A descriptive analysis of Mundari
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COOK, S.J., Rev. Walter Anthony, 1922A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF MUMIAH: A STUDY O F THE STRUCTURE O F THE MUNDARI LANGVAGE ACCORDING TO THE METHODS OF LINGUPSTIC SCIENCE, WITH PARTICULAR ATTENTION T O THE UNITS O F SOUND, THE UNITS O F MEANING, THE UNITS O F GRAMMAR, AND THEIR MUTUALLY CONTRASTIVE ARRANGEMENT PATTERNS.
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Georgetown University, Ph.D., 1965 Language and Literature, linguistics
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
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COPYRIGHT @ BY REV. WALTER ANTHONY COOK, S.J.
A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS 3F MW?DARI
A Study of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e W d a r i language
according t o t h e methods of l i n g u i s t i s science, with partlcuJ-sr a t t e n t i o n t o t h e u n i t s of sound, t h e unit,s of meaning, t h e u n i t s of grammar, and t h e i r mutually contrastive arrangement p a t t e r n s
.
A Dissertation
Submitted t o t h e Faculty of t h e Graduete School of Georgetown University
In p a r t i a l i u l f i l l m e n t of t h e requirements f o r t h e Degree of Ph.D.
i n Theoretical Linguistics
J, h
orf
qev, Walter A. Cook, S.J.
Washington, D.C. June, 1965.
GEORGETOWN UNlVERSiTY GRADUATE SCHOOL
The dissertation of
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...wa ~ . t ~ r . . ~ t h o n y ~ . ~ -*-....-..-..--.C ~ & ~ ~entitled .~S.~~
. ~ . ~ r ; : r ; : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~.--..--..-.....-.--.-.*..-. ~ ~ v E . v E ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~
submitted to the department of ..& ~ X I . W R ~.~. ~ Sd. . S L i n g u i s . t i c ~ . . i partial n fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of .....'h.qDr...i~QQQ'J:h~.~~reetical--Ling. .in the Graduate School of Georgetown University has been read and approved by the Committee:
Head of Department
May 12, 1965 .--*-....---..---..---.---..-..*--....~..-...-.------~...~--.~.~Date
IMTRODUCTION: LANGUAGE AND METHOD
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.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29 . . . . . . . . . . 17 PART I: THE PHONOLOGY OF MUNDARI . . . . . 23 Phonemic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1. Mundari Phonetics. . . . . . . . . . 30 2 . Mundsri Phonemics. . . . . . . . . . 63 3 . Mundari Phonotactics . . . . . . . . 85 PART 11: THE MORPHOLOGY OF MUmDARI . . . .101 ..
1 The Midari Languege 2 Linguistic Science 3 The Work of Hoffmann
Morphemic Analysis
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114 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...140 . . . . . . . . . . .169 200 . . . . 0211 PART 111: THE SYIVTAX OF Tagmemic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . .212
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1 The W d a r i Noun System 2 The Kundari Verb System 3 Adjectives and Adverbs 4 Function Words
MJl4D2.BI.
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.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
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1 The Munderri Sentence 2 The Mundari Clause 3 The hmdari Phrase
1 Mundari Verb Forms 2 List of ~llustrations 3 Bibliography
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222 244 26'1
290 306 314
PREFACE
Mundari i s a language spoken by t h e Munda t r i b e i n t h e Chota Nagpur region i n South Bihar S t a t e , i n t h e northeast section of India. It i s a member of t h e Munda family of languages, including Santhali,
Kharia and Ho i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y . It has two p r i n c i p a l d i a l e c t s , Hasada Mundari and Naguri Mundari. I n t h e Indian Census of 1961, t h e Mundari language i s l i s t e d a s having -585 m i l l i a n native speakers. Taken together with Ho, a language l i s t e d a s having .629 m i l l i o n native speakers, and closely a l l i e d t o t h e Mundari group both by l i n g u i s t i c s i m i l a r i t y and geographical location, t h e Mundari group l i s t s well over a million speakers.
The author l i v & among t h e Mundas and Hos i n t h e Singhbhum D i s t r i c t of South Bihar S t a t e almost continuously from October,1953 .. . .-
u n t i l February, 1962, a period of a l i t t l e over eight years. p a r t of t h a t time, he worked with Menas Orea of v i l l a g e Buruma, one of t h e native informants l i s t e d by t h e Rev.John Hoffman as a main contributor t o t h e Encyclopedia Mundarica. Menas Orea i s a l s o t h e author of a novel, written i n Hoffmann's time, which i s now being revised f o r publication. Through t h e cooperation of t h e Ranchi Catholic Mission, p a r t of t h i s novel, a s well a s t h e unpublished "T" and volumes of t h e Encyclopedia Mundarica were made available. remain i n t h e archives of t h e Ranchi Mission.
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"u"
originals
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In the production of a doctoral dissertation, the number of
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acknowledgements required would suppose an endless list. First of all, in India, thanks must be extended to the Rev.Martin Topno,S.J. head of the Munda publications division of the Ranchi mission, a native Munda
speaker who supplied the Menas Orea mariuscript and answered many questions about the language; to Rev.C.DeBrouwer,S.J.
the archivist,
who supplied the U-volume of the Encyclopedia on microfilm; to the Rev.John K.Bingham,S.J.,of
the Jamshedpur Mission, who supplied tapes
of a passion play done by native Munda speakers at Bandgaon.
Here in the United States, thanks are due first of all to NDEA, which supplied a want to support work on this dissertation; to the Chicago University Research Program in Munda languages under the direction of Dr.Norman Zide, for their helpful cooperation; also to Dr.D.Terence
Langendoen, now of Ohio State University, who supplied
his own excellent treatment of Mundari Phonology done under the same program.
Finally, for our own formation in linguistic science, we must acknowledge a debt of gratitude to the Institute of Languages and Linguistics of Georgetown University, to its Dean, Dr.Robert Lado, and its many staff members, including Dr.Charles C.Fries in language structure, Rev.F'rancis P.Dinneen,S.J.
in theory, and Dr.Charles A.
Ferguson in Sociolinguistics. With their help,anybhing is possible. L a
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Anyone who has attempted an i n i t i a l description of t h e t o t a l
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s t r u c t u r e of a language, including i t s phonology, morphology and syntax, r e a l i z e s t h a t such a description can be a t most t e n t a t i v e . The i n i t i a l description i s most necessary, but can hardly hope t o be definitive. What we can hope f o r i s t h a t t h e continued attempt t o produce t h e s e d e f i n i t i v e descriptions w i l l bring t o focus same of t h e main problems within t h e language, and eveatually leads u s towards ever more accurate statements of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e language under considerat.ion, as well as towards t h e developnent of a cocsistent theory of language which w i l l make f u r t h e r attempts a t description more A.uitfu1. If t h e present
work should succeed i n focussing a t t e n t i o n upon some of t h e main problems i n Mundari, and i n presenting a t l e a s t t h e broad o u t l i n e s of t h e language s t r u c t u r e f o r ccnnparative work and t h e f u t u r e d e v e l o p e n t of more complete s t u d i e s of Mundari greunmar, it w i l l have a c c o ~ p l i s h e d i t s purpose.
Walter AoCook,S.J. Georgetown University ~ u n e ,1965.
INTRODUCTION LANGUAGE AND METHOD
The Mundari language i s a language spoken by t h e Munda %*%be i n t h e Chota Naspur region i n South Bihar S t a t e i n t h e Republic of India. It i s one of t h e Munda family of languages?, which a l s o includes t h e Santhali, Ho, and Kharia languages i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y , and other Munda languages scattered throughout India. The Munda family of languages i s d i s t i n c t from both t h e Indo-European Family and t h e Dravidian Family of languages. The Munda family has existed i n India
from Vedic times s i d e by side with t h e other two major language families, i n t h e r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n of t h e Indian sub-continent.
An i n i t i a l description of. a language requires a s introduction an i n i t i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e language, an explanation of t h e method t o be used i n i t s description, and an outline of t h e main sources i n which former work on t h e language i s available. This introduction has t h r e e p a r t s corresponding t o these t h r e e requirements: ( a ) The Mundari Language: a description of t h e language, including its family, i t s relationships t o other languages, and i t s d i a l e c t s . ( b ) Modern Linguistic Science: including t h e study of languages a s systems of cornmication, and language a s a sign system. (c ) m e works of t h e Rev. John Hoffhann,S.J.
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on t h e Wdari language.
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r1. THE MUNDARI LANGUAGE The standard work of t h e language of t h e Indian sub-continent i s t h e L i n ~ u i s t i cSurvey of India, by Ceerge..A. Grierson, Because of
t h e ma!;siveness of t h i s survey, done a t t h e t w n of t h e century, it has nc-:zr been supplanted by a more modern version. Within t h i s survey,the
v o h e of t h e Munda languages, Vol.IV, was t h e work of Dr.Sten Konow, of Nonmy. For h i s information on t h e Mundari language, he asked f o r information and samples of t h e language from t h e F.ev.John HofJDhraqp,SJJ,, who had previously published h i s Mundari Grammar. A s a r e s u l t , t h r e e
of t h e f i v e examples of t h e Mundari language c i t e d a r e contributions made by Hoff'mann. Unfortunately, these selections were edited and t h e phone'-
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L ~ chmged 6 ~
t o conform t o t h e survey.
I n t h e Indian sub-continent, t h e r e a r e t h r e e major language families, t h e Indo-Aryan,
t h e Dravidian, and t h e Munda families. The
Indo-Aryan l a n ~ g e s ,sometimes c a l l e d t h e Indic branch of t h e IndoEuropean family, include c l a s z l c a l Sanskrit and t h e modern Indian languages, such a s Hindi-Urdu,
Bengali, Gujerati, Marathi, Assamese,
Punjabi, Kashmiri, Rajasthani, and Oriya. Most of these languages a r e highly standardized, and many have extensive l i t e r a t u r e s , Together they numbered over 330 m i l l i o ~speakers i n t h e 1951 census. The Dravidian lanp;uages, predominant i n South India, include Tamil, playalam, Kannarese, and Tele-,
a l l highly standardized and with
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Iextensive l i t e r a t u r e s . Besides t h e major languages of South Inbia,the
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Dravidian family a l s o includes a few s c a t t e r e d t r i b a l languages, such Oraon and Brahui.
CoL,l,ectively t h i s group numbered more than 90
million speakers i n t h e lh\census. '\ The Munda family, located princiad.$y -. i n t h e Chota Ragpur region, =..-
includes Santhali, Mundari, Ho and Kharia, a s w e l l as a few s c a t t e r e d t r i b a l groups outside of Chota Nagpur, such as t h e Korku and Sora groups. These a r e non standardized vernacular languages used by t r i b a l groups, and have l i t t l e o r no l i t e r a t u r e . They numbered
eyer
5 million n a t i v e
speakers i n t h e census of 1951, Within t h e Munda family, t h e Santhali is t h e l a r g e s t group, with 2.8 million speakers i n 1961. They are
located p r i n e f s l l y i n t h e Santhal Pargatrs region of Bihar State,and t h e neighboring regions of Hazaribagh,g%x@hbhun and Mayerband. The Ho t r i b e --
i s next i n numerical count, with .629 mtllion speakers i n
1961, located almost e n t i r e l y i n t h e western p a r t of Singhbhm D i s t r i c t ,
a region known as t h e Singhbhum Kolhan. The ilunda t r i b e i s next i n numerical count, with .585 million speakers i n 1961, located j u s t north of t h e Ho country i n northern portions of Singhbum d i s t r i c t , a n d -4
t h e &st'$nd.Sou~h::poatians -bf Rlnkhizbistrict
. h d a s are a l s o found
a s far north a s Hazaribagh, and a s f a r west as t h e Biru d i s t r i c t . Isolated working groups are found i n t h e Andaman islands, and 'in t h e t e a gardens of Assam and West Bzngal. The Kharia t r i b e i s a much smalzer group than any of t h e others, with approximately 150,000 n a t i v e ppeakers l i s t e d i n t h e 1961 census.
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The Mundari language c o n s i s t s of two p r i n c i p a l d i a l e c t s , t h e
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Hasada and t h e Maguri d i a l e c t s . TJze Hp.88da d i a l e c t i s t h a t d i a l e c t which Grierson c a l l s t h e d i a l e c t of t h e Mankipatti d i s t r i c t s . The Hasada speakers l i v e i n t h e Southeast corner of t h e Ranchi d i s t r i c t , i n an a r e a bordering on and e a s t of t h e Ranchi-Chaibasa road, i n a d i s t r i c t roughly centered around t h e v i l l a g e of Sarwada. This d i a l e c t i s distinguished by i t s redection of a s p i r a t i o n a s a phonemic f e a t u r e , which eliminates a l l of t h e voiced and voiceless a s p i r a t e d stops. It a l s o r e s i s t s loan words and grammatical s t r u c t u r e s from Hindi o r Sadari.
The IV-i
d i a l e c t i s spoken west of t h e Ranchi-Chaibasa
road, extending west a s far as B i r u d i s t r i c t , and south t o t h e border of Orissa s t a t e . They outnumber t h e Hasada speakers about two-to-one. This d i a l e c t accepts a s p i r a t i o n a s a phonemic feature, and makes use of Hindi and Sadari loan words and constructions.
The I&language,also,
may be considered as a d i a l e c t of Mundari.
If mutual i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y i s any c r i t e r i o n , Ho and Mundari a r e a s i n g l e
language. me difference,in t h e Ho language, i s t h a t a l l of t h e o r a l resonants [T] a r e deleted i n Ho, and t h e nasal r e t r o f l e x [!I] becomes a simple dental nasal [n]
. Such fo m s as [ r i r i n g a , 'forget '
,
; [hoyo] 'man1
becme rh?g,*forgetl, ana hT,'manl, i n t h e Ho laaguage. Forms such as sepa,lwisdoml and pah8p,*sacrificer', become sena and pahan i n Ha.There a r e a l s o mlnor grsmmerticecl diffkrences. but not such a s t o i n t e r f e r e e i t h mutual i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y .
