowing the Huguenots religious freedom, civil equality, and other rights. The papacy, however, was freed from Spanish domination, and Clement was responsible for the

St Peter's on 31 Dec. 1599) bore brilliant testimony to the rejuvenated papacy of the

peace of Vervins negotiated in 1598 between France and Spain. With Henry's help, moreover, he was able to secure in 1597, in the face of Spanish and imperial opposition, the reversion of the duchy of Ferrara to the holy see on the failure of the Este dynasty. On 23 Dec. 1595 he endorsed proposals, subsequently accepted by the

synod of Brest-Litovsk (6-10 Oct. 1596),

under which some millions of Orthodox Christians in Poland joined the Roman church with permission to retain their liturgy. His appointment of Francis de Sales co-adjutor bishop of as (1 567-1 622)

Geneva

1599 (bishop in 1602) gave a notable fillip to the Counter-Reformation in Switzerland. To offset these successes he failed,

in

in

spite

of persistent

efforts,

to

organize an effective coalition of Christian

powers

against

Hungary and

the

Austria.

Turks threatening In England he was

598-1 602) in controversy over the archpriest George Blackwell whom he had appointed in 1598; his hopes that involved

(1

santa, at

Counter-Reformation. BullRom IX, X, XI;

van Isacker, 'Notes sur

P.

Clement VIII en France du xvi siecle', RHE 12 (191 1), 702-13; P 23 and 24; DBI 26, 259-82 (A. Borromeo); DHGE 12, 1240-97 (R. Mols); EC 3, 1827-30 l'intervention militaire de a

c

la fin

XCE

(G. Soranzo);

933

3,

f.

(J-

C. Willke);

Seppelts, 213-43.

LEO

XI

Florence

(1-27

on

Apr.

1605).

Born

at

June 1535, Alessandro Ottaviano de' Medici belonged to a collateral branch of the ruling Florentine family and through his mother Francesca Salviati was a nephew of Leo X. Deflected from ordination by his mother while she was alive,

2

he served for fifteen years as Grand

Duke Cosimo

I's ambassador where he became the favourite

in

Rome,

disciple of

(St) Philip Neri (1 5 15-95). The impression he created was so favourable that Gregory

him bishop of Pistoia in 1573, archbishop of Florence in 1574, and cardinal in 1583. A deeply religious man who

XIII created

had close relations with the Dominicans of S. Marco, he was active in introducing the Tridentine reforms into his dioceses; he also spent lavishly on restoring Roman churches and, Medici.

276

He

later,

helped

on acquiring the to

persuade

Villa

Clement

PAUL V (1605-21) VIII to absolve

Henry IV of France (1589-

16 10) from excommunication, being him-

France in Apr. 1596 and remaining there for two years. As legate he worked hard to restore church discipline, which had broken down during the religious wars, but was unable to get Henry to have the decrees of the council of Trent published in France as he had promised. He was in charge of the negotiations which led to the peace of Vervins between France and Spain (2 May 1598). In 1600 he became cardinal bishop of Albano, in 1602 of Palestrina. With strong support from self appointed legate in

The

of Paul's policy was between France and Spain, but he held views on the pope's supremacy which were outmoded in Catholic, not to say Protestant, countries. This brought him at once into collision with Italian states over the church's prerogatives. Savoy, Genoa, even Naples gave way, but Venice stood keynote

neutrality

firm: having forbidden the erection

of new

churches and the acquisition of land by the church without permission, it was now bringing two clerics to

trial in

courts. Paul protested (10

Mar.

1

when

606) and,

the secular

Dec. 1605 and 26

the republic held

its

senate and

France, but in the teeth of Spanish opposi-

ground, excommunicated

tion,

he was elected to succeed Clement and adopted his uncle's name. While generally welcomed, the new pope was elderly and frail in health. He caught a

placed the

VIII,

1606). Venice declared the interdict invalid;

chill

while taking possession of the Lateran

city

most of die those

who

under an

its

interdict (17 Apr.

local clergy flouted

observed

were expelled.

A

it,

while

notably the Jesuits,

it,

vigorous pamphlet war

and died before the month was out. He had no time to initiate a policy, but it is known

ensued, with the Servite theologian Fra

that he arranged to send generous aid to

the republic's case, and Cardinals Bel-

Emperor Rudolf II (1576-16 12)

larmine (1542-1621) and Baronius (1538—

in his

war

Paolo Sarpi

(1

552-1623)

against the Turks, settled (10 Apr.) an awk-

1607) the pope's.

ward dispute between the clergy of Castile and Leon and the Jesuit order, appointed a commission to reform the system of voting in conclave, and gratified the Roman people by abolishing some onerous taxes.

to Protestantism,

became

The

brilliantly

arguing

defection of Venice

even a European war,

possibilities,

but through the medi-

was at last was absolved from

ation of France a settlement

agreed and the

city

The

ecclesiastical censures (21 Apr. 1607).

incident was a moral defeat for Paul, for

BullRom XI; V. Martin, 'Le reprise des diplomatiques entre

5,

22

f.;

France

et le

relations

St-Siege en

(1922), z^-j--jo y DTCg, 332

i$95\RevSR 2 Mollat);£C7,

la

1

155 (G. B.

Pieotti);

P

f.

(G.

25; Seppelt

although the imprisoned clergy were set free,

he

failed to obtain full satisfaction

the republic,

much

less its

the principle at stake.

241-3.

The Jesuits remained

excluded from Venetian dicts

PAUL V Born

at

(16 May 1605-28 Jan. 1621). Rome on 17 Sept. 1552, Camillo

had been shown

After this sobering experience Paul was

more cautious

in his efforts to preserve for

others

ing at Perugia and Padua and graduating

England urging him not

of laws,

he

held

progressively

important offices in the curia, and after a

was created of Rome and

in

1596,

inquisitor in 1603.

1605);

had

it

lost. I le

held and to recover

wrote to James

I

of

make Catholics for the Gunpowder Plot (5 Nov. but when Parliament required of to

election to

divided English Catholics, for their arch-

succeed

XI,

hardly

Lko known

to the outside world, resulted

from

compromise between

a

suffer

it

only fifty-two and

vicar

H» s surprise

when

the church positions

them an oath denying the pope's right to depose princes, he denounced it and forbade them to take it (1606 and 1607). This

successful mission to Spain cardinal

and interbe paper weapons.

territory,

to

Borghese came of Sienese stock, his father being a noted professor of law. After studydoctor

from

abandonment of

rival factions.

pricst,

George Hlackwcll, advised them

swear the oath; he was replaced

277

in

to

1608. In

GREGORY XV (1621-3) France Paul's condemnation of *Gallicanism (1613) provoked the states-general in Oct. 1614 to declare that the king held his crown from God alone. Through his

(1

564-1 642)

Copernican

for teaching the

theory of the solar system, and suspended

through the Congregation of the Index Copernicus's treatise Paul had a

nuncios, however, he secured the with-

lively

'until corrected'.

concern

for

Rome

and,

and

drawal of the claim, as well as the dismissal

as well as completing the nave, faqade,

Edmond Richer, dean of the Sorbonne, who had written (161 1) against papal

portico of St Peter's, restored the aqueduct

pretensions. Although the states-general of

used

161 4 15 refused to authorize the promul-

tains

gation of the decrees of the council of Trent

scholars in his debt by forming the collec-

of

in

France, Paul was greatly gratified

of Trajan and, renaming

when

'Acqua Paola',

it

water to numerous foun-

to supply

it

throughout

the

city.

He

of secret Vatican archives.

tion

placed

I

le

was

the French clergy, taking their courage in

unstinting in his solicitude for his relatives,

their hands, voted (7 July 1615) their publi-

and

cation in provincial councils.

the

of the

outbreak

I

Thirty

lis

(a legalist,

suspected

of

he did not wish

violating

the

to

peace

vast

build the Villa Borghese.

be

Paul suffered a stroke during the proces-

of

sion to celebrate the defeat of the elector

Augsburg of 555), he gave substantial subEmperor Ferdinand II and the League from 1620 onwards. Religious reform was close to Paul's heart, and he renewed (19 Oct. 1605),

V

Frederick

1

(1

596-1632), the short-lived Bohemia, in the battle of

Calvinist king of

sidies to

Mountain near Prague on 8 Nov.

the White 1

620, and died of a second one shortly

BullRom XI, XII; A. Bzowski, Paulus

without allowing any exceptions, the obliga-

after.

V Papa

(Rome, 1626); C. P. Goujet, Histoire du pontificat V (Amsterdam, 1765); C. P. de Magistris, Per la storia del compommento delta contesa tra la Rep. Veneia e Paolo V, 1605-1607 (Turin, 1941); P 25 and 2b,DTC 12, 23-37 (L. Marchal);£C'9, 738— de Paul

tion of episcopal residence, published (20

June 61 4) the revised Rituale Romanum, and tightened discipline in the religious 1

He approved (24 Feb. 1612) the Congregation of the Oratory founded by orders.

Philip Neri,

The

influence.

(1618-48) in Germany, and while initially hesitant about supporting the Catholic

League

death the Borghese family rivalled

the Orsini and the

War

Years

at his

Colonna in wealth and income enjoyed by his nephew, Cardinal Scipioni, enabled him to

reign saw

41 (G. B. Picotti);

Seppelt

and the French Oratory of May 161 3); he also Nov. 1610) Charles Borromeo and Frances of Rome

5,

NCE

11, 16 (T. F. Casey);

248-68.

Pierre de Berulle (10

canonized

(1

(1538-84) (Francesca beatified

Francis

Romana:

(9

at Bologna on 9 Jan. 1554, studied liberal arts at the Roman College under the Jesuits (1569-71), and

(1515-95), and Teresa of Avila (1515-82). He encouraged missions, approving (27

graduated doctor of laws

June

curia

1

1575.

61 5) the use of the vernacular in the

liturgy in China.

He

indefinitely

postponed

(28 Aug. 1607) the debate on Molinism

itself,

posts,

Benevento.

in

to use his talents.

He was

and took part in delicate e.g. to Poland and to

Nominated

archbishop

of

Bologna in 161 2, he negotiated peace between Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy (1 580-1630) and Philip III of Spain (1598-

of human co-operation with it), which had preoccupied Clement VIII, declaring it not

on the other hand, he Mar. 161 6) Galileo Galilei

Bologna

diplomatic missions,

but in the divine foreknowledge

ripe for a decision;

1

censured

recognition

(5

at

then took holy orders, and the

was quick

judicial

its

foundation, not in the substance of the

grace

He

given a series of increasingly responsible

(i.e.

the doctrine that the efficacy of grace has

162 1-8 July

Feb.

Son of Count Pompeio, Alessandro

1623).

Ludovisi was born

1384-1440), and Loyola (1 491-1556), (1506-52), Philip Neri

Ignatius

Xavier

GREGORY XV

278

621) in 161 6, receiving a cardinal's hat in (19

Sept.).

Largely through

GREGORY XV (1621-3) lobbying by Cardinal Borghese,

Paul

V's

nephew, he was elected by acclaim as his successor. Already sixty-seven and frail in health, but beloved for his kindness, he needed an energetic collaborator and immediately found one in his 25 -year-old nephew Ludovico Ludovisi, whom he made a cardinal. This brilliant, fastidious young man had all the necessary drive, imaginative versatility, and cool courage, and the chief credit for Gregory's achievements belongs to him. In return his uncle heaped honours and riches on him; the latter he used to aggrandize himself and to build churches, villas, and art galleries, as well as to promote charities.

The

first

Jesuit-trained pope, Gregory,

and Ludovico equally, strove not only to continue the inner renewal of the church but to regain ground it had lost. Two of his measures in the strictly church sphere were of exceptional significance. First, to meet widespread criticism of papal elections and the influences brought to bear on them, he reorganized their procedure in minutest detail,

decreeing {Aeterni patris

filius:

15

Nov. 1 62 1, and Decet Romanum pontificem: 12 Mar. 1622) that, while acclaim should not be excluded, elections should normally

their hierarchies.

thus developed into the

It

headquarters of the Counter-Reformation. In the political world Gregory

went over

when sending Bishop Carlo

to the offensive:

Carafa as nuncio to the imperial court, he commissioned him to win over the emperor and the Catholic princes to active support of Catholic restoration.

The

papacy, as he saw

was

it,

objective of the

promote and

to

among the Catholic powers. assist Emperor Ferdinand II

maintain unity

Thus

to

(1619-37) and the Catholic League exploit

to

over the Protestant

their victory

Frederick V (1 596-1 632) near Prague on 8 Nov. 1620, he provided massive financial subsidies; while Carafa saw to it Protestantism was crushed and that elector

Catholicism reimposed in Bohemia. Again

through Carafa, aided by the Capuchin

Hyacinth of Casale, he contrived that the dignity

of Elector

Palatine,

by

vacated

Frederick V, was transferred (Feb. 1623) to

Maximilian

he saw

I

as a

Catholicism

of Bavaria (1573-165 1). This triumph for the church, for

now had

among

a majority

the

In return a grateful

five Palatine electors.

Maximilian presented him with the library of Heidelberg, with scripts.

its

manu-

precious

Meanwhile he pressed

Philip III of

take place after the closure of the conclave,

Spain to break the twelve years' truce

and

Netherlands. In France he encouraged the

that voting should be

ballot.

The

centuries

by secret written

revised system, although

eliminate

to

outside

it

took

political

in the

anti-Calvinist policies of the government,

and showed

his satisfaction at

its

successes

pressures entirely, has remained virtually

by

unaltered. Secondly, in order to provide the

metropolitan see. In the strategic territory of

church with a supreme central authority

the Valtellina, disputed between France and

whole

covering

the

founded

(6 Jan.

mission

field,

he

1622) the Sacred Congre-

erecting

Paris

1622)

(Oct.

into

a

Spain, he got himself accepted as arbiter

and

occupied

the

territory

papal

with

war between the

gation for the Propagation of the Faith; on

troops, thereby preventing

22 June he signed the bull Inscrutabili it. Thirteen cardinals were

two powers and safeguarding the faith of the Catholic inhabitants. In England he was prepared to sanction a marriage (which in

instituting

assigned to

it;

its

guiding idea was that, as

universal shepherd of souls, the pope had an

fact

overriding responsibility

Charles, heir ofJames

ordinating missionary enterprise not only in

between Prince and later Charles I, and the Infanta Maria of Spain in return for the promise of a substantial softening of the

heathen

penal

the faith.

It

was

lands,

to

for

be the organ for cosupervised

hitherto

Catholic sovereigns (whose it

propagating

now encountered), but

by

lively resistance

lost

laws

took

place) I

against

James's

Catholic

subjects.

also in countries

which had become Protestant and had

never

(

iregory's short reign

cance 270.

(or

the

was

Catholic

of great signifi-

revival.

It

was

URBAN VIII

(1623-44)

appropriate that, at a sumptuous ceremony on 12 Mar. 1622, he canonized several of its heroes: Teresa of Avila (1515-82), Ignatius Loyola (1 491 -1556), Philip Neri (1515— 95), and Francis Xavier (1506-52), one of

XV, ASRomana 50

Gregorio

'II

conclave

XV

NCE

262-75.

6,

782

f.

Rome,

of

War

(M. L. Shay); P 27;

sympathy

elected, by

neutrality

he

50 out of 55 possible votes, to succeed Gregory XV. Born at Florence in 1 568 (baptized 5 Apr.), of a rich commercial family long established in the city, he went to school with the Jesuits there, was a at

Rome, graduated doctor of laws

for

France and antipathy to Spain,

maintain an uneasy to between the contestants, con-

struggled

scious of his role as the

the restoration of peace. Yet because of his

now

working

1604. For his sen ices

in

Paul V

Spoleto in

1

608, legate of Bologna in

and prefect of the Signatura

1

61

in 16 17.

Authoritarian, keenly conscious of his

Urban kept business

position,

in his

own

hands and rarely discussed it with his cardinals. Ambassadors commented on his diplomatic grasp and assurance. A literary connoisseur and owner of a fine library, he composed and published well-constructed, Latin verses.

if florid,

he made dinals,

a brother

advanced

enriched them age he

felt

all

A

and two nephews carother brothers, and

so exorbitandy that in old

conscience-stricken and con-

beautifying

He

himself spent lavishly on

Rome, and on 18 Nov. 1626 new St Peter's. He was also

consecrated the

concerned

for the security of the city

and

was too

it

late the

given

to

(1619-37), supported the French candidate in the war of

Mantuan

the

to

II

succession,

and,

although

prevent the alliance of France

and Protestant Sweden

in

1631, took no

effective action against Richelieu until

became

apparent.

its

When

France's open entry into the war in 1635 to make concessions

compelled Ferdinand

to the Protestants in the

May

1635),

he

peace of Prague (30

blamed

severely

the

emperor, but merely admonished the cardinal to keep the peace;

it

was evident

that,

while posing as neutral, he was actually

backing France.

The news

of Gustavus's

63 2) was the signal for thanksgiving masses in Rome, but the death

reckless nepotist,

until

predecessor had

Emperor Ferdinand

in battle (16

Nov.

1

outcome of Urban's one-sided neutrality was to bring the Counter-Reformation in the empire to a close.

Although overshadowed by

sulted theologians on his use of the papal

revenues.

his

consequences

1

father of

to intervene for

profound fear of Habsburg domination in Italy, his policy was effectively pro-French. subsidies

appointed him cardinal in 1606, bishop of

common

Christendom with the duty

Thus he withheld

nuncio

in

unconcealed

of his

spite

and then, helped by an uncle apostolic, launched on a successful career in the curia. Sent to France as envoy extraordinary to Henry IV (1589-16 10) in 1 60 1, he was back there, as

Protestantism

reinforced In

who was protonotary

archbishop of Nazareth,

when Cardinal

(1618-48),

at Pisa (1 589),

titular

retreats,

(1

Germany.

1623-29 July 1644).

After a long (19 July—6 Aug.), sweltering, contentious conclave Maffeo Barberini was

student

summer

for

585-1642) was aiming at French hegemony in Europe and the victories of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden Richelieu

(161 1-32)

URBAN Mil (6 Aug.

He

Urban's reign coincided with the Thirty Years

1

5,

made

with cannon

it

of bronze ripped from the Pantheon.

entertaining scholars there.

(Munich, i9 5 6);D7TC6, 1815-22 (P. Moncelle); EC 6, 1 46-8 (R. Ciasca); LThK 4, 1190 (D. Seppelt

Civitavecchia, strengthening Castel Sant'-

Angelo, and equipping

east

di

(1927), 5-32; D.

Albrecht, Die deutsche Polittk Papst Gregors

Albrecht);

on the

chose Castel Gandolfo, some 25 km. south-

the greatest of Christian missionaries.

BullRom XII, XIII; G. Gabriele,

the papal state, building Castelfranco

northern frontier, fortifying the port of

his political

involvement, Urban's ecclesiastical activities

deserve note.

He took a personal part in

revising the breviary (163

of the hymns himself.

280

1),

He

rewriting

many

settled (1625,

INNOCENT X (1644-55) confirmed 1634) the canonical procedures for canonization and beatification, and gave its final

form

prescribed

to the bull *In coena

Thursday and subject

reading

for

offenders

listing specified

He

excommunication.

to

Domini,

Maundy

on

gave

strong support to missions, founding (1627)

Urbano

the Collegio

for training mission-

up a polyglot printing

aries, setting

and dispatching missionaries East.

He

sanctioned

new

press,

Vatican Library, Coll. Barberini);

W. N. Weech,

Urban VIII (London, 1905); A. Leman, Urbain VIII et la rwalite de la France et de la Maison de I'Autrichede 163 1 a 1635 (Lille, 1920); A. Kraus, 'Das papstliche Staatsekretariat unter Urban VII I',

RQ

Supplementheft 29, 1964; J. Grisar, und Kirchenrecht

Papstliche Finanzen, Nepotismus

unter Urban VIII

EC

912-16

(V.

(Rome, 1943); P 28 and 29; Ciasca); NCE 14, 482 f. Ponko); Seppelt 5, 274-306. 12,

(R.

the Far

to

religious orders

such as the Visitation (1626) and the Lazarists (1632) of St Vincent de Paul (c. 1580-

INNOCENT X 1655).

Born

(15

1644-1 Jan.

Sept.

Rome on

in

Giambattista Pamfili studied

7

May

at the

1574,

Roman

To comply with the decrees of Trent

College with help from an uncle, graduated

he insisted (1634) that bishops, including cardinals, should reside in their dioceses.

doctor of laws, and entered on a legal career

Under him Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), for years a personal friend, was condemned for

1604-21, he served as nuncio in Naples, and in 1625 accompanied Urban VIH's

the second time and under threat of torture

nephew Francesco Barberini on his legation

1660).

June

in the curia. After being a judge of the

France and Spain.

1633) to abjure the Copernican system, while in the bull In

Francesco,

eminenti (1642: published June 1643) Cor-

nuncio

forced

(22

nelius Jansen's

censured

(1

585-1638) Augustinus was

in general terms.

The

debate thus

famous synthesis of St Augustine's (354-430) extremer views on grace and predestination was to agitate the church for generations. Although he was deeply concerned for the integrity of the papal state, Urban's sole success here was his incorporation in it of Urbino (1625-31) as a result of the last sparked off by

this

to

to

He

Urban

for

*Rota

impressed

clearly

him

appointed

Spain in 1626 and cardinal

in

Aug. 1627 {in petto: he announced the creation in Nov. 1629). His election, after a 37day conclave, represented

Urban's pro-French

a reaction against

tendencies;

was

it

opposed by the French court, but Cardinal Jules Mazarin's (1602-61) veto arrived too late.

An

old man, taciturn and mistrustful,

slow in reaching decisions, Innocent

at

once

turned on the Barberini, Urban VIH's hated

up

64 1-4), egged on by the greed of his nephews, he allowed himself to be

a commission to inquire had amassed and meanwhile sequestering their possessions. Only

involved in a war over the papal fief of

the threats of Mazarin, the all-powerful

duke's renunciation of his ing years

title.

In his clos-

( 1

relatives, setting

into the riches they

and in a league comprising Venice, Tuscany, and Modena, and the outcome was the pope's humiliating defeat. The

French minister who took them under his him to pardon them. Innocent himself, however, was not immune from nepotism, although none of the kinsmen he loaded with offices, wealth, and favours had the ability to fill the role of

petty war, however, led to devastation and

cardinal

was

nephew,

Castro

on

the

pretext

that

its

holder,

Odoardo Farnese, had defaulted on his debts. Odoardo found support in France

protection, induced

nephew

(as the relative, usually a

whom

already cruelly oppressed by his prodigal

popes from PAUL III until the late 17th cent, tended to employ as their closest collaborator was designated). Much

extravagance, broke into riotous jubilation

more powerful mu\

crippled finances for the papal state. little

at the

wonder

that

the

Roman

It

populace,

Donna Olimpia

news of his death.

BullRom XIII-XV; A. Nicolcni, Vita Urbano VIII: Storta del suo punlifuaUi

Ji

a

suggestion

in

281

that

their

was

sister-in-

law of insatiable ambition and rapacity.

Papa

(MS

Sinister bl his court

Maulalchini,

relationship

The vsas

INNOCENT X (1644-55) strengthened

immoral was mischievous gossip, but her dominance was such that Innocent took no

in non-Christian countries,

important decision without consulting her.

ganda,

But he did not use her son, Cardinal Camillo Pamfili, as secretary of state. This post he gave to Cardinal Panciroli and then, after 1651, to Fabio Chigi (later Alexander VII), who was the first of the

Ravenna, and raised the Dominican Col-

recognized secretaries of state with

the powers of the Congregation of Propa-

founded

Maronite

a

college

at

lege at Manila, in the Philippines, to univer-

He

sity status.

took a stand in the keen

debate on the propriety of adapting certain traditional

whom

field,

nuncios and legates corresponded directly and who themselves signed letters and

Chinese

mission

rituals in the

approving a decree of the Propaganda

condemning

(12 Sept. 1645)

the practice.

Much the

most momentous issue, however, on which he had to pronounce was Jansen-

instructions.

Innocent confirmed Chigi as representa-

ism,

the

of

presentation

extremist

St

the congress for ending

Augustine's teaching on grace and free will

War (1618-48) meeting at Munster. Like Chigi, he bitterly opposed

set out in Cornelius Jansen's *Augustinus

the far-reaching concessions to Protestant-

he

ism which Emperor Ferdinand

examine

tive

of the curia

at

the Thirty Years

III

(published 1640

(1637-

appointed

57) and Elector Maximilian I of Bavaria unavoidable deemed and (1623-51)

this

included

the bull

in the

its

peace of Westphalia (24

it

commission

to

propositions extracted from

work, and himself took part in several of

sessions;

on 31

Cum

May

1653 he published con-

occasione unconditionally

the five propositions. Jansen's supporters, led by Antoine Arnauld (161 2-

26

Nov. 1648, he delayed publication until 20 Aug. 1650 so as not to aggravate the position of Catholics in Germany. His protest was brushed aside and had no practical effect. In spite of the peace, war dragged on between France and Spain and Innocent tried to hold a balance between them, although predisposed in favour of Spain which he judged less of a threat to the church and Italy. Portugal having broken away from Spain in 1640, he declined formally to condemn the revolt, as Spain desired, but also

94), reacted by accepting the

condemnation

of the propositions, but denying that they

were

be found

to

in Augustinus; they dis-

tinguished between the church's in matters of doctrine

before

matters

between

'droit'

and

of fact

and

'fait').

its

infallibility

duty of silence distinction

(the

Shortly before his

death Innocent, whose anti-Jansenist

agreed

with

the

French

line

government's

policy, explained that in the five proposi-

tions as

Braganza (1640-56) as king, or to fill vacant sees with his nominees. Again, when Naples revolted against Spain in 1647 and the

he had condemned Jansen's teaching

found

in Augustinus.