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historic all^, t h e Munda t r i b e belongs t o t h a t l a r g e r group sf
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Adibasi, o r aboriginal, races t h a t inhabited India before t h e Aryan iuvasion.
A t t h e time of t h i s invaslom, when t h e Dravidian forces were
defeated by t h e advancing Aryans, t h e Munda t r i b e s were displaced i n t u r n from t h e i r former home i n t h e north, and driven back by these Dravidians.
I n h i s monograph, ha he Mundas and Their country", (Calcutta:
The Kuntaline Press,lgl2.),
Sarat Chandra Roy describes t h e wanderings
of t h e Mun6a t r i b e s towards t h e i r present home. n ~ a m eof t h e Kol t r i b e s , such t h e B i r j i a s and t h e Kis-s, t h e course of t h e Koel r i v e r present d i s t r i c t s of Palamau
a s t h e Korwas, t h e Asurs appear t o have followed till they reached t h e and an chi (0p.cit. ,p.l10)
.
The Mundas and t h e Santhals then proceeded southeast along t h e border of t h e former Lohardaga d i s t r i c t towards t h e v i l l a g e of Cbnedanda, where t h e present d i s t r i c t s of Ranchi, Palrunau and Hazaribsgh meet. The Muadas and Santhals now separated from each other, t h e S a n t h a s moving on towards t h e present Santhal d i s t r i c t , and t h e Mundas staying i n t h e forested regions of t h e Chota Nagpur plateau i n Ranchi d i s t r i c t . The L i m i s t i c Survey of India a l s o a t t e s t s t h e a n t i q u i t y of t h e Munda race and Mundari language, placing t h e i r o r i g i n s samewhere around t h e 8 t h century B.C.before
t h e Tawrlian conquest. Horn, i n an a r t i c l e
i n t h e Encyclopedia b d a r i c a e n t i t l e d "boron, e l s o confirms t h i s a n t i q u i t y of race, but believes t h a t it was t h e Santhali races which absorbed t h e first shock of t h e Aryan invasion i n pre-Vedic times.
LWhatever t h e case, t h e Munda t r i b e s migrated bouth a t t h i s t h e .
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rEpen a f t e r being
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established i n t h e i r nev hame, t h e Mundas were forced
gradually down i n t o t h e south portion of t h e Ranchi d i s t r i c t by t h e pressure of t h e Orson t r i b e , a t r i b e of Dravidian origin.
The Santhals
had already separated froan t h e Mundas, crossing t h e Dsmodar r i v e r i n t o t h e present region of t h e Santhal Parganas.
The separation of t h e Ho t r i b e from t h e Mundas occurred much later.
The Hos o r i g i n a l l y l i v e d i n t h e Hasada country near Sarwada,
and many of t h e i r c l a n names a r e s t i l l i d e n t i c a l with t h e names of v i l l a g e s i n t h i s p a r t of t h e country.
The Hos migrated t o t h e p l a i n s
of Singhbhum d i s t r i c t by way of t h e Porohat e s t a t e before t h e RaJas ,or , rti~le,~Ro"] kings', were established i n t h e Munda d i s t r i c t . [ ~ ~ . 1 7 6 3A The Hos claim both r a c i a l and l i n g u i s t i c independence of t h e Munda t r i b e , but t h e Ho language i s r e a l l y no more than a M d a d i a l e c t . "There i s much l e s s difference between t h e Hasada and Ho d i a l e c t s than between t h e Hasada and N a g u r i d i a l e c t s . [ ~ ~ . 1 7 6 3 ,article,"^^"]
"
The probable sequence of events suggested by Hoffmann i s (1) t h e first
migration under Risa Munda t o t h e Chota Magpur plateau, (2) t h e establishment of t h e f i r s t Raja over Mundas and Oraons around 500 B.C.,
(3) t h e second migration of Mundas under Matura Munda t o Khunti, and
( 4 ) t h e separation of t h e Mundas fram t h e Hos. Whatever t h e i r origin, t h e Hos were w e l l established i n Singhbhum i n t h e e a r l y 18th century, and expelled a l l invaders from t h e i r land. They submitted t o B r i t i s h Lrule i n 1836, and t h e Singhbhum Kolhan region was established.
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rThe Linguistic
Survey of India, in Vol.IV, The Munda and Dravidian
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Families, Part I: The Mwda Family, describes the Mundari language. First, the characteristics of the Munda fmily of languages are given, then a list of the principal Munda languages with a description of each, and finally a list of 241 words and phrases are listed for a comparison of the various languages of the Munda fiwily. The relationships of the Munda family of languages to other languages of the world is given in the following selection from that volume: "The Mundas, the Mon-Khmer, the wild tribes of the Malay peninsula, and the Nicobarese all use forms of speech which can be traced back to a common source, though they mutually d3.ffer from each other." [LSI.VO~.IV.P~~~ .1/p.15] This opinion, given in 1906 with the publication of Volume IV, has never been substantially changed. All refer back to this source. The Linguistic Bibliographx also associates the find&group with the Mon-Khmer languages in its language index, but there is little evidence of any useful information on the Munda languages, except the dissertation of &.Norman
Zide on the Munda language,Korku. No references at all
are given which deal specificLy with the Mundari languageEdward Sapir (Language,1921) points out the structural relationship between Munda, Malayo-Polynesian, and Mon-Khmer languages. According to Sapir, these languages show a morphological structure which can only be explained in terms of a cornon source, that has left vestiges in these languages. The similarities of morphological structure are too great to be explained by a mere borrowing process. L
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~eonardBloamfield, (~anguaae, 1933), refers to the Munda languages as spoken "on the southern glopes of the Himalayas and romd the plateau of Chota Nagpur", including the Munda tribe in its natural home and the tea garden workers who have emigrated to West Bengal and Assam. "Some scholars believe both the Munda and the Mon-Khmer families to be related to the Malayo-Polynesian family, (fonnfn& the so-called Austric family of languages) (opacit.p.70)
."
John B.Carrol1,
h he
Study of ~angua~e,lg~g) mentions the Munda family
of languages as among the least !mown in the entire world.
Final conclusive evidence of the relationships of the Munda family of languages to other families of languages will depend in large part upon basic analytical work in a whole series of Munda languages. This type of basic research program is what has been undertaken at Chicago University under the direction of Dr.Norman Zide. Until the .resultsof this research are available, the only guide for the number and kinds of languages to be included within the Munda family is the Linguistic Survey of India by Grierson, w5ich gives this list of names.
* Asorri
Birhor
Juang(Patna)
Santhali
Koma
Koda
Sarara
Ka,rmali (Kalha)
Mundari
Kurku
Godaba
Mahle
Ho (1ark.a ~ o) l Nahali
Kherwari
.-
Turi
. Bhumij
Kharia 7
r 2. MODEMU LINGUISTIC SCIENCE
Linguistic science has developed considerably from t h e time of Hoffmann.
The l i n g u i s t i c i n s i g h t s of Ferdinand De Saussure, i n h i s
ours de L i w u i s t i q u e Generale" (Geneva ,l916),
which separated t h e
diachronic frat. t h e synchronic approach, t h e psychological insight of Edward Sapir , i n h i s "~anguage"(l921), and t h e methodology of Leonard Blomfield, i n h i s "~anguage"(l933), had t h e i r full e f f e c t upon modem l i n g u i s t i c science a f t e r Hoffinann had produced h i s monumental works. This science did not reach f u l l maturity i n America u n t i l t h e e a r l y
lgbos, d ~ i n gt h e course of t h e Second World War.
This approach represents a methodology i n variance with t h e t r a d i t i o n a l method of writing grammars. The emphasis is upon t h e external formal signal,.
t h e formal signs and t h e i r distribution,,
r a t h e r than upon t h e content of t h e sign. In t h i s study of forms, t h e spoken form is considered t o be l o g i c a l l y and psychologically p r i o r t o written forms of t h e language.
This emphasis upon t h e external
spoken form allows an o b j e c t i v i t y on t h e part of t h e analyst t h a t was not always present i n t h e construction of t r a d i t i o n a l grammars, a development which Hoff'mann himself would have approved. "It i s t o be hoped t h a t t h e rapidly increasine; study of ncn-Aryan languages may soon c r e a t e a r a t i o n a l terminology which w i l l be applicable t o i s o l a t i n g and agglutinative ,as well a s t o organic languages. " (MG. Intro. l v i i )
r 2.A.
LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION
Language may be described i n terms of a communications model. This model describes t h e sending of a message from a source t o same destination by means of a transmitter and receiver which a r e b u i l t t o send and receive t h i s message i n some coded form.
The message i n coded
form, c a l l e d t h e signal, i s made up of b i t s , which a r e then transmitted through a channel, with o r without t h e interference of noise.
The terms
used i n such a model can be outlined i n t h r e e steps: t h e message a t
i t s source, t h e message i n t r a n s i t i o n , and t h e message a t destination. (1) The Message a t i t s Source ( a ) The source i s t h e place where t h e message originates; (b) The t r a n s m i t t e r i s t h e apparatus f o r sending t h e coded message; ( c ) The encodiw process i s t h a t process by which t h e message i s reduced from i t s o r i g i n a l form t o a coded form, c a l l e d t h e s i g n a l , which t h e transmitter i s capable of sending. ( 2 ) The Message a t i t s Destination
( a ) The destination i s t h e place where t h e message i s received; (b) The receiver i s t h e apparatus f o r receiving t h e coded message; ( c ) The d e c o d i n ~process i s t h a t process by which t h e message i s restored, by means of a code reader, from t h e signal t o i t s o r i g i n a l form. The receiver receives only signals.
It is required t h a t t h e
source and destination possess a code i n common, i n order t h a t t h e koded messages might be received, decoded and understood.
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(3) The Messwe i n Transition
( a ) The Channel i s t h e route from t r a n s m i t t e r t o receiver; ( b j 'Ikie signal i s t h e coded message fro^ t r a v e r s e s t h e channel; ( c ) The "bits" a r e minimum p a r t s of a signal; ( d ) Noise i s anything which i n t e r f e r e s with t h e s i g n a l i n t h e channel;
TJoise i s added t o t h e s i g n a l a f t e r it leaves t h e t r a n s m i t t e r and before it reaches t h e receiver; noise i s produced i n t h e channel.
( e ) Redundancy i s t h e transmiBsion of more b i t s than i s necessary i n order t o convey a given message from source t o destination.
Language i s a system of thought communication, which c o n s i s t s of two elements: t h e content, o r thought t o be communicated, and t h e expression, t h e formal outward spoken sign, a r b i t r a r y i n i t s o r i g i n s , but fixed by human convention, by which men communicate thought.
I n human speech, t h e source i s t h e person who is speaking, o r more precisely, t h e mind of t h e speaker where t h e spoken message o r i g i n a t e s The t r a n s m i t t e r is t h e vocal apparatus, designed f o r other por.poses, but adapted by t h e speaker f o r use i n transmitting spoken message!?. This includes t h e lungs, larynx, pharynx, vocal cords, o r a l and nasal c a v i t i e s , t h e tongue, l i p s , teeth,- whatever physical apparatus i s used i n t h e production of speech sounds. The encodim process i s t h e association, i n t h e mind of t h e speaker, of t h e mental concept with those a r t i c u l a t o r y images which represent t h a t concept. This encoding erocess is a psychological process,and t h e t r u e o r i g i n of language.
1
I-
1
I n human speech a l s o , t h e destination i s t h e person who hears, o r more precisely,%takmtM
of t h e hearer who receives t h e message. The receiver
is t h e auditory apparatus designed expressly
fc2- t 2 c
raception of a l l
types of sounds, including speech sounds. This includes t h e oueer dar, t h e e a r drum, t h e inner ear and i t s bone structures,=whatever contribu t e s t o sound reception.
The decoding process i s t h e association, i n
t h e mind of t h e hearer, of t h e acoustic image of t h e sounds heard with t h e mental concepts which those acoustic images represent i n h i s own language. This process i s l i k c k l s e psychological.
Human speech t r a v e l s from speaker t o hearer, by way of a transmitting and receiving apparatus. The niessage t o be conveyed i s coded so thai; it can be handled by t h i s tr=ziaitter
and receiver.
The s i g n a l i s t h e coded message a s it t r a v e l s from t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t o t h e receiver. It i s physical speech sound, and may be measured by means of acoustic instruments and described i n terms of acoustic properties. l'he channel i s t h e route traveled by t h e speech sounds from t h e a r t i c u l a t o r y apparatus of t h e speaker t o t h e auditory apparatus of t h e hearer, whether t h i s be d i r e c t l y through t h e physical action of t h e a i r waves, o r i n d i r e c t l y through such mechanical aids.qars~midim, telephone, t e l e v i s i o n , o r various speech amplifiers. The b i t s a r e minimum p a r t s of t h e speech s i g n a l i n t h e channel, t h e minimum sound u n i t s , l e x i c a l u n i t s and grammatical. u n i t s of t h e 1asguage.Redundancy
is t h e transmission of more b i t s than i s necessary t o convey a message^'
L
1
t In spoken English it has been e s t h t e d t h a t redundancy is normally
about 505, t h a t i s , t h a t t h e English speaker habitually transmits half again a s much a s i s necessary t o convey a given message. This generous redundancy i s a guarantee t h a t t h e message w i l l be properly conveyed. Noise i n human speech includes whatever might i n t e ~ f e r ewith t h e spoken signal i n actual transition.
Noise i s added t o t h e signal
a f t e r it leaves t h e transmitter, and before it reaches t h e receiver. Such noise includes a l l extraneous sounds, such a s other people t a l k i n g , but does not include t h e mental d i s t r a c t i o n s of t h e hearer.
A model such a s t h e communications model gives us a fraework
within which t o discuss t h e f a c t s of speech, with a wide range of analom with other means of signal transmission, such a s t h e codes used by animals t o communicate with each other, and t h e various mechanical transmission systems developed bj man f o r communication. Within t h i s model, language i s placed i n t h e psychological processes of encoding and decoding.
The routes frcan source t o transmitter, and
fram receiver t o destination, a r e physiological.
Actual transmission
of t h e message by way of a signal i n the..channel i s purely physical. The model adequately distinguishes t h e message, o r language content, from t h e signal, o r language expression, and describes these i n terms
of an encoding-decoding process, by which t h e content and e x p r e s s i ~ n of language a r e habitually aseoc iated ,fo r purposes of communication, k y t h e members of each single speech camnunity.
r2 . B .
LANGUAGE AS A SIGN SYSTEM
language i s a system o f communication between t h e members of a s i n g l e speech community, by which t h e thoughts of t h e speaker a r e transmitted to t h e hearer through a system of formal outward signs. Linguistic s c i e n c e . s t u d i e s language from t h e point of view of its outward s t r u c t u r e o r expression, but a t no point i n t h i s study can t h e external formal signs be completely cut off from a consideration of t h e concepts which they signify.
It i s a study of expression, but
always with respect t o t h e content t h a t underlies expression.
The
objects of l i n g u i s t i c science a r e l i n g u i s t i c forms, considered i n r e l a t i o n t o what they signify. The l i n g u i s t i c analyst must approach t h e study of a s p e c i f i c language objectively, with t h e intention of i s o l a t i n g t h e various u n i t s which c a r r y meaning, t h e b i t s by which these u n i t s a r e distinguished from each other, and t h e ways i n which t h e s e u n i t s a r e put together
i n t o mcaningrul propositions.
This involves him i n a t h r e e l e v e l pro-
cess of analysis; a study of t h e minimum u n i t s which d i f f e r e n t i a t e l e x i c a l units,- t h e study of phonology; a study of t h e l e x i c a l u n i t s which carry meaning,- t h e study of morphology; and a study of t h e ways i n which t h e s e l e x i c a l u n i t s a r e used i n complete utterances,- t h e study of grammar. Phonology s t u d i e s t h e minimum sound u n i t s of language. These Lunits a r e c a l l e d phonemes.
A phoneme i a defined as t h a t minimum u n i t
.
rsound which has t h e capacity of
-T
changing t h e meaning of a l e x i c a l item.
These sound u n i t s do not have meaning, but they have t h e power t o d i s t i n g u i s h meaningful units. d i f f e r e n t i a l meaning,
This type of meaning i s sometimes c a l l e d
The phonological hierarchy is t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of a l l sounds. A t t h e lowest l e v e l a r e a l l t h e possible sounds that might be heard i n a given language.
These sounds a r e c a l l e d phones.
A t t h e next l e v e l , t h e s e phones a r e organized a s allophones, o r other
phones, belonging t o a c l a s s of sounds c a l l e d t h e phoneme. This phoneme i s not a sound, then, but a universal which contains c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l
f e a t u r e s i n i t s comprehension, and i s r e a l i z e d i n i t s extension i n a concrete s e t of allophones,
These phonemes a r e then mapped i n t o t h e
next hierarchy, i n which meaningful l e x i c a l u n i t s a r e formed. Specific sequences of sound u n i t s a r e a r b i t r a r i l y assigned a meaning, and t h u s becane t h e meaningful u n i t s of t h e language. Morphology s t u d i e s t h e minimum meaningful. u n i t s of language. These u n i t s are c a l l e d morphemes.
A morpheme is defined a s a minimum
u n i t , a sound sequence which has i t s own meaning. This meaning of t h e morpheme i s c a l l e d i t s ref arent i a l meaning, o r content.
The l e x i c a l ,
o r morphological, hierarchy involves t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a l l forms. A t t h e lowest l w e l , a l l t h e forms which recur with bw speaZPflrble
meaning are l i s t e d ; but a t a higher l e v e l , these forms, c a l l e d morphs, are grouped i n t o c l a s s e s of forms with t h e same meaning, a s allamorphs
of t h e same morpheme.
This morpheme i s a universal which has some
~ e f e r e n t i a meaning l as coanprehension,and is extended i n allmorphs.
_j
rThese morphemes a r e then mapped
i n t o t h e grammatical hierarchy a s
7
morpheme c l a s s e s which assume a grammatical function, and enter i n t o t h e grammatical s t r u c t u r e of t h e language. Syntax, o r grammar, studies t h e minimum grammatical u n i t s of a language.
These u n i t s , i n one system of grammatical analysis, a r e
tagmemes, o r arrangements.
A tagmeme i s defined as a c o r r e l a t i o n
between a morpheme f i l l e r c l a s s and a functional s l o t i n a construction f'rame.
This function-form composite c a r r i e s with it a meaning over
and above t h e l e x i c a l meanings of t h e items involved. c a l l e d pammatical meaning.
This meaning i s
The grammatical meaning, plus t h e l e x i c a l
meaning, of an utterance equals t h e l i a g u i s t i c mzaning. Other associated s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l meanings a r e attached t o utterances, but t h e s e a r e considered t o be non-linguistic, t h a t is, not c a r r i e d by t h e forms o r constructions a s such.
The grammatical hierarchy then involves a
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e grammatical s t r u c t u r e s i n which l e x i c a l u n i t s a r e found,
A t t h e lowest l e v e l , these u n i t s a r e tagmas, o r arrangements.
A t a higher l e v e l i n t h e same hierarchy t h e s e tagmas a r e grouped i n t o
s e t s i n which they a r e considered a s allotagmas of a s i n g l e tagmeme. !his tagmeme i s a universal which has a specified function; t o which i s attached a grammatical meaning a s i t s comprehension, and t h i n i s
r e a l i z e d i n extension i n a s p e c i f i c s e t of morpheme c l a s s sequences which a r e s a i d t o manifest a p a r t i c u l a r construction. These tagmemes are f u r t h e r arranged i n constructionrs at p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l s , such as p h e phrase l e v e l , t h e clause l e v e l , and t h e sentence l e v e l of gremmar.~
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3.
THE WORK OF JOHN HOFFMAMV
Almost a l l of t h e work done on t h e Mundari language i s t h e work directed by one man, t h e Rev.John HofAnsm,S.J,,
a Genaan J e s u i t
who joined t h e Ranchi Catholic Mission i n t h e Chota Nagpur region. P r i o r t o t h e introduction of t h e Christian missions i n Chota Nagpur, nothing was known about t h e Mundwi language. was
The Lutheran Mission
founded i n Chota Nagpur i n 1845, and a f t e r a schism i n t h i s church
a group joined t h e Anglican Mission i n 1869.
During t h i s same year,
t h e Catholic mission was inaugurated by t h e advent of Fr.Stocla~an,S.J. t o t h e d i s t r i c t c a p i t a l at Chaibasa.
Due t o t h e work of t h e s e pioneers
t h e language was committed t o paper, an orthography devised i n Rcansn s c r i p t , and i n i t i a l sttenapta were made t o construct grammars, and t o t r a n s c r i b e t h e Bible and other teaching materials.
Hofhann was a l i n g u i s t before he became a missionary.
In the
introduction t o t h e "A" Volume of h i s Encyclopedia, he mentions t h a t he gathered materials on t h e Muride~ilanguage before he was assigned t o t h e mission, a s e a r l y as 1888.
The only sources a v a i l s b i c t o him a t
t h i s time were grammatical' notes and Bible trarislations f r o a n t h e Lutheran and Anglican missions. i n 1892.
Hoffhsann was assigned to Chota N a g p u r
By 1903 he had published h i s Mundari Grammar, and because of
t h i s work,- s t i l l t h e standard grammar f o r Mundari-, he was a b l e t o kooperate i n t h e publication of t h e Munda volume of t h e Linguistic
_1
kurvey of India, published i n 1906. Sensing t h a t h i s reference grammar1 was not t h e best vehicle f o r rapid mastery of t h e language, he began t h e publication of h i s Mundari Grammar with Exercises, Part I of which appeared i n 1906, and Part I1 i n 1908. These two volumes consider a l l of t h e t e n s e s of t h e Active voice, but not t h e passive and reflexive. Apparently Hoffmann had intended t o enlarge these exercise books i n t o a complete s e r i e s f o r t h e learning of t h e Mundari language. These two volumes a r e extent, but out of p r i n t a t t h i s date.
Meanwhile Hofthann had obtained a grant of Rs.1000 from t h e Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal f o r t h e publication of what was t o be h i s most s i g n i f i c a n t work, t h e 12 volume Encyclopedia Mundarica. Beginning t h i s work around 1906, he xas r e p a t r i a t e d t o Germany during t h e F i r s t World War, and was allowed t o t a k e along h i s manuscripts. I n 1919 he received f u r t h e r assurance from Bengal t h a t t h e Government would p r i n t t h e material when it was prepared. Working i n cooperation with t h e missionaries s t i l l i n India, p a r t i c u l a r l y Rev.Arthur Van Ehelen,S. J.
,se continued
work on t h e Encyclopedia, and published it
with t h e d a t e l i n e Dortmund ,Germany, October 4th,1924.
These works,then, a r e all of t h e sources f d r Mmdari: ( 1 ) Mundari Grammar, 1903. Ca1cutta:Bengal S e c r e t a r i a t Press [MG.] ( 2 ) Mundari Grammar with Exercises ,1906,1908, Calcutta. Catholic Press.
,
( 3 ) Encyclopedia Mundarica, 193b,Superf ntendent ~ o v ' tP r i n t i n g ,Patna[EM]
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In h i s treatment of phonological questions, Hoffhann was quite
accurate i n h i s transcriptions, but meager i n h i s description. The f i r s t four pages of h i s g r a m m a r are devoted t o a description of t h e Mundari vowels and consonants, and the first nine pages of t h e l a t e r
Encyclopedia a r e given t o Mundari sounds and t h e i r representation. Most of t h i s description i s confined t o t h e checked vowels and consonants. The checked vowels, which modern phoneticians would describe as a sequence of vowel-glottal stop-vowel ,[v?v] , are described by H o f f b m i n t h e following manner, with reference t o t h e i r production: [ m o p . (511 "Pronounce t h e v w e l i n i t s ordinary way, and then check it quite suddenly by a rapid contraction of t h e upper throat muscles; and then, by a relaxation of these muscles, allow t h e breath or sound t o flow out without giving it any further modulation." The checked consonants, which modern phoneticians would describe a s a haorganic post-nasalizat ion, a r e described by ~offmamr.~.:[~~i.#a8f ui,
==
z,
"The consonant thus checked, sounds sumewhat a s ub-m. 'though it were followed by a slPght m_: The consonant 2 sounds a s i f it were followed by In r e a l i t y , however, there a s l i g h t g med9= med-n. is neither an m_ nor an attached t o these cansonants."
=
In speaking of h i s transcription of t h e glides i n Mundari, Hoffmann reveals h i s conscientious approach t o t h e recording of phonetic material. and ao, but t h e Mundas maintain t h a t there i s a distinction..... Pains a r e taken t o write where t h e Mundas f e e l an A similar d i f f i c u l t y e x i s t s f o r t h e d i s t i n c t ion between and [EM.~ol."A",p.(2)1
"It i s not easy t o distinguish
.;
E.
With t h i s type of approach, it is easy t o accept as valid t h e phonetic kepresentation of t h e language a s given i n Hoflkannls orthography.
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However, Hofimann, with h i s work s u b s t a n t i a l l y complete by t h e
year 1924, shows no knowledge of t h e phonemic principle which was not Consequently, h i s
c l e a r l y expressed u n t i l t h e work of Sapir i n 1925.
orthography may be accepted a s phonetically sound, but not phonemically valid.
The checked consonants, f o r exemple, a r e merely p o s i t i o n a l
v a r i a n t s of t h e regular consonants, i n a d i s t r i b u t i o n which Hofiinam himself recognized and c l e a r l y s t a t e d i n t h e Encyclopedia. [EM.p( 6 ) 1.
-
"The consonants b and 6 a r e always checked a t t h e end of a word....In t h e body of a word they a r e checked when they a r e followed by a consonant
."
Given t h i s Oistribution, it is not necessary t o check t h e consonants a t a l l i n writing them, since it i s c l e a r from Hoffhannts d i s t r i b u t i o n r u l e t h a t t h e s e consonants a r e checked finally,and i n medial position only before consonants. A native speaker of Mundari, reading a k o r
6,
would automatically check these consonants i n t h e proper p o s i t ion.
Again, Hoffmann objects t o t h e use of t h e symbols t h e g l i d e s i n Mundari, which he marks as [g] ,[XI, reason f o r redecting y, and
or as
snd
[s],[GI.
for His
i s t h a t t h e s e are "fricativen sounds.
'~hough very short, these g l i d e s never cause those f r i c a t i v e sounds, which give r i s e t o t h e so-called semi-vowels;, and x." [mep.(2)1. I n modern phonetics, t h e sounds
hl
sad l w / are vocoid g l i d e s used as
consonants,and are not associated with e f r i c a t i v e sound. The /y/glide i s forward and upward, a s i n [g] and [
r] fobl&xig~~tv:rovC~,andthe
uv/ g l i d e i s a g l i d e backward and up, as i n [G] and
[;I.
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Hoffhann's phonology, then, e r r s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of being more
accurate than t h e phonemic8 of t h e language m u l d require.
As a result,
it i s possible, by and l m g e , t o accept t h e whole of h i s phonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n a s t h e b a s i s f o r phonemic work, with t h e assurance that h i s whole Encyclopedia, a s transcribed, i s as good a s any body of material that could be acquired d i r e c t l y i n t h e f i e l d by a modern phonetician t r a i n e d t o recognize and describe t h e sounds of language.
I n morphology, Hoffmann has made h i s most s u b s t a n t i a l contribution.
Beginning with an agglutinative language, with no p r i o r model
o r s e t of terminology t o work with, he has established t h e morphology of t h e language i n a way t h a t is of l a s t i n g value.
According t o t h e
more modern terminology, many of h i s reasoned explanations w i l l be disregarded a s being too much under t h e influence of t r a d i t i o n a l grammar.
But Hoffhlann was able, even with t h i s framework, using a
broader philosophical background, t o point out t h e differences3etween agglutinative and other types of languages, t o separate primary r o o t s fYan formative elements, and c i t e forms t o e s t a b l i s h h i s conclusions.
Syntax i s perhaps t h e weakest l i n k i n t h e chain.