A combination of straitened

refused (1648) to recognize John IV of

French ambassador urged him

Louvain). In Apr. 1651 special

demning

Oct. 1648), and denounced them in the brief Zelus domus Dei; although dating

five

at

a

thrift

ing

finances and

prevented Innocent from embellish-

Rome on

the scale of his predecessors,

but under him the interior decoration of St

have a declin-

Peter's was completed, the Piazza Navona was restored to its ancient form as a stadium and adorned with its fountains, and the sumptuous Villa Doria Pamfili was erected before the Porta San Pancrazio. He also

ing power like Spain installed in Naples

reorganized the prisons of the papal state

to seize the

opportunity, as feudal lord, of incorporating the

kingdom

to

temporize and see the restoration of

Spanish than to

in the papal state,

rule;

let

it

was better

to

France gain

a

he preferred

foothold.

He

along more

granted financial aid to Venice and Poland in their struggle against the Turks, but

not enough

money

to assist

Ferdinand

Innocent gave strong backing

humane

lines.

A

strangely

perceptive portrait of him, by Velazquez

had

(1650), can be seen in the Galleria Doria.

III.

to missions

BullRom XV; A. Tauretto,

282

Vita (Bologna,

1

674);

I.

ALEXANDER VII Ciampi, Innocenzo

W.

1878);

X Pamfili e la sua

corte (Imola,

Friedensburg, 'Regesten zur deuts-

chen Geschichte aus der Zeit des Innocenz'X',

QFIAB 4

Pontifikats

(1902), 236-85; 5 (1903),

60-124, 207-22; 6 (1904), 146-73; 7 (1905), 1 21-38; N.J. Abercrombie, The Origins ofJansen(Oxford,

ism

Mazarin

1648

H.

1936);

LThK 5

,

P

692

1667).

Born

at

7,

VII

f.

302-22.

May

began mixRome in Dec.

at the university there,

1626, and in 1628 entered the papal service.

He

served as vice-legate in Ferrara 1629-

34, returning to

being ordained

Nardo

Rome

in the latter year

priest.

Named

and

bishop of

1635, he was sent to

(Puglia) in

Malta as inquisitor and apostolic delegate. His reputation, however, rested mainly on his service as nuncio in Cologne 1639-51; in this capacity he represented the pope at the negotiations leading to the peace of Westphalia (1648). Throughout he firmly refused

to

enter

into

discussions

with

and when the treaties were concluded protested vehemently against provisions he considered injurious to Catholic-

heretics,

ism.

In

1

65

1

Innocent

secretary of state,

bishop of Imola.

A

spiritual interests,

and

in

administering

papal

the

was

state,

limited.

Even more

inability,

because of their personal

damaging was

his

hostility,

X

to establish

sheltered Cardinal de Retz, his bete and rival who had escaped from France in 1654, Mazarin took his revenge by lending French support to claims of the Farnese and Este families on papal territories, and by excluding Alexander from noire

Siena on 13 Feb. 1599,

ing in intellectual circles at

The

Rome

X 1644-

Fabio Chigi studied philosophy, law, and theology

estates.

NCE 7, 528

Etude sur

Apr. 1655-22

(7

and

19-22 (G. B.

(B. Sutter);

S. Brusher); Seppelt 5,

ALEXANDER

EC

30;

f.

offices, palaces,

influence he allowed them, however, except

good relations with Cardinal Mazarin and, after his death, with Louis XIV of France (1643-17 15). Because

Couville,

dbneles avec le pape Innocent

(Paris, 1914);

Pkoni); (J.

et ses

them with

(1655-67)

made him

1652 cardinal and career diplomat with rich in

he was chosen,

after

eighty-day conclave and in spite of

an

initial

(only grudgingly withdrawn) from the powerful French minister and

opposition

cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602-61), as Inno-

cent X's successor.

any

in the peace of the Nov. 1659) between France and Spain. After Mazarin's death Louis XIV, on the pretext that the immunity of his embassy in Rome had been infringed and

participation

Pyrenees

(7

endangered by Corsiwithdrew the ambassador, expelled the nuncio in Paris, occupied the papal enclaves of Avignon and Venaissin, and threatened to invade the papal state. Since Alexander was without allies, he had no option but to proffer abject apologies and accept the humiliating condihis ambassador's

can troops

life

in the papal service,

tions of the treaty of Pisa (12 Feb. 1664),

including the

pyramid guilt.

in

requirement

Rome

He had

to

set

up

a

admitting the soldiers'

to defer

completely to the

on episcopal appointments. Not surprisingly, he got little or no help from Louis for the league of European powers he was trying to organize against the Turkish threat. Alexander's relations with Venice were more satisfactory; he was able to persuade king's wishes

the city to permit the return of the Jesuits

(Dec. 1656), expelled during its conflict Paul V. In return he provided modest

with

Alexander's personal weakness, and also

financial

and military aid against the Turks.

the weakness of his position as pope, were

On

soon made evident.

(Apr. 1657), he supported the candidature

was hoped that he would eschew nepotism, and he began by It

forbidding his relatives even to

visit

the death of

of Leopold

Rome.

1705),

I

Emperor Ferdinand

of Austria (emperor

who was

elected

But by 1656 he allowed himself to be persuaded by the curia itself that the pope's family should live in style and thus streng-

Mazarin's opposition.

then his position, and he began loading

ognize John IV

Spain refused

when

2«3

(like

to

On

in

the

III

1658-

teeth

{

the other hand,

receive Ins nuneio, and

Innocent \) he declined to recol

Portugal (1640-56) or

CLEMENT to

fill

IX (1667-9) volumes of poems as Philotnathi Musae twenties. He was also deeply spiritual, daily meditating on the writings of Francis de Sales (1 567-1 622), whom he beatified (1661) and canonized (1665), and presenting the main themes of Salesian piety in

bishoprics with his nominees, the king

them unfilled, appropriated their incomes, and even thought of setting up a left

national church.

conversion on 24 Dec.

The Queen

1654 of

Christina of Sweden (1632-54), the

Gustavus Adolphus's

Protestant

anonymous devotional works. He company of scholars and writers, enriched Rome university and the Vatican library, and was a splendid patron of art. It was he who, among other works, small

(1594-

delighted in the

1632) daughter, following her abdication in June, and her formal reception into the church on 3 Nov. 1655, brought especial satisfaction to Alexander, although the ex-

who

queen,

settled in

Rome and made

commissioned Bernini

her

of St

palace an intellectual centre, proved a great

burden

him

to

and

personally

By a decree of 23 Mar. 1656 he accepted the viewpoint of Jesuit missionaries in China, permitting the performance treasury.

of certain indigenous

rites as

Philotnathi

Since the debate

nounce

that

the

five

demned by Innocent X

to

propositions

iuveniles

etc.);

(Cologne,

1645;

BullRom XVI, XVII; V.

ST 249 (1967); S.

(official

correspondence),

lavicini,

Delia vita di Alessandro VII (1839-40);

Pal-

P

Abercrombie, The Origins ofJansenism (Oxford, i936);D#/2. 205-15 (M. Rosa);D//C£

31; N.

2,

over *Jansenism continued unabated, Alex-

ander intervened (16 Oct. 1656)

semicircular

Borg, 'Fabio Chigi, Apostolic Delegate in Malta'

being effec-

ceremonies, and (9 Sept. 1659) relieved native Chinese clergy of the duty of in Latin.

Musae

Antwerp, 1654;

tively civil

reading the office

two

colonnades.

his

to

to enclose the piazza

within

Peter's

J.

230-44

(P.

Richard);

Rochetta); Seppelt

5,

EC

I,

801-3 (G.

I.

della

305-8; 321-35.

pro-

CLEMENT

con-

May

Born

IX (20 June 1667-9 Dec.

1653) were in fact contained in Cornelius Jansen's

on 27 Jan. 1600, of a noble family which derived its wealth from

condemned

sheep-farming, Giulio Rospigliosi studied

and

*Augustinus

had

(3

1

been

1669).

at Pistoia

Rome

with the Jesuits, and

according to his meaning; on 15 Feb. 1665, in compliance with Louis XIV's wishes, he

liberal arts at

issued a constitution (Regiminis apostolici)

patronage of the Barberini, who admired his

requiring

all

then theology and law

clergy to subscribe a formulary

artistic flair,

at Pisa.

With

the

and of Urban VIII himself he

accepting the pope's decisions and rejecting

rose steadily in the curia from 1624 to 1644,

the five propositions without reserve. In

when he was appointed titular archbishop of

these years Alexander was also involved in

Tarsus and given the responsible post of nuncio to Spain. Leaving Madrid in Jan. 1653, ne was made governor of Rome after

the controversy over Probabilism,

i.e.

the

theory (supported by the Jesuits) that, where the propriety of an action

is

in doubt,

it is

lawful to follow a solidly probable opinion

favouring

more

it

even when the case against it is He did not condemn Prob-

and cardinal in 1657. In this capacity he managed, in spite of the hostility of the powerful minister Cardinal Mazarin (1 602state

probable.

abilism as such but, notwithstanding his partiality for Jesuits, formally

Innocent X's death, while the new pope, Alexander VII, appointed him secretary of

condemned

61) and Louis

moral propositions savouring of laxity (24 Sept. 1665 and 18 Mar. 1666). As pope Alexander found the administration of the papal state, in which he had forty-five

XIV (1643-17 15)

to

Alex-

ander, to retain the esteem of the French

sensitive literary interests,

On Alexander's death he therefore had strong French backing; since Spain also favoured him, and the cardinals wanted a pontiff capable of healing the rift between Paris and Rome, his election was assured. Assuming a name indicative of a policy of

youth had found an outlet in such

appeasement, he almost wholly broke with

revelled as cardinal, distasteful,

gated most of State.

He

which

in

had

it

to the

and dele-

Congregation of

court.

284

CLEMENT X (1670-6) the traditional nepotism, and assigned his relatives only

modest and moderately prof-

he succeeded

Thus

in organizing, with the help of France, Spain, and the empire, two expeditions. In spite of naval superiority, divisions

1668) the

within the Christian forces, and eventually

itable offices.

Much of Clement's short reign was spent in resolving already existing tensions.

when Spain recognized

(Feb.

independence of Portugal, he felt able to settle the confused ecclesiastical situation in

numerous more important was the

that country by at last filling the

vacant sees.

Much

of relations

relaxation

with

France.

A

humiliating inscription admitting the guilt

of the papal soldiers which Louis forced Alexander VII to set up in

removed; but Clement allow the French

return had to

in

crown

XIV had

Rome was

a free

hand

church appointments. Again, while tered

him

it

in

flat-

to play a role in the negotiations

which ended the War of Devolution (16678) between France and Spain, he was no match diplomatically for Hugues de Lionne (161 1-7 1), Mazarin's brilliant successor as

French foreign minister, and the peace of (2 May 1668) left in France's hands

Aachen

the fortified towns in Flanders

was

tect of the

it

wanted.

It

Lionne who was the true archi-

also de

wholly occupied by the Turks in the past two decades, and in spring 1668 and 1669

'Clementine Peace' (Feb. 1669) a temporary respite to the

which brought

agitation over *Jansenism.

A

minority of

Jansenists, including four bishops and the

the withdrawal of the French, led to the collapse of the enterprise.

On

6 Sept. 1669

the Venetians had to surrender their last

stronghold on the island, the capital Candia (Iraklion), leaving the holy see to

shoulder

crippling debts to Venice and the other participants.

Clement's health deteriorated in autumn 1669 and he died of a stroke, his end being hastened by the bitter news from Crete. A connoisseur of letters, he was something of a poet and wrote religious dramas, based on Spanish models and set to music, which were successfully performed. He had the distinction of creating the comic opera as a dramatic form; the first example was Chi soffre speri, which had its premiere in the Palazzo Barberini on 27 Feb. 1639. Lettere famigliari

(MS

Vat.

13.362-13.367);

lat.

BullRom XVII; C. Gerin, Louis XIV et le S. Siege (Paris, 1894), II, 179-390; N. J. Abercrombie, The Origins ofJansenism (Oxford, 1936); DHGE 12, 1297-313 (R. Mols); DBI 26, 282-93 ( L Osbat and R. Meloncelli); Seppelt 5, 334-43.

-

nuns of the Jansenist convent of Port-Royal south-west of Paris, tion to the formulary

from

ositions

still

refused subscrip-

CLEMENT X

condemning five prop-

1676).

Cornelius

a majority,

Jansen's

*Augustinus which Alexander VII imposed

certain

in Feb. 1665, but as a result of discussions

Clement

between de Lionne and the papal nuncio Clement was prevailed on to accept (19 Jan.

five

1669) the recalcitrant bishops' subscription in spite of

its

being hedged around with

which he had

qualifications to

blind eye.

It

was

to turn a

in fact a victory for

Louis

XIV, who considered the Jansenists a threat to the unity of his kingdom; and it soon

became apparent at Rome was being interpreted as

that the 'Peace' a

sign

of the

1670-22 July muster France and Spain vetoed Apr.

(29

As none of the and

as

factions could

candidates,

he studied

at

Roman

the

Clement's heart was to

recover

was ordained

as

a

in Apr.

1

624. After three years

as an auditor in the Polish nunciature, he

served as bishop of Camerino

in

1644.

I

lis

\

tenure

as

1627-54, nuncio

was recalled

almost

285

in

1052.

I

to

ol this difficult

assignment did not salish Innocent, and

a project to

Crete,

worked

1,

under Giambattista Pamfili (later Innocent X) when judge of the *Rota, and

barrister

Naples

to

College, took his

161

doctorate in laws in

pressure.

Venice

after

for almost

months before 79-year-old Emilio was elected. Born in Rome of a distinguished local family on 12 July 1590,

being sent by Innocent

Close

on

Altieri

church's weakness in the face of French

assist

conclave

the

IX's death dragged

lis tin

he-

tunes revived,

CLEMENT X (1670-6) who

in

1674 Clement realized that he had been

1657 appointed him secretary of the Congregation of Bishops and Regulars and a consultor (expert adviser) of the Holy Office. A month before his death Clement IX named him cardinal. After election he

deceived, and in Oct. 1675 sent envoys to

Alexander

however, under

adopted

his patron's

Aware

that

cardinal nephew Clement's niece

(sole heiress

plaints

(i.e.

but exploited the pope's

kindness to accumulate offices and riches spent

extending

opinion

offended

public

deemed

prudent never

it

that

autumn 1674 he

the problem.

The aged pope had

to face

unpreceden-

ted pressure from the Catholic powers to

Clement

appoint their nominees to the cardinalate;

Paluzzi

on a famous occasion in May 1675 tne French ambassador threatened violence when requested to withdraw after an

it.

could also be heavy-handed, as

of regalia

appointments to ecclesiastical offices

so

Altieri

to visit

Louis's claim,

ears.

to the unrestricted right

and the income of vacant sees and abbeys), asserted in 1673 and 1675, did not apparently provoke any response from the holy see; Clement's successor was to inherit

The vast sums he

Palazzo

the

on deaf

fell

however,

happy, for Paluzzi not only took complete control of affairs, reducing the secretaries of

for himself and his family.

he

Altieri),

his

state to ciphers,

all

married

branch of the Paluzzi, as a token of relationship, adopt the name Altieri. The appointment was far from

making him and

prepare for

and pope were rapidly worsening, for when Louis infringed church privileges, confiscating church property and requisitioning religious houses so as to divert their income to military preparations, Clement's com-

role of

of the

to

nothing. Meanwhile relations between king

to Cardinal Paluzzi degli

whose nephew had

Albertoni,

and Madrid

could to frustrate his efforts, which came to

needed

he

age

Clement assigned the

assistance,

Paris, Vienna,

peace negotiations, but Louis did

name. his

at

VII,

when

in

alienated the diplomatic

corps by commuting their tax immunities,

acrimonious

which necessitated an undignified climb-down. Clement was much preoccupied by the threat of the Turks to Poland, itself weakened by internal disorders, and strove to form a defensive alliance against them, even appealing (without success) to the

stances Clement had on occasion to yield to

thereby provoking a

Protestant

crisis

king Charles XI

of

Sweden

(later

Innocent XI)

gave

(May 1674). Louis XTV of France (1643-17 1 5) stood aside from the forma-

ted king

tion of a common anti-Turkish front, since he was preparing a war of conquest against Holland. For a time he led Clement to believe that it was a holy war for the restoration of Catholicism, so that the pope frowned on the intervention of Spain and on

to

Emperor Leopold I By summer

the Dutch.

French govern-

ment subjecting even members of exempt orders to episcopal jurisdiction, he ruled that religious

must have the

local bishop's

permission for preaching or hearing con-

Theatine

Borgia

Dniester (11 Nov. 1673) Dut> th e

658-1 705)

21 June 1670, reacting

to a unilateral decree of the

the

Polish throne having fallen vacant, was elec-

(1

circum-

the

own

churches. His

numerous canonizations included Cajetan (1 480-1 547), founder of

John Sobieski (1624-96), who not only decisively defeated the Turks

the military aid given by

On

In

unusually

financial aid to

at the

these demands.

fessions outside their

(1660-97). Both Clement and Cardinal

Odescalchi

audience.

order,

(1510-72),

Francis

the Jesuit

and

Rose

of Lima

(1 586-1617), South America's first saint; and he beatified Pius V, the Spanish mystic John of the Cross (1542-91), and the martyrs of Gorcum in south Holland (put to death by Calvinists on 9 July 1572).

BullRom XVIII; C. Gerin, Louis XIV et le S. Siege (Paris, 1894), II, 391-646; M. Dubruel, 'La cour de

Rome

eglise

1313-26 Seppelt

286

et

Pextension de

la regale',

(R.

5,

Rev.

hist,

P 31; DHGE 12, Mols);D£/26, 293-302 (L. Osbat);

de France 9 (1923), 161-76;

344-6.

INNOCENT XI (1676-89) INNOCENT

XI, BL. (21 Sept. 1676-12

savouring of

When

it.

the Jesuit Tirso

Aug. 1689). After a two-month conclave Benedetto Odescalchi was unanimously chosen to succeed Clement X, Louis XIV

Gonzalez de Santalla, of Salamanca, turned against probabilism, Innocent endorsed

of France (1643-17 15) having agreed to withdraw his threatened veto. Born at

view that in cases of doubt about the licitness of an action the opinion which seems

Como

more probable should be

May

on 19

161

commercial

family,

apprenticed

at fifteen

(1680) his system of probabiliorism,

he came of a rich and was himself to its bank at Genoa 1,

after studying with the Jesuits at

1687 procured

and Naples, taking

the

followed, and in

his election as general of the

the

hand,

other

sympathetic

previously

although

Spanish

the

to

Quietist Miguel de Molinos

Influenced by a friendly cardinal, he then

Rome

On

order.

Como.

i.e.

(c.

164c— 97),

his

author of a Spiritual Guide which inculcated

doctorate in 1639, entered the papal service

complete passivity and minimized human effort, he was manoeuvred by the Jesuitdominated Holy Office into permitting his

read law

at

under Urban

and became succes-

VIII,

sively protonotary, president

chamber,

governor

of

commissary

financial

X

Innocent

the

in

made him

of the apostolic

Macerata,

and

1685 and then denouncing his extremer views in the bull Coelestis pastor on

arrest in

Marches.

19 Nov. 1687.

cardinal in 1645,

1648 at a time of acute famine, and bishop of Novara in 1650. In these offices he earned a reputation for legate of Ferrara in

Innocent's

resistance

inflexible

to

well as austere piety; as bishop he spent his

encroachments on the church's rights led him into continuous conflict with Louis XIV's absolutist pretensions. Clement X had made no rejoinder to Louis's decrees of

income on the poor. Resigning his see in 1654 on grounds of ill health, he lived

*regalia

conscientious, charitable administration as

Rome, absorbed

quietly in

ness. Surprised

he would only accept

it

when

to his entire realm,

the cardinals

construing his

silence

during the conclave. life,

Innocent

at

himself to sweep away moral and

and,

acquiescence,

assembly

of French

instigation,

adopted (19 Mar. 1682) the four Gallican Articles denying the

administrative abuses. Entirely free from

so-called

nepotism himself, he sought

pope any authority

to

as

all the French clergy submitted. two bishops protested, Innocent rejected the extension; whereupon an

almost

When

set

spiritualities

of vacant sees)

gramme of reform which he had proposed Frugal in his personal

the king's right to administer

election,

agreed to subscribe a fourteen-point pro-

once

extending the right of

1675

(i.e.

both the temporalities and the

in curial busi-

and abashed by his

and

1673

persuade the

in

clergy,

at

temporal

Louis's

affairs or

but in vain. By redu-

over kings, asserting the superior authority

cing offices and stipends and by drastic

of general councils, and reaffirming the

economies, he restored the papal finances.

ancient liberties of the Gallican church. In

He

reply Innocent rejected the

cardinals to outlaw

it,

for evangelical

called

catechizing,

the

strict

preaching and observance

of

Apr.

1682)

and

refused

Articles to

(11

the

ratify

who had sub-

monastic vows, the rigorous selection of

appointments of bishops

and bishops, and frequent communion. His measures to control public

bishoprics were vacant in France. Louis

decency,

hoped

priests

e.g.

his prohibition of carnivals,

were

largely ineffective

cule.

With

his

and met with

ridi-

moral earnestness he had

scribed

them;

by Jan.

that his attacks

1688

thirty-rive

on the Huguenots,

culminating in the revocation of the

of Nantes on 18 Oct.

pope

1

'I

did

685, WOllid induce

be co-operative, but

while

*Jansenist leanings am. *«a critical of the

the

679, without naming the *probabilism prevalent in Jesuit circles, he-

approving the revocation Innocent suspected the motives "behind it ami deplored

condemned

the

Jesuits;

on

2

Mar.

1

sixty five

laxist

propositions

287

to

violent

methods of the persecution

ALEXANDER VIII (1689-91) unleashed on the Protestants. The deadlock intensified in 1687 when Innocent, having ended the rights of asylum enjoyed,

him

venerating

after his death.

canonization was started by

was

A process of

Clement XI in

17 14, but was suspended in 1744 because of objections by the French court. It was resumed in the altered atmosphere of the

and abused, by embassies in Rome, refused to receive the new and defiant French ambassador; and again in 1688, when he rejected Louis's nominee for the archbishopric and electorship of Cologne and appointed Emperor Leopold I's (16581705). In Jan. 1688 he secretly informed Louis that he and his ministers were excom-

20th cent., and Pius XII announced his beatification

on 7 Oct. 1956. Feast 12 Aug.

AAS 48 (1956), 754-9; 762-78; M.

Santi, Biblio-

XI i6j6-i68gfino al igij (Como, 1957); BullRum XIX; F. de Bojani, Innocent XI: Sa dipapa

grafia

I.

correspondance avec

1676-84 (Rome,

nonces

ses

XI epistolae

municate; in Sept. the king occupied the

1910-1

papal territories of Avignon and Venaissin.

adPrincipes (Rome, 189 1-5); G. Papasogli, Inno-

Open schism was

cenzoXI (Rome, 1956); J. Orcibal, Louis XIV contre Innocent XI (Paris, 1949); L. O'Brien, Innocent XI

avoided only by the inter-

Fenelon (1651-1715), later archbishop of Cambrai, and the advent of William of Orange to the English throne. Innocent's dearest aim, and greatest

vention

of

and

2);

the

Berthier, Innocentii P.P.

Renunciation

(Berkeley,

Paquier);

1. 1.

of Nantes

Edict

of the

P 32; DTC 7, 2006-13 (J. 529 f. (S. V. Ramge); Seppelt 5,

1930);

NCE 7,

346-7I-

achievement, was to mobilize resistance to the

Turks advancing into Europe. Although

ALEXANDER VIII

thwarted by Louis's expansionist policies,

(6 Oct.

1

689-1 Feb.

he brought about (31 Mar. 1683) the alliance between Emperor Leopold I and John III Sobieski of Poland (1674-96) which led to the relief of Vienna (12 Sept. 1683). To push the Turkish threat still further back he then formed the Holy League of the empire, Poland, Venice, and

and at twenty, helped by a compatriot who was dean of the *Rota, entered the curial sendee. After being governor in the

Hun-

papal state 1638-43, he was judge of the

Russia; this triumphantly liberated

1

691). Scion of a recendy ennobled family,

Pietro Ottoboni

was born

Apr. 1610, proved a

at

Venice on 22

brilliant

student at

Padua, graduating doctor of laws

at

seven-

teen,

gary (1686) and recovered Belgrade (1688).

Rota 1643-52, becoming famous

Throughout he gave

substantial subsidies to

judicial decisions.

the

the

Made

for his

cardinal in Feb.

meantime, while

1652, he served as bishop of Brescia from

welcoming the accession of the Roman Catholic James II in England (1685), he was

1654, returning to Rome in 1664 to play a leading role in the curia. He was the trusted

enterprise.

In

suspicious of his subservience to Louis

XIV

and disapproved of his ill-judged methods of restoring country.

Not

Roman

Catholicism in the

when James

surprisingly,

lost

and appealed for help, Innocent replied that he could do nothing, his energies being taken up with the struggle with Louis. But the allegation that he knew of, and privately supported, the designs of his throne

the Protestant William of

placing James

is

Innocent was

seventy-eight all

as the outstanding

ted

him grand

Innocent

XI,

Holy

retary of the

who

appoin-

Rome and

inquisitor of Office.

sec-

Although the

empire and France were for the

first

time

represented by ambassadors extraordinary at the conclave

of 1689, the cardinals were

already resolved, before ascertaining the

monarchs' wishes, that his knowledge and experience, efficient dispatch of difficult business, and his character

for dis-

marked him out

for election. Initially hostile because of his

groundless.

died. Historians of

him

Orange

collaborator of

when he

schools recognize i7th-cent. pope.

Although the Romans found his austerity oppressive in his lifetime, they soon began

earlier

attitude

to

the

French question,

Louis XIV of France (1643-17 15) concurred when both Ottoboni and his nephew provided assurances

would pursue

288

that,

if

chosen, he

conciliatory policies.