Although
Hoffhann devotes p a r t of t h e introduction of h i s grammar t o t h e Mundari sentence o r proposition, t h i s is not c a r r i e d through t o a r e a l description of t h e order of elements i n t h e Mundari phrase, clause, Land sentence. The emphasis of t h e gremmar i s upon word formation.
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In conclusion, t h e work of Hoffhann
i6
t h e only s t a r t i n g point
1
f o r a study of the Mundari language, a s h i s works have become t h e c l a s s i c a l works i n t h e i r f i e l d . The work has been very thoroughly done, and t h e phonetic transcription may be tshen:as reliable,.
very l i k e l y
t h e most r e l i a b l e transcription of any of t h e Munda languages, I n h i s morphology, t h e e s s e n t i a l analysis i s complete, but can be reworked i n modern terms.
The syntax, with a solid morphology a s a basis, must be
developed f r a a n h i n t s i n t h e grammar, and t h e c i t a t i o n forms available,
With t h e methods that have been developed i n modern l i n g u i s t i c science, and f a i t h f u l t o t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t has made t h e works of John Hoffmann t h e c l a s s i c s t h a t they are, it should be possible t o evolve
a c a p l e t @description of t h e Mundari language which would both s a t i s f y t h e rigid requirements of t h e modern science and keep t h e t r a d i t i o n a l value of t h e works of Hoffhann,- a developent which Hofih3aM himself would have desired.
John H o f f h m had a great i n t e r e s t i n t h e Munda people. H i s work included t h e formation of t h e Catholic Credit Cooperative i n Ranchi, a s well a s h i s works on langwge. While helping t h e Mundas toward economic s t a b i l i t y , he feared that t h e i r langwse would one day be l o s t t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c ccmnnunity. This fear was undustified. Today Mundari remains a v i t a l language, with over a million speakers, open P o t h e investigation of l i n g u i s t s today.
A
THE PHONOLOGY OF MUNDARI
Introduction:
Phonemic Analysis
Chapter 1: Mundari Phonetics 1. The Vocoid Sounds of Mundsri 1.A. The Unmodified Vocoids 1.B. The Modified Vocoids
2. The Contoid Sounds of Mundari 2.A. The Obstruent Contoids 2.B. The Continuant Contoids Chapter 2: Mundari Phonemics 1. The Vowel System of Mundari 1.A. E s s e n t i a l Phonemic Features 1.B. The Vowel Phonemes
2. The Consonant System of Mundari 2.A. E s s e n t i a l Phonemic Features 2.B. The Consonant Phonemes Chapter 3 : Mundari Phonotactics 1. The Vowel P a t t e r n s of Mundari 1.A. Vowel Harmony 1.B. Vowel Sequences
2. The Consonant Patterxis of Mundari 2.A. Single Consonants 2. B Consonant Clusters
.
PART I THE PHONOLOGY OF MUlBDARI
Language i s a code by which a message i s sent from a source t o a destination.
The message i s encoded a t t h e source, and then sent by
means of a t r a n s m i t t e r through a channel t o t h e receiver, where it is decoded and ~ e l a y e dt o i t s destination. In t h e study of Phonology, we consider t h e coded message o r s i g n a l i n t h e channel a s made up of b i t s . The s i g n i f i c a n t b i t s of t h e s i g n a l a r e t h e phonemes o f t h e language. These b i t s , taken singly, do not have meaning, but they have t h e power t o change t h e message. Whenever a s i g n i f i c a n t b i t i s changed, t h e message which i s being c a r r i e d by t h e s i g n a l i s a l s o changed. The first great problem of language i s t o i s o l a t e and c l a s s i f y these minimum s i g n i f i c a n t u n i t s of sound out of which t h e s i g n a l i s constxrlcted,
P h o n o l o ~i s t h e study of t h e minimum significa$rtubfts of sound i n a language, and t h e ways i n which these sound u n i t s are arranged i n patterns. This . study includes phonetics, which i s t h e i n i t i a l study and description of a l l t h e sounds t h a t occur i n t h e language, regardless of t h e way i n which they a r e organized, and phonemics, which is t h e organization of these same sounds i n t o d i s t i n c t i v e sound 'wits which a r e capable of s i g n a l l i n g a change i n t h e meaningful symbols of Ch%8;:.'. s p e c i f i c language. The number of sounds found within a s i n g l e language
lis i n f i n f t e , but t h e organized sound u n i t s a r e l e s s than f i f t y .
1
r
7 Phonemes often are represented by more than one sound. Each of
the different sounds associated with a single sound unit is called a phone ( from the Greek word, phone'
,'sound ' )
. When several different
sounds are associated with a single sound unit, these sounds are said to be allophpnes, or 'other sounds' of the same phoneme. The phoneme then represents a set of class of sounds which act as a single sound unit within the sound system of the language. It is a universal, whose comprehension consists of the distinctive features of sounds by which it is distinguished from other sound units, and whose extension is the specific set of sounds by which the unit is manifested in the sound transmission of particular messages.
Phonemic Analysis is that process by which the phones of a language are isolated and grouped into sets called phonemes. This .
...
analysis is based on the following presuppositions:
(1) Sound Differences:
Phanemic Analysis presuppses that the meaning
differences in the messgse are signalled by the sound differences in the signal transmitted. Consequently, the only sound differences which are significant, are the sound differences which can change the message. (2) Limitation:
Phonemic Analysis of spoken and written language
presupposes that the number of sound units is finite. Otherwise the transmission of messages by rapidly changing sound units would become
an impossibility, because of the physical and physiological limitations
bf the human person. Languages have a finite number of sound =its.
1
r
1 The Principles of Phonemic Analysis by which t h e utterances of
a language a r e segmented i n t o sound units4 which a r e then i d e n t i f i e d
* 8
and c l a s s i f i e d as phonemes, can be reduead t o four general r u l e s : ( 1 ) The P r i n c i p l e of Identity: Sounds a r e similar o r dissimilar. Dissimilar sounds must belong t o d i f f e r e n t phonemes. Similar sounds
may belong t o t h e same phoneme. By s i m i l a r sounds i s understood t h a t these sounds have some of t h e i r identifying f e a t u r e s i n common. 12) The Principle of Contrast: Sounds i n contrast i n i d e n t i c a l environ-,
ments, when t h e sound difference i s p a r a l l e l e d by a meanfng difference, must belong t o d i f f e r e n t phonemes. Sounds, however, which a r e not i n contrast, and are e i t h e r i n complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n i n mu.tually -
exclusive environments , o r a r e i n p a r t $ell complementa t ion with some f r e e v a r i a t i o n , may belong t o one and t h e same phoneme. The p o s i t i v e f a c t of c o n t r a s t e s t a b l i s h e s a phoneme. Once a phoneme always a phoneme. The negative p r i n c i p l e of complementary d i s t r i b u t i o n leads t o t h e assumption t h a t since t h e s e sounds are not,de facto, found i n c o n t r a s t , therefore they w i l l not occur,and cannot occur i n contrast.
(3) The P r i n c i p l e of Symmetry: It i s asaumed t h a t phonetic p a t t e r n s tend towards p h o n c t i ~agametry o r neatness of pattern. Phonemic systems which do not show t h i s p a t t e r n congruity a r e considered l e s s l i k e l y .
14)
The P r i n c i p l e of ~conaary"A phonemic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n should tend
towards t h e establishment of t h e l e a s t number of phonemes. However, t h e l e a s t number of phonemes per utterance i s a l s o p a r t of econany, even &hen t h i s demands a l a r g e r number of phonemes i n absolute count.
A
r
The Results of Phonemic Ana1ysis.are t h e phonemes of t h e -
7
language, l i s t e d i n a contrastive phonemic chart, and accompanied by a description of t h e allophones by which each of t h e phonemes is represented, and t h e distribution of these allophones i n the meaningful u n i t s of t h e language.
Phonemes a r e t h e souxlds of which words are made.
Since t h e phoneme i s a universal, t h e words a r e not composed d i r e c t l y of phonemes, but of t h e particular allophones by which t h e phoneme i s manifested here and now.
phonemes of t h e following typm are found:
j a ) Semnental phonemes,-the phonemes which occur i n regular l i n e a r order within t h e word structure,- are t h e consonants and vowels of t h e language.
Included a l s o a r e t h e glides, which may be e i t h e r con-
sonants or vowels, depending upon how they a r e used i n t h e language. ( b ) Supra-segmental phonemes,- t h e phonemes which occur simultaneously with segmental phonemes,- include t h e phonemes of tone, s t r e s s , pitch, and juncture.
These supra-segmental9 a r e of two classes: t h e supra-
f i x e s attached t o individual sound units, such as tone, s t r e s s and Juncture, and t h e supra-segmentals t h a t act a s part of t h e intonational pattern, sentence s t r e s s , terminal contours, and pitch levels.
The ~honologicalhierarchy which emerges frm t h e analysis i s a triangular s t r a c t u r e with a l l occuring sounds a t i t s base, grouped i n t o phones, then i n t o phonemes, then i n t o phoneme classes. A t each step i n t h i s abstractive process, something is retained and something Lleft behind. The analyst must r e t a i n a l l d i s t i n c t i v e features.
-1
r
1 The description of sounds may be either articulatory or acoustic
In articulatory description, t h e sound is described i n terms of t h e physiological movements of t h e vocal apparatus; i n acoustic description t h e sounds are described i n terms o f t h e physical characteristics of t h e sound i n actual transmission. These descriptions are nut contradictary, but complementary. Whether t h e sound be described as it leaves t h e transmitter, or a s it occurs i n t h e speech channel, it is s t i l l the same sound.
A description of sounds i n terms of t h e articulatory
process i s more useiul f o r t h e teaching of pronunciation; a description i n terms of acoustic features i s more susceptible t o s c i e n t i f i c measurement by machine.
According t o t h e i r articulatory description, sounds of a language a r e divided into two classes, called contoids and vocoids. These terms a r e phonetic, and r e f e r t o t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of sounds. The terms vowel and consonant a r e reserved f o r t h e functional use of sounds within a specific phonemic system. The term hdcoid" includes what we would
ordinarily consider as vowels and glides; t h e term contoid includes what we ordinarily consider consonants. not a l l vocoids =vowels; --
vowels
vocoids,
f o r t h e glides a r e a l s o vocoid i n production
whether they a c t a s vowels o r consonants i n t h e langwqse. a r e consonants, -
but
but not a l l consonants
All contoids
contoids; some consonants
may be glides, t h a t occur i n consonantal p ~ s i t i in ~t h e~ language,and ~
bo a c t a s c o n ~ e ; ; ~ tof s t h e language.
r
. T The Vocoid Sounds of Articulatory Phonetics are t h e sounds
which a r e produced with t h e following e s s e n t i a l c h a r e c t e r i s t i c s : 1. Vocoid sounds are oral. They are produced by t h e air stream passing
through t h e o r a l passage, as contrasted with those sounds which pass exclusively through t h e n a s a l passages, t h e n a s a l sounds. 2. Vocoid Sounds are i r i c t i o n l e s s . They a r e produced by ern a i r stream which passes through t h e o r a l passsge without any noticeable obstruction o r turbulence. They a r e i n contrast with stopped and f r i c a t i v e sounds. 3. Vocoid sounds a r e centered. m e y are produced by an a i r stream t h a t
passes through t h e o r a l passage d i r e c t l y over t h e center of t h e tongue. They a r e i n c o n t r a s t irith lateral sounds, i n which t h e a i r stream i s diverted around t h e edges of t h e tongue.
The Contoid Sounds, on t h e other hand, a r e sounds which lack any one of t h e t h r e e e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s of a vocoid sound. 1. Some contoids are non-oral.
These include t h e sounds i n which t h e
a i r stream passes through t h e nasal, and not t h e o r a l passages. These include t h e set of nasals, [m] , [n] , ['ill, [p] , 131. 2. Some contoids are not-frictfonless.
These Smclude &&
sounds i n
which t h e air stream i s e i t h e r stopped, o r causes notable f r i c t i o n . They include t h e stops:[p],[b],etc.,and
t h e f r i c a t i v e s [s],['2S],etc.
3. Same contoids are not centered. These include t h e lateral sounds,
i n which t h e 2 i r stream is - diverted around t h e edges of t h e tongue, h t h e r than passing over i t s center. Such is t h e sound [l],[r].
_I
MJNDARI PHONETICS
Mundari Phonetics i s t h e study of t h e sounds which occur i n t h e Mundari language, independently of t h e way i n which these sounds a r e organized. This includes a study of t h e number and type of vocoids t h a t occur, t h e nzmiber and type of contoids t h a t occur, and t h e particular features by which these sounds are identified, c l a s s i f i e d , and differentiated from each other. m e r e s u l t s of such a study produce a phonetic work chart of all t h e sounds which occur i n Mundari, from which, by grouping i n t o s e t s , a determination of t h e t r u e sound u n i t s of t h e W d a r i language can be obtained.
Mundari phonetics i s considered under these headings: ( a ) The Vocoid system, which includes t h e study of all t h e vocoid sounds which occur i n t h e langusge, together with t h e i r identifying and contrastive sound features. These sounds a r e oral,frictionless,central. (b) The contoid system? which includes t h e study of all t h e contoid
sounds which occur i n t h e language, together with t h e i r identifying and contrastive features. These a r e deficient i n same one of t h e t h r e e features of t h e vocoids ,that 'is,they a r e non o r a l ,not f r i c t i o n l e s s ,or not central. Some of these sounds w i l l only occur i n c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t e d b s i t i o n s , b u t all sounds must be listed,and then grouped i n t o .sets.
r
1 The vowels and consonants of a specific language a r e these same
vocoid and contoid sounds, as used i n t h e s t ~ ~ c t u of r e t h a t languege. The heart of a language i s its vocoid system. The vocoid sounds a c t e i t h e r singly o r in combinations, a s the nuclei of syllables i n t h a t language. Any vocoid vhich a c t s singly a s B syrl.Zable nucleus, or which combines w i t h some other vocoid a s p a r t of a syllable nucleus, i s called a vowel. The contoid sounds, on t h e other hand, a c t a s t h e margins of or a coda, syllables, e i t h e r a s an~~odset;~vhich~openectheCC$jc~la~le, which closes the syllable. In same languages a sotmdwill simultaneously close t h e preceding syllable and open t h e next syllable. This i s called an interlude. Vocoid sounds also, which a c t a s onsets, codas, or a s interludes, are l i s t e d among t h e consonants of t h e language. A l l of the contoids of the language are ips0 facto consonants. Like the vowels,the consonants sometimes a c t singly, sometimes i n groups called clusters.
The key t o a c l e a r distinction between consonants and vowels of a specific language, i s t h e use t o which t h e glides ar semi-vowels a r e put i n t h i s languqe. The glides a r e d e f i n i t e l y vocoid i n production but may a c t a s e i t h e r vowels or consonants,depepding upon t h e language. This sounds are written a s /i/ and /u/ when they a c t a s vowels, and
are written -as /y/ and /w/ when they a c t a s consonants. The decision a s t o whether they a r e vowels or consonants depends upon t h e patterns of t h e language. Those sounds found i n positions known froan other forms
ko
be consonantal a r e consonants; otherwise they a r e vowels.
J
r 1. TRE VOCOID SOUNDS OF MUNDARI
A vocoid sound i s a sound which i s o r a l , f r i c t i o n l e s s and a l s o
centered. In a vocoid sound, t h e a i r stream passes through t h e o r a l cavity, passes through t h a t cavity without noticeable turbulence o r f r i c t i o n , and passes over t h e center of t h e tongue.Vocoid sounds a r e distinguished f'rom each other by t h e height of t h e tongue, whether high,mid, o r low, t h e positon of t h e tongue, whether forward,central, o r back, and t h e position of t h e l i p s , whether rounded o r unrounded.
The vocoids of Mundari a r e based upon f i v e distinguishable simple vocoid sounds, which may be
modified by a p a r t i c u l a r
s e t of features. The f i v e e s s e n t i a l vocoid sounds are t h e vowels of t h e Romance languages, [ a ] ,
[el, [ i ] , [o], [u]. These f i v e vocoids
a r e f u r t h e r modfied and marked with c m t a i n diacritics,distinguishing ( a ) Long vowels, marked with t h e macron, f o r lenth: [ ( b ) Very short vowels, marked f o r shortness: ( c ) Nasalized vowels, marked with t h e Bitcumfkex ( d ) - Glottalized vowels, marked with a check,
X
1
G I [% 1 I a']
he sound represented by t h e g l o t t a l i z e d vowels is written more a c c u r a t e l y with a g l o t t a l stop [I], a s [a?a]. These a r e c a l l e d t h e checked vowels of Mundari. The vowel i s pronounced, checked i n t h e g l o t t a l region, and then t h e pronuntiation of t h e vowel is allowed t o b n t i n u e . The g l o t t a l stop occurs,in W d a r i , o n l y i n t h e combination
~d.
r 1.A. THE UNMODIFIED VOCOIDS
The simple unmodified vocoids of Mundari are the five simple
.
vowel:.gounds of the romance languages, namely, [i], [el, [a], [o], [u] These five vowel sounds are distinguished from each other by the three characteristics of tongue height, tongue position, lip position. (a) accord in^ to the hCBght of the tonme, the vowels are classed as 1. High vocoids: 2. Mid Vocoids:
r
.
[ iI
[ul
[e1
[o]
3. Low Vocoids: (b) According
$0
[a]
the position of the tongue, the vowels are classed as
1. Front Vocoids, with the tongue far forward, [i]. [el
2. Central Vocoids, with the tongue centered,
[a]
3. Back Vocoids, with the tongue far back,
[u], [o].
(c) According to the position of the lips, the vowels are classed as 1. Rounded, if the llps are rounded,
[u], Lo3
2. Unrounded, if the lips are flat,
[fl, [el, [a3
The third characteristic,that of lip rounding, although it is a descriptive phonetic feature, is not an essential distinguishing characteristic in a five vowel system. The five vowels are already adequately distinguished from each other by the first two features, which offer a 3 x 3 or 9 position matrix for distinguishing vowels.
bf the 9 possible positions described,the vowels fill five positions.
-1
r The simple vocoids of Mundari a r e described a s follows: [il
High front unrounded vocoid
[ k i l f 1,
'clan'
[e 1
Mid
[coke],
'frog'
[a]
Low central mounded vocoid
[haga],
'trrotfier'
[01
Mid back rounded vocoid
[b & ~ ]
*iehr.&
[u]
High back rounded vocoid
[kumu],
'dream*
frontunroundedvocoid
,
Within a f i v e vowel system, t h e r e w i l l be a considerable range of variation possible with each vowel. Some points about t h i s variation of sounds i n t h e vowels should be noted. (a) Even i n word f i n a l position, t h e pure vowels of Mundari never have
t h e glides associated with these f i v e vowels i n English; t h a t is, t h e vowels are never pronounced a s [ i y ] , [ey], o r :as [ow], [uw] , 8s i n t h e romance languages, t h e vowel i s pronouuced i n a single position, withobt t h e accanpanying glide. ( b ) In open syllables, which end i n a vowel, t h e vowel has its longest duration and consequently i t s purest sound. In closed syllables, which end with a consonant, t h e vowel i s clipped short by t h a t consonant,and may sound, t o t h e English speaking person, l i k e t h e i r short vowels, but t h i s shortness i n length i s more comparable t o t h e English time difference i n such s e t s a s 'beat', [biyt 1, 'bead*, [biyd] ,'bean', [biyn]
.
.
( c ) In open non-final syllables, which a r e not followed by a stop, t h i s shortening of t h e vowel i s a l s o evident. Before stops,however, t h e b e c e d i n g open s y l l a b l e sounds l i k e a f i n a l syllable.
1
4
VOWEL CHARTS
113
[ -ip-
1
-iCu-
-iCa-
-iCi-
-iC#
dipli
ipil,
,
itu,
[-it-] [-it-]
pit,
[-ik-]
[ -ib-
Tri-syll.
-iCC-
ikir,
1
... .
sibil,
[-id- ]
bid,
idi
,
ikurum
siku,
rika,
nida
,
idu,
1-ig-I [-ig-]
bing
,
[-ic-]
bica,
[-id-]
a
-----
[-ih-]
[-is-]
----
imta,
1 bir
,
birid, kili,
[oil- ] [-iw- ]
jilad
I)--o-
,
iminang,
inung,
nindir,
dinaki,
,
sim,
iralia,
- 7 - 8 , .
j ilu,
bilka,
kin,
[-19-1
sipi,
[- i y I
~ i ~ i ,
--
[-iy-I
. I -
[ -ia-] S-~UT]
-.---
isu,
imin,
sim,
[-ir-]
hiju', ---om
hisi,
[-im-] [-in-
-----
,
A
biur,
I
-0--
om---
%miti,
turia,
ciula
,
giul
----
---"upunia
,
*
[-ei-]
I
one)
konea,
[-ea-]
ea,
[ -eo-]
deopa ,
[-eu- ]
he~,
1-ep-I
I
I
moqea,
ete'
[-et-]
ketel,
eta',
ete',
[-ek-]
leka,
seeas
[-eb-]
teba'
[-ed-]
ked,
,
lebe'
,
etkan ,
Qebel,
led,
mered,
hered,
med ,
sered,
denga,
lenga,
rengz,
engel,
one )
[-en%]
enga,
sengel,
[-ec-]
keco',
keca'
[-e3-I
med,
teJ,
[-eh-]
seta,
meang ,
(None) cetan,
[-eg-]
gelea ,
--
eton,
[-et-]
area,
,
one)
[-es-]
bes,
esel,
eskar,
neskan,
[-el-]
lel,
berel,
gelea,
esel,
aebel ,
[-er-]
her,
perel,
meran,
leser,
erang,
berel,
[-em-]
heyem,
[-en-]
ken,
len,
men,
hende ,
soben,
gena,
[-ex-]
heyem,
kera ,
PeTe '
1-ep-I
sew,
cepe s
ce~ta,
I-ey-]
(IVone )
4-ew-]
hewam
sewam
-
-
. [-a%-]
aiar,
Uia,
aiub,
sing,
bairi,
bai ,
[-ae-]
(ITone)
maiom,
aim,
tei ,
lei,
hai ,
[-aa- ]
j an=,
hobao ,
[-au-]
cauli,
sauri,
parau,
auri,
su,
[-ap-1
apia,
a~ir,
ape 9
japal,
rapud,
[-at-]
atom,
ate,
atkar ,
hatom,
l a g a t ing , p a t i ,
[-a%-]
kata,
[-&-I
ako,
aking ,
hake,
akad ,
[-ab-]
aben,
abung,
abu,
rabal,
sab,
caba,
[-ad-]
ad,
jilad,
kadal,
lad,
,lad,
td,
-
(None)
marang,
meang,
rabang,
jang,
matang,
[-w-]
lag%
l a g a t ing , haga ,
[-=-I
bercm,
[-aj-1
baa,
[-ah-]
$ah-,
baha,
paha?,
+=as-]
basila,
hasa,
rasika,
maskal,
[-al-]
kadal,
alo-
aling,
aang,
ale,
dbl
[-ar-]
sar,
Paras
wgU9
xnarang,
parkom,
eskar,
[-am-]
paham,
am,
8 ~ ~ 3 ~ 2Stuhpm, ,
hambdl,
krcdlam,
[-an-]
1j.ms0,
ranu,
sandi,
manda,
mandi,
[-%-I
duly,
hqad,
[-ap-I
pahap
mga,
[-ay-]
(Bone).
-
apu,
sakam.
xkan, &.-.
iminang , galang ,
sanmg , I
..
(!Jane)...
c f .=aicf,-au-
eqq,
candoa,
I Py$us
IJ
-
I
[-oi-]
o one)
[-oe-1
goe1,
[-0a-]
candoa,
[ -OU- ]
(None )
[-OF-]
topa,
[-ot-]
koto,
[-01-1
c f .-oy-
joa,
dear,
roa,
potom,
otong,
ote,
one)
[-ok-]
coke,
roko ,
hoka,
oko ,
[ -ob- ]
soben,
hobao,
dobol ,
lobo ' ,
[-od-]
losod,
moyod ,
'[-+-I
so one)
k-osdl
ows
loyong,
holong,
molong,
[-oc-]
OCO,
oco'
moca,
kocs,
C-03-1
jojo,
63oJ0,
sod ' ,
[-oh-]
soen,
,
gonong,
otong,
kolcm ,
one )
[-os-]
goso:,
losod,
hostro
[-01-1
01,
lolo,
dola,
bolo,
dobol ,
[-or-]
honor,
ore,
horo ,
hora ,
boro,
[---I
gme,
am¶
J
jarom,
atom,
[-on-]
konea,
jonam,
hon,
[-OF-]
oyol,
OF^' ,
hog0 ,
kop,
hoy 'no,
[-%-I
ow,
gopb
deo?a,
ogpo,
do?$o,
[-o~-l
hoyo,
doya,
loyong 9
OYar,
moyod,
-ow- 1
one 1
~
S
bonga ,
merom,.
..
dongs,
soya, ,
[-ui-]
one)
! \ - -
c f .guy-
t
,.:
I ,
1
[ -ue-
[-ua-]
rua,
[-uo- ]
(
[-UP-]
u ~ u n i a , gupi,
kupul ,
[-ut-]
sutam,
lutur,
nutum,
[-up1
@$i,
[-I&-]
suku,
suktri,
duku,
s-,
[-ub-]
dub,
aiub ,
ub,
nubs
[-ud-]
hda,
sud ,
rapud,
surud,
bulung,
inung,
abung,
bugin,
ba~a,
one ) -uter,
, kudtlam,
[ -u$-]
[-ungl
--
[-uc-1
[-a-I [ -uh-]
[-us-]
susun,
[ -ul- ]
bul
s u l,
dulq
bulung ,
kula ,
umbul ,
[-ur-]
turia,
durum,
urut ,
urung,
-urum,
BSur,, ,
sunum,
kunu,
b-9
surud,
afum,
m a ,
pundi,
itun,
gungud ,
tundu ,
ku2.am,
qi,
-1
1
,
-
4
[-W-l [-UW-] [-up-]
, buyia,
,
kqil,
twu,
one ) dqi,
I
r 1.B.
THE MODIFIED VOCOIDS
The modified vocoids of W d a r i include t h e f i v e simple vowels a s they are affected by t h e processes of lengthening, shortening, g l o t t a l i z a t i o n and nasalization. Here we consider t h e meaning of t h e various d i a c r i t i c s used i n t h e Encycl'opedia Mundarica of Hoff'man, and t h e i r phonetic and phonemic value. In some cases a system of marking more consistent with modem phonetics and phonemics,is proposed. I n order we consider t h e checked vowels, t h e very long vowels, t h e very short vowels, and t h e nasalized vowels.
1. The checked vowels of Mundari a r e g l o t t a l i z e d vowels. Although
written i n t h e Encyclopedia a s a vowel with a check [ a ' ] , t h e i r phonetic value is t h a t of a g l o t t a l i z e d vowel, [ a l a ] , found i n such words as: t f I;'
[tili],
'hand '
leg,
[lele'l,
'tongue'
,
[da?al,
'water
lo',
[ l o l o 1,
'with'
but,
[bulu],
' t o bark'
da'
'
No matter how these vowels a r e interpreted, t h e following f a c t s of d i s t r i b u t i o n must be kept i n mind. ( a ) The g l o t t a l s t o p only occurs i n t h e environment V?V, where t h e vowel preceding the etop, and t h e vowel following t h e stop, a r e t h e same. h e r e is no occqrcnce of t h e g l o t t a l stop i n t h e environment V1-342.