INNOCENT Alexander

in fact

made

Dec. 1690) condemned thirty-one *Jansenpropositions concerning penance, the

serious, partially

successful, efforts to break the deadlock

with

Louis

France.

XIV,

ist

Virgin, baptism, and the church's authority.

position

his

since the English revolution of

He

wanted improved relations with Rome, and both handed back Avignon and Venaissin (occupied in Sept. 1688) and

the

weakened

XII (1691-1700)

1688,

also

punished with

surviving

imprisonment Spanish

life

of the

followers

Quietist Miguel de *Molinos

Aged seventy-nine when

(c.

1640-92).

elected, Alex-

acquiesced in Innocent XI's suppression of

ander was a complete contrast

the extravagant rights of asylum and tax

predecessor, and not only delighted the

immunity claimed by embassies in Rome. In return Alexander pleased him by raising, in the face of protests from Emperor Leopold I (1657-1705), Bishop Toussaint de Forbin-

Romans by

Janson of Beauvais

to the cardinalate, over-

French ambassador rejected by Innocent On the main issue, however, he stood firm, refusing to ratify the appointment of bishops nominated by the king unless they

is

work

said to have declared that he

fast since the

He

struck.

twenty-third hour

appointed

grand-

his

He was where he reduced increased cheap food imports, and

relatives with lucrative benefices.

popular in the papal taxes,

state,

introduced other improvements; but his

repudiated the four *Gallican Articles of quarrel then broke out afresh, felt

to

nephew Pietro, aged twenty, *cardinal nephew and his nephew Giambattista secretary of state, investing them and other

XI.

and Alexander

He

dained.

had had

assembly of 1682; he also accepted the

The

his lavish style but recklessly

revived the nepotism Innocent had dis-

looking his participation in the Gallican

1682.

to his severe

recruitment of troops for the assistance of Venice against the Turks met with angry

obliged to annul both

Louis's extension of the right of *regalia to

resistance.

A

and the four Articles in the constitution Inter multiplices. This he drafted on 4 Aug. 1690, but published only on his deathbed on 31 Jan. 1691 after a plan to influence the king through Madame de Maintenon, his secret wife since 1684, had come to nothing. His rapprochement with France, limited though it was, brought cool

moved

ease

relations with the empire, while his failure

Ottobono (Rome, 1657); G. A. Hanotaux, Recueil

his entire realm

to raise

He

also greatly

Sweden (1626-89),

a jealous

Rome

since

the church in 1655.

des instructions donnees

de France (Paris,

S. Rotae

Romanae coram

aux ambassadeurs

ct

P.

ministres

1888-1913); S. V. Bischoff-

shausen, Papst A. VIII und der Wiener //^(Stutt-

reduced the

gart, 1900);

EC

P 32;

803-5 (PRamge); L7M: 1 1,

DHGE 2,

244-51

dalla Torre); ,

3

1

8

f.

(P.

NCE

1,

Richard);

293

(K. Repson); Dfl/

19 (A. Petrucci); Seppelt

INNOCENT

Holy Office

guardian of the

faith.

On

laxist

propositions current

1700).

24 Aug. 1690 he condemned two

among

one denying the necessity of an

5,

(S. V.

2, 2

51

370-4.

God

after the

sin',

God

i.e.

a

sin

opposing

Jesuits,

divided

explicit act

attainment of involving no

because committed without

knowledge or thought of him.

I

le

then

(7

The

XII (12 July 1691-27 Sept.

conclave following

Alexander

VIII's death lasted five months, with the

reason, the other admitting the notion of

offence to

he and

beloved Venice.

Alexander was

'philosophic

settled in

BullRom XX; Decisiones

XI had given Leopold

his experience of the

of love for

letters,

circles,

her abdication and her public reception into

war against the Turks, preferring to give generous support, in money, troops, and

With

literary

and other collections of Queen Christina of

for

galleys, to his

in

of the valuable manuscripts ('Reginenses')

any of Leopold's nominees to the

subsidies Innocent

connoisseur of

enriched the Vatican library by the purchase

purple led to the withdrawal of the imperial

ambassador.

at

French also

and

among

compromise Antonio

imperial

factions

themselves. Pignatclli

was

As at

when disturbances in Rome anil summer heat forced a decision.

elected

a

last

the

A

Neapolitan aristocrat horn near Spma//ola (Puglia)

289

on

13

Mar. 1015, he was educated

INNOCENT

XII (1691-1700)

681), then bishop of Faenza, legate of

compromise which broke the fifty-year between France and the holy see. First, he ratified the appointment of bishops nominated by the king since 1682 who had not taken part in the Assembly of the Clergy of that year. Louis then (14 Sept. 1693) promised to revoke the Declaration of the French Clergy which obliged French bishops to subscribe the four *Gallican Articles, and the bishops who had attended the 1682

archbishop of Naples

assembly wrote retracting their signatures.

at the Jesuit college at

curia under

Urban

Rome, joined the and became suc-

politico-religious deadlock

VIII,

cessively vice -legate of Urbino, governor of

Viterbo, and nuncio to

Tuscany (1652),

Poland (1660), and Vienna (1668). He fell into disfavour under Clement X, who sent

him

to

Lecce as bishop. Recalled

to

Rome

Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, he was created cardinal by Innocent XI (1 Sept in

1

1673

to

become

Bologna, and

secretary of the

finally

Innocent

(1687).

Devout and

institution,

he adopted Innocent XI's name and took him as his model. He at once embarked on a programme of reform in sonal

now granted the bishops canonical

and by the end of 1693 the French hierarchy was restored. Against these apparent gains the pope had to accept

charitable, simple in his per-

life,

Louis's extension of the right to the *regalia

Rome

and the papal states, insisting on economical administration and completely impartial justice. He drastically reduced the

to his entire realm,

compensating the treasury for the resulting loss by cutting court expenses to the bone, and also by enlarging the harbours of Civitavecchia and Nettuno to promote trade. He developed charitable institutions like the Hospital of S. Michele

affairs in

sion

intact;

sale of offices,

for poor youths,

and opened the Lateran

and the king's conces-

the Gallican Articles themselves

left

*Gallicanism was to govern church

France

until the

Revolution and

Napoleon. This accommodation, however, between France and Rome was viewed with suspicion in Vienna, and although Innocent at

gave liberal support to Emperor

first

Leopold

I (1

688-1 705)

for defence against

the Turks, tension between the two courts

as

a refuge for people incapacitated for work;

gradually increased, being gready exacer-

the poor and needy, he claimed, were his

bated

nephews. To raise the level of the clergy he founded (1694) the Congregation for the Discipline and Reform of Regulars, and

imperial ambassadors.

prohibited (1695) the practice, common in Germany, of electoral chapters nominating

feudal allegiance to the empire in Italy

the

arrogant

A

conduct of the crisis

came when

instigated

by

ambassador

Count Martinitz, decreed

that

the

and monasteries. Most revoluof all, he struck at the roots of

by

emperor,

all

who owed

should produce proof of tenure, and the

to bishoprics

pope

tionary-

as they affected the papal state as a gross

nepotism, decreeing (Romanum cem: 22

June 1692)

never grant estates, relatives; if they

them

should be

revenues to

the resulting tension.

To

prevent

charges

frivolous

eligible, if otherwise suit-

Belgium, Innocent forbade

income should from he persuaded them all to

the bishops to

and

being

brought against suspected *Jansenists

his

ceiling. After resistance

several cardinals,

on his sovereignty. The French ambassador was quick to take advantage of

treat

need. Further, only one

able, for the purple,

have a modest

offices, or

obliged to annul the decrees so far

intrusion

decet pontifi-

pope should

were poor, he should

like others in

relative

that the

felt

(6

in

Feb. 1694)

demand additions to Alexander VII's constitution of 1665 condemning the five propositions extracted from

sign the decree.

Cornelius Jansen's *Augustinus in the sense

With Louis XIV of France (1643-17 15), whose political situation after the formation of the Grand Alliance made a rapprochement

the author had intended.

with

Rome

desirable, Innocent reached a

regarded

this

As

the Jansenists

as a favourable

signal,

he

issued another brief (25 Nov. 1696) declar-

ing that nothing was further from his inten-

290

CLEMENT XI (1700-21) modify the teaching of

tion than to

CLEMENT

Explications

maximes

des

declined, however,

des

saints.

1

promoted secretary of briefs in 1687, and in Feb. 1690 being created cardinal. His influence was a determining one under Alexander VIII and Innocent XII; it was he who drafted the latter's bull outlawing nepotism. He was only ordained priest in Sept. 1700. At the 46-day conclave of that autumn neither the French nor the imperial faction could win the day, and Albani was

He

book on predestination, which Bishop Jacques Benigue Bossuet had accused of Quietism in 1697. Although Innocent redoubled his efforts

696 to bring an end to the European between France and the Grand Alliance, the holy see was not represented at the congress leading to the treaty of Ryswick (20 Sept. 1697). He was able, however, to secure the inclusion in its terms of an 1

war

important

requiring

clause

the

elected as the candidate of the zelanti,

the cardinals

rule.

The

came when

made

Roman

subject to Protestant

issue of the Spanish succession

reluctance

after

reflection,

although

The War

and

sulted by Charles, Innocent

When

con-

on the advice of

The pope's death on 27 was followed by Charles's on

sent of the

171 1-40) to

Sicily.

LThK

suspected him

Palmarocchi); Pelt 5,

NCE 7,

530

f.

(J-

25-7 (R. Calicchio); Sep7,

for

of

too,

being

nor could he prevent theatre

374~«3-

291

Spanish

the

throne,

be invested with Naples and

Leopold,

flM///?«mXX;P32;/)7'C7,20i3-i5(JPaquicr);

EC

of king of Prussia by the

title

Habsburg duke Charles (Emperor (harks VI:

demanded 695 (G. Schwaiger);

of

III of Brandenburg. He soon found himself caught between two Philip V and Emperor fires, for both Leopold I (1 658-1 705), who backed the

Nov.

5,

V

Elector Frederick

Spain 1700-46.

1

of his reign,

1700-46) as heir to the Spanish inheritance, he tried to be neutral as war approached. His offers to mediate fell on deaf ears, as did his protest (Apr. 1701) against the assumption without papal con-

commission of cardinals took the fateful decision to recommend Philip, and the king made a final will leaving his Spanish dominions to him; as Philip V he was king of Sept. 1700

much

filled

Spain:

the

a

was

elevation

of the Bourbon Philip of Anjou (Philip

council of state favoured Philip, duke of

Anjou, Louis XIV's grandson.

anxious

days'

soon exposed his and the papacy's ineffectiveness. Having initially come out in favour

Charles VI: 171 1-40), but the primate of Portocarrero,

his

of the Spanish Succession

(1701-14), which

665-1 700), the Bavarian electoral prince Joseph Ferdinand, suddenly died (6 Feb. 1699). Charles II was at first inclined to leave his inheritance to Archduke Charles of Austria (to be Emperor II (1

Cardinal

several

countries.

the heir designate of the childless

Spain,

i.e.

a non-political

enthusiastically received even in Protestant

before him at the close of his reign

Charles

who wanted

pope with the church's interest at heart. Only fifty-one, devout, austere, but lacking political flair, he accepted with genuine

Catholic faith to be preserved intact in any places the treaty

(23 Nov.

Of aristocratic Umbrian

service in 1677, first holding governorships in the papal states, being

Sfondrati's

after

721).

curial

censure Celestino

to

XI

1700-19 Mar. stock, Giovanni Francesco Albani was born at Urbino on 23 July 1649, and received a thorough classical education at Rome, where the former Queen Christina of Sweden (162689) welcomed him to her academy. After studying philosophy and law, he entered the

his

on the Jansenist heresy. Towards the end of his life he was called upon, much against his will but under strong pressure from Louis XIV, to pass judgement on the mystical doctrines taught by Madame de Guyon (1648-17 17) and supported by Archbishop Francois Fenelon of Cambrai(i 651-17 15). On 12 Mar. 1699 he published the brief Cum alias denouncing twenty-three sentences from Fenelon's predecessor

of war.

good

reason

a partisan of

France;

with

Italy

In Jan.

from becoming 170^,

when

1

the

CLEMENT XI (1700-21) XTV's death in 17 15 the leaders of the movement appealed to a general

of Leopold's successor Joseph I (1705-11) had invaded the papal states, conquered Naples, and threatened Rome, Clement had to accept the new emperor's harsh terms, which included his abandonment of Philip V and recognition of Archtroops

council. Clement, however, stood firm,

Duke

Amadeus

Victor

\

(28

—

register the bull, although with a reservation

safeguarding the traditional liberties of the Gallican church.

Clement was keenly

interested in mis-

sionary work, and not only founded mis-

of

II

and

Aug. 17 18) the without, however, their taking 'appellants' any notice. Eventually the French government (4 Dec. 1720) forced the parlement to

excommunicated

duke Charles as Spanish king. This led at once to rupture with Spain. In the treaty of Utrecht (17 13) Clement found himself ignored, and Sardinia and Sicily, Parma and Piacenza were disposed of with cynical disregard of the pope's overlordship. Sicily was assigned to

sionary

but promoted

colleges

missions

Savoy (1 675-1 730) along with control of the church there (the *' Sicilian monarchy'); when Clement protested and published a

overseas, notably in India, the Philippines,

rescinding the Feb. (20 17 1 5) 'monarchy', Victor paid not the least atten-

and Jesuits, of adapting in the mission field pagan beliefs and ceremonies to Christian practice. On 20 Nov. 1704, approving a sentence of the Holy Office, he ruled against the use by missionaries of Chinese rites, especially the cult of Confucius and ancestors, on the pretext that they were

and China. propriety,

bull

When

tion.

Venice

in

the

17 14,

Turks declared war on Clement dreamed of

emulating Pius V, but his efforts alliance against

Peloponnese from

entire

to

form an

them could not prevent

the

falling into their

of seeing a Spanish

equipped

to

fight the

fleet

in

he had

17

Turks diverted by

(1643-17 1 5),

On

ism.

15

XIV

of France

Jansencondemned

in the repression of

July

1705

he

based on a corrupt

ment and

in

text

condemned,

New

Clement appointed seventy carHe was a generous patron of the arts and scholarship, being dinals in his long reign.

particularly interested

as

Testa-

manuscripts for

evoked intense opposition, and

after

it.

Opera omnia, including Bullarium Albani, Polidori,

allegedly Jansenist propositions

The

A

J. S. Assemani (1687-1768) its and sent him to the east to collect

(1634-17 1 9), the learned Oratorian who was now leader of the Jansenist party. Finally, he published on 8 Sept. 17 13 the famous bull Unigenitus DeiFilius condemn01

archaeology.

appointed librarian

1

in

great benefactor of the Vatican library, he

as infected with Jansenist error,

extracted from Quesnel's work.

rites,

throughout

the Reflexions morales of Pasquier Quesnel

ing

(19 Mar.

die

istrator,

Cornelius Jansen's of the

ilia

Conception of the BVM Christendom. A busy, if painstaking and indecisive, admin-

denounced by Innocent X while maintain-

13 July 1708 he

Ex

missionaries, in contrast to the

Immaculate

ing 'respectful silence' as to whether they

occurred

on the

by Pius XII in 1939. 1708 he declared the feast of the

obligatory

safely reject the five Jansenist propositions

On

5). Jesuit

In

approved by the Sorbonne, that one could

actually

the constitution 1

lifted

(Vineam Domini Sabaoth) the suggestion,

works.

to decide

and Alexander VII had sanctioned them in 1656; their prohibition by Clement led to the persecution of Chinese Christians and the closure of missions, and was only finally

a decisive role, largely at

the instigation of Louis

him

Dominicans, favoured the Chinese

Cardinal Giulio Alberoni to wrest Sardinia

from the empire. Clement played

to

It fell

disputed between Dominicans

primarily civic acts; he reiterated the ruling

hands; while in 17 17, in spite of guarantees he had given the emperor, he had the mortification

1

Jansenist

Rome,

De

vita

1722-4); et

rebus

gestis

(Urbino, 1727); A. Aldobrandini,

bull

successione di

Louis

Spagna

XXI;

P.

dementis

XI

La

guerra di

negli stati delVAlta Italia dal

1 701 al 1 70s e la politica di

292

by Cardinal

(ed.

BullRom

Clemente

XI (Rome,

j

BENEDICT XIII (1724-30) 1

Pometti,

F.

931);

'Studi

sul

pontificate*

1709 dragged on inconclusively. Like his he recognized the Old

di

Clemente XI', ASRomana 21 (1898), 279-457522 (1899), 109-79; 23 (1900), 239-76, 449-515; P 33,DHGE 12, 1326-61 (R.Mols);Z.7M:2, 1227 f. (A. Cornaro); DBI 26, 302-20 (S. Andretta); Seppelt

predecessors,

Pretender ('James IIP) as king of England and Scotland, not only paying him an income but promising him 10,000 ducats on

382-413.

5,

Roman

his re-establishing

INNOCENT

XIII

(8

May

172 1-7 Mar.

Innocent had a deep aversion to the

1724). After a long, contentious conclave at

which Cardinal Althan, on behalf of the

Jesuits, dating

emperor, vetoed the

Portugal, and was

initially

Clement XPs

didate,

favoured can-

secretary of state

order

of

Poli,

elected.

when he

from

his time as

minded

nuncio in

to suppress the

learned that

missionaries

its

were not complying with Clement XI's ban on *Chinese rites. Instead he forbade it to receive novices unless within three years he had satisfactory proof of its obedience. His

Fabrizio Paolucci, Michelangelo dei Conti

was unanimously

Catholicism in

Britain.

Son of the duke

near Palestrina, he was born there

on 13 May 1655, was a student at Ancona and then with the Jesuits at Rome, and early

antipathy to the Jesuits, as well as the fact

ing governorships in the papal states, he was

had protested as cardinal against Clement XI's failure to consult the sacred

nuncio in Switzerland 1695-8, and then in

college

698-1 709. Promoted cardinal by Clement XI on 7 June 1706, he was successively bishop of Osimo (1709-12) and

*Unigenitus outlawing *Jansenism, raised

that he

entered the service of the curia. After hold-

Portugal

1

Viterbo (17 12-19), resigning the for reasons of health.

When

whose

family he

latter see

he from

III,

was descended.

Possessing both diplomatic desire for a quiet

life,

he had

skill

and

their petition

Innocent set about

declared

his

complete

Clement XI's constitution, and requested him to take active measures against the

his predecessor's reign.

invested (9 June 1722) Emperor Charles VI (171 1-40) with Naples and

bishops.

which Clement XI had refused to do since he had not been consulted about their transfer to the empire in 1720, and in July he gratified the regent of France 1 72 1

cardinal, but any fears that he

Innocent created his brother Bernard a

Sicily,

II

Bernard's income to the

Innocent XI

656-1 723)

to the purple.

On the other hand, he was unable to prevent

Clement

XI's

""Sicilian

monarchy'

having in

abolished 17 15,

investing the Spanish prince

or

Don

from Carlos

with Parma and Piacenza, duchies traditionally fiefs

Vitae

et

gestae

res

38 -408; M. von Mayer, Die Papstnvihl Innmaiz' XIII ( (Vienna, 1874); K. Miehaud, 'La fin dc "-lenient

Pontijicum

of the

stipulated by

in his

RullRom XXI; A. Ciaconius, Romanorum (Rome,

Charles VI from claiming supreme authority over the Sicilian church, in spite

sum

ban on nepotism. In the papal states he was concerned for economic and cultural development, but his short reign was overshadowed by constant illness.

of Orleans: 1715-23) by raising

(1

was succumb-

ing to nepotism were groundless; he limited

his powerful but corrupt minister Guil-

laume Dubois

bull

French king he agreement with

Thus he

(Philip

the

censured by the Holy

Office. In a letter to the

a

resolving the tensions with the great powers

which had troubled

publishing

hopes in Jansenist circles that he would adopt a friendlier attitude to them. In fact, on becoming pope, he confirmed the bull, and when seven French bishops wrote to him in June 1721 asking him to withdraw it,

elected,

adopted the name of Innocent

before

1

75

1

)

6,

1

XI et le commencement du pontifical cl'Innocent X\\\\RevlntThe»l$ (1897), 42-60,304-31; P34;

DTCj,

2015

f.

(J

Paquier);

EC 7}

27 (F. I'on/i);

Seppelt 5,413-15.

of the papacy. Further, his

negotiations with the

emperor

drawal of the occupying force acchio, between

BENEDICT

for the withleft in

Com-

Ravenna and Ferrara,

XIII (29

May 1724-2.

Feb.

1730). Eldest son of the duke ol Graving (I'uglia)

in

*93

and born there on

2

Feb.

1649,

BENEDICT

XIII (1724-30)

Pietro Francesco Orsini

came of

inculcated would be eagerly implemented. With his primarily religious absorption he needed reliable collaborators for the busi-

a family

which had produced Celestine III and Nicholas III. As a youth, despite opposition from relatives, he renounced his inheritance and joined the Dominicans, making his profession at Rome on 9 Feb.

ness of the church

retary of state, he placed implicit trust in an

unscrupulous scoundrel, Niccolo Coscia,

1669 and taking the name in religion of Vincenzo Maria. After lecturing in philosophy at Brescia, he was named a cardinal, much against his will, in Feb. 1672 by Clement X, whose niece had married his Manfredonia of Archbishop brother.

whom

he had found useful at Benevento, and allowed him a free hand. Coscia, pro-

moted cardinal

in 1725 in the face of profrom the sacred college, appointed like-minded self-seekers from Benevento

tests

(1675), bishop of Cesena (1680), and archbishop of Benevento (1686), he lived as a simple friar, wholly devoted to his pastoral duties; he held several provincial

publish works of (mainly) practical

After

theology.

to influential positions,

death had a creature of Lercari,

ascetical

the

and of

by

exclusively

unscrupulous inner

Benedict

previous bearer of that

XIII

since

circle.

of Benedict's

external

and the collapse of the finances of the papal states, were largely due to Coscia's

as a

to

and

corrupt

this

The weakness

unanimously elected pope whose lack of political experience might ensure his neutrality. He onlyaccepted on the bidding of the general of his order, taking the style of Benedict XIV, but factions concurring,

it

secretary of state.

master from the and systematiclly enrich himself and his coterie by selling offices and accepting bribes; in the end the pope was advised

with the French, Spanish, and Habsburg

altering

new

to isolate his

frustrated wrangling the conclave of 1724,

him

and on Paolucci's Niccolo Maria

his,

cardinals,

to

nine weeks

made

His policy was

and dio-

cesan synods, and yet found leisure

at large; unfortunately,

while retaining Fabrizio Paolucci as sec-

policies,

They

interventions.

explain, for example,

Amadeus II of Savoy (1675-1730) obtained (1725) both the recognition of his royal title, assumed in 1 7 13 in the face of papal disapproval, and

the ease with which Victor

the

name (Pedro de

Luna) had been an antipope. As pope he made no change in his monkish life-style, shunning the Vatican's splendid apartments; he also remained archbishop of his beloved Benevento, earning out weeks-long visitations in 1727 and 1729. At Rome he concentrated on his

the right to present to Sardinia.

The

king

all

bishoprics in

won even more

conces-

sions in the concordat of 1727, and suitably

rewarded the venal papal negotiators. By similar methods, in spite of

Clement

XI's

rescission of the *'Sicilian monarchy' in

Emperor Charles

diocese, taking particular delight in con-

17 15,

secrating churches and altars, visiting the

agents extracted a bull (30 Aug. 1728) from

sick,

administering sacraments, and giving

religious instruction.

Concerned

for clerical

VI' s

(171 1-40)

Benedict which, without actually recognizing the 'monarchy', granted the ruler of

discipline, he inveighed against the extrava-

Sicily effective control of church affairs. It

gances of cardinals, and against the wearing

significant

of wigs and fashionably trimmed beards; he profitable

demands from John V of Portugal (170650) to make the nuncio to Lisbon a cardinal,

public lottery in the papal states. In spring

thereby risking a schism, he was not under

1725, a year of jubilee, he personally conducted a provincial synod in the Lateran

Coscia's

and

was his fond hope that example to bishops

Any hopes the *Jansenists in France drew from the election of a Dominican as pope were soon shattered. To counter their claim

it

that the bull *Unigenitus conflicted with the

also

banned the popular and

had

its

circulated in print;

decisions it

immediately

would set an everywhere and that the pastoral ideals

it

that,

when Benedict

influence

is

resisted

but stiffened by the

sacred college.

294

CLEMENT XII (1730-40) teaching of St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas on grace and predestination, Benedict instructed (6 Nov. 1724) the Dominicans to hold fast, in spite of misrepresentations, to the doctrine of those

masters; while at the Lateran synod of 1725

he called

for unconditional

submission to

Unigenitus. In the bull Pretiosus (28

June

was exceptionally contentious, with half the cardinals present being proposed at one stage or another. Eventually the Florentine

Lorenzo Corsini was unanimously chosen. Born on 7 Apr. 1652, eldest son of a noble family enriched by commerce, he had his schooling

at

Roman

the

Florence, and then studied at

College and

1727) he declared that the teaching of St Thomas and the Thomist school had

doctor of laws in 1675.

nothing to do with the errors of Cornelius

career,

(1 585-1 638) and Pasquier Quesnel (1634-17 1 9). From now onwards he played a secondary role in the Jansenist debate, and it was the curia which, after lengthy negotia-

Jansen

secured the submission (11

tions,

Oct.

1728) of Cardinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, who had opposed it from the start, to Unigenitus.

Consistendy with his religious outlook,

many

Benedict canonized

saints, including

graduating

at Pisa,

On his father's death

1685 he decided on an ecclesiastical renounced his inheritance, and

in

entered the curial service, in which he had the help of relatives. His wealth enabled

him

purchase useful positions, and in 1690 Alexander VIII named him titular archbishop of Nicomedia. The following year he was designated nuncio to Vienna, but the emperor, irritated that his nominees had not received the purple, to

Apr.

declined

to

remained

in

He

therefore

gaining

financial

him.

receive

Rome,

John of the Cross (1542-91) and Aloysius Gonzaga (1568-91). His extension of the feast of Pope St Gregory VII to the whole

expertise as treasurer (1696) of the apostolic

church provoked a

claves

crisis in the

holy see's

May 1706 he was made carClement XI, and at several con-

chamber. In dinal by

was among the principal

papabili, or

international relations, for several govern-

cardinals considered in the running for

ments found provocative the passages

election.

provided

office

referring

in the

Gregory's

to

Emperor Henry IV (1056and banned the liturgical text. For all pastoral goodness Benedict was his unpopular with the Roman people, partly because of his maladministration of the deposition of 1

106),

finances of the papal states, but

much more

because of their hatred of Coscia and his

who were

creatures

blame

to

for

it.

On

the

pope's death they vented their fury on the

Beneventans,

guilty

escape with their Opere

tutte

who were

lucky

to

Latine ed Italiane (Ravenna, 1728-34);

the centre of life.

He

Rome's

took the

scholarly and artistic

name of his patron Clem-

ent XI.

Aged

seventy-nine, often bedridden with

from 1732, Clement relied on his immediate circle, especially on his nephew Neri Corsini, whom he named cardinal but who had little capacity for state business. He first had Cardinal gout,

blind

increasingly

Niccolo

Coscia,

Benedict

XIII's

evil trial;

Coscia was sentenced to a huge fine and ten years'

He

imprisonment

then

in Castel

made strenuous

Sant'Angelo.

efforts to

remedy

the debacle into which the finances and

giansenismo',

Memorie

administration of the papal states had fallen.

'Benedetto

e

Domenicane 58 (1941), 217-22; 59 (1942), 38-43; P 34; DHGE 7, 1 63 f. 0- Carreyre); EC 2,' 27982 (C. Castiglioni); DBIS, 384-93 (G. De Caro);

Among

the measures he adopted

revival

of state lotteries, which Benedict

1

5,

the

Cardillo,

(Milan,

Seppelt

in

1953); G.

di Benedetto XIII

il

home

genius, and his coterie brought to

lives.

BullRom XXII; G. B. Pittoni, Vita (Venice, 1730); A. Borgia, Vita (Rome, 1752); G. Vignato, Sloria XIII

His new family

Palazzo Pamfili, on the Piazza Navona, was

415-24.

were the

XIII had banned, the issue of paper money, the restriction of the export of valuables,

CLEMENT

XII (12 July 1730-6 Feb. 1740). The four-month conclave of 1730

and new taxes on imports. \ free port was created at Ancona, and attempts made to

295

BENEDICT XIV (1740-58) enough

feel strong

to resist their pressing

His industry. and trade stimulate endeavours were hampered, however, by corrupt administration, reduced revenues from the Catholic powers, and the losses

demands. By constitutions of 10 Jan. 1731 and 5 Oct. 1732 he restricted the rights of

resulting from the invasion of the papal

administration, during a vacancy. In the

At his death the burden of debt was

constitution In eminenti (28 Apr. 1738) he

states.

numerous

addition,

In

increasing.

still

the

published the

The

demand

A keen supporter of missions,

state.

continued under Clement XII; the powers coerced or ignored it at will. In 173 1 he had to look on helplessly while Emperor Charles

and started

too, in the

Charles

Vatican library, to preside in 1736 as papal

helpless spectator,

legate over the synod of Mount Lebanon, which effected a complete change in Maronite liturgical and canonical life. In

Maronites

over

for

traditionally

(later

Polish Succession

(1733-8), ineffectually backing first one candidate and then another, and having finally to

Italy

acquiesce in a

of power

shift

in

arranged over his head under the

of Vienna (1735 and 1738). Meanwhile the papal states were overrun by armies,

the

Roman

population

revolted against the recruitment of troops by

May

them

in

Rome

in

1737 he canonized an 580-1 660),

Vincent

de

opponent of *Jansenism. Helped by the wealth of

his family, but

Clem-

also by the proceeds of his lotteries,

ent

Paul

uncompromising

(c. 1

treaties

Spanish

whole

touch with the Uniat

in

holy see, on

behalf of Don Carlos of Spain

He was a War of the

a fresh inquiry into the

He was

issue.

Lebanon, founding a college in 1732 and sending J. S. Assemani, orientalist and custodian of the

suzerainty

asserted

Parma and Piacenza, which owed feudal allegiance to the 1759-88).

notably

Far East, he renewed (26 Sept. 1735) Clement XI's prohibition of *Chinese rites,

in the

III:

naturalistic bias,

ferentism, and possible threat to church and

decline in the papacy's international

(171 1-40)

its

for secret oaths, religious indif-

standing, noticeable in preceding reigns,

VI

financial

papal condemnation of

first

Freemasonry, attacking

improperly granted by Benedict XIII out of excessive goodness were cancelled or at least modified. favours

in

particularly

cardinals,

Rome with remarkable notably the museum of antique

embellished

buildings,

1736 Spain,

sculptures on the Capitol, the principal

followed by Naples, broke off diplomatic

facade of St John Lateran and the Andrea

the Spaniards, and in

relations with the holy see.

Clement had

to

make

To

restore

them

substantial conces-

Corsini chapel inside the basilica; he put visitors to

Rome

in his

debt by laying out the

sions to the Spanish government and invest

Piazza di Trevi and erecting the famous

Don Carlos

Fontana di Trevi. He enlarged the Vatican library, and presented it with valuable collections of manuscripts, medals and vases.

(1738) unconditionally with the

kingdom of the two

Sicilies.

He

felt

obliged,

to

disavow

because of a hostile plebiscite, the annexation of state,

San Marino

proclaimed by his legate

A bull

addressed

in

1732

to the

papal

in Oct. 1739.

to the Protestants

BullRom XXIII and XXIV; A. Fabroni, rebus gestis

1760); L. P. Raybaud, Papaute

of Saxony, where the ruling house had

become Catholic undisturbed

in 1697, assuring

possession

church properties

of

them of con-

1963);

P

et

et

pouvoir temporel

Clement XII

pontificals de

les

(Paris,

secularized

in the event of their

sous

De vita

dementis XII commentarius (Rome,

34;

DHGE

12,

Mols);

NCE

320-8

(A. Caracciolo); Seppelt 5,

3,

936

f.

(J.

et

Benoit

XIV

1361-81 (R.

S. Brusher);

DBI

26,

422-8.

version to the Catholic faith, produced no results

of his

and has been cited

as

an

illustration

BENEDICT XIV

political naivety.

(17 Aug. 1740-3

Born at Bologna on

May

At first, because of the hostility of the powers to the holy see, Clement created no

noble but impoverished parentage, Pros-

non-Italian cardinals, but later he did not

pero Lorenzo Lambertini studied

1758).

296

3

1

Mar. 1675, of at

the

BENEDICT XIV (1740-58) Clementino, Rome, taking his

Collegio

doctorate in theology and law in 1694. Out-

standing in

ability

and

juridical training,

he

its own vicar-general and independent of the holy see. His acceptance of these arrangements, often

church, with

effectively

rose rapidly in the curia, becoming secretary

criticized

of the Congregation of the Council in 1720. As Promotor of the Faith 1708-27 he had

absolutist states.

charge of canonizations, and wrote a classic

dealing with the complex situation arising

on the subject (De servorum Dei

out of the death of Emperor Charles VI (20 Oct. 1740) and the War of the Austrian

treatise

1734-8)

beatorum

et

beatificatione

marked by

approach;

it

canonizatione:

fresh,

a

an

remains

historical

indispensable

study. Benedict XIII, whose close adviser he was, promoted him titular bishop of Theodosia (1724), archbishop of Ancona (1727), and cardinal (1728). Translated to Bologna in 1731, he proved an efficient, greatly loved pastor, but found time to

publish a pioneer study of diocesan synods

works on the feasts ofJesus Christ and of the BVM and on the mass. At the sixas well as

month conclave of 1740, the longest in modern times, he was not considered until the last moment, when he was elected as a compromise to everyone's surprise.

as weakness, was proof of his awareness of what was possible in a world of

His touch was

less sure in

Succession (1740-8). First, he irritated Maria Theresa of Austria (1740-80) by belatedly (20 Dec. 1740) recognizing her hereditary right, and then deepened the

estrangement by recognizing (Feb. 1742) Charles Albert of Bavaria as Emperor Charles VII (1742-5). As a result he had to witness the sequestration of all benefices in Austria, and the invasion of the papal states by warring troops. On Charles VII's death (Jan. 1 745) he assumed a neutral stance and in Dec. 1745, in spite of pressure from

France and Spain, recognized Francis

I,

emperor (1745-65). In the peace of Aachen (1748) Parma and Piacenza were disposed of

consort

of Maria Theresa,

as

The choice was fortunate, for Benedict combined an unusually sympathetic per-

without regard to the feudal rights of the

high degree of political

holy see, Benedict's protest being merely

sonality with

a

realism. Conciliatory by nature tion,

and convic-

noted as a dissenting view. In spite of the burden of debt caused by

he concluded concordats containing concessions

substantial

with

Sardinia

the wars, Benedict did

much to improve

the

(1741), Naples (1741), Spain (1753), and

finances of the papal states, reducing tax-

Austria for Milan (1757). The one with Spain, which surrendered practically all

ation

church appointments to the crown, was the most far-reaching. In the same spirit he

papal military budget, but failed to carry out

restored relations with Portugal, disrupted

that

since Benedict XIII's time, granting

King

John V (1706-50)

the title 'Most Faithful' and conceding his most exorbitant demands for control of church affairs. He was no less accommodating, in the interests of their

Catholic

subjects,

sovereigns.

Thus he

lations with Frederick

86),

had

with

Protestant

cultivated II

good

which through the conquest of significantly

re-

of Prussia (1740-

increased

its

Silesia

Catholic-

population, and acknowledged his

title

as

him by previous popes. As a result of this rapprochement he was able to prevent the setting up of a Prussian state

king, denied

and encouraging agriculture and freedom of trade. He drastically cut the the thorough reform of the administration

was necessary. In the strictly church where his heart lay, his legislation was wide-ranging. More than once he impressed on bishops their duties of residence, of training their clergy, and of pastoral visitation, and he set up special commissions to select worthy bishops and to deal with their field,

problems. In the decree Matrimonia quae (4 1 741), issued originally for Belgium and Holland but later extended to other countries, he exempted the marriages of non-Catholics and mixed marriages from the juridical form prescribed b\ the COUHdl of Trent Concerned for the purity of the

Nov.

liturgy,

297

he appointed

a

commission

in

1741

CLEMENT

XIII (1758-69)

to

reform the breviary; in 1747, dissatisfied its proposals, he took the work in hand himself, but was not able to complete it.

without

with

nephews'.

Between 1748 and 1754 he reduced the

omnia

number of

the bull

holy days in Italy and several

Ex quo singulars

suppressed

the

( 1 1

July

1

omnia

with the bull

Omnium

(ed.),

sollicitudinum

inedita (Freiburg i.B., 1904); E.

Le

lettere

.

.

191

P 35 and

DHGE 8,

36;

de HeeckE. Morelli

2);

al Cardinale de Tencin

.

1955-65); L. A. de Caraccioli,

rites

favoured by Jesuit missionaries, following

XIV opera

E.

(ed.

eren, Correspondence (Paris,

742) he

*Chinese

without

de Azevedo, Rome, 1747-51); Opera (more complete edn., with bulls: Prato, 1839-46); F. Heiner, Benedicti XIV papae opera

bishops of South America (1 741) he called for more humane treatment of the Indians.

By

pope

a

Bullarium (Rome, 1746-57); Benedicti

other countries. In a brief to the Portuguese

finally

favourites,

164-7

DBI

(J-

Carreyre);

it

1281-5

(L. Oliger);

(12

NCE 2,

278 (M. L. Shay); Seppelt

8,

(Rome,

Vita (Paris, 1783);

EC 2,

393-408 (M. Rosa); 5,

428-55.

Sept. 1744) extending the ban, in milder to Malabar rites in India. He renewed (18 May 175 1) Clement XII's

CLEMENT

denunciation of Freemasonry, and con-

of the conclave of 1758, the cardinals, who wanted a pope both different from Bene-

terms,

demned

various w ritings of the Enlighten-

ment, such as Montesquieu's Esprit

also in a letter to the

it,

1758-2 Feb. first

choice

dict XIV and not anti-Jesuit, elected Carlo della Torre Rezzonico. Born at Venice on 7 Mar. 1693, of an extremely rich commercial family which had purchased its ennoblement in 1687, he studied under the Jesuits

des lois

Mar. 1752). His characteristic moderation, however, was revealed in his publication of an improved edition of the Index (1758), preceded by a constitution (1753) prescribing fairer and more scholarly (13

standards for the inclusion of books in

XIII (6 July

1769). France having vetoed the

at

Bologna, graduated doctor of laws

at

Padua (17 1 3), and was trained in diplomacy at theAccademia ecclesiastica at Rome. Enter-

as

French bishops (16

May

17 16, he held a series

Oct. 1756) stressing the authority of the bull

ing the curia in

*Unigenitus, but ruling that only brazen

of responsible posts, becoming judge of the

Venice

flouters of it should be refused the last rites.

*Rota

A month before his death, in view

his judicial decisions

on the

he

of attacks

for

volumes of were published the

in 1728; three

Cardinal

year after his election as pope. In Dec. 1737

Saldanha, patriarch of Portugal, to investi-

Clement XII named him cardinal. Appointed bishop of Padua in 1743, he modelled his pastoral activity on St Charles Borromeo (1538-84), striving to improve

Jesuits,

instructed

gate the order in that country, with particuit was neglectand engaging in trade. Approachable and witty, with a tongue which could be sarcastic and an openness which his confidants sometimes abused, Benedict kept up his scholarly interests till the end. A connoisseur himself of church history, he founded not only academies for

lar

ing

reference to charges that its

rule

literary

discussion

but chairs of higher

clerical

standards,

seminary

at his

own

lavishly

on poor

(175

a

1 )

reconstructing

the

expense, and spending

relief;

but he also settled

long-standing dispute between

Venice and the empire over the patriarchate of Aquileia. Venice was delighted by his election,

and withdrew anti-papal from 1754.

legisla-

mathematics, chemistry, and surgery. His

tion dating

wide sympathies won him the respect of Protestants, and even of the French

Mild and well intentioned, but indecisive and therefore dependent on his entourage, notably on the imperious pro-Jesuit Luigi Torrigiano, his secretary of state, Clement felt he must be uncompromising in upholding the rights of the holy see. He had at once to face an all-out offensive against the Society of Jesus which had been fore-

philosophes; Voltaire dedicated his tragedy

Mahomet

to

him, causing eyebrows to be

raised in strict Catholic circles.

A

devout

churchman but also a modern man, he was described by Horace Walpole as 'a priest without insolence

or

interest,

a

prince

298

CLEMENT XIV (1769-74) shadowed by Benedict XIV's request

for

investigation of its conduct in Portugal,

home by

which, pressed efforts of the

concerted

the

Bourbon Catholic powers, was

dominate his reign.

to

an

and

On

charges of illegal

and

trading, inciting revolts in Paraguay,

complicity in a plot to

murder

the king, the

all-powerful minister Pombal,

who

under

propagating

pen-name

the

The pope

Justinus Febronius.

of

requested

the German bishops to outlaw the movement in their dioceses, but their response was slow and faint-hearted. Unsympathetic to the Enlightenment, he had Helvetius's DeVEsprit and the Encyclopedic placed on the

for state absolutism

Index in 1759, Rousseau's Emile in 1763. His own encyclical Chris tianae reipublicae

sequestered

salus (25

stood

and hated the Society, assets in Portugal and her

its

and deported its members to the papal states (1759). Clement protested in vain; his nuncio was expelled and diplocolonies,

matic relations ruptured for a decade. Portugal was soon followed by France, where

Attempts

Clement

was deep-seated. appeasement proved fruitless;

the Jesuits

to

hostility

at

rejected proposals for a separate

Nov. 1766) passed a general condemnation on all publications not in line with Catholic dogma. Among his canonizations was Jeanne de Chantal (1572-1641), the friend of St Francis de Sales; and in 1765 he authorized the mass and office of the Sacred Heart, a devotion dear to the Jesuits. arts,

He

supported scholarship and the

but dismayed the

artists

of

Rome

by

vicar-general for France with the words,

ordering the provocative nudities of statues

On

and paintings, including the frescos in the Sistine Chapel, to be discreetly covered.

'Let 1

them be

as they are, or cease to be'.

Dec. 1764 the Society was abolished by

royal decree. On 7 Jan. 1765 Clement published a bull {Apostolicum pascendi) reaf-

firming

support

applauding

its

the

for

effect; the attack only

and had no

Society

achievements, but

it

spread more widely.

In Feb. 1767, in spite of his pleas, the Jesuits

were expelled from Spain, and in Nov. 1767 from Naples and Sicily. Parma followed suit by

in Feb. 1768, infuriated

a

monitory of

Clement's annulling certain decrees

violat-

ing the church's rights in the duchy and

G.

de

X.

J.

Ravignon, Clement XIII

et

Clement

Lacroix

XIV

de

(Paris,

1854), vol. i; P. Dudon, 'De la suppression de la Compagnie de Jesus (1758-73)', Revue des questions historiques 132 (1938), 75-107; P 36 and 37; DHGE 12, 1381-410 (R. Mols);D£/26, 328-43 (L. Cajani and A. Foa); NCE 3, 937-40 (E. D. McShane); Seppelt 5, 456-69.

CLEMENT XIV

May 1769-22

(19

Sept.

The

stormy conclave of 1769 was dominated by political manoeuvring by the 1774).

their

Catholic powers, more particularly by the Bourbon monarchs' demand to Clement

The Bourbon courts united in proand when Clement refused

Jesus, and by their threat to veto a pro-Jesuit

invoking

of the

censures

the

Thursday authors.

Maundy

BullRomCon I— III;

Domini on

bull *In coena

test against this,

XIII for the suppression of the Society of

candidate.

The

papal enclaves of Avignon and Venaissin,

Lorenzo

(baptized

Naples those of Benevento and Pontecorvo.

Antonio) Ganganelli, had apparently (the

The

question has been

to

cancel his brief France occupied the

climax came in Jan. 1769, with the

powers formally requesting the pope to dissolve the order. Clement, who had no intention of complying,

summoned a special con-

sistory for 3 Feb., but

the day before In 1764 ism, a in

it

German

jurisdiction J.

a stroke

and died

counterpart to *Gallicanism like

to

N. von

it,

confining the pope's

purely I

spiritual

matters,

lontheim (1701-90) was

Vincenzo

Giovanni

much

discussed) given

no promise, but had agreed when sounded that suppression of the order was canonically possible and had certain advantages. Born at Sant'Arcangelo, near Rimini, on 3 Oct.

Clement denounced Febronian-

France and,

which

had

met.

cardinals' eventual choice,

1705, son of the village doctor, he the Franciscans when seventeen,

joined

adopting his

father's

doctor of theology in several years

at

appointed rector

299

1

name. 73

1

,

Graduating

he lectured foe

Franciscan colleges, being of St

Boniface's,

Rome,

in

CLEMENT XIV (1769-74) He was already admired as an author,

hitherto pro-Jesuit, declaring her neutrality

1743 dedicated his Diatriba theologica to St Ignatius Loyola (1 495-1 55°)- He was named consultant of the Holy Office in

on the issue. The draft of a bull of abolition had already been worked out in consultation with the Spanish embassy, and on 16 Aug. 1773 Clement published it as the brief Dominus ac Redemptor noster. In this he

1740.

and

in

and 1756, ambitious 1 746; and in both 1753 probably for higher office, he declined the generalship of his order.

Clement

On

created

XIII

decreed the complete dissolution of the order, citing precedents of orders dissolved,

24 Sept. 1759

him

cardinal.

had had with other rulers, and emphasizing the need to restore peace in the church and the Society's present inability to fulfil the objectives for which it

Hitherto regarded as a friend of the Jesuits, he now distanced himself from them, and XIITs intransigent also from Clement opposition to the Bourbons. An accom-

listing

plished theologian, he loved music, poetry,

and

also

riding.

Outwardh

difficulties

and

orders

it

temporal

with

had been founded.

reserved, he

In the circumstances

lacked inner sclf-conhdcncc and, afraid of

Clement had

momentous

little

being influenced, preferred to work alone; as pope he allowed the cardinals little HJ in

which

his decisions.

enlightenment, but which brought about

Clement took it for granted that his first was to appease the Catholic powers, which soon reminded him (22 July 1769)

the

option but to issue this

nothing

abolition of the Society.

as

triumph

a

Prussia and Russia,

damage

As secretary of state

whose sovereigns forThe resulting

promulgation.

its

to

the Catholic school system in

he appointed Cardinal Pallavicini, a much liked former nuncio to Madrid, and under

cannot be exaggerated. Clement had

pressure from their ambassadors wrote to

the

XV

both Louis

Charles

III

of

Europe and

(1

to

missionary work overseas

satisfaction

at least

of seeing Avignon

and

Yenaissin, occupied by France in protest

and Spain (30 Nov.) promising of France

for

with varying degrees of

elimination,

bade

than the

less

hailed

harshness, of the Jesuits everywhere save in

task

that they expected

was

brief,

Oct.)

against

the speed) liquidation of the Jesuit ques-

Clement

XIII, returned to the holy

see; Naples, too, restored

Benevento and

restored

Pontecorvo, but belatedly and with humili-

relations with Portugal at the price of send-

ating conditions. His efforts to prevent the

tion.

ing

After ten years' break he

a

complaisant

nuncio,

raising

the

partition of

first

Poland came to nothing

brother of the Marquis of Pombal, the

when

prime minister, to the purple, and confirming Pombal's nominees in bishoprics. On Maundy Thursday 1770 he won great plaudits by omitting (it was never revived)

appropriated large sections of it in Feb. and

the reading of the bull *In coena Domini with

house at Rome, and by diminishing, if not abandoning, the traditional papal support for the exiled Stuarts. His plans for re-

its

controversial

anathemas,

the

use

of

which by Clement XIII against Parma in 1768 had precipitated the Bourbons' ultimatum. For four years, however, he postponed definitive action, hoping that a compromise, such as the radical reform of the Jesuits or their gradual attrition by a ban

Aug.

Prussia,

He

1772.

Russia,

brought

and

Austria

new hope

to

Catholics in England by hospitably receiving (1772-4)

members of the

British royal

habilitating the finances of the papal states

by developing industry and agriculture, though well intentioned, proved unsuccessful;

but in

Rome itself he enriched the papal

collections

and started the Museo Pio-

on novices, would placate the powers. His will was finally broken in spring 1773 by warnings that the Bourbon states were

Clementino. During his closing year he was

complete break with Rome,

decomposition of his body fuelled sus-

and by Empress Maria Theresa (1740-80),

picions of poison; the medical report of his

prepared for

a

afflicted

by depression, morbidly afraid of

assassination,

300

and when he died the rapid

PIUS VI autopsy showed them to be unfounded. At

sacristry of St Peter's and the Museo PioClementino, as well as on improving roads

customary eulogies made no his suppression of the Society

his funeral the

reference to

(1775-99)

and

All these extravagances, not

streets.

of Jesus. His reign saw the prestige of the

least his brave

papacy sink

to its lowest level for centuries.

drain the Pontine Marshes, bankrupted his

BullRomCon

IV;

183

treasury. Characteristically,

ed altre opere (Milan,

Lettere

bolle e discorsi (ed.

Lettere,

1 );

the

C. Frediani,

Florence,

XIV:

Ganganelli, Papst Clemens

von Reumont,

A.

1854);

seine Zeit (Berlin, 1847); A. L.

seine Briefe

und

de Caraccioli,

Vita

12,

Clemens

NCE 3,

940-2

1

853); P 38;

EC

(E.

secularism

PIUS VI at

(15 Feb.

Cesena,

3,

1836-41

5,

(P.

DBI

469-84.

1775-29 Aug. 1799). on 25 Dec. 1717,

impoverished

nephews.

had to face a rising tide of and atheism as well as the

Naples,

disposed.

in Emilia,

aristocratic,

he handed over

of the reclaimed

mounting claims of governments to control the church in their realms. It was fortunate for him that the sovereigns of France, Spain, and Portugal, while tenacious of traditional rights and watchful of his conduct towards the Jesuits, were relatively well

DHGE

D. McShane);

343-62 (M. Rosa); Seppelt

Born of

XIV (Leipzig,

141 1-23 (E. Preclin);

Paschini);

26,

'

to his

much

Politically Pius

(Florence, 1776); A. Theiner, Geschichte des Pontificals

freehold of

marshland

Florence, 18 45); Epistolae et brevia selection (ed. A.

Theiner,

but unsuccessful attempt to

however, stiffened

parentage,

feudal

homage and claiming

for

its

Giovanni Angelo Braschi graduated doctor

right to present to bishoprics; Pius

Cesena (1735), studied at Ferrara, and became secretary to Cardinal Antonio

more

of laws

at

Ruffo, then legate of Ferrara.

He

investiture.

acted as

Ruffo's aide at the six-month conclave of

1740, and

when Ruffo became bishop

dignified

of

withhold

to

its

annoyance)

attitude, refusing (to his petty

king the

found

it

canonical

Developments were even more

alarming in the empire, where Joseph II (1765-90), influenced by *Febronianism

and the Enlightenment, was

up

setting

a

Ostia and Velletri administered his dio-

system ('Josephinism') involving complete

His diplomatic adroitness commended him to Benedict XIV, who made him (1753) his private secretary. A prelate

religious toleration, the restriction of papal

ceses.

intervention to the spiritual sphere, and the all respects of church to state. His Toleration Edict of Oct. 1781 suppressed certain religious orders and transferred monasteries from the jurisdiction of

subjection in

was appointed treasurer of the apostolic chamber by Clement XIII in 1 766; Clement XIV named him cardinal in Apr. 1773. As he had stood aside from recent controversies, he was elected at the

in 1758, he

the pope to that of the diocesan bishops.