-1
r
-I
( b j The g l o t t a l s t o p only occurs i n morpheme f i n a l open positions. These morphemes nay be monsy1.labic
OP
d i s y l l a b i c , and occur"in. s y l l a b l e s
of t h e general form CV?V, o r V?V. They are never followed by a consonant. I n words, however, t h e s e morphemes with g l o t t a l i z e d vowels may occur i n word medial positions, although t h e s y l l a b l e i s s t i l l an-:!open one. da?a
9 -
'water1
-tala 'near1
-te
-9
9-
da?ata?ate, l t o n e a r t h e w a t e r l
'to'
(da'ta'te)
(c! Words ending i n a g l o t t a l i z e d vowel:. have an allomorph ending i n 2 when t h e s e words a r e used a s verb stems, and t a k e t h e passive s u f f i x
-02
This allomorph i s obligatory with monosyllabics, but with d i s y l l a b i c stems both t h e o r i g i n a l stem and t h e allomorph i n -g occur.
r e ? e 'rob'
9 -
-
+ a?o','passive'
= reg-o?o,'be
robbed'
The second form i l l u s t r a t e s a f u r t h e r r u l e , namely'! ( d ) Two successive g l o t t a l i z e d vowels do not occur without an interven-ing consonant. I n such a case, t h e first vowel i s shortened t o a simple vowel, and t h e second remains a s a g l o t t a l i z e d vowel.
( e ) The t e n s e markers -tad and -dad have allomorphs t a ? a and j a ? a before t h e pronoun suffixes i n
5,namely, -iw, 'II:,.and
l e l t a l a i g a , 'S saw me,once and f o r a l l 1 leltataia,
-i?i.
'him/herV
(also,-jsd,akad)
' S saw him(her) once and f o r all' ( a l s o -,lad,-&ad)
The t e n s e signs -led and -ked have allomorphs -ke?e and -le?e before t h e ~ o n o u n si n but i t, h e g l o t t a l i z a t i o n i s s h i f t e d t o t h e -i pronoun.
1
'
l e l + ked + ing + a = lelke'ina
= lelkilna
[lel-ki?ina]
l e l + ked + i?i + a = l e l k e ' i ' a
= lelki'a
[lel-ki?ia]
7
The above f a c t s of distribut-ion lead t o one of two conclusions.,Either the g l o t t a l stop i s a consonant allophone, o r it is a vowel.feature.
I f the g l o t t a l stop be considered a consonant allophone, it i s most l i k e l y t o be interpreted a s a f i n a l allophone of t h e consonant /g/. T h i s solution i s suggested by t h e change, i n t h e passive, of stems i n
-el which have allomorphs i n -g, such a s t h e verb re', -
'rob1, which
forms i t s passive from t h e stem reg-, resulting i n t h e form reg-ol. Elsewhere,as i n t h e tense markers, t h e g l o t t a l a l t e r n a t e s with
5.
I f t h e g l o t t a l stop be considered a vowel feature, distinguishing glottalized vowels from simple vowels, just a s other languages t e l l short vowels frcna long vowels by t h e feature of length, then t h e above alternations must be considered morpho-phonemic, rather than phonemic; t h e vowel plue -d_ and t h e g l o t t a l i z e d vowels a r e morphophonemic p a i r s .in t h e tense markers, and t h e vowel plus -g i s i n a similar s e t with
glottalized vowels i n other morphemes. This explanation i s more i n accord with t h e optional forms allowable i n passive disyllabic forms. The solution adopted here i s t h a t t h e g l o t t a l stop i s not a separate consonant, but a vowel f eatuze, s i m i l a r t o 'length, which s e t s off t h e f i v e g l o t t a l i z e d vowels, [ i ? i ] ,[e?e] ,[aye], [o?o] , and [ulu] from t h e f i v e simple vowels, [ i ] , [ e l , [a], [o], and [u] i n a ten a m e l system. This system i s f'urther diversified by t h e use of glides, p h i c h form t h e diphthongs [ a i l and [au]
.
-1
GLOTTALIZED~'VO#ELS'; Listed with Preceding Consonants [i ? i I
[elel
I-P- I
-I
[ -t
[a?a]
[o?oI
[u?ul
Japa?a, ti?i,
-.
(-
,a&.,
ete?e
[-$-I
-tala, etala,
[.-GI
kuh,
[-b- 1
lebe?e ,
[-a- 1
de?e,
nuba?a,
bo?o ,
bu?u,
dala,
[-$-I I-g-I
ee?e,
golo, co l o
[-c-I : k l -1 [ -h-
j a?a
1
hele,
h i ju?u,
holo,
[-+I
gosolo
[-I-]
le?e,
lala
[-r-1
re?e,
ra?a,
1-m-I [-n-1
jo?o
1040,
uru?u ,
ma?a, nili,
nele,
[-:-I
na?a o~ata,
nolo, oyo?o,
I-9-1 gfu?u ,
ae?e
[-Y-]
1-W-I
*goe?e,
-i?i.
-a ?a
-0
?o
-I-
r
1
2. The Very Lana Vowels of Mundari a r e simple vowels marked with t h e
length symbol, a macron. Length does not seem t o be a vowel f e a t u r e which s e t s o f f a s e t of long vowels against a s e t of simple vowels.It i s r a t h e r a symbol f o r t h e occurence of geminate vowels, t h a t is, two vowels of exactly t h e same q u a l i t y occuring without t h e g l o t t a l catch. ( a ) Length i s marked when an intervocalic
-h- i s
deleted i n same 1 d i a l e c t s , leaving two vowels of t h e same type together. These two vowels a r e then written as a. s i n g l e vowel, marked with t h e macron: paham, 'remember ' pahan ,'s a c r i f i c k r
=*pa-am, =
";
=*pa-a?
e,'remember'
= p w ( a ) , 's a c r jf icCr
(b) Length i s marked when vowel i n i t i a l verb stems a r e reduplicated; t h a t t h i s process is a reduplication i s evident from consonant stems. dal
-9
'strike1
c2ri=','hear1 -
da-dal,
' s t r i k e repeatedly'
= *a-aium = Kim, 'hear repeatedly'
(c ) Length i s marked i n morpheme f i n a l open s y l l a b l e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n monosyllabic words, but i s not i n contrast with a simple vowel. he, 'yesr
bK, gflowerO
.'I..
'
9
In these environments, a simple o r long vowel i s often fcund i n contrast with a g l o t t a l i z e d vowel, but not i n contrast with each other. (dl The e l i s i o n of two vowels i s sometimes written as a geminate vowel, sometimes w r i t t e n a s a long vowel with a macron.,for Ranchi-te-e
example
senakana, 'he went t o Ranchi'
w r i t t e n as -tee, o r a s h i t h these examples,it would seem length is not phonemic.
r3.
The very short vowels of Mandari a r e not vowels a t a l l .
They are
7
The d i s t r i b u t i o n of these
e i t h e r vowel glides or consonantal releases.
vowels helps t o indicate t h e i r phonetic function; (a) Intervocalic short vowels, i n t h e enviroment V
- - V,
are
simultaneously an off-glide of t h e first vowel and on-glide of t h e second, The short vowels [?I and short vowels [%] and
[Ye]
a r e transcribed as [y], and t h e
[s]are transcribed a s
[w].
The short vowel [?I.]
does not occur i n an intervocalic environment. tayom, [tagom],
'later'
9 -
doya,
[dogal,
'back'
tuyu, [ t u % ~ ] ,
naws
[nafh],
'new'
9 -
9 -
kiwa
hem
[kik],
'chint 'coyote'
[heza],
( b ) Post-vocalic short vowels, i n t h e environment V
@accustom1
- V - c/# Y
,a r e
off-glides of t h e preceding vowel; if t h i s preceding vowel is [a], t h e two elements form a close-knit sequence o r diphthong, -9
lai
[lay],
bairi
[bayri] ,'enemy'
-9
'stomacht
parau, [para81 ,'read' c'a d i -
[ c a b i ] ,'rice'
bai
9 -
[ail o r [au] .
[ba?] , 'make'
paisa, [pa8sa] ,'money1 bancau [banca%],'save '
9-
sauri
9 -
[sa&i],
'thatch1
The f a c t t h a t t h e only combinations found i n t h i s environment a r e t h e p a i r s [ a i l and [au] suggests t h a t these a r e t h e only two diphthongs i n Mmdari.
They a r e a l s o t h e onlytwo t r u e diphthongs i n Hindi, a system
of sound which has had i t s influence up011 t h e Mundari language. (c) Be-vocalic short vowels, i n t h e environment #/c
- 0
V
V, a r e
pn-glides t o t h e following vowel, as i n etwar, [ e t h - I , 'sunday'.
-1
r (d) Interconsonantal short vowels, in the environment C
- f - c(#),
1
are all oonsonantsl releases. These occur in final position, or in medial position followed by a cossonant. They occur as allophones of the consonants [pl, [tl, [f], [k],
[dl,
[sl,
[TI,
(pl- The release
is a short vowel, homorganic to the vowel precedcng the consonant. d i l i , [dip!hi],'time'
mej're,[mej&e],
et 'kan, [etgkan],'evil'
bes 'ge ,[besgge], 'good ,inddedV
, kak'la
9-
[pity],'baxaar ' [kakka],'shout '
hor 'mo [hor'Cjmoj
9-
bak-',
'on the table'
, 'body'
(baka4g], 'talk'
There is a variation of sound in these combinations from no release at all to a voiceless release similar to voiceless vowels,to voiced release. dipli,
[dipli],
[dip~li],
[dip?hi], 'time'
etkan
[ etkan] , [et~kan] ,
[etgkm], 'evil'
9 -
This use o f consonantal releases leads to the conclusion that every consonant is given its fill value in Mundari, especially by those speskers unacquainted with the clusters of other languages, and that no consonant is pronounced as tur unreleased consonant. Either the consonant is fof3Wkd by.-a:aowel,and released into that vowel, or it is followed by a consonant(or is word final) and is pronounced with a hamorganic release. This excludes the voiced stops,*
have a postnazalized
release, and the continuants, [m],[n],[l],[r], which need no release. Release is an automatic phonetic variant and need not be marked. The glides however,are written as [y] and [w] except when they occur in &he diphthong combinations [ail and [au].
1
-
P
THE DIPHTHONGS [ a i l and [au]
i a i,
[ai#]
tai,
bai ,
s a i,
[aic]
bai.ri,
pai.sa,
(High
[aivl
ayub,
~YM!,
(High 1
aYar 9
SaYa 9
maYang,
bayar,
sayad,
nayal,
=Ya,
tay=,
[ad]
au,
bancau,
parau,
(High )
[auc]
au.ri,
sau.ri,
cau.li,
(High )
[auV]
nawa,
days,
hai
hayam
(High )
(~eutral) (Neutral ) (LOW)
(Neutral) THE OFT-GLIDES [ y ] and [w] I
1-UY-I [- 0 ~ - I
tu~u, loyaw,
OY=,
oyang,
moyod,
doya,
SOY& 9
No [-iy-]
(High
No [-ey-I
(LOW) (Low) (bw)
hoyo,
[-iw-
kiwa,
[-ew-]
hewa ,
sewa,
No [-w-]
(High )
No [-ow-]
(bw)
POST-CONSOBAIOTAL ON-GLIDE [w] [-~yvI
(None)
[-C~V]
et.wsr,
J
0 -
(LOW)
r
1
4. The nasalized vowels of Mundari are generally a simple phonetic assimilation t o a eo-occuring nasal phoneme, ernd need not be marked. Moat of those currently marked i n t h e orthography can be eliminated .
.
by t h e establishment of a r e t r o f l e x n a s a l phoneme, written [p]. A few other marginal nasals occur,however, mostly i n p a r t i c u l a r loan words. ( a ) The r e t r o f l e x nasal sound [ ? ] i s found i n t h e orthography as[-G&-
I.
t h b t is, Sie sound is i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e t r o f l e x IT], with t h e vowels preceding and following t h i s 'sound nasalized. The e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s of t h i s combined sound, i t s distinguishing features, a r e retroflexion and nasalization. Presumably, t h e nasalization begins with t h e f i r s t vowe1,and proceeds b i n t e r r u p t e d l y through t h e retrofler. t o t h e second vowel. The retroflexion i s produced by t h e curling of t h e tongue back against t h e palate, breaking t h e o r a l air stream a s it f l i c k s against t h e palate, while t h e nasal a i r stream i s uninterrupted. These f e a t u r e s cf retroflexion and nasalization a r e b e s t r e c h ~ e di n a s i n g l e sound symbol a s a r e t r o f l e x n a s a l phoneme [g]. I n such a sound a l e e , t h e nasal stream i s uninterrupted, and t h e retroflex' sound produced. In hearing t h i s sound, it seems t o be r a t h e r a retroflexed nasal, r a t h e r than a nasalized retroflex,allthough t h e difference is s l i g h t . These r e t r o f l e x nasala occur i n medial and f i n a l positions only. (b) A few scattered marginal3 e x i s t s which seem t o be t r u e nasalized vow~ls,but only i n scattered loan words, suhh a s t h e following:
-
m#*, [muili], * a n t s *
I-
hes
-9
[has],
'goose'
( ~ a n s k r i t , u s e da s a nams of a k i l i , q v )
J
THE RETROFLEX NASAL [a] [-ip-]
sipi,
rl$,
[-ec-]
sena,
ce~e,
re9e 9
[-ap-1
dqa,
Sap,
haca ,
mapa,
mapi,
arqa,
marapa,
Ja
osaqa,
baqia,
oqa,
gO?a,
mO4a,
moqea ,
deoqa ,
[-og-]
,
1-9-1a-5, 1-q#
1
pahq,
bakq,
ma?,
SUMMARY: The vocoid sounds of Mundari'
The vocoid sounds of Mundari are the five simple vowels, modified or unmodified. The unmodified vowels are These vowels are -her
[i],
[el, [a], [oJ,[u].
modified and marked by diacritics.
(a) The checked vowels are the glottalized vowels. This glottal stop ,: is not a consonant nor the allophone of any consonant, but a vovikl feature which sets up five more vowel$ [ili],[eta], [aia], [o~o],[u?u[. (b) The very long vowels are to be considered as occurences of
geminate vowels,and may be written either as geminates,or long vowels. They are not in direct contrast with either simple or glottalized vowels. (c) 'The very short vowels are glides, some of which [ail and [aul are true diphthongs. The others are off-glides -oy-,-uy-,
b) Nasalized
.
and -iw-,-ew-.
vowels are margina1s;except near [ p ] are very rare.