Pius even journeyed to Vienna in 1782 to

dissuade him, but failed to obtain any con-

134-day conclave of 1774-5 with the backing both of those who, thinking him proJesuit,

hoped

for

some

alleviation of

cessions whatsoever. In

Clem-

of Febronian ideas,

ent XIV's brief dissolving the Society of Jesus, and of the anti -Jesuits, with

whom he

proved unequal

He

to the challenges

78 1 the originator N. von Hontheim

1

(1701-90), was induced to make a formal,

but in

had a tacit understanding that he would implement Clement's policy. Worthy but worldly, proud of his handsome appearance, Pius was concerned for ostentation and obsolete protocol, and

J.

fact hollow,

retractation,

and the

ideas flourished unchecked in south and

west Germany.

When Pius sought (1786)

establish a nunciature at

to

Munich, he was

German German church was

defiantly informed (25 Aug.) by the

archbishops that the controlled by

of the age.

its

bishops and did not need

revived nepotism, assigning substantial

papal intervention. Josephinism spread to

allowances to his relatives and building the

Tuscany, where Joseph's brother, Grand Duke Leopold II (emperor 1790-2), planned to make the church independent of

Palazzo Braschi for his to be

remembered

nephew

Luigi.

Keen

as a patron of the arts,

spent lavishly on splendid buildings

he

like the

301

the pope.

The synod

of Pistoia (Sept.

1

78(1),

PIUS

VII (1800-23)

presided over by Bishop Scipio de' Ricci, supported him, adopting the four *Gallican

July 1796), recognizing the Republic and it, did not satisfy

the Directory.

and exempting bishops

Articles of 1682

from the pope's

(5

ordering Catholics to obey

The situation soon deteriorated, and when the French general L. Duphot was

authority. Pius eventually

exerted himself, forced de' Ricci to resign,

and on 28 Aug. 1794 condemned eightyfive of the Pistoian articles in the bull Auc-

killed

Meanwhile, in deference to the Bourbon courts, he tried to put pressure on Frederick II of Prussia (1740-86) and Catherine II of Russia (1762-96), in whose domains many Jesuits had found refuge, to

On

toremfidei.

a novitiate for Jesuits in 1780. In

first

which

1783-4

French

the

Directory states.

Rome, proclaimed

the

Roman

state, and forced him to withdraw to Tuscany. For several months he lived at the charterhouse at Florence, cut off from

taking no action about the

reorganized

the

of

Civil Constitution of the Clergy (12 July

1790),

Rome

Republic and the deposition of Pius as head

he gave his secret approval to the continued existence of Jesuits in Russia. With the French Revolution a much more ominous chapter opened. Pius was cautious, at

in

riot

15 Feb. 1798 General Louis Berthier

entered

apply Clement XIV's brief of suppression; but he failed to persuade Catherine, who set

up

a

in

ordered the occupation of the papal

almost

all

nuncio

to

The

his advisers, but able to use the

Florence as secretary of

state.

Directory planned to banish him to

Sardinia, but his precarious health ruled

When war broke out afresh, fearful

that out.

of attempts to rescue him,

it

had him con-

veyed from Florence (28 Mar. 1799) via Turin across the Alps to Briancon (30 Apr.)

and then Valence (13

He

July).

died a

church and made the clergy salaried officials. But when an oath of loyalty to the regime was demanded of them, he denounced (10 Mar. and 13 Apr. 1 791) the

prisoner in the citadel there, and was buried

Constitution as schismatical, declared the

cates in history,

new

in the local cemetery; his

body was trans-

Rome,

in Feb. 1802. At one of the longest pontifi-

ferred to St Peter's, his death, after

many assumed

that the

bishops sacri-

destruction of the holy see had at last been

legious, suspended priests and prelates who had taken the civil oath, and condemned the

papacy had indeed reached their nadir

ordinations of the

state

Declaration of the Rights of

Diplomatic relations were

Man

(1789).

once broken off, France annexed the enclaves of Avignon and Venaissin, and the French at

church was completely split. Pius angered France by giving his support to the First Coalition against her and by hospitably receiving

numerous

royalist refugees.

In

1795 he spurned Spanish offers of mediand when Napoleon Bonaparte

ation,

occupied Milan the French

in spring

demand

that

1796 he rejected he withdraw his

condemnation of the Civil Constitution and of the Revolution. Napoleon then invaded the papal states, and Pius had to accept peace terms involving a vast indemnity, the handing over of valuable manuscripts and works of art, and the cession of substantial portions of his states (peace of Tolentino:

19 Feb. 1797); his brief Pastoralis

sollicitudo

and the fortunes of the

accomplished,

under him; but Pius had

left

instructions (13

Jan. 1797 and 13 Nov. 1798) for the holding

of

next

the

in

emergency

M. Gendry,

Pie VI (Paris,

conclave

conditions.

BullRomCon V-X; 1907);

J.

L'Eglise catholique (Paris, 1946);

Bourgin); 8,

532

f.

J.

Flory, Pie VI (Paris, 1942); A. Latreille, et la

P39 and

NCE

11,

Revolution franqaise, vol. 40;

DTC 12,

398-400

1

1653-69 (G.

(A. Latreille);

LThK

(H. Raab).

PIUS VII (14 Mar. 1800-20 July 1823). The conclave after Pius VI's death, in agreement with his wish that the senior cardinal should convene it at the place of his choice, met in Venice under Austrian protection. A fourteen-week stalemate was broken by the compromise election of Luigi Barnaba Chiaramonte. Of noble parentage, born at Cesena, in Emilia, on 14 Apr. 1742,

302

PIUS he joined the Benedictines at fourteen with name Gregorio, studied at Padua and Rome, and was professor of theology at

VII (1800-23)

the Organic Articles or restore papal ter-

the

ritories

Parma 1766-75,

With the renewal of war in Europe his relations with the emperor rapidly worsened, for Napoleon expected his co-opera-

Anselmo, Rome,

S.

at

1775-81. Pius VI made him bishop of Tivoli in 1782, translating

him

more

to the

held by France proved fruidess.

whereas he felt obliged to stay neutral. Although Napoleon secured Consalvi's tion

important see of Imola and naming him

modern

resignation (17 June 1806), Pius's refusal to

he proved a courageous

support the continental blockade of England led the emperor to occupy Rome (2

open

cardinal in 1785. Always ideas, as bishop

still

to

leader in times of political change; he startled conservatives

Christmas 1797 by

at

Feb. 1808) and annex what remained of the

May

sermon that there was no necessary conflict between Christianity and democracy. Once pope, he showed his

papal states (17

independence by resisting pressure to remain on Austrian soil, moving to Rome as soon as it was practicable (3 July 1800). His

name. He was thereupon arrested (5 July) and interned at Savona, near Genoa, in virtual isolation. His reaction was to refuse investiture to bishops nominated by the emperor, but eventually, under extreme pressure, he agreed verbally (Sept. 181 1) to their institution by their metropolitans. This did not satisfy Napoleon, who had him transferred (MayJune 181 2) to Fontainebleau. Here he forced him, exhausted and ill, to sign (25 Jan. 1 81 3) a draft convention (the 'Concordat of Fontainebleau') in which he made

declaring in a

secretary of state, dinal,

was

a

man

whom

he named

tioning

a car-

(1757-1824). Pius first persuaded the Austrians and ate

papal

to

occupied

territories

evacuin

the

previous reign, and then, with Consalvi's help, restarted their administration with a

few modest reforms. Both he and Consalvi wanted to come to terms with revolutionary France so far as was consistent with Catholic

and,

principles

responding

cordat

of 16 July

1

him

signature,

Napoleon

80 1. This restored

Jan.

it

surrenders,

including

but to

military

to release

He re-entered Rome on 24 Mar., but

to

returned to the Vatican on 7 June

1815.

The

prestige of Pius personally, as of the

papacy, was enhanced by his harsh captivity,

which he bore with courage reinforced by his Benedictine training, and which aroused widespread sympathy. One of his first acts (7 May 1 8 14) was to reinstate Consalvi, who Congress of Vienna (181 4— 15) at the

the

negotiated the restitution of virtually

1804, against the advice of the curia, he

holy

to Paris to take part in

hopes

that

(2

his

he would accept modifications

in

temporal

see's

Avignon and

Napoleon's

Dec), but

in

him on 10 Mar.

secularization of church property (1803). In

coronation as emperor

his

forced

reverses

send him back to Savona

814 and

finallv

cordat with the Italian Republic, but could

went

the

seek refuge in Genoa in spring 181 when Napoleon escaped from Elba. He

agreed a similar, but more favourable, con-

after

1

1814.

had

intervention in France. In Sept. 1803 Pius

Germany

men-

by

remorse Pius soon (24 Mar.) retracted

was the religion of the great majority of Frenchmen, and although a tough bargain was struck, the new arrangements brought distinct advantages to the church. These were reduced, however, by the Organic Articles appended by Napoleon unilaterally (6 Apr. 1802), which tightened the state's hold over the church and restricted papal

not arrange one for

'robbers of

implied renunciation of the papal states. In

the con-

Catholicism in France, recognizing that

Napoleon

far-reaching

to

overtures from Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul, negotiated with

all

Peter's patrimony', without, however,

of genius, Ercole Consalvi

Neapolitans (but not the French)

1809). Pius retorted by

excommunicating (10 June)

\

domains

all

the

except

cnaissin. Puis refused in join

the Holy Alliance of 1815 since

it

entailed

subscribing a religious manifesto along w

303

ith

LEO

XII (1823-9)

schismatics and heretics. Consalvi in

world, and when he died

now took

hand a second reconstruction of the papal

which

but his attempt to blend administraand financial reforms on the

office;

states,

French model with the antiquated papal system exasperated reactionaries and progressives alike, and led to serious revolts. Meanwhile Pius, still leaning heavily on

BullRomCon XI-XV; RaccCon 1; A. F. Artaud de Montor, Histoire de la vie et du pontifical du Pope Pie

liberal

VII (Paris,

1

836); A. Latreille, Napoleon

Siege (Paris, 1935);

FM

20

et le Saint-

Leflon); J. Leflon,

(J.

Pie VII \ (to 1800), (Paris, 1958); Schmidlin 1,16-

him, set about restoring the organization of the church, everywhere in disarray as a

DTC

366;

result of the recent troubles, co-operating in

France and Spain with the counter-revolution, while in non-Catholic countries with state churches he appealed to the new ideas of tolerance and liberty. Both the territorial changes effected by the Congress of Vienna

12,

1670-83 (G. Bourgin);

Cognasso);

1504-8

(F.

Aubert);

NCE

11,

400-4

LEO XII (28 Sept.

LThK (J-

EC

9,

533-5 (R.

8,

Leflon).

1823-10 Feb. 1829). Of

noble parentage, Annibale Sermattei della

Genga was born

in

Castello

the

della

Genga, near Spoleto, on 22 Aug. 1760, was a student in Rome, and after ordination

and the more favourable climate enabled

(1783) became private secretary to Pius VI, in 1784 sent him as ambassador to

conclude concordats with several

to

enjoyed a respect

regarded as a supra-national authority.

tive, judicial,

him

it

had lacked when he entered on his it was beginning once more to be

it

who

states, including Protestant Prussia (1821)

In France the

Lucerne. Titular archbishop of Tyre in

concordat eventually accepted was that of

1793, he was nuncio in Cologne and Bavaria 1 794-1805, being chosen for

and Orthodox Russia (181 8).

XVM's

1801, Louis

proposal (1817) for

one more favourable to met with opposition.

several diplomatic missions. Pius VII sent

the holy see having

1817 Pius reestablished the Sacred Congregation of Propaganda; and although initially opposed to the South American republics which had In

revolted against Spain, by

towards

political

changes

tor of

He

Protestant Bible Societies (June 1816), the

by

the

1).

A

gentle and courageous

gladly offered refuge in his

man, he

encouraged

artists like

VII's captivity he lived, effectively a state

prisoner, at his abbey of Monticelli (near

Piacenza), but on the pope's restoration in

1814, was sent as nuncio to Paris. Here he out with

fell

Cardinal

In

1

8 16, however, Pius VII

1818 he exchanged

Canova, reopened

primarily religious interest

a centre

modern

1820 he prefect

was elected by

the votes of the *zelanti, conservatives with a

'liberal'

more reactionary

who wished

a

Consalvi and a policies.

A simple, devout man, morally strong but

a real attempt to adapt

the papacy, within limits, to the

named him

for Spoleto. In

tested conclave of 1823 he

once more

criti-

of several congregations. At the hotly con-

return to

city

who

cardinal and bishop of Senigallia, which in

sought to make the

He made

state,

cized his failure to negotiate the restitution

break with the

arts.

Consalvi

Ercole

(1757-1824), secretary of

the colleges the French had closed, and

of the

event unsuccess-

Rome to relatives of He Napoleon.

persecutor

fallen

(in the

with the courts of Bavaria, Baden, and

became vicar-general of Rome and

Enlightenment, and Freemasonry (Sept.

182

ful)

of Avignon, and retired again to Monticelli.

regarded himself as the protec-

encouraged

cordat negotiations

received and soon returned. During Pius

in that continent.

sound doctrine, and condemned the

indifferentism

envoy to the diet of Regensburg in

business with Napoleon, but was coolly

holy see

But Pius's chief concerns were religious rather than administrative and political. It was typical of him that, soon after his return (31 July 1814), in face of opposition from the powers, he restored the Society ofJesus, having years earlier (1801 and 1804) regularized its existence in Russia and Naples.

as

1805, and in 1806 entrusted him with con-

Wiirttemberg. In 1808 he was in Paris on

1822 he was

neutrality of the

affirming the

him

lacking the

304

flair

of leadership,

Leo shared

LEO the wish of the zelanti that his pontificate

should have a orientation.

at

once replaced Consalvi

tageous to the church with Hanover (1824) and the united Netherlands (1827). As a

state,

appointed a Congregation of State to advise

and

political

matters,

religious

and

published (May 1825) measures condemning

indifferentism,

toleration,

and

Freemasonry, reinforcing the Index and the

Holy

favouring the Jesuits,

Office,

(against the advice of the

and

great powers)

result of his intervention with the sultan of

Turkey the emancipation of the Catholic Armenian communities was achieved in 1830. After initial hesitation, caused by fear of offending Ferdinand VII of Spain (181433), he declared in consistory (21 May

1827) that he would henceforth himself for vacant sees in the newly

announcing a holy year for 1825. His reactionary approach was most evident in dealing with the papal states. Although some of Pius VII's reforms were left intact and useful, if unpopular, fiscal measures introduced, the feudal aristocracy was installed

Ventura

afresh in privileged positions, ecclesiastical

nais

courts of the pre- 1 800 pattern returned, the

of the administration was halted,

laicization

new

provide

independent republics of Latin America, regardless of the king's continuing claim to

possible

liberalism.

out,

lance of private

life to

execution, any poss-

of revolution.

inevitably

1824) deploring his failure to observe the concordat of 18 17 and his tolerance of laws inspired by the Revolution.

He

soon came,

however,

to appreciate the value

relations

with

the

powers,

of good

startled

the

— cardinal— suggesting

as the spiritual leader

should cease in general

effort

to

hold

that

the

of humanity

political action,

Although the

back the

but

Roman

rising

tide

of

Catholic Relief Act

was not passed (13 Apr. 1829) until just after his death, Leo seized every opportunity to promote the emancipation of Roman Catholicism in Great Britain; Consalvi had foretold that he would soon have the satisfaction of seeing this objective realized.

His concern in this matter reflected the guiding theme of his pontificate: not politics, but religious renewal and unceasing warfare against errors which

threaten the

faith.

To him

the

seemed

to

whole point

of the holy year of 1 825, in which in spite of sickness he played an exhausting part, was to restore contact

between the pope and

Christian people, and thus to promote a

general return to the

faith.

Hence,

too, his

attempts to align the monasteries with the apostolic efforts of the church, to raise the

standards of clerical to

awaken

life

and education, and

a religious spirit in the masses.

All too frequently,

were

moderate,

on

to rely

appointing him prefect of the Propaganda, a

was G.

he favoured a policy of collabora-

zelantibs seeking the advice of Consalvi and

and adopted

like

tion with the conservative sovereigns in the

with

The result was economic stagnation, the alienation of the middle classes, and hatred for the personally mild pontiff who was held to blame for making the papal state one of the most backward in Europe. Leo's election revived fears in European courts that he would reverse Pius VII's conciliatory policies. His first actions seemed to bear out these fears, for he insisted on reviving a symbolic acknowledgement of the vassal status of Naples, and wrote to Louis XVIII of France (4 June

ible flicker

men

(1 792-1 861) and F. R. de Lamen(1782-185 4) he cordially received the latter, and even thought of him as a

reverted to a police regime infested with

and intent on stamping

he

time

short

a

influenced by the ideas of

papacy

penalties ranging from petty clerical surveil-

For

patronage.

were founded at universities but teaching was supervised in ways intended to stifle criticism, and Jews were again restricted to ghettos. The modern state which Consalvi had been tentatively fostering chairs

spies

Consalvi's policy of con-

cordats, and negotiated agreements advan-

with a conservative as secretary- of

on

Thus he resumed

religious

less political,

He

more

XII (1823-9)

however,

his

endeavours

hampered by a narrowly clerical outlook and an approach based neither on

flexible attitude.

305

PIUS

VIII (1829-30) upholding traditional positions, he could on occasion be accommodating. Thus he greatly mitigated the harsh police regime which Leo XII had imposed on the

on understanding of the world

insight nor

inflexibly

developing around him. When he died he was profoundly unpopular. BullRomCon XYI-XVII; RaccCon i, 402-5; 680722; A. F. Artaud de Montor, Histoire du Pape Leon XII (Paris, 1843); N. Wiseman, Recollections

papal states, and introduced a

of the Last Four Popes (London, 1858); R. Colapietra, La Chiesa tra Lamennais e Metternich: il pontificato di Leone XII (Brescia, 1963); Schmidlin 1,

367-474; £C7,i 156-8 (F.Fonzi); ^£8,646

f.

(T. F. Casey).

arisen in Prussia as a result of its acquisition

of the Catholic Rhineland and Westphalia in 18

canon law

at

Rome. Having become an subject, he served the

1

5,

he reaffirmed that such marriages

could only receive the church's blessing

if

guarantees of the children's education in the Catholic faith were provided, but if they were not he was prepared to permit the

Osimo, Bologna and at

priest to

be present

The German

in a passive role.

government, which supported the

expert in the

commission

number of

economic and

problem of mixed marriages which had

VIII (31 Mar. 1829-30 Nov. 1830). Born at Cingoli, near Ancona, on 20 Nov. of noble parentage, Francesco 1 76 1, later studying

in the

social spheres. Again, in dealing with the

PIUS

Saverio Castiglione was educated

changes

intelligent

rule that the father's wishes should prevail,

investi-

and the

was

gating the synod of *Pistoia (1786) as sec-

was not

was vicar-general to a series of able bishops and then provost of Cingoli, and was himself appointed bishop of Montalto in 1800. He was imprisoned 1808-14 for

break out afresh in the following pontificate.

retary,

refusing

swear

to

allegiance

to

the

Napoleonic regime in Italy. Pius VII created him cardinal and bishop of Cesena, in Emilia, in 1816, and in 1821 called

Rome

to

him

to

be bishop of Frascati and Grand

Penitentiary.

The

pope,

who

greatly valued

him, hoped he would succeed him, and in

Under Albani

liberals in

in

1

.

Pius aimed at reviving the tradition of Pius VII, whose

name he

adopted. Not

had a keen concern for pastoral and doctrinal issues. He used his first (and only) encyclical greatly interested in politics, he

(Traditi humilitati nostrae:

trace the social

breakdown of

and

in matters

political

of

May

1829) to

religion

and the

24

movements of

emancipation which broke out Ireland,

and Poland

matized

in

national

Belgium,

in 1830; Albani stig-

of Catholics and Belgium against King William I

the

alliance

(1815-40) as 'monstrous'.

On

the other

hand, against the advice of the curia and his

own

nuncio, Pius soon accepted the July

Revolution (1830) in Paris which deposed the unpopular

favour

of

King Charles X (1824-30)

Louis-Philippe,

king

When some

in

of the

legitimist

bishops and priests fled from France, he

showed

the activities of the

cardinal

the curia adopted a hostile

the

to

French (1830-48).

order to indifferentism

faith,

pro-Austrian

openly

the

ing of both France and Austria.

missed being elected

to

Giuseppe Albani, who had brought about his election and whom he at once appointed secretary of state. As a result his policy towards the dioceses of Latin America formerly subject to the Spanish crown was less progressive than that of Leo XII and reactionary compared with that of his successor. attitude

just

conflict

Pius delegated foreign affairs in the main to

823 At the five-week conclave of 1829 he was the candidate of the moderates, and in spite of serious ill health was elected with the backfact

he

satisfied,

his disapproval

Protestant Bible Societies, attacks on the

admission

sacredness of marriage and church dogmas,

new

and secret societies. In a brief of 25 Mar. 1830 he condemned both the influence of Freemasonry in education and the loose morals of the rising generation. Yet while

cordat of

to the

by refusing them

papal states. In view of the

regime's promise to respect the

Con-

80 1, he called oh the French clergy to rally to it, and insisted on bestowing the traditional title of 'Most Christian King' on Louis -Philippe.

306

1

GREGORY XVI (1831-46) Although he had no hand

in

promoting it,

Leo XII and Pius VIII in important

assisted

Roman

business. At the difficult, fifty-day conclave

Catholic Relief Act in Great Britain (13 Apr. 1829). With the sultan of Turkey he

of 1830 he was eventually elected with the backing of the *zelanti and of the Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich (1773-

Pius witnessed the passing of the

negotiated

Armenian

an

1830)

July

Armenian

USA

and

civil

religious rights for the

archbishopric

at

rite

first

Baltimore in Oct.

at

of

the

Constantinople. In the

the bishops held their

Council

1859), who wanted an absolutist-minded pope who would not give way to 'the political madness of the age'.

Catholics, and he established (16

An

Provincial

1829;

decrees, which resulted in a strengthening

of the

ties

US

of the

trends (he banned railways in his

domains, calling them 'chemins d'enfer') and to Italian nationalism in particular, Gregory was immediately faced with upris-

church with Rome,

were approved by Pius

learned monk, hostile to

austere,

modern

its

in 1830.

BullRomCon XVIII; A. F. Artaud de Montor, Histoire du Pape Pie VIII (Paris, 1844); N. Wiseman, Recollections of the Last Four Popes (London,

ings in the papal states and in

1858); E. Vercesi, Tre Pontificati (Turin, 1936);

quickly crushed

Schmidlin

powers then intervened (31

la

474-510; P. de Leturia, 'Pio VIII y independencia de Hispanoamerica', MiscHist-

Fonzi);

LThK 8,

535

f.

EC

9,

(R. Aubert);

1508-10

Rome itself, He had

calls for a federal republic.

from Austria, which

to seek military aid

1,

Pont 21 (1959), 387-400; f.

and with

the

The

revolts.

May

great

183

1),

demanding radical administrative, judicial, and constitutional reforms in the states. Gregory was prepared to concede limited

(F.

NCE 1 1, 404

(T. F. Casey).

changes, but not to grant elected assemblies

GREGORY

XVI

183 1-1 June

or a council of state composed of laymen. As

Belluno, Venetia, on 18

a result disorders broke out afresh, Austrian

Sept. 1765, son of an aristocratic lawyer,

troops had to be recalled, France seized

Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari entered

Ancona, and for seven years the papal states were under military occupation. Supported by reactionary secretaries of state, T. Bernetti and (from 1836) L. Lambruschini, Gregory had to deal with mounting discontent and simmering rebellion for his entire

Born

1846).

at

Feb.

(2

at

Benedictine) monastery of S. Michele at Murano, Venice, taking the name Mauro, and after ordination in 1787 became (1790) professor of science and philosophy. Comeighteen the Camaldolese

ing to

Rome

in 1795,

(i.e. strict

he published in 1799,

reign,

while

the

cost

of maintaining a

during Pius VPs imprisonment by the

repressive

French Directory, The Triumph of the Holy See and the Church against the Attacks of Innovators, upholding papal infallibility and

drained his treasury.

the temporal sovereignty of the holy see,

Mirari vos (15 Aug. 1832) denounced the notions of freedom of conscience and of the

and denouncing state control. In

all

claims to subject

it

to

1805 he was made abbot of and in 1807 procu-

S. Gregorio al Celio,

rator-general of the Camaldolese

order.

Forced to leave Rome after Pius VH's arrest by Napoleon, he taught at Murano and Padua, but returned consultant

to

being

in 18 14. After

several

with

hired

soldiers

Gregory was equally uncompromising

and of separation of church and state, Lamennais (17821854), the champion of Catholic liberalism, and his newspaper L'Avenir. Although he had received Lamennais kindly in Nov.

press,

associated with F. R. de

in

1

,

he condemned

June

1834.

his reply to

Convinced

A\mm vos

that

modern

examiner of prospective bishops, he was

liberalism had hi roots in indiffcrcntism,

named

branded

vicar-general of the Camaldolese in

1823, and cardinal in 1826. As prefect of the

Propaganda (1826) he gave

a

new

New

London

Bible Socict\

York Christian Alliance,

Inter praciptuis nnuhmalwtifs (S

307

he-

this intellectual attitude, as well as

the activities of the

and the

impulse to missionary enterprise; he also

in

the realm of ideas, and in his encyclical

183

congregations and

regime

Ma\

in

1S44).

GREGORY XVI (1831-46) Among

most noteworthy were the efforts which he, a former prefect of the Propaganda, devoted to the church outside Europe. The 19thcent. revival of missions dates from his reign, and in reorganizing them he brought

other teachings he censured were

(26 Sept. 1835) the rationalism of Georg Hermes (1 775-1 83 1) and the fideism of the

abbe L. E. M. Bautain (1796-1867), who placed an excessive emphasis on faith. In

them firmly under papal control. Through him some seventy dioceses and vicariates

he stood for the field political independence of the church and had a horror of revolution, and his reign was a

the

in the service

continuous struggle servative ideals.

For years he was

were established, and almost two hundred missionary bishops were appoin-

apostolic

of conat

ted. In the bull Sollicitudo ecclesiarum (7

odds

with Portugal and Spain, whose governments were embarking on unacceptable anticlerical legislation,

land,

where the

1

Baden

the Poles revolted against the tsar in

able to settle once for

(21 Jan.

1

change of regime,

a

all

the vexed issue of

appointments to sees in Latin America and India, notwithstanding protests from Spain and Portugal. In the brief In supremo (3 Dec. 1839) he denounced slavery and the slavetrade as unworthy of Christians, and on 1 Nov. 1845 approved an instruction of the Propaganda encouraging a native clergy and

when

83 o- 1

(9 June 1832) to condemning revolutionary movements. The same respect for con-

he addressed an encyclical their

Aug.

clear his policy of negotiat-

where there was

ing,

1834) sought to eliminate papal authority over Swiss Catholics. He protested (1845) with some success against Nicholas I's persecution of Catholics in Russia, but

made

with the de facto government, and was thus

and with Switzer-

Articles of

831) he

bishops

hierarchy in mission territories. Gregory's

Canada and

stituted authority' led him, in a private letter

concern extended also

from the Propaganda (15 Oct. 1844), to discourage the Irish clergy from political action. Yet he could on occasion be accommodating, and in response to government

USA; he created four dioceses in the former

pressure acquiesced in the temporary with-

Baltimore.

drawal of the Jesuits from France in 1845. In Prussia, which insisted that children of

scholarship,

mixed marriages should follow

research in the

religion,

he took a strong

in

followed

it.

William

With IV

however, his diplomacy' was able

to

1840),

reach an

advantageous arrangement (1841) under which Prussia gave up the right to interfere

freedom of episcopal elections was guaranteed and a special department for Catholic affairs was in

mixed marriages;

set

up

Gregory had a and

combs,

the accession of

(June

in addition the

real interest in art

not

and

encouraged

only

but

and narrow, with little comprehension of the contemporary world, he left his successor a grievous legacy both in the church and in the papal states. Mauro

Cappellari, // trionfo delta Santa Sede

(Venice, 1799); Acta Gregorii papae

Bernasconi,

Rome, 190 1-4:

XVI

(ed. A.

defective); Mercati,

1, 724-50; BullRomCon XIX-XX; GreXVI: Miscellanea commemorativa (2 vols., Rome, 1948); Schmidlin 1, 511-687; P. de

RaccCon gorio

in the ministry of religion.

Gregory's pontificate saw the reorganiza-

Leturia,

tion of the hierarchy, the reform of the

Relaciones

Hispanoamerica

and the founding of new ones. Doctrinally he promoted the Immaculate Conception of the BVM, without, however, defining it as a dogma of faith. But existing orders,

as well as reorganizing the see of

(1844), and established ten dio-

Roman forum and the catafounded the Etruscan and Egyptian museums in the Vatican and the Christian museum in the Lateran. Brought up as a monk, good-hearted but obstinate

their father's

line, recalling (27

against the imprisonment of an archbishop

Frederick

834-43

the

ceses in the latter and reorganized the see of

Mar. 1832 and 12 Sept. 1834) Pius VIII's ruling and protesting (12 Dec. 1837)

who had

1

Quebec

to

Schmidlin,

entre

(AnGreg,

'Gregor

XVI

la

als

ministrazione

308

dello

Sede

y

1959-60);

J.

Missionspapst',

und Religions wis 209-28; A. Ventrone, L'amStato Pontificate 1814-70

Zeitsch riftfu rMiss ions wissenschafi senschaft 21 (193 1),

Santa

Rome,

PIUS IX (Rome, 1942); 1 148-56 (P.

6,

DTC6, 1822-36 (E. Amann); EC dalla Torre); L Th K 4, 190-2 (G. 1

Schwaiger);

NCE 6, 783-8

PIUS IX

(16 June 1846-7 Feb.

(A. Simon).

(1846-78)

(1848-76) he set up a paternalistic regime in the papal states

which alienated the edu-

cated and frowned on national aspirations.

1878).

Count Camillo Cavour, chief minister of Piedmont since 1852, skilfully exploited the

Fourth son of a count, Giovanni Maria

situation in the interests of Italian unifica-

Mastai-Ferretti was born at Senigallia, in

tion,

March of Ancona, on 13 May 1792 and studied at Viterbo and Rome. A victim of epilepsy in youth but now cured, he was

his

823-5 with a papal mission to Chile, took charge 18257 of the Hospice of S. Michele, Rome, and was archbishop of Spoleto 1827-32, bishop

to the

the

ordained priest in

1

of Imola 1832-40.

he was reputed a

8 1 9, served

1

An indefatigable pastor, liberal

because he advo-

and by Sept. i860, after the defeat of newly raised army at Castelfidardo, Pius

saw

all

his dominions, with the exception of

Rome and

its

immediate environs, annexed

new kingdom of Italy. For a decade he

was protected by outbreak

necessitated

1870 Oct.

a

its

Franco-Prussian

War

withdrawal, and on 20 Sept.

Italian forces it

French garrison, but the

of the

occupied

Rome itself; in

was incorporated by a

Law

plebiscite in

of Guarantees

cated administrative changes in the papal

the Italian state. In the

and sympathized emotionally with He was named cardinal in 1840, and at the two-day conclave of 1846 was elected, as a moderate

(13 May 1 871) the government assured the pope of personal inviolability, the tenure of the Vatican and other buildings, and certain

L.

accept the fait accompli at the price of

Pius at once (16 July) declared a political

abandoning the sacred legacy of his predecessors. Henceforth he never set foot out-

states

Italian national aspirations.

progressive,

against

reactionary

the

Lambruschini.

important immunities; but Pius refused to

amnesty, granted some practical reforms in

side the Vatican, regarding himself as a

the papal states, and in 1847 set up city and

prisoner.

state councils;

he made gestures of support

to Italian nationalism.

The

resulting out-

burst of popularity, however, along with his liberal reputation, it

clear

that,

subsided

when he made the

believing

independence, he had no inten-

spiritual

tion of establishing a constitutional state. In

Mar. 1848 he was forced bicameral assembly, but

to

concede a

when he

firmly

refused (29 Apr. 1848) to join in the war to expel

Austria

from

Italy

his

expedit

neutrality

(it

is

not expedient'), forbidden

Catholics to take part in political

life in

Politically Pius's pontificate, the longest

might seem

in history, ter,

to

have been a disasit was full of

but viewed ecclesiastically

positive achievements. In the old and new worlds he founded over two hundred new

dioceses and vicariates apostolic, notably in the

USA

and the British colonies; and he

re-established the hierarchies in England

seemed a betrayal. In a crisis made worse by economic breakdown his prime minister, Count Rossi, was murdered on 15 Nov.

(1850) and the Netherlands (1853).

1848, and Pius himself fled in disguise to Gaeta, south of Naples, on 24 Nov. On 9

numerous

Feb.

1849

claimed.

a

Roman

From Gaeta

He

was pro-

concluded concordats with such as Russia (1847), Spain (185 1 ), Austria (1855), and Latin American republics (1852-62), and gave

Pius appealed to the

strong support to the Catholic Union in

republic

(1847).

states,

Germany and

restored papal rule on 15 July, re-entered

(1852).

Rome

increasing

with their help on 12 Apr. 1850. His

Giacomo

He

restored the Latin patriarchate in Jerusalem

Catholic powers and, French troops having

liberal stance

the

kingdom of Italy.

'usurping'

temporal

sovereignty of the holy see indispensable to its

He had already, in the decree of 29 Feb. 1868 opening with the words Non

was now discarded, and with

Antonclli as secretary of

Mate

A

30()

of the

centralization

facilitated by

but

the Central Party in Prussia

feature

h\

the

authority,

ol

modern means

encouraged

was an

reign

of

transport

bishops'

loss

ol

PIUS IX political

to

work

(1846-78)

power and

consequent need

their

closely with the pope;

it

helped

the

tendenq

authority

centralize

to

7

in

church government and doctrine in the holy see, but its triumph at Vatican I not only extended the Old Catholic schism in Holland

to

eliminate the last vestiges of *Gallicanism

and *Josephinism. Pius carried out an unprecedented number of canonizations and beatifications, and consecrated (16

to other countries but led to

Europe

anticlericalism in

an outbreak of

generally, culmi-

June 1 875) the Catholic world to the Sacred Heart of Jesus (the feast of which he had extended to the entire church in 1856). But

nating in the abrogation (1874) of the con-

three events stand out as particularly signifi-

Kulturkampf), which Pius denounced in the

cant.

The

on the church

attack

encyclical Quod

his definition of the

was

first

cordat by Austria and Bismarck's repressive in

nunquam

(5

Germany

(the

Feb. 1875). Yet

Immaculate Conception of the BVM, i.e. of her freedom from original sin, on 8 Dec. 1854. Made without mention of episcopal

when he modern

approbation, this gave a powerful stimulus

but armed with vastly enhanced spiritual

to

of theological

deemed unsound and Dec.

1274), he published (8 attached,

thened

1864) the

which denounced

respond

to

also left

(d.

encyclical Quanta cura, with the 'Syllabus of

Errors'

stripped

papacy,

to deplore)

he

(as

'the

never

of its temporal dominion,

own mind

and intelchurch ill-equipchallenges, but he

political

lectual trends, he left the

ped

calls for a

Thomas Aquinas

return to that of St

effectively created the

being closed to modern

development.

Secondly, after repeated condemnations of teaching

had

authority in compensation. His

Marian devotion, and opened fresh

possibilities

ceased

died, he

it

to their

profoundly changed and streng-

in its inner life.

Whether

at the level

of the clergy or of the great body of the reign

his

faithful,

witnessed

a

vigorous

This could be traced persistent efforts to deepen

principal errors of our times', including the

spiritual regeneration.

view that the pope 'can or should reconcile

directly to his

himself

the religious

and

an example

to

but also to his resolve to be and pastor of souls, setting his flock. A factor not to be

affirmed the autonomy of the church in

overlooked

is

the extraordinary devotion

to,

ism, and fatal

or agree with, progress, liberal-

modern

blow

to

civilization'.

This dealt

Catholicism,

liberal

above

a

modern

relation to the religiously neutral

Thirdly, he summoned the First Vatican (Twentieth General) Council (1869state.

70),

which,

the

in

Pastor

constitution

aeternus (18 July 1870), declared the defini-

tions of the

pope

in faith

own

and morals

to

that

all

'Pio

life,

a priest

Nono', with his winning per-

and patience in adverwhich caused even political respect him, and which found

sonality, kindly wit, sity,

inspired,

adversaries to

enthusiastic expression at the celebration of

be

his jubilees as priest (1869),

pope (1871 and

not as a result of

1876), and bishop (1873). This affection,

the consent of the church, thereby complet-

however, did not prevent the anticlerical

ing the doctrinal development of centuries

Roman mob, on

infallible in their

and removing

all

right,

conciliarist interpretations

of the role of the papacy. This owed Pius's

personal

intervention;

much to

but

the

13 July 1881, from holding up the procession accompanying his body from its provisional resting-place in St Peter's to S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and

Council's constitution on faith {Dei fi litis: 24

attempting to fling

Apr. 1870), deploring contemporary pan-

first

theism, materialism, and atheism, defining

taken in 1985 with the

the spheres of reason and faith, and basing positive Catholic doctrine firmly

was no programme. Pius was the tion,

less

on revela-

representative

pope

to identify

himself

wholeheartedly with ultramontanism,

i.e.

official

The was

recognition of

IXPapae

Rome, 1854-78); R. LX (FM 21, 2nd edn. IX et son temps (Paris,

(9 vols.,

Aubert, Le pontifical de Pie 1964); F. Hay-ward, Pie

first

into the Tiber.

his 'heroic virtue'.

Acta Pit

of his

it

step towards possible canonization

1948); E. E. Y. Hales, Pio

edn. 1956); E. Vercesi, Pio

310

Xono (London, 2nd

IX

(Milan, 1930); G.

LEO La

Mollat,

Question romaine de Pie VI a Pie

(Paris, 1932);

Schmidlin

8 (R. Aubert);

EC 9,

405-8

(R. Aubert);

5

1

EB

1

2,

1-330;

0-23

DC

be crowned

LThKS, 536-

(P. Pirn);

NCE

482-6

(15th edn.) 14,

XIII (1878-1903)

in the seclusion

of the Sistine

Chapel because the government feared demonstrations in his favour if he blessed the Roman crowd from the loggia of St Peter's. Almost sixty-eight, fragile in health, he seemed a stop-gap appointment, but ruled the church with masterly flair for over

1 1

(R.

Aubert).

LEO

XIII (20 Feb. 1878-20 July 1903). Sixth child in a family of the lesser nobility,

twenty- five years.

Gioacchino Vincenzo Pecci was born at Carpineto, in the hills south of Rome, on 2

Leo's main achievement was his attempt, within the framework of traditional teach-

Mar. 1810. A brilliant boy with a Latin which he retained through studied at Viterbo (1818-24), the

for

ing, to bring the

life,

he

modern

Roman

Ordained in he immediately joined the papal service and was made governor, first, of Ecclesiastics (1832-7).

could have

him

Belgium (1843-6),

halting

him

visits

ogne, London, and Paris, was his

with

tact

first

archbishop

titular

Damietta. This, with short

to

first

against

the

Sardinia

in

legislation

of

i860 and

the

strengthening

and

Rome. But his was the opening up of dialogue between the church and society in a striking series of pronouncements. In distinctive contribution

I

the intellectual field he directed Catholics

Perugia

t0 (d.

founded an academy

at

Rome to study

by also

down

the socio-

to

Dei

i.e.

the official

in a vacancy.

the

first

who

temporal and spiritual power

gent moderate

at

the third ballot.

I

Ie

1881),

and

pnustantissimum

church

its

erlv

intelli-

had

ot

Immortale

Nov. 1885), giving a grudging recogdemocracy in Diutimiuin Mud (29

jum:

administers the church

At the conclave of Feb. 1878,

temporal power, he was elected as an

(1

spheres

in

nition to

as camerlengo,

since the loss by the holy see of

He

1893).

devoted several encyclicals

ary culture. After Antonelli's death Pius IX

Rome

Ie

guidelines for biblical research in

political order, defining, e.g., the

to

it. I

Providentissimus Dens (18 Nov.

of 1874-7 reveal) to argue for a rapprochement between Catholicism and contempor-

him (1877)

philo-

274), and

and natural sciences at the Vatican, called on Catholic historians to write objectively, and opened (18 Aug. 1883) the Vatican archives to scholars regardless of creed. To meet the challenge of new critical methods he laid

modernized the curriculum of his seminary, promoted a revival of Thomism and founded (1859) the Academy of St Thomas Aquinas, and began (as his pastoral letters

recalled

me 1

also fostered the study of astronomy

secularizing

He

Aug. 1879)

Thomas Aquinas

(Aeterni Patris: 4

sophy of St

was

he

the

concentrating

orders and congregations in

Rome and

followed.

that

by intervening with

of nuncios,

As bishop he protested

annexation

it

position

suspect to Cardinal Antonelli, Pius IX's secretary of state.

from

progressives

as

con-

(183 1-65) to request his recall. He was then bishop of Perugia 1846-78, being named

because

centralization,

episcopates,

educational controversy led King Leopold

responsibilities

(10 Feb. 1880),

Pius's pen. Far

national

episcopate against the government in an

curial

come from

hoped, he increased

of

Europe, but his ill-judged support of the

cardinal in 1853 but kept from

Humanum

Col-

parliamentary

industrialized,

muneris (28 Dec.

Mud

marriage in Arcanum

Gregory XVI then sent

appointing

Quod apostolici

genus (20 Apr. 1884), as his treatment of

able administrator. to

terms with the

1878), or on Freemasonry in

Benevento (1838-41), and then of Perugia (1841-3), proving in both a firm and capnuncio

to

age. At the

nihilism in

1837,

as

church

same time he made no sharp break with Pius IX, whose policies he continued in several fields. For example, his attacks on socialism, communism, and

Academy of

College (1824-32), and the

Noble

flair

as the custodian

understood.

Immortale

to

M

arguing

(20 June

/); the man thev had chosen was '( iod's cam His choice of name wafl Baid to express his desire to combine the progressive and the traditional qualities of John Will and Paul VI,

Vatican

(1962-5), but becoming known in the Italian Conference of Bishops as in

Council

establishment, and

electors

relationship with local communists. In Dec.

playing

the curial

after the election the prevailing

the Catechism (Catechest in Bri-

this

Although almost unknown outside Italy, at die third ballot on the first day of the conclave of Aug. 1978 following Paul VFs death. His candidature moved into the foreground once it became clear that the majority of cardinals wanted a completely new style of pope, without conneche was elected

native parish, he at

to sell

for the benefit of the poor, and in 1971 proposed that the wealthy churches of the west should give one per cent of their income to the impoverished churches of the

as

After training at local

seminaries and doing his military service, he was ordained priest on 7 July 1935. After doctoral studies at the Gregorian University, Rome, and service as a curate in his

seminary

encouraged parish priests

prepared

text) bis intention of

implement Vatican Council

commission response to

3*5

to the tticiallv

continuing

II.

.it

the

to

same

time preserving intact 'the great discipline

JOHN PAUL

11(1978-

)

football,

of the church in the life of priests and of the A more spontaneous act was to faithful hold a press conference, during which he

swimming, and canoeing (he was up skiing); he also loved poetry,

later to take

1

.

a particular flair for acting. In

and showed

1938 father and son moved to Krakow, where Karol entered the Jagiellonian University to study Polish language and

held the thousand journalists present spellbound. Always impatient of pomp and

outward trappings, and transparently humble-minded, he dispensed with the traditional papal coronation, and at his inauguration (3 Sept.) in St Peter's Square was

he was prominent in amateur dramatics, and was admired for his poems. When the Germans occupied Poland in Sept. 1939, the university was

literature; as a student

simply invested with the ^pallium in token of his pastoral office. Three weeks later,

forcibly closed

down, although an under-

p.m. on Thursday 28 Sept.. he died of a heart attack while lying in bed reading some papers containing personal notes. His light was still on when he was

ground network of studies was maintained (as well as an underground theatrical club

found dead about 5.30 a.m. next day. Rumours of foul play, fanned by the lack of an autopsy, were later (1984) blown up into the claim that he was poisoned because he

to write poetry; for a

about

1 1

planned

to

clean up the Vatican

which Karol and Karol continued

ment

I

was a tissue of improbabilities. The first pope of demonstrably working-class orig-

man

of practical

common

sense

who

captivated people with his friendly smile, is

London, 1949);

in

Cattabiani, Padua, 1979);

felt

the call to the priesthood,

A.

with distinction in theology in Aug. 1946, he

scritti e discorsi (ed.

AAS

70 (1978), 677-

was ordained

776; 797-903: The Times, no. 60420 (30 Sept. 1978), p. 16; P. Hebblethwaite, The Year of Three Popes (London, 1978); D. Yallop, In God's

Same

II

(16 Oct. 1978first

).

The

obtained his doctorate

non-Italian one

dissertation

Hadrian VI, Karol Wojtyla was born on 18 May 1920 atWadowice, an industrial town 50 km. south-west of Krakow, Poland. His family was modest, his father being a retired army lieutenant living on his pension; Karol became especially close to him since his mother died when he was still a since

small boy. Joining the local primary school

he went at eleven to the state high where he proved both an outstanding pupil and a fine sportsman, keen on school,

Nov.

Mar. of that year his first collection of poems, Song of the Hidden God, had been published. Sent by Sapieha to the Pontifical

Slav pope and the

at seven,

1

In

University (the Angelicum) in

first

Adam

by Cardinal

priest

Sapieha, archbishop of Krakow, on

(London, 1484).

JOHN PAUL

a

at

London, 1978);

lived.

Easy Stages (ET,

Illustnssimi'(FT,

magisterv di Albino Luciani:

940 he was given

1

limestone quarry

a

began studying theology clandestinely, but after the liberation of Poland by the Russian forces in Jan. 1945 was able to rejoin the Jagiellonian University openly. Graduating

he would have pursued had he

II

accidents, he

it

impossible to guess what kind of policies

Albino Luciani, Catechols

in

also

Zakrowek, outside Krakow, and in 1941 was transferred to the water-purification department of the Solway facton in Borek Fale.cki; these experiences were to inspire some of the more memorable of his later poems. In 1942, after his father's death and two near-fatal recovering from after

Bank,

demote important curial figures, and revise Hutnanae itae\ but the evidence produced

ins, a

job

and

time he had an attach-

to a girl. In winter

labourer's

Thus

a friend organized). to study incognito,

in

Rome, he

June 1948

on the concept of

for a

faith in St

John of the Cross. After serving from 1948 to 195

then to

1

at

as a parish priest (at

Niegowice, and

St Florian's, Krakow), he returned

the Jagiellonian

to

study

philosophy

(Martin Buber, Gabriel Marcel, and above all

Max

Scheler, on

whom

he published his

During these years (19528) he also lectured on social ethics at Krakow seminars-, and in 1956 was appointed professor of ethics at Lublin, becoming acknowledged as one of Poland's foremost

thesis in i960).

326

JOHN PAUL ethical thinkers. On 4 July 1958, while on a canoeing holiday with students, he was nominated titular bishop of Ombi and auxiliary to the see of Krakow by Pius XII. On 30 Dec. 1963 Paul VI named him archbishop of Krakow, a role in which he

pastor of the church' (a characteristic title)

became

a

Vatican Council

Addressing the cardinals on 17 Oct., the

new pope pledged himself unreservedly

prominent figure

A member of the he attended

all

thought,

'the witness

Rome

implementing

in

as well as Poland,

up by

it;

true freedom

primate,

he was shot and seriously wounded by a young Turk, Mehmet Ali Agqa, underwent major surgery, and was convalescent until Oct. 1 98 1. In his third encyclical, Laboreni exercens (Sept. 1 98 1 ), which he revised while recovering and which commemorated the anniversary of Leo XIII's *Rerum novarum, he called for a new economic order, neither capitalist nor Marxist, but based on the rights of workers and the dignity of labour; he insisted on the primacy of man over

some (who

things.

*Humanaevitae)> he delivered

the traditional course of Lenten addresses

and

the

(published in English Contradict ton),

papal

1979 as Sign of lie was thus a well-known

having been found for any Italian candidate,

to

apparently

at

looked

further

afield

the eighth ballot, elected

and,

culture and religion.

favourite,

imnu

nsi

organized

to

make

journeyi

spectacular, bj

countries near and far In Jan. 1979

South America

to

open the

can episcopal conference

him

ico,

327

and from

suc-

l\

impressing his message

of

on the world has been skilfully

cardinals

common

But John Paul's cessful, method

and widely respected personality when at the conclave of Oct. 1978, no consensus the

fourth, Slavorum apostoli (July

the basis of a

household

in

A

1985), appealed to the peoples of communist eastern Europe to resolve divisions on

Love and Responsibility and used

pope

dignity

threatened world. On 13 May 1981, while being driven in a jeep in St Peter's Square,

Cardinal

In 1976, at the invitation of Paul VI

the

human

same theme, calling on men to showmercy to one another in an increasingly

kind of tolerable legal status for the church.

to

found, and

the

of several of the Vatican

successful, to secure from the regime

in drafting

is

Dives in misericordia (Dec. 1980), developed

Stefan Wyszyriski, in a struggle, broadly

it

encyclical,

first

and attended four

and 1970s he was becoming a familiar figure on the world stage, repeatedly visiting North America (e.g. attending the eucharistic congress at Philadelphia in 1976), and travelling to the Middle East, Africa, south and east Asia, and Australia. In Poland he

his

be

best preserved, in the church. His second,

decisions,

congregations, or ministries. In the 1960s

had read

to

in

its

1971 synod he was elected a steering committee. He was

his

was

love'; politically

1979), was an eloquent statement of Christian humanism:

she

that

at the

co-operated with

his role

Redemptor hominis (Mar.

of

general episcopal synods set

member of its also a member

it,

of a universal

freedom of worship. His

the

five

out of the

of Vatican

fulfilment

18 Oct. he told the ambas-

the holy see sought nothing for itself but

claimed for herself. After the council he was active

exact

On

only that believers might be allowed true

contending that

speech

II.

on

to others the liberty

and

action,

the

Council

made an

influential contribution to the debate

religious freedom, church must grant

action',

sadors that, as he saw

internationally.

Preparatory Commission,

four sessions and

'to

promoting, with prudent but encouraging

(1962-5)

II

new

took place in St Peter's Square on 21

Oct.