_I
r 2. THE COlQTOID SOUNDS OF MUNDARI
A contoid sound i s a sound which is not a vocoid. The contoids
are sounds which are e i t h e r not o r a l , o r not f r i c t i o n l e s s , o r are not
centered.
The c l a s s e s of contoids t h e r e f o r e include a l l of t h e nasal
sounds, a l l t h e stopped and f r i c a t i v e sounds, and t h e l a t e r a l sounds. Contoids a r e distinguished from each other by t h r e e e s s e n t i a l features: ( a ) Voicinq: Same sounds a r e accampanied by vibration of t h e vocal cords. j b ) Place of Articulation: Sounds a r e formed i n d i f f e r e n t o r a l areas. ( c ) Manner of Articulation: Sounds a r e formed i n d i f f e r e n t ways. According t o t h e manner of articulation,cantoids a r e classed thus:
1.Either t h e passage of air i a blocked o r it i s not; Sounds i n which t h e a i r i s campletely blocked a r e . , . .
Obstruents
Some a r e released without f r i c t i o n
Stops
Some a r e released with f r i c t i o n
Affricates
Sounds i n which t h e a i r i s p a r t i a l l y blocked are,....
Fricatives
Sounds i n which t h e a i r is not blocked are...........
Continuants
2.01 t h e continuaxit sounds, some a r e ora1,some nasal; Sounds unblocked i n t h e o r a l passages are.......
Oral Continuania
Some a r e released around t h e tongue
Laterals
Some a r e d i s t o d e d by t h e tongue
Resonants
Some pass f r e e l y over t h e tongue(~ocoids)
Glides
Sounds unblocked i n t h e n a s a l passages are..
.... Hasal ~ o n t i n u a n t d
i2.A.
THE OBSTRUENT COJ!?COIDS
The obstruent contaids of Mundari are those non-vocoid sounds i n which t h e passage of a i r is completely blocked i n t h e o r a l passage, without being diverted i n t o t h e nasal passages. These o r a l obstruents a r e e i t h e r stops, which a r e released without Friction, o r a r e c a l l e d a f f r i c a t e s , which a r e stops followed by a f r i c t i o n release. Already distinguished from other contoids by t h e i r manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n , t h e obstruents a r e distinguished from each other by f i v e d i f f e r e n t places of a r t i c u l a t i o n , and by t h e voiced-voiceless contrast.
1. Place of Articulation, i n Mundari, i s approximately according t o
t h e same g a t t e r n a s t h e sounds of Hindi and Sanskrit. The f i v e places of a r t i c u l a t i o n a r e l a b i a l , dental, r e t r o f l e x , p a l a t a l , and velar. ( a ) Labial sounds a r e formed by t h e upper and lower l i p s acting a s a r t i c u l a t o r s . Labial o r a l obstruents, both voiced and voiceless,occur, as [p] and [b]. These sounds a r e complete o r a l stops,not f r i c a t i v e .
( b ) Dorc%s18 ~ ~ a~ r e 3formed s by t h e t i p of t h e tongue against t h e t e e t h , and are more accurately described a s apico-dental. They include t h e voiceless dental [t] and t h e voiced dental [dl. The sound i s more forward than t h e similar alveolar sounds of English, i n which t h e tongue W e s t h e d v e o l a r gum ridge r a t h e r than t h e teeth. {c) Retroflex sounds a r e formed by t h e t i p of t h e tongue curled back Lagainst t h e palate. Thm may be described a s apico-palatal souafls,or
1
r
1
more accurately, as apico-alveopalatal, with t h e tongue reaching back towards t h e palate, but reaching t h e region between t h e alveolar gum ridge and t h e palate,known a s t h e alveopalatal region. Although t h i s retroflexion i s more t r u l y a manner of a r t i c u l a t i o n thah a place of a r t i c u l a t i o n , it has been found convenient t o l i s t t h e s e sounds i n a position between t h e d e n t a l and t h e p a l a t a l sounds. They a r e e a s i l y distinguished by t h e peculiar "r"-like
q u a l i t y produce6 by t h e curling
of t h e tongue upwards and backwards, and a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of many of t h e Indian languages. They a r e a l s o c a l l e d domals o r cerebrsls. ( d ) P a l a t a l Sounds a r e formed by t h e blade of t h e tongue set' against +,he alveopalatal region. The term p a l a t a l is used, r a t h e r than t h e more accurate alveopalatal, because t h e r e a r e no contrasting p a l a t a l sounds. Both t h e voiceless
[g]
and t h e voiced [f] occur. Although
t h e s e sounds a r e not stops, but a f f r i c a t e s , they a r e l i s t e d together with t h e stops i n t h e general c l a s s of obstruents, since t h e i r place of a r t i c u l a t i o r . i s a s u f f i c i e n t distinguishing feature. A s a e r i c a t e s , they a r e compound sounds, with [:I
= [ t g ] and
[fl =
[dg], but t h e s e
caubinations form a tight-knit sequence,and a c t l i k e a s i n g l e sound. j e ) Velar Sounds a r e formed by t h e back of t h e tongue a r t i c i i l a t i n g , t ~ i ; ~ v e l aregion, r o r region of t h e s o f t palate. The v a i e e l e s s [k] and t h e voiced [g] both occur. They a r e i n c o n t r a s t with palatal sounds. 4
OBSTRUEWTS
Voiceless: ,&iced:
.
Retrbflex P a l a t a l
Labial
Dental
[PI
[t1
[t1
[cl
[kl
[bl
Ed1
[a1
[J 1
[gl
Velar
-
r
-I
2. Voicing, i n Mundari, separates t h e set of stops i n t o two classes,
t h e voiced stops, i n which t h e vocal cords vibrate during t h e sound production, and t h e voiceless sounds,in which t h e cords do not vibrate.. ( a ) The voiceless stops of Mundari a r e [pl,
[tl,
[$I, [ c l , [kl.
These stops a r e more tense than t h e voiced stops, and are ordinarily accr~lpaniedby a greater degree of aspiration. They a r e ahwwberfzed:: a l s o by a different kind of release, when they occur i n e i t h e r f i n a l position, or i n medial position followed immediately by a consonaxit. A voiceless stop i s generally released with a very short vbwel sound
which is homorganic t o t h e vowel immediately preceding t h e consonant. [p]
d i p c l i , [ d i p ~ l i, ] 'time'
[ t]
e t kan, [ e t ~ k a n, ] 'evil'
No f i n a l occurence
[t]
pit-re,
[ p i t ~ r e,'in ] t h e bazaar'
pit:,[ ~ i t f ]*bazaar1 ,
ik]
kak'la,
[kakAla],'shout'
Bo f i n a l occurence
'
No f i n a l occurence
The a f f r i c a t e [ c ] however does not occur ' i n these environments. It occurs neither f i n a l l y , nor medially before another consonant. ( b ) The Voiced stops of Mundari a r e [b], [ d l , [ d l , [ j ] , and [g]. These stops a r e more lax than t h e voiceless stops, and a r e ordinarily accompanied by l e s s aspiration. They a r e characterized by a special kind of release, when they occur i n f i n a l position or i n medial position immediately folibowed by another consonant. This release i s a poet-nasalization; t h e atop i s produced, and then t h e a i r i s released t h ~ o u g htha.lrasbl passage, a s an echo of t h e nasal homorganic t o t h i s h o p . The post-nasalized release occurs mainly i n f i n a l posit ion.
1
r
1
The voiced b i l a b i a l stop [b] has
a,
homorganic nassl release when it
occurs i n morpheme f i n a l position. In discourse, t h i s release remains when it i s word f i n a l , i s modified t o a simple release when followed by a consonant-initial suffix, and loses the release before a vowel. The t h r e e variants of t h e morpheme f i n a l nasalized stop [bm] are: dub ' '
[ d u e l , 'sit'
dub'tana, [ d u c t a n a ] , ' S is s i t t i n g ' dubakana, [ dukakana] , 'S s a t down' The voiced dental stop [dl has a homorganic nasal release when it occurs i n morpheme f i n a l position. In discourse, t h i s release varies i n t h e same way a s t h e b i l a b i a l stop. The three variants of [dn] are: rawd',
[ r a p u g ] , 'break'
rapud'tana,
[rapuctana] , 'S i s breaking it '
rapudakana,
[rapu&&ana] , 'S has broken it '
The voiced r e t r o f l e x stop [ d l occurs neither f i n a l l y , nor medially followed by a consonant. Therefore it never occurs w i t h a release. The voiced velar stop [ ~ does j not occur e i t h e r f i n a l l y , or medially before a consonant. Therefore it never occurs with a release. However, A f i n a l [g] with a hamorgamic nasal release would be [$j]
phonbtically.
Although such a sound does not occur, t h e sound [g] does occur, and i s i n caanplcmentary distribution with t h e [g] sound. The [g] sound
only occurs i n i t i a l l y and medially, t h e [XJ] sound only occurs f i n a l l y , Final
L
[9]remains
invariant no matter what suffixes may follow it.
w, 'play' ;
inurytana, 'is playing ' in-a,
-
'has played'
1
r
1
The voiced p a l a t a l a f f r i c a t e [ j ] does not occur f i n a l l y o r medial before a consonant, except i n c e r t a i n loan words from Hindi,such as:
A,s t r a i g h t
m d , 'table'
teJ,
'sharp
These borrowed words have a non-nasal release, usually voiceless, when t h e [ j ] i s i n f i n a l position, o r medially before a consonant. m e j - r e , [mej l r e ] , 'on t h e t a b l e '
m e j , [mej'], ' t a b l e
When however, t h e p a l a t a l a f f r i c a t e , even though morpheme f i n a l , occurs medially i n words before a vowe1,there i s no release.
tel, [te$fi];vsharp'
tejakan. [te,jakanl, 'sharpened'
In conclusion, t h e obstruent sounds i n Mundari seem t o demand some kind o r r e l e a s e when they occur i n f i n a l position, o r i n medial position before another consonant. Stops do not c l u s t e r smoothly with a following consonmt,rather, t h e stc? is fully pronounced with i t s own r e l e a s e before t h e sounding of t h e second consonant. The stops and a f f f i c a t e s form d i f f e r e n t groups i n manner of release. For stops, t h e voiclesls v a r i e t i e s have non-nasal releases, and t h e .voiced stops have n a s a l releases, o r no r e l e a s e a t a l l . For a f f r i c a t e s , t h e voiceless a f f r i c a t e has no release,and t h e voiced a non-nasal release. r
STOPS vl
vd i-
.
.
Labial
Dental
Retroflex
Velar
AFF'RICATES(Palatal) 2
[PI
ItI
[pqI
[t'
[b 1
[dl
[bm]
[an]
I
I
[c I
[I3 [$'I
[$I
[$I
[el
[A 1
(none)
[s I
[j'l
[k' I
(None)
7
r
1
!J!be f r i c a t i v e s of Mundari are those sounds i n which t h e passage of air
i s !not completely blocked i n t h e o r a l cavity, but is p a r t i a l l y blocked.
Mundari has only one t r u e f r i c a t i v e , a grooved dental s i b i l a n t [s],bwt t h e c e n t r a l vocoid g l i d e [ha i s sometimes l i s t e d as a g l o t t a l f'ricative. The voiceless dental s i b i l a n t [ s ] i s a voiceless f r i c a t i v e sound formed i n t h e dental o r alveolar region, depending upon t h e following vowel. It occurs i n i t i a l l y and medially before a vowel, but occurences i n f i n a l position, o r i n medial position before a consonant, a r e r a r e a r e seem t o be loan words, such a s bes",'good8 , from Sadri. When these words with f i n a l [ s ] occur, t h e sound has a release similar t o t h a t of t h e a f f r i c a t e [ j a , which a l s o occurs f i n a l l y only i n loan words. sadam, -
[ sadom] ,'hor se '
9 -
hasu
[hasu] , 'pain1
bes 'ge ,[bes 'gel, 'good indeed1
9 -
best [besl],'goodl
The g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e [h] i s phonetically a mid c e n t r a l vocoid glide, but always a c t s as a consonant. It occurs i n i t i a l l y , and medially before a vowel, but never occurs f i n a l l y o r medially before a consonant.
-
When [h] occurs intervocalically between l i k e vowels, it i s deleted i n some d i a l e c t s , with a r e s u l t i n g geminate ( o r long) vowel. horo, [hoqo], 'man1
paham [paham, pnam ] ,'remember ' The manner of release suggests a parallelism with t h e affricates: I
Initial
Sinai
Affricates . [c]
---
F'ricatives
[J]
Initial
[h]
[s]
[j'l
~ixidl
--
IS']
4
-
r 2.B. THE CONTINUANT CONTOIDS
The continuant contoids of Mundari a r e those non-vocoid sounds i n which t h e passage of a i r @-tafis unobstructed through e i t h e r t h e o r a l or nasal cavity. Continuants w e e i t h e ~o r a l or nasal. The nasal continuants a r e sounds i n which t h e a i r , a f t e r being blocked i n t h e o r a l cavity i n any of t h e f i v e places of a r t i c u l a t i o n , i s diverted
[n1, (31,
through t h e nasal passages, producing t h e nasals [m],[n] ,
[IJ
1.
The o r a l continuants are sounds i n which t h e a i r passes through t h e o r a l cavity without being e i t h e r stopped, or not iceably obstructed. They include l a t e r a l s [I], resonants [ r ] ,l land t h e glides [w] ,[y]
.
The gllbdes a r e vocoid i n production,and a r e included here i n order t h a t
t h e l i s t of continuant sounds might be complete. A l l a r e voiced sounds.