981), a pastoral treatise on sexuality, in at

)

adopted, there was no coronation; the inauguration of his ministry as 'universal

formidable adversary of the repressive communist government, and on 26 June 1967 created him a cardinal. He had already published Love and Responsibility (ET, i960, and

(1978-

at the relatively youthful age of fifty-eight by an overwhelming majority (103 out of 109 votes). As with John Paul I, whose name he

revealed himself as a politically astute and

1

II

2 to 10

at

I

.at 111

ail

In-

to

went

\meri

Puebla,

Mex-

June he returned

to

JOHN PAUL

(1978-

II

)

Poland, taking part in the ninth centenary of patron St Stanislaus. Since then each

then the church in countries with Marxist regimes. Few popes have had such wide-

year of his pontificate has been highlighted by several such pilgrimages, which have

ranging

its

equipment as John none has had such a far-reaching impact. His distinctive approach in politics, theology, and ethics has been conservative.

placed an immense strain on the Vatican administration but have emphasized the global mission of the papacy and enabled it to display *col)egiality in action.

intellectual

Paul, and

Thus from

Among the

the Puebla conference in 1979

to the discussion

between Leonardo Boff,

since undertaken numerous becoming pope (he had made twenty-seven by August 1 085) may be mentioned those to

the Brazilian theologian, and Cardinal Josef

in 1979, during which he and the ecumenical patriarch attended each other's liturgies, without however sharing com-

which accepts the idea of class struggle and calls on the church to ally itself with the

journeys

Ratzinger resolutely

Turkey

munion;

1982, the

to Britain in

ever paid to

it

by

a

BVM

from assassination (he

deliverance

presented her with the 1983,

in

bullet); to

when he pleaded

later

where

he

hostile,

the pope's express approval the

seven states in Africa

in

German

dangerous trends

warnings

against

have been

in theology

cool,

frequent, and he has reminded believers

from pro1985; and to

from time to time of the reality of heaven and hell, and of the centrality in Christian devotion of the eucharist and of the BVM.

received

May

Other

theology.

a

reception

gressive Catholics, in

too closely in

Dec. 1979 the

bishops in 1980 withdrew the licence of Hans Kiing, of Tubingen, to teach Catholic

non-

Far East, including South Korea, Papua New Guinea, and Thailand, in 1984; to Holland,

it

early as

Dutch professor, Edward Schillebeeckx, was summoned to Rome to explain heterodox views on Christology, while with

for

violent solutions to social problems; to the

sometimes

As

political action.

Central for

1984 he has been

to 'liberation theology',

oppressed, as involving

visit

pope, to Fatima, Port-

ugal, in 1982, to give thanks to the

America

first

Sept.

in

opposed

August

1985.

He

These visits followed a common pattern, w ith the pope kissing the ground on arrival, saying mass in front of enormous crowds,

Jesus. In Chicago in 1980 he confirmed the

preaching sermons carefully attuned

to the

church's traditional teaching on marriage,

and giving full rein to his an actor and to his outgoing

abortion, and homosexuand pointedly endorsed Paul VI's Humanae vitae. He has consistently maintained this posture throughout his reign,

local situation, skills

as

personality.

In Feb. 1984

has taken energetic steps to restore the

morale and effectiveness of the Society of

John Paul concluded with

contraception, ality,

the Italian government a revision of the

and has

*Lateran Treaty (1929); this revision formalized the separation of church and state in

relax the rule of priestly celibacy.

Italy

vided

and,

among

that

Rome

other concessions, pro-

should no longer be

recognized as a 'sacred

saw the

UK

city'.

In Jan. 1982 he

representative to the holy see

from the rank of minister to that of ambassador. At consistories on 2 Feb. 1983 and 25 May 1985 he created forty-six new cardinals; as well as continuing Paul VI's policy of making the sacred college more international, he endeavoured by his promotions to strengraised, for the first time,

stance

set his face against proposals to

has

others regard

disappointed

him

his

as having restored to the

church the sense of direction danger of losing

While

progressives,

it

seemed

in the latter years

in

of Paul

VI's pontificate.

AAS

P. Hebblethwaite, The Year of 70, 906Three Popes (London, 1978); IntroducingJohn Paul

II

;

(London, 1982); Lord Longford, Pope John II: an Authorized Biography (London, 1982);

Paul P.

Johnson, Pope John Paul II (London, 1982); Paul II, Collected Poems (ET by J.

John

Peterkiewicz, London, 1982).

3*8

APPENDIX Pope Joan From

mid- 13th to the 17th cent, the had been a female pope,

the

tradition that there

the Colosseum and S. Clemente. She died on the spot and was buried there; because of

commonly but not invariably named Joan, at some date in the 9th, 10th, or nth cent.,

the

was almost

While Martin gives her name as John (i.e. Joan or Joanna in the feminine), other

universally accepted;

was

it

still

furnishing ammunition to attackers of the

Roman church

papacy and the 19th cent.

The

1240 and 1250,

Metz

in the late

story first appears,

between

Mailly, according to

Dominican Jean de which Victor III (d.

1087) was succeeded by a talented

woman

who, disguised as a man, had worked her way up in the curia as a notary, and had eventually been promoted cardinal. She was betrayed when, mounting her horse, she gave birth to a child, and was ignominiously tied to the horse's city,

dragged round the

tail,

and then stoned

to death.

can Stephen de Bourbon Franciscan of Erfurt Chronicon

minor

accounts of the

accounts

(d.

c.

The Domini1

who wrote

give

affair

262) and the (c. 1

broadly

265) the similar

of the 'popess', the

thereafter

traversing the

street.

her Agnes, Gilberta, or Jutta,

call

or leave her nameless.

The

in the Universal Chronicle of

attributed to the

shameful episode, popes

studiously avoided

in

embellished with fan-

story, often

tastic details,

was accepted without question

Catholic circles for centuries.

taken up by humanists

1374) and influenced

among

Boccaccio

(d.

iconography;

was

It

Petrarch

like

Joan

(d.

and

1375),

figures

the busts of popes placed

c.

1400

in

Siena cathedral. Critics of the papal claims (e.g.

in

John Hus

of Constance

at the council

14 1 5) were able to exploit the story

without

being

enthusiastic

One

contradicted.

writer,

Mario

Equicola

of

Alvito (near Caserta: d. 1525), even argued that Providence

had used Joan's elevation

women

demonstrate the equality of

to

with

one placing it c. 1100 and the other c.915. The tale was given definitive form, however, and very wide diffusion by the later editions of the immensely popular and influential Chronicle ofPopes and Emperors by the Polish Dominican Martin of Troppau (d. 1297). According to these, Leo IV (d. 855) was

men. Catholic criticism of the legend became increasingly vocal from the middle of the 1 6th cent., but it was a French

succeeded by one John Anglicus, who reigned two years, seven months, and four days, but was in fact a woman. A native of

today, for not only

Mainz, she went as

a girl,

dressed

in a

man's

clothes but escorted by her lover, to Athens,

had

a brilliant student career there,

and

then settled in Rome, where her lectures

and she was

David Blondel demolished

Protestant,

who

published It

at

Amsterdam

590-1 655), in treatises

1647 and 1657.

evidence for a female pope

at

any of the

known make

dates suggested for her reign, but the facts

of the respective periods

story,

it

The origin of the however, has never been satisfactorily

impossible to

explained.

Its

ancient

fit

one

kernel

Roman

an

was so edifying that unanimously elected pope. Her imposture was finally exposed when, riding in procession from St Peter's to the I .atcran, she gave birth to a child in a narrow street between

blown up by

life

in

it

needs painstaking refutation is there no contemporary

scarcely

attracted such distinguished audiences

her

(1

effectively

a

in.

is

generally taken to be

which

folk-tale

was

number of circumstances

needlessly taken to be suspicious deliberate avoidance of a

—

c*.ri.iiii

e.g. the

Street In

papal processions (probably because

narrowness), the discover)

in

it

ol

ot

its

an enig-

POPE JOAN matic statue taken to represent a

woman

suckling a child and of a puzzling inscription

near by which could be twisted to support the legend, and the popular belief (from the late

13th cent.) that after his election a pope

had to undergo tests that he was really of the male sex. It is likely, too, that the recollection that in the 10th cent, the papacy had been dominated by unscrupulous women like Theodora the Elder, Marozia, and the

330

younger

Theodora,

helped

to

give

it

currency.

WGSS

22,

428 (Martin of Troppau);

24,

184

(Chron. minor); 514 (Jean de Mailly); J. J. I. von Dollinger, Die Papstfabeln des Mittelalters (2nd edn., Stuttgart, 1890); E. Yacandard, Etudes de critique el d'histoire religieuse (Paris,

1909-23), 4, 13-39; Joan Morris, Pope John Mil An English Woman: Was Pope Joan (London, 1985); EC 6,

482-5

(F. Antonclli).

—

INDEX (names of antipopes Abelard, 168, 170, 176, 184

Alfonso

X

(Castile), 194, 195, 197, 201,

202

328

abortion,

in italics)

Acacian schism, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,

56

Alfred the Great, 67, 105, 106, 112 All Saints, feast of, 103

Acacius, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 56 Achilleus, 39, 40

Allucingoli, Ubaldo,

Acoemetae, 58 Acre, 197, 206 Action francaise,

314

Ambrose,

Adoptionism, adoptionists, 12, 13, 23, 97, 133

Aethelwulf, 106

96

Agbar of Edessa,

1

Agilulf, 66,

180

271

Marcellinus, 33

Anastasius (patriarch), 88, 89 Anastasius I, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53 Anastasius II, 86 Anastasius of Thessalonica, 44 anathemas, Cyril's twelve, 42 Andrew of Thessalonica, 48, 50 Andronicus II Palaeologus, 201, 203 Angevin house, 195, 197, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 212

98

Afiarta, Paul, 95,

St, 31, 35, 67,

Ammianus

Adaldag, 124, 129 Adalgar, 114

II,

III,

Amalsuntha, 55, 56, 59

Adalbero, 136, 137 Adalbert of Magdeburg, 129 Adalbert of Tuscia, 1 10

Aethelred

Lucius

Aloysius Gonzaga, 295 Altieri, Emilio, Clement X, 285 Amadeus VIII, duke of Savoy, Felix V, 243 Amalarius of Metz, 103

69

Agnes (empress), 145, 149, 151, 153, 156 Agobard of Lyons, 102

Anglican-RC International Commission,

Aimeric, 165, 166, 167, 169, 171

Anglicanism, Anglicans, 312, 318, 322, 323,

92 38 Albani, Giovanni Francesco, Clement XI,

annates, 214, 231, 242, 244

325

324

Aistulf, 89, 91,

Alaric,

291 119, 121

I,

Alberic

II,

Alberic

III,

Albert

123, 124, 125, 126, 131

Anskar, 102, 103

142

Anthemius, 45 Anthimus, 59, 60, 61 anti-Modernist oath, 314 Antioch, Dedication Council

209, 213

I,

Albertus Magnus, 199, 317 Albigenses, 777, 188, 189

Albornoz, Gil de, 222, 223, 224, 225 Alcuin, 97 Aldobrandini, Ippolito,

Comnenus,

I

Alexius

III

Alfonso

I

Alfonso

II

Clement

VIII,

275

159, 161

V

schism

Antoninus Pius q Antony of Fussala, 40, 41 Apiarius, 39, 40, 41

Angelus, 187

Apollinarianism, 33 apostates, readmission

(Portugal), 176

(Naples), 253 Alfonso III (Aragon), 204, 206

Alfonso

of, 29;

synod of (268), 23 Antiochene Christology, 41, 42 Antonelli, Giacomo, 309, 311 of, 33, 36;

Alexander Severus, 14, 15, 16 Alexis of Moscow, 322 Alexius

of Cologne, 152, 153, 154 anointing, imperial, 99, 100, 104, 117, 126

Ansegise of Sens, 1 1 Anselm, Alexander II, 152 Anselm of Canterbury, 159

Albani, Giuseppe, 306

Alberic

Anno

(Aragon), 241, 243, 245, 246,

of,

13,

17,

18,

20, 25, 26, 27, 47 Apostolic Constitutions, 8

'apostolic see', 33. 35, 37, 41, 72, t>7 Apostolu Tradition, Hippolytus'i, 14

247 Alfonso VI (Castile), 155

Hi

19,

INDEX Bandinelli, Orlando, Alexander

Aquileia, synod of (381), 35

Aquinas, Thomas,

see

archives, papal, 33

f.,

Thomas Aquinas 56, 57, 107, 212, 219;

III,

176

baptism by heretics, 20, 21 Barberini,' Maffeo, Urban Mil, 280

Argrinus of Langres, 1 17 Arians, Arianism, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 45,

Barbo, Pietro, Paul II, 249 Barnabites, 262, 268 Baronius, Cesare, 75, 100, 125, 275, 277

48, 50, 5 1 . 5 8 59 Ariberf of Milan, 143

Basil the Great, 22, 33 Basil I, 109, in, 112, 113

Aristotie, 190, 200,

Basil

see also

Vatican archives

'

275

council of, 27, 28; vicariate of, 38. 40, 61, 67; primatial rights of, 51,

Aries,

first

164

Armenian Catholics, 242, 270, 282, 305, 307 Arnauld, Antoinc, 282 Arnold of Brescia, 173, 174 Arnoul of Rheims, 133, 134, *35> »37 Arnulf, 113, 114, 115, 117 Arsenius, 105, 106

142

46

Basilius (praetorian prefect), 46, 51

Basle, council of, 240, 242, 243, 244, 246,

247, 248, 251; Compacts of, 248 Bayezid II, 252, 253 Bea, Augustin, 322 Beatific vision, 215, 216, 218 Beaufort, Pierre Roger de, Gregory XI, 225

Becket,

Thomas,

see

Bede, Venerable, Belisarius,

Thomas Becket

1

60

Bellarmine, Robert, 275, 277, 317

Asclepiodotus, 13 Askidas, 61

Assemani.J. S., 292. 296 Assumption of BVM, 105, 319 Athalaric, 55, 58 Athanasius of Alexandria, 29, 30, 31, 32 Athanasius of Naples, 112, 118 Athenagoras 1, 322, 323 Attila,

II,

Basiliscus,

Arius 28, 29

44

Benedict, St, 67, 117, 124, 132, 157, 207 Benedictines, Benedictine order, 207, 218,

223. 303, 307 benefices, reserved, 197, 213, 220, 223,

239> 2 43 Benevento, treaty

of,

775, 180

Beorhtweald, 83, 84 Berengar I, 118, 120, 121, 122

Augustine, St, 24, 25, 29, 37, 38, 40, 41, 4 2 54- 55^ D2 °7> 281, 282, 295 Augustine of Canterbury 67

Berengar II, 126, 127 Berengar of Tours, 147, 152, 156, 159 Bernard of Clairvaux, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 180, 184 Bernardino of Siena, 240, 245

Augustinus, C. Jansen's, 281, 282, 284, 285,

Bertrada, 95

Aubert, F.tienne, Innocent VI, 221

Augsburg, diet

>

of,

264; peace

265, 278

of,

>

Besancon, diet of, 775, 176, 185 Bessarion, John, 246, 250

290 Augustus, 16 Aurelian, 23 Austrian Succession,

Bible Societies, 304, 306, 307

War

of,

Biblical

297

Auxentius, 33

Commission, 312

Birinus, 70

Auxilius, 118, 119

Biscop, Benedict, 76

Avignon, 212, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234, 235, 239, 240, 242, 274; Palais Neuf, 220; Palais

Bismarck, Otto von, 3 1 o BlackweU, George, 276, 277 Blonde!, David, 329

Vieux, 219

Avignon and Venaissin, enclaves

of,

212,

283, 288, 289, 299, 300, 302, 303, 304

III,

184

Boccaccio, 329 Boccapecci, Teobaldo, Celestine

(II),

167

Boccasino, Niccolo, Benedict XI, 210 Boethius, 54, 55

Avitus, 54

Baden, Articles

Bobbio, 69, 70, 136 Bobo, Giacinto, Celestine

of,

308

Boff, Leonardo,

328

Baius, Michael, 269

Bohemond

Baldwin, count, 149 Baldwin II, 195, 198

Bolsena, miracle

Bamberg, 138, 139, 140, 143, 145, 146, 179

Boncompagni, Ugo, Gregory XIII, 269

I.

161

of, 196 Bonaventura, 197, 199, 202, 205, 250, 272

332

INDEX Boniface, St, 87, 88, 90, 125 Boniface, count, 143, 146, 148

Canossa, 155, 156 Cappellari, Bartolomeo Alberto, Gregory

Bonosus, 36 Borghese, Camillo, Paul V, 277 Borgia, Alfonso de, see Borja

XVI, 307 Carafa, Giampietro, Paul IV, 265 cardinal nephew, 279, 281, 286, 289

Borgia, Cesare, 253, 254, 255 Borgia, Lucrezia, 253

cardinals, college of, 157, 160, 167, 191,

195, 201, 202, 206, 219, 236, 237, 240, 242, 245, 261, 265, 272, 274, 276, 321, 324, 328; maximum

Borgia, Rodrigo, see Borja

Boris

I,

108, 114

Borja or Borgia, Alfonso de, Callistus

III,

245

221, 223, 225, 249, 254, 257, 294, 318, 320, size of, 272,

321

Borja or Borgia, Rodrigo de Borja

y,

Alexander VI, 252 Borromeo, Charles, 267, 268, 270, 273, 278, 298, 320, 321 Bosco, John, 317 Bossuet, J. B., 291 Bourbon, Stephen de, 329 Braschi, Giovanni Angelo, Pius VI, 301 Breakspear, Nicholas, Hadrian IV, 174 Brest- Litovsk, synod of, 276 Bretigny, treaty of, 222 breviary, revision of, 266, 267, 268, 275,

Carloman (son of Charles Martell), 90 Carloman (son of Louis the German), Carloman (son of Pepin III), 95

no

Carmelites, 189, 271 Carobert, 209, 211, 213

Caroline Islands, 312, 315 Carrier, Jean, 241 Carthusians, 158 Cassian, John, 42 Cassiodorus, 58

Castagna, Giambattista, Urban VII, 273 Castel Gandolfo, 280, 318, 320, 325

280, 297, 314, 321, 323 Bridget of Sweden, 221, 224, 232 Brie or Brion, Simon de, Martin IV, 202

Castiglione, Francesco Saverio, Pius VIII,

Brunhild, Queen, 67

Castiglione, Goffredo da, Celestine IV, 191

Bruno, Giordano, 276 Bruno of Cologne, 125 Bruno of Egisheim, Leo IX, 147 Buber, Martin, 326

catacombs, 13, 16, 33, 69, 93, 271, 308 catechism, 267, 268, 314, 324

Burdinus, Maurice, Gregory (VIII), 163 BVM, 35, 36, 41 ('mother of God'), 69, 74, 84, 85, 89, 105, 106, 269, 289, 308, 310, 312, 319, 323, 328; feasts of, 83, 105, 228, 250, 269, 292, 297

Catherine of Aragon, 256, 260 Catherine de Medicis, 269 Catherine of Siena, 226, 227, 324

Caccianemici, Gherardo, Lucius

Cadalus, Peter, Honorius

(II),

Casti connubii,

306

Catelinus,

Catherine

II,

171

153

317

John III, 64 II, 302

Catholic Action, 314, j/6, 317 Catholic League (1576-93), 270; (161 848), 278, 279 Cauleas, Antony, 117 Cave, peace of, 265

Cavour, Camillo, 309 Celestines, 207, 208

'cadaver synod', 114, 115, 116, 117, 119,

120 Caecilian, 27, 29

celibacy, clerical, 35, 66, 83, 129, 137, 152,

Caelestius, 37, 38, 39 Caesarius, 54, 55, 58 Caetani, Benedetto, Boniface VIII, 208

Ceprano, treaty Cerdo, 10

Cajetan, 286

Cerularius, Michael, 148

calendar, reform of the, 271

Cervini, Marcello, Marccllus

Caliph al-Hakim, 139 Callistus, cemetery of, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27 Calvinism, Calvinists, 267, 286

Chalcedon, council

324, 3 2 8

190

II,

264

44, 45, 46, 48, 53, 60, 61, 63, 83; 28th canon of, 44, 40, 48, of,

53, *7, 83

Chalcedonian

(i.e.

'two-natures')

Christologv, 44, 46, 47, 52, 53, 56, 58, 59, 00, 6i, 77

Canepanova, Peter, John XIV, 132

Canon

of,

law, 83, 90, 115, 120, 140, 160, 186,

188, 189, 190, 208, 210, 214, 227, 257,

'Chapten

270, 271, 306, 314, 315, 318, 321, 323

Chardin, Teilhard de, 32

333

oi

(

(destine', 4

INDEX Charlemagne, 95, 96. 97, 98, 99, 101, 113, 175, 179, 187; coronation of, 98 Charles I (England), 279

Coggan, Donald, 324

(Sicily), 193, 195, 196, i97> IQ I 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 207 Charles II (Sicily), 204, 206, 207, 209, ill,

Colonna

323, 324, 328 Colonna, Oddo, Martin V, 239

collegiality,

^

Charles

Columban ; 69 Combes, Emile, 313 Commodus, 12, 13 commune, Roman popular,

214 Charles

II

Charles Charles

III

(Spain), 291

(emperor), [II, 112. 113 the Simple (France), 114, 121,

III

174. 175, *77


Charles X (France), 306 Charles XI (Sweden), 286 Charles of Durazzo, 228, 229, 230 Charles the Bald, 105, 109, no, 114 Charles Mattel, 87, 88, 90, 91 Chiaramonte, Luigi Barnaba, Pius VII, 302 Chigi, Fabio, Alexander VII, 283

240, 242, 243, 329

Chinese rites, 282, 284, 292, 293, 296, 298 Christ the King, feast of, 316 Christian Democracy, 312, 324 Christian Unity, Secretariat for, 322, 323 Christina of Sweden, 284, 289, 291

Christopher (chief notary), 94, 95 Chrysostom, John, 37, 38, 173 Cibo, Giovanni Battista, Innocent VIII, 251

302

fall of (1204), 187; (1261), 195, 197; (1453), 245, 2 46» 249 Constantinople, first council of (381), 33; second (553), 61, 62, 63, 83; third

Constantinople,

Clare, St, 194 f.

Second Epistle

Constance, treaty of, 173, 174, 175 Constans I, 29 Constans II, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79 Constantine the Great, 26, 27, 28, 29, 91, 98, 100 Constantine I (patriarch), 76 Constantine III, 72 Constantine IV, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80 Constantine V, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93 Constantinople, creed of (381), 111

Cistercians, 218

of, 8;

of,

8

Clement of Rome, Clement I, 6 Clementine Homilies and Recognitions, 8 'Clementine Peace', 285 Clementines,

214

Clericis laicos,

Clovis,

IV, 241

Conradin, 194, 195, 196, 197 Consalvi, Ercole, 303, 304, 305 Constance of Sicily, 181, 184, 185, 187 Constance, council of, 233, 236, 238, 239,

90

Clement, First Epistle

248

199, 200, 203, 208 concordats, 185, 239, 244, 257, 294, 297,

Charles VI (emperor), 291, 292, 293, 294,

Clemens, Titus Flavius, 7

Basle,

236, 242, 249, 263 conclave constitution, Gregory X's, ig8,

261, 262, 263, 264, 265 Charles V (France), 226, 229

Civil Constitution of the Clergy,

171, 172, 173,

8 3> 186

conclave compacts, 176, 221, 232, 234, 235,

227, 228 Charles V (emperor), 257, 258, 259, 260,

III,

'

communion in both kinds, 267, 270 communism, 311, 317, 319. 321, 325, 327

124 Charles III (Spain), 296, 300 Charles IV (emperor), 220, 222, 224, 226,

Childeric

family, 205, 206, 209, 210, 211,

212, 239, 240, 242, 244, 246, 278

2og, 211

(680/1), 71, 74, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 85, 86; fourth (869-70), 107, 109, in;

council of 879, 1 1 Constantius II, 29, 30, 31, 32 constitution of 824, Lothair's, 101, 102, 103, 104,

50

1

17,

127

Cluny, 122, 123, 124, 125, 129, 132, 140,

Constitution on the Church,

142, 146, 147, 154, 158, 163, 164, 166,

Constitution on the Liturgy,

169, 171, 178

Constitution, Vigilius's First, 61, 62, 63; Second, 62, 63

Cnut, 142

334

323 323

INDEX Constitutions of Clarendon, 176 Constitutions of Melfi, 190 Conti, Gregorio, Victor IV,

1

70

Conti, Michelangelo dei, Innocent XIII, 293 contraception, 317, 319, 324, 328

Contumeliosus, 58 Copernicus, Copernican system, 278, 281 Copts, 242

Corpus

196

Christi, feast of,

Corrado, Anastasius IV, 173 Correr, Angelo, Gregory XII, 234

Clement

Corsini, Lorenzo,

XII, 295

Coscia, Niccolo, 294, 295 Cossa, Baldassare, John (XXIII), 237 Counter-Reformation (Catholic reform),

259, 261, 270, 272, 275, 276, 279, 280 Crescentian family, 129, 130, 131, 133, i3 8

>

*39> *40,

Crescentius

I,

Crescentius

II,

Crimea, Crivelli,

Hi,

142, 143, 144

130 134, 135, 136, 138

74 Umberto, Urban 8,

III,

Dionysius Exiguus, 49, 54 Diospolis, synod of, 37 Diptychs, 47, 48, 49, 62, 76, 120, 122, 139, 141, 142 Directory, the French, 302, 307

Divino

193; other crusades, 155, 181, 188, 189, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 212, 218,

Domitian, 7

Domnus

I,

23

domus cultae, 90, 97 Donation of Constantine, 28, 91, 127, 137, 148, 187 Donation of Pepin, gi, 127, 134, 187 Donatists, Donatism, 24, 25, 26, 27, 36, 37, 66 Donatus, 27 Double procession of the Holy Spirit, in, 120, 159, 198; see also Filioque

Drogo, 103 Duese, Jacques, John XXII, 214 Dunstan, 126 Eardulf, 98 Easter, date of, 10

f.,

n,

12, 50, 54, 70, 72,

76

219, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 238, 240, 243, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 254, 258

319

(Friars Preachers), 188, 189,

190, 196, 198, 199, 202, 205, 211, 215, 221, 226, 250, 258, 268, 269, 276, 292, 294, 295, 329 Dominus ac Redemptor noster, 300

181

Crusade(s): First, 159, 160, 161; Second, 172; Third, 183, 184; Fourth, 185, 187; Fifth, 188, 189, 190; Sixth, 190; Seventh,

afflante Spiritu,

Dominicans

Eastern church, breaks with: (484), 47;

Cyprian of Carthage, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 Cyril of Alexandria, 23, 41, 42, 43, 58 Cyril and Methodius, no

(655), 75, 77; (912), 120, 122, 138;

(1024), 142; (1054), 148, 153, 323; (1283), 203

Eastern church, reunion with, 156, 159,

Damian of Ravenna, 83 Dante, 50, 200, 201, 202 Daufer or Daufari, see Desiderius Decentius of Gubbio, 37 Decius, 17, 18, 19 decretals, 35, 37, 38, 45, 49, 61, 180, 187,

160, 161, 172, 176, 187, 190, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203, 205,

220, 222, 223, 224, 225, 240, 242, 243,

312, 316, 317, 320 Ebbo, 100, 103, 105 Ebolus, 153 Eckhart, Meister, 215

188, 189, 190, 193, 213, 214, 276 Dedal, Adrian Florensz, Hadrian VI, 258 Delia Chiesa, Giacomo, Benedict XV, 314

Ecthesis, 71, 72,

Depositio episcoporum,

Demetrius of Alexandria, 29 Depositio martyrum, 18, 29

'ecumenical patriarch', 65, 67, 68, 142, 322,

Desiderius, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 Desiderius, Victor III, 157

Ecumenism, Decree on, 323

Devolution,

War

diaconiae, 80,

of,

73 ecumenical movement, 318, 320, 322, 323,

325

16, 17

285

97

323,328

Edmund, prince, 193, 104, 195 Edward I, 197, 204, 206, 213 Edward III, 226

Dietrich of Trier, 132

Edwin, 70 Egbert, 89

Diocletian, 15, 23, 24, 26, 27 Dionysius of Alexandria, 18, 20, 21, 22

electoral decree of 1059, 151, 15a,

Dionysius of Corinth,

Enlightenment,

Dictatus papae, 154

1

1

Einhard, 98, 102

335

21)8, 2 328

Urban

of,

Florinus, 12

eucharist, 147, 148, 152, 156, 159, 188,

Elides,

Hadrian V, 199

Fieschi, Sinibaldo, Innocent IV, 192

Odo

Euphemius, 47, 48 Eusebians, 29, 30

Francis

I

(emperor), 289

Eusebius

Francis

I

(France), 257, 259, 260, 261, 262

Francis

II,

(historian), 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, II, 15,

16, 17, 18

126

Eusebius of Nicomedia, 28, 29 Eufyches, 44 Eurychius (exarch), 86, 87, 88, 89 Eutychius (patriarch), 62, 66

Francis of Assisi, 190, 208 Francis de Sales, 276, 284, 299 Francis Xavier, 278, 280

Exitt qui seminal, 202,

Franciscans, Franciscan Order, 188, 189, 190, 193, 198, 199, 202, 205, 206, 207,

Franciscan of Erfurt, 329

205

'expectancies', expectatives, 217, 231

Exuperius, 37

213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220, 228,

Fabius of Antioch, 18

236, 237, 240, 245, 250, 255, 271, 272, 299; see also Spirituals, Franciscan

Franco, General Francisco, 317, 319 Frangipani family, 163, 164, 165, 166,

Fachinetti, Giovanni Antonio, Innocent IX,

274 False Decretals, 29, 107

167

Farfa, 100, 102, 126, 140, 172, 173, 177

Frankfurt, diet of (1338), 218; (1442), 247;

Farnese, Alessandro, Paul III, 261 Fasanus, John, John XVIII, 138 Fatima, 319, 323, 328 Fausta, 26, 27 Faustus of Riez, 54

(1446), 244 Franks, 50, 65, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 96,

97 Franz Joseph (emperor), 313 Frederick

I Barbarossa, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184,

Febronianism, 299, 301 Felix of Aptunga, 27 Felix of Ravenna, 85 Felix of Urgel, 98

Fenelon, Franqois, 288, 291 Ferdinand I (emperor), 265, 266, 267

Ferdinand

253 Ferdinand

I

II

V

I

(Naples), 253

Frederick

I

(Prussia), 291

Frederick

II

(emperor), 185, 187, 188, 189,

190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196

(Naples), 246, 247, 248, 252,

(Aragon) and

185 Frederick

(Castile), 252,

Frederick

II

Frederick

III

(Prussia), 297,

302

(emperor), 243, 244, 245, 247,

248, 250 Frederick III

254, 256, 258 Ferdinand II (emperor), 278, 279, 280 Ferdinand III (emperor), 282, 283 Ferdinand VII (Spain), 305 Ferrandus, 62

(Sicily), 206, 207, 209, 211 Frederick William IV, 308 Frederick V (Bohemia), 278, 279 Frederick III, the Fair, 215

Frederick of Lorraine, Stephen IX(X), 149 Frederick of Mainz, 124, 125

Ferrara, council of: see Florence, council of Festus, 49, 50, 51, 52

Frederick, elector of Saxony, 257, 258

336

INDEX Freemasonry, 296, 298, 304, 305, 306, 311 French Revolution, 290, 302, 305

Germanus of Auxerre, 41 Ghibellines, 194, 197, 199, 203

Fulrad, 92

Ghislieri, Michele, Pius V,

Gilbert de

Gaetano, Giovanni, Nicholas

III,

201

Giovanni, Callistus

Gaiseric, 44

Gaius,

Roman

268

Porree, 173

la

(III),

179

Giseler, 132

presbyter, 6

Gloria in

excelsis, 9, 5

Galileo Galilei, 278, 281 Galla Placidia, 40

Gnosticism, Gnostics, 10, 12 Godfrey of Lorraine, 148, 149, 150, 151,

Gallican Articles, 287, 289, 290, 302 Gallican assembly of 1682, 287, 289, 290 Gallicanism, Gallican liberties, 134, 137,

Golden Bull of Eger

!54 (12 13), 187, 189; of Niirnberg (1356), 222 Gonzaga, Aloysius, see Aloysius Gonzaga Gonzalez de Santalla, Tirso, 287 Goradz, 113

246, 248, 250, 278, 287, 290, 292, 299,

310 Gallienus, 22 Gallus, 18, 19 Ganganelli, Lorenzo,

Gorcum, martyrs Clement XIV, 299

Gordian

Gamier, Bernard, Benedict (XIV), 241 Gasparri, Pietro, 315, 317, 318 Gebhard of Dollnstein-Hirschberg, Victor II, 148 Gelasian Decree, 49 Gelasian Sacramentary, 23, 49 General Council, First (Nicaea

I),

28, 29,

39, 44, 45, 63, 73,

"2; Second

(Constantinople

33, 63, 73; Third

I),

(Ephesus), 42, 45, 63, 73; Fourth (Chalcedon), 44, 45, 46, 53, 60, 61, 63, 73; Fifth (Constantinople II), 61, 62, 63, 73, 83; Sixth (Constantinople

III),

71, 74,

78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 85, 86; Seventh

m; Eighth m; Ninth

(Nicaea

II), 96, 97, 101, 107, (Constantinople IV), 107, 109, (Lateran I), 165; Tenth (Lateran

170; Eleventh (Lateran

III),

168,

II),

177, 191;

Twelfth (Lateran IV), 187, 188, 199; Thirteenth (Lyons I), 192, 195, 197; Fourteenth (Lyons II), 198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 205, 207; Fifteenth (Vienne), 213; Sixteenth (Constance), 233, 236,

III,

286

of,

16

Gorze, 124, 125 Got, Bertrand de, Clement V, 2 1 Goths, 54, 55, 60, 62, 63 Gravina, concordat of, 185 Gratian, John, Gregory VI, 144 Great Kubla Khan, 206 Great Schism, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 247 Gregorian Sacramentary, 23, 67 Gregoriopolis, 103, 104

Gregory VII, feast of St, 295 Grimoard, Guillaume de, Urban V, 223 Guelphs, 195, 197, 199 Guibert, Clement

156

III,

Guicciardini, Francesco, 256, 261

Guido of Burgundy, Callistus II, 164 Guido of Citta di Castello, Celestine II, 170 Guido of Crema, Paschal III, 178 Guido of Milan, 152, 153 Guido III of Spoleto, 112, 113, 114, 115 Guido of Tuscany, 122 Guntamond, 47

238, 239, 240, 242, 243, 329; Seventeenth (Ferrara-Florence), 242, 243, 244; Eighteenth (Lateran V), 256, 257, 258, 261; Nineteenth (Trent), 218,

Gustavus Adolphus, 280, 284

262, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 281, 297; Twentieth (Vatican I), 310; Twenty-first (Vatican II), 272, 321, 323, 325, 327

Hadrian (emperor), 9 Hadrian (African abbot), 76 1, 148 Haghia Sophia, Hague International Peace Conference, 312

Genga, Annibale, Sermattei

della,

Leo

Guyon, Madame

de, 291

Guzman, Dominic,

1

188, 190

1

Halinard, 147 Harold, 153

XII,

304 Gentilly, synod of, 93

George I, 78 George of Podebrady, 248, 249

lattin,

I

latiield, swiocl of,

I

Gerard, Nicholas II, 151 Gerbert, Silvester II, 136

183

1

[egesippus, 6,

77

1

lelvetius, 299 HenoHcoHy 4O, 47, 48, I

337

4c),

50

INDEX Henry Henry Henry

I

(England), 161, 167

(France), 147 II (emperor), 138, 139, 140, 141, I

142

Henry

II

Henry Henry

II

(England), 175, 176, 178, 182 (France), 263, 273

Hugh Hugh Hugh Hugh

Candidus, 147 Capet, 133, 137 of Lyons, 158 of Provence, 122, 123, 124 I lugh of Rheims, 1 24 Huguccio of Pisa, 186

Huguenots, 221, 262, 269, 270, 272, 276,

(emperor), 143, 144, 145, 146,

III

287

147, 148, 150, 152, 157 Henry III (England), 188, 193, 194, 196,

Hugues de Lionne, 285 Humanae vitae, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328 Humbert of Silva Candida, 147, 148, 149,

200 Henry IV (emperor), 128, 149, 153, 154, i55> *56, i57< J S8, i59> l6o «*»i 2 95 Henry IV (France), 272, 274, 276, 277, 280

150, 151, 152 Humiliati, 187, 268

>

Henry

V

Hundred Years War, 218, 220, 222, 224,

(emperor), 160, 161, 162, 163,

225, 240 Huss, John; Hussites, 238, 240, 248, 249,

164, 165, 169, 170, 171 Henry VI (emperor), 181, 182, 183, 184,

329

185, 186, 187

Henry Henry Henry Henrv 265

VII (emperor), 213, 215 Ibas of Edessa 61, 62 iconoclasm, iconoclastic controversy, #7, 88, 89, 90, 93, 95, 96, 100, roi

VII (England), 252

VII (Germany), 189, 190 VIII (England), 256, 258, 260, 262,

Heraclea, council

Ignatius of Antioch, 6 of, 51,

Ignatius (patriarch), 105, 106, 108, 114,

53

117

Heraclius (emperor), 69, 70, 71, 72, 73 Heraclius (Roman dissident), 26

Ignatius Loyola, 263, 278, 280,

Hermann

of Cologne, 145 Hermas, 7, 10

Illyricum, vicariate of, see Thessalonica

Hermes, Georg, 308 Hieria, council of, 93, 95 Hilary of Aries, 43

308, 310 In coena Domini, 26Q, 281, 299, 300 Index, 26s, 266, 267, 268, 275, 278, 298, 299, 305, 312; Congregation of the, 268,

Hildebrand, Gregory VII, 154 Hildegard of Bingen, 173

Indicatum, Vigilius's, 61, 62

Immaculate Conception of

Hesychius, 38

300

BVM,

250, 292,

278

Hincmar, 104, 106, 107, 109, ill 319 Hohenstaufen dynasty, 172, 185, 187, 192,

indulgences, 153, 165, 209, 219, 231, 246,

251, 254, 256, 258, 268

Hitler, Adolf, 317, 318,

71, 282, 307, 310 Ingelheim, synod of, 125

infallibility,

193, 194, 195, 196, 197 Holy Alliance (18 15), 303 Holy Family, 312

Inquisition, 180, 189, 190, 193, 205, 214,

221, 226, 250, 252, 262, 265, 266, 268,

Holy League (151 1), 256 Holv Name, 240 Holy Office, 262, 273, 286, 287, 288, 289, 292, 293, 300, 305 Holy Roman Empire, 126, 226 Holy Sepulchre, 139, 156, 192, 272

273, 274, 276 International

Labour Organization, 324

investiture controversy, 128, 152, 153, 755,

158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169; settlement of, 165 invocation of saints, 270

holy year, 209, 219, 228, 231, 245, 249, 254, 276, 294, 305, 316, 320, 323; see also jubilee, years of

Irene, 97

homosexuality, 328 Honorius (emperor), 38, 39, 40, 41

Isaac (converted Jew), 33, Isaac (exarch), 70, 71, 72

Honorius I, excommunication of, 78, 79 Hontheim, N. von, 299, 301 Hormisdas, Formula of, 5J, 59

Isidore of Seville, 107 Islam, 152, 186, 187, 248

Hospitallers (Knights of St John), 213, 220, 221, 226, 252

Ivo of Chartres, 161

Irenaeus, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14

Irmengard, 99

Isabella, 2*52,

Ivan

338

III,

254

250

34

INDEX James James James James James

(the Lord's brother), 5 I

(Aragon), 188

(England), 276, 277, 279 (Aragon), 204, 206, 207 II (England), 288 I

II

Jansen, Cornelius, 281, 282, 285, 290, 292,

295

Jordan of Capua, 157, 158 Joseph, St, 36, 321 Joseph I, 292 Joseph II, 301 Josephinism, jot, 310 Jovinian, 35 jubilee, years of, 209, 219, 228, 231, 245,

Jansenism, Jansenist, 269, 282, 284, 285, 287, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294 Jeanne de Chantal, 299

Judas, 5

Jerome, 7, 12, 15, 19, 34, 35, 36, 37, 67 Jerusalem, 6, 132, 139, 156, 159, 160, 161,

Julian the Apostate, 32 Julian of Cos, 44

249, 254, 276, 294, 305, 316, 320, 323; see also holy year

181, 183, 190, 194, 195, 196, 197, 274, 309; capture of, 160, 161, 183, 190; council of, 6; Latin patriarchate of, 181,

Julian of Eclanum, 43 Julian basilica (SS. Apostoli), 30; (Sta in Trastevere), 32, 33, 34, 41

194, 195, 274, 309 of Jesus, 262, 263, 270, 271,

Juliao, Pedro,

Justin

I,

272, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 284,

Justin

II,

287, 289, 290, 292, 293, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 304, 305, 308, 328; suppression

Justin Martyr, 10

Jesuits, Society

299, 300; restoration of, 304 Jews, 70, 87, 124, 188, 221, 240, 246, 249, 266, 268, 305, 319, 320, 322 of,

Joan of Arc, 246, 315 Joanna I, 219, 227, 228 Joanna II, 240 Joannitza, 187

316 John XXIII, 15 John (English king), 187, 188 John I Tzimisces (emperor), 129 John II (France), 222, 223 John II of Kiev, 157 John II (patriarch), 53, 56, 59 John III of Ravenna, 65 John III Sobieski, 286, 288 John III (Sweden), 270 John III Vatatzes, 193 John IV (patriarch), 65, 68 John IV (Portugal), 282, 283 John V Palaeologus, 224 John V (patriarch), 76 John V (Portugal), 294, 297 John VI Cantacuzenus, 220 John VIII Palaeologus, 242 John of Antioch, 42 John the Baptist, 5 John Beccus, 201 John Crescentius, 133, 134 John II Crescentius, 137, 138, 139, 141 John of the Cross, 286, 295, 317, 326 John of Gaeta, Gelasius II, 163 John of Jerusalem, 36, 37 John of Sabina, Silvester III, 144 John of Ravenna (1), 65; (2), 104, 107

Jocists,

Maria

John XXI, 200

53, 54, 55, 56

64

Justinian

I, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 68, 83 Justinian II, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86

Justus of Canterbury, 70

Kennedy, John F., 322 Khrushchev, Nikita, 321, 322 Kubla Khan, Great, 206 Knights of St John, see Hospitallers Kulturkampf, 310, 312 Kiing, Hans, 328

La Cava,

162, 164, 180

Ladislas, 229, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 237,

238 Laetentur

coeli,

242

Lambert of Spoleto, 109, no, 114,

115,

116, 117, 118, 119

Lambertini, Prospero Lorenzo, Benedict

XIV, 296 Lamberto, Honorius II, 165 Lambeth Conference (1968), 324 Lambruschini, L., 307, 309 Lamennais, F. R. de, 305, 307 Lando, Innocent III, 80 1

Lanfranc, 152 Langton, Stephen, 187 lapsed, rcadmission of: see BpOStatCl Lateran basilica (St John), 28, 33, 39, 43, 2 74. 80, 81, 88, 45> 5°- 5 2 i 5 6 57. 7°. 7 94, 104, 115, 120, 126, iv), 156, 102, 68, 174, 177, 'M- »99i 2 °> »3i 22 4. »

>

•

240, 296, 3 '6, 325 (112 Lateran council,

Km

(1

.W

1

$9),

168, 170;

Third

a (1

165;

Second

179), 177. 191;

INDEX Lombards, 64, 65, 66, 68, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93,94, 95

Lateran council - conl. Fourth (1215), 187, 188, 199; Fifth (1512), 256, 257, 258, 261

Lotario of Segni, Innocent HI, 186 Lothair I, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105,

Lateran palace, 27, 32, 51, 52, 56, 57, 70,

117

72, 76, 80, 81, 82, 86, 88, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109, 112, 113, 116, 119, 122, 123, 126, 127, 128, 131, 133, 134, 141, 142, i43> 154.

159, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 174, 183, 200, 218, 224, 272, 277, 290, 308, 317,

II

Lothair

III,

Louis Louis

I

(Anjou), 225, 229

I

the Pious, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,

104 Louis Louis

329 Lateran synod (649), 74, 76; (679), 78;

Louis Louis Louis Louis Louis Louis Louis Louis Louis

133; (1057), 149; (1059), 151, 168; (1063), 153; (11 12), 161, 170; (11 16), 161, 163; (1725), 294, 295 Lateran Treaty (1929)^/7, 319, 328 Law of Guarantees, 309

Law

of Separation, 313, 317 Lawrence, St, 22

Lawrence of Canterbury, 69

II

(Anjou), 229, 230, 237, 238 (emperor), 103, 104, 105, 106,

no, 118

IV d'Outremer, 124, 125 IV (emperor), 215, 216, 218, 220 VI, 166, 167 VII, 168, 171, 172, 176, 178, VIII,

Louis Louis Louis Louis

160, 161, 164, 165, 168; see also investiture controversy

League of Nations, 3 Leander of Seville, 67 Lefebvre, Marcel, 324 1

IX, 193, 195, 196, 203, 209 XI, 248, 250, 255 XII, 253, 256, 257

XIV, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288,

XV, 300 XVIII, 304, 305 the

German,

of Provence,

102, 109, 1

no

18

Louis-Philippe, 306

Loyola, Ignatius, see Ignatius Loyola

the Isaurian, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90,

Luciani, Albino, John Paul

96

I,

325

Leo IV the Khazar, 97 Leo V (emperor), 100, 101 Leo VI (emperor), 113, 120, 122

Lucifer of Cagliari, 33 Lucius, 1

Leonine city, 104, 158, 162, 168, 169 Leonine Sacramentary, 44, 49, 61

Ludwig

Leontius of Aries, 45 Leopold I (Belgium), 3 1 Leopold I (emperor), 283, 286, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292 Leopold II (emperor), 301 Lepanto, 269, 274 Liber censuum, 186, 188

Lupercalia, 47, 48 Luther, Martin, 258, 259, 260

Ludovisi, Alessandro, Gergory

239 Luna, Pedro de, Benedict

(XIII),

232

267, 270

Lyons,

first council of (1245), 192, 195, 197; second council of (1274), 198, 199,

200, 202, 203, 205, 207

Macarius I, 79, 80 Macedonianism, 33

328 (Sta Maria Maggiore), 31,

'liberation theology',

Machiavelli, Niccolo, 261 Maginulf, Silvester IV, 162

33, 34

Liberian Catalogue,

XV, 278

III,

Lutheranism, Lutherans, 259, 260, 265,

Liber extra, 190, 210 Liber sextus, 210

Liberian basilica

179

189

289, 290, 291, 292

lay investiture, 152, 153, 155, 158, 159,

III

II

107, 108, 109,

(769), 94, 95; (826), 101; (863), 108; (900), 117; (964), 128; (981), 132; (993),

Leo

of Lorraine, 105, 108, 109 166, 168, 169, 171

Lothair

7, 8, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18,

20, 23, 26

Magna

Carta, 187

Maidalchini, Olimpia, 281

Libri Carolini, 97

Mailly, Jean de,

Liutprand of Cremona, 123, 128 Liutprand, Lombard king, 86, 87, 88, 89 Lodi, peace of, 245

Maintenon,

Logos theology, 14, 33 Lombard, Peter, 199, 236, 258

Malabar rites, 298 Malines conversations, 318

329

Madame

de,

289

Maiolus, 132 Majorinus, 27

340

INDEX Mamertus, 45

Meerssen, treaty

Mammolo,

Mehmet

of Ponte, 161, 170 Manfred, 193, 194, 195, 196 Manichaeans, Manichees, 43, 51 Mantua, synod of, 153, 154

Manuel

I

privilege

of,

109

248, 249, 250

Meletius, 33 Melfi, synod of (1059), 152; (1089), *59 Mellitus, 67, 69, 70

Comnenus, 176

'Memorial of the Aposdes', 6 Menas, 59, 61 mendicant orders, 192, 194, 203, 208, 210, 212, 218, 222, 237, 250 Mercury, John II, 58 Merry del Val, R., 313, 315

Marcel, Gabriel, 326 Marcellus of Ancyra, 29, 30 Marcia, 12, 13

Marcian of Aries, 20 Marcion, 10 Maria of Aragon, 241 Maria Theresa, 297, 300 Maronites, 270, 282, 296

Methodius, no, in, 113 Metternich, Klemens von, 307 Michael II, 101

Marozia, 120, 122, 123, 124, 330

Michael III, 108 Michael VII, 153, 156 Michael VIII Palaeologus, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203 Michael of Cesena, 214, 215, 216 Mieszko I, 133 Migliorati, Cosimo Gentile de', Innocent

marriage, clerical, 140, 150, 152, 155, 157, 159, 267, 270 marriage, doctrine of, 150, 297, 306, 311,

317, 328 marriages, mixed, 297, 306, 308, 324 Marseilles, treaty of, 233 Marsilius of Padua, 215 Martial of Limoges, 142

VII, 234 Migniano, treaty of, 168, 171 Milan, convention of, 26

Martin of Troppau, 329 Martyrology of Ado, 10, 12, 39, 43, 87, 89 Martyrology of St Jerome, 15, 19, 25, 31,

Milan, council of, 30 Mincius, John, Benedict X, 150 Mirandola, Pico della, 252

39 Marxism, 321, 327 Mary I, 263, 265

Misenus, 48, 49 missal, revision of, 266, 267, 268, 275, 314,

Masci, Girolamo, Nicholas IV, 205 mass, canon of, 7, 8, 9, 22, 37, 321

321 missions, missionary policy, 254, 261, 263, 271, 272, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 292,

Mastai-Ferretti, Giovanni Maria, Pius IX,

309 Mater el

II,

293, 296, 298, 300, 307, 308, 312, 316, magisira,

3n

321

Mil brennender Sorge, 3 1 modalism, 13, 14 Modernism, 3 13, 314, 316, 318, 324 Molina, Luis de; Moiinism, 276, 278 Molinos, Miguel de, 28J, 289

Matilda (empress), 161, 171 Matilda of Tuscany, Matildine estates, 149, 158, 168, 180, 181, 184, 187 Maurice, 66, 67, 68

Maxentius, 25, 26 Maximilian I (Bavaria), 279, 282 Maximilian I (emperor), 255, 256, 257, 258 Maximilian II (emperor), 269

Maximinus Thrax,

15,

monarchical episcopate,

6, 7, 8, 9,

10

Mongols, 192, 193, 194

Mongos, Peter, 46, 47, 49 Monumento, Leone de, 183 monophysitism, monophy sites, 44,

16

Maximus of Alexandria, 23 Maximus the Confessor, 73, 76 Maximus (usurper), 35

45, 46,

47, 49, 53, 54, 56, 5«, 59, 62, 71, 73, 77,

242

mayor of the palace, 88, 90

monothelitism, monotlulites, 7/, 72, 73, 74.

Mazarin, Jules, 2S1, 283, 284, 285 Medici, Alessandro Ottaviano de', Leo XI,

86 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, Xo Montanism, Montanus, //, 13, 18 Monte, Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del, Julius -

276 Medici, Giovanni Angclo, Pius IV, 266

III,

262

Monte Cissino, 87,

Medici, Giovanni de', Leo X, 256 Medici, Giulio de', Clement VII, 259

1

Medici family, 257, 259, 260, 261, 266, 275, 276

,

117, i*5i »43i '49.

so, 151, 155, 157, 158, 163,

7

i,

173, 185. 108

Montesquieu, Charles de

34

' '59, I02 *38i 241. *55i


press, 272, 281; radio station,

318

Vatican City, 317, 318, 319 Vatican Council, First, 53, 71, 310; Second,

Wurzburg,

diet of

(1

152), 173;

W

Venetia-Istria, schism with, 63, 64, 65, 66,

Wyszyriski, Stefan, 327

Venice, peace

of,

di, 29,

cliff e,

II,

165), 178,

John, 226, 237, 238

see

Francis Xavicr

176, 179, 180, 185

Zachariaa, 83, 84 Zamometrt, tadrea, 251

29/, 3°4< 305, 3°7 /Vim. 45, 46, 47 Zwinglianism, 261

zelanti,

'Vicar of Christ', 48, 175, 186, 192

Amadeus

\

Xavier, Francis,

249

Ventura, G., 305 vernacular liturgy, 27H, 321, 323 Yervins, peace of, 276, 277 Victor

(1

(1287), 205

272, 321, 323, 325, 327 Venaissin, 212, 219 68, 70, 83 Venezia, Palazzo

168,

169; Edict of, 259, 260

292, 294

347

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