1. Nasal Continuants a r e t h e sounds produced by t h e diversion of a i r
from one of f i v e places o r a r t i c u l a t i o n i n the o r a l passage, t o t h e
nasal passage. Nasals may be l a b i a l , dent& , s e t r o f l e ~ , ~ a l a t ,or a l velar. All of t h e nasal sounds of Mundari a r e voiced sounds.
l a ) Labial Nasal Continuant [m] is produced by t h e blockddlgoOf~bfrabt t h e l i p s , from which position it i s diverted through t h e nasal passage. The [m] sound is a t r u e continuant, occurs i n a l l possible positions, and forms a smooth c l u s t e r w i t h any following consonant.
meroan, 'goat
L
gama,
'
'rain'
gormke , 'master catam
9-
'
'umbrella'
r
1
( b ) Dental Nasal Continuant [n] i s producing by t h e blocking of t h e
air i n t h e dental region by t h e t i p of t h e tongue, from whence t h e air i s diverted through t h e nasal passages. The dental [n] occurs i n a l l
positions. It forms a smooth c l u s t e r with following consonants, but i s assimilated t o t h e following consonant within t h e morpheme. Across
morpheme boundaries, however, t h e [n] is not assimilated. nida
*nights
9-
jonoan, 'birth'
9-
9 -
above '
ce t a n hende
'black'
The assimilation of [n] within t h e morpheme i s i l l u s t r a t e d as follows:
'stupid'
With r e t r o f l e x sounds,
$ondo, [$o?$o],
With p a l a t a l sounds,
~ u n j i , [ ~ d j i ]'wealth' ,
With v e l a r sounds,
panka,[pykal,
'fan'
This assimilation,however, i s not c a r r i e d out across morpheme bouddary sen- jana, [ senjana] ,'S went '
not [segjana]
( c ) Retroflex Nasal Continuant [n] i s produced by t h e blocking of t h e a i r M t h t h e tongue i n r e t r o f l e x position, from where it i s &i-rthdd
through t h e nasal passages. The r e t r o f l e x [q] never occurs i n i t i a l l y , but may occur medially before a vowel, f i n a-l l y , and medially before a consonant. When i n f i n a l position, o r medial position before a consonant t h e [?I has a r e l e a s e similar t o t h e r e l e a s e of t h e voiceless stops[;']
' I, 's a c r i f i c e r a
Never I n i t i a l
pahag, [paha;
z, l5ird'
pshsn-ta'te,[psw'ta'te], t o t h e S1
The r e t r o f l e x [ p ] i s morpheme fina1,and occurs with r e l e a s e i n a c l u s t e r
k h e r e a s [n] before a r e t r o f l e x sound,is assimilated i n t o t h e c l u s t e r .
--A
r( d ) P a l a t a l Nasal
Continuant
[8Li s produced by t h e blocking of t h e
1
a i r stream i n t h e ~ ~ e ~ p & ~region a t a by l t h e blade of t h e tongue, from where it i s diverted through t h e nasal passages. This sound is r a r e i n W d a r i . Aside from t h e cases of t h e assimilation of [n] t o p a l a t a l sounds mentioned above, t h e p a l a t a l [?f] occurs only a s a v a r i a n t of t h e [ p ] sound i n t h e morpheme, aing, 'I' ,when it i s followed by a vowel: a i n ~ ,[ a i g ] , '1' ainga' ,[ai%a?a],'mine' ( e ) Velar Nasal Continuant [q] i s produced by t h e blocksng of t h e a i r stream i n t h e v e l a r region by t h e back of t h e tongue, from where it i s diverted through t h e nasal passages. Aside from t h e cases of t h e assimi l a t i o n of t h e dental [n] t o v e l a r sounds, t h e [g] sound occurs only i n morpheme f i n a l position, where i t s occurence i s very frequent. Since t h e voiced stops $ave nasalized f i n a l variants, it is posaible t h a t t h e [I)] sound i s t h e f i n a l variant of t h e sound [g] ,the v e l a r stop. When followed by a s u f f i x , t h e f i n a l [ g ] sound remains unchanged. Never I n i t i a l
in=,
[inuq], ' p l a ~ '
Never R t a b l
inuna-tana, [ inurftm a ] , 'S i s playing '
2. Oral Continuants are t h e sounds produced by t h e f r e e passage of t h e
air stream through t h e o r a l cavity. They a r e e i t h e r vocoid glides, o r o r a l sounds i n which t h e air stream is diverted, such a s t h e l a t e r a l s [ l ] and t h e resonants [ r ] and
[TI.
The g l i d e s a r e t h e vocoids [y],[w].
m e f i v e era1 continuants a r e described a s follows:
1
r
( a ) The l a t e r a l continuant [ l l i s an o r a l continuant i n which t h e a i r
1
i s diverted around t h e tongue. The l a t e r a l i s a r t i c u l k t e d by t h e t i p of
t h e tongue i n t h e dental position, with t h e a i r diverted around it. A minor variant c a l l e d t h e velarized o r dark
+[I!
oocurs whenever t h e
[ l ] i s i n f i n a l position, o r i n medial position followed by a consonant. 9-
l a t a r [ l a t a r ] , 'below'
9-
j i l u , [ j i l u ] ,'meat1
r 'a b a l
(b) The dental resonant
[rl is
b i l k s [ b i m a ] , 'mercy' [ rabsrk] ,'easy'
an o r a l continuant i n which t h e air i s
contoured by t h e cup l i k e surface of t h e tongue. The [ r ] may be e i t h e r a vocoid glide, i f t h e t i p of t h e tongue approaches, without touching,
t h e upper edge of t h e t t e t h . O r i f may be f l i c k e d against t h e dental surface a s a flap[Y], o r f l i c k e d repeatedly against it a s a t r i l l [ m . The [ r ] is a high c e n t r a l glide,with a cuplikie tongue contour, as opposed t o t h e [h],a mid centrisl g l i d e with no s p e c i a l tongue contour. In Mundari,the flapped [ g ] occurs most oEten i n intervocalic position. 9-
rabal
[rabal ] ,'easy'
barca, [barca] ,'speqr '
merom
[me?om] ,'goat
9-
9-
( c ) The r e t r o f l e x resonant
' [rl I B
l a t a r [ l a t a r ] , 'below'
gil
8281 c o n t i n w t i n which t h e a i r
i s contoured by t h e cupped surface of t h e tongue. In t h e r e t r o f l e x [ r ]
t h e tongue i s curled upward and backward t o t h e alveopalatal region. A s with t h e dental [ r ] , t h e r e t r o f l e x [ f ] may be a glide,flap o r trill.
This sound never occurs i n i t i b l l y . In f i n a l occurence, o r q e d i a l l y before a vowel, it has a -rtleae:.sigilar:.to.;that:...of the.v&ice!leBa. .stops, ~s a h a o r g a n i c short m b , o r a simple breath release.
1
r
[TI
Never I n i t i a l
hor ' 'ma
horo [ h o ~ o,]'man'
-9
[ho+mo],'body'
7
dular' [ d u l a r ~ ] , ' l o v e '
-5
The dental [ r ] i s ~ o s frequently t a simple glide. However, it used t h e f l a p a s s variant, particularly i n t h e intervocalic position. But t h e r e t r o f l e x [T] i s most frequently' a f l a p , very r a r e l y a glide, and uses t h e t r i l l as a f r e e variant i n all positions. ( d ) The High Front ~ l i d e [ y ]i s a vocoid glide. Although vocoid i n i t s p~oduction, it often a c t s a s a consonant and i s classed with t h e
o r a l continuants. In combination with t h e vowel [ a ] , t h e glide a c t s a s a close knit off-glide, and may be classed a s a diphthong, [ar]. This diphthong occurs f i n a l l y , and medislly before consonants. Elsewhere, t h e [y] i s an intervocalic interlude which is simultaneously t h e off-glide of t h e preceding vowel, and an on-glide t o t h e following vowel. Ekcept i n [ d l , t h i s g l i d e liever occurs i n f i n a l position, o r i n medial position followed by a consonant. Fu&hennore,
in its
consonantal occurences, t h e o r a l continuant [y] i s never used i n i t i a l l y . hoyo, [horo] , 'wind' tuyu, [tuyu] , 'coyote'
?
m f ~ - .no . occurence
9 -
-oY#
9-
,-uY#
-uYc-. no occurence
( e ) The H i ~ hBack Glide [w] is a vocoid glide. Although vocoid i n production, it is classed,like [y], w i t h t h e consonant o r e continuants. The back g l i d e likewise forms a diphthong [a%], elsewhere it occurs a s an intervocalic interlude, f o r t h e front vowels [ i ] and [el.
,
kiwa [kifia] 'chin'
9-
B e [ w] kcC-&
aa ::& on-lf
hhni ,
[ h d a ] ,'accustom'
de :i n loan words such a s et 'war, 'sunday'
_I
1.Voiceless Stops
2, Voiced Stops
3. Fricatives
Continuant Sounds 1. Nasals 2. Resonants
3. Lateral 4. Vocoid Glides
CONSONANT GROUPS Obet ruent Sounds Voiceless stops
/PI
/t /
I$/
/k/
Voiced Stops
/b/
/a/
/$I
/g/
/
13 1
/h/
/8/
1. Simple continuants
/m/
In/
/r/
/I/
2. Non-ihitial continuants:
/w/
/Y /
/n/
/F/
1.stops:
2. Fricatives~Affkicates:
/C
on-fin81 obstruents ) Continuant Sounds
Mundari Phonemics is the study of the way in which the sounds of Mundari are organized in this specific language. This includes a study of the vowel system and the consonant system. Each of these units is a significant part of the language, and is capable of changing the message carried by the sound signal. The results of such a study are shown in a phonemic chart, with a complete list of the Mundari phonemes, together with a statement of the distribution of the principal allophones of each of these phonemes.
Mundari Phonemics is considered under the following headings: la)
he Vowel
8ybtem::df ; M u n W i , which includes a list of the roinf:
phonemes of Mundari, the distinctive features which identif'y the units, and the principal allophones of each of the vowel phonemes. _(b)The Consonant System of Mundari, which includes a list of the consonant phonemes, the distinctive features by which these consonant units are identified and distinguished from each other, and the distribution of the principal allophones of the consonant phonemes. Included under the distinctive identif'ying-contrastive features, will be given samples of the minimal pairs and other proofs which show that p h e phonemes are truly units capable of changing the message.
1
-
r1.
THE VOHEL SYSTEM OF MUNDARI
The Mundari Vowel System consists of 12 vowel phonemes. These are the five simple vowels, [%I, [el, [a], Lo], [u], the glottalized
vowels [i?i], [e?e], [a?a], [o?o], [u?u], and the diphthongs [ail, [ a d
.
Each of these phonemes may act as a syllable nucleus, and the Mundari word always has as many syllables as it has vowel phonemes.
1.A. ESSENTIAL PHONEMIC FEATURES
The Mundari vowel phonemes are in contrast with each other by certain identifying-contrastive features. These features are the basic features of tongue height, tongue position, and lip rounding, plus the additional features of glotterlization, and the off-glide.
(a) The five simple vowels are distinct from each other: Although this may seem immediately evident Prom the differences in tongue height, gangue position, and lip rounding, it is possible that a combination could be affected when two sounds have features in common.
The following pairs, although not truly suspect, might possibly be conceived as not in contrast with each other,without further evidence. /i/,/e/
Front Unrounded vowels are distinct as high and mid. High vowel /i/
api, 'three1
Mid vowel
ape, 'you(p1)'
/e/
The vowels are in contrast in identical environment.
r
Back Rounded Vowels a r e d i s t i n c t a s high and mid.
/u/,/o/
~ i g hVowel id Vowel
/u/
z, 'fever '
[ EMe36631
o
E,
[~~.3616]
'to plantv
The vowels are i n contrast i n identical environment. The low central vowel [ a ] i s closest t o t h e mid front vowel [ e l and t h e mid back vowel [a].
It can be shown t o be d i s t i n c t from them.
l b w Central Vowel and Mid Front Vowel are d i s t i n c t .
/a/,/e/
Low Central
/a/
mn,
'bamboo1
[EM.2740]
Mid Front
/e/
m2,
'eye'
[EMm28051
The vowels are i n contrast i n identical environment.
b w Central Vowel and Mid Back Vowel are d i s t i n c t .
/a/,/o/
Low Central
/a/
-,
'they'
[~~.0083]
Mid Back
/a/
&,
"hat?'
IEM.30821
The only vowel contrasts t h a t have not been considered here a r e t h e l e s s l i k e l y combinations of vowels widely different i n sound.
The vowels
[ i ] and [u] , although both high vowels, a r e different both by tongue position and l i p rounding. diku
9 -
They a r e contrasted i n many forms, such as:
'foreigner' [ E M . I O ~ ~ ] -*duku
'sorrow'
[EM.1101]
The vowels [el and [o], although both mid vowels, a r e d i s t i n c t both by tongue position and l i p rounding. They a r e contrasted i n forms such as: keya, 'buffalo'
[~~.2298]
s, 'male'
[EM.2480]
The vowel [a] a l s o contrasts with the d i s t a n t high vowels [ i ] and [u].
L
mindi, 'sheep'
[~~.2840]
m a n d i , 'rice'
dul
[EM.1103]
-9
9 -
'topour'
dal
'to s t r i k e '
EM. 27711 [ E M . o ~ ~ o_I ]
rj b )
1
The simple vowels a r e r e m l a t e d i n t h e i r occurence by vowel harmony.
I n t h e search f o r minimal p a i r s t o prove t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e f i v e simple vowels, considerable d i f f i c u l t y i s experience because of t h e M u n d a r i laws of vowel harmony. According t o these laws, a l l morphemes are classed as high morphemes o r a s low morphemes. 1. The high morphemes of Mundari use t h e high vowels [ I ] and [u( as
vowel nuclei, but exclude t h e mid vowels [ e l and [o]. The $ow c e n t r a l vowel [ a ] i s considered neutral, and may occur i n high o r low morphemes. a ) Within t h e morpheme, t h e law of vowel harmony i s ' s t r i c t , and i s only broken by a few loan words, such as 9--uter 'very' ( a Sanskrit loan). ,
.
High Morphemes contain: [ i ] , [ a ] , [u] but not [ e l , [a]. b ) Within t h e morphene, phonetic changes occur i n accordance with t h e laws of vowel harmony, high sounds becoming assimilated t o high sounds kora, 'man; male'
-
k w i , [ f o r k o r i ] ,'woman;femsle'
Given t h e feminine ending i n t hi e root , changes from
K-t o g-.
c ) Across morpheme boundarkes, t h e l a w s of vowel harmony a r e sometimes obligatcry, and sometimes optional, depending on t h e morphemes. I n t h e formation of t h e demonstrative p r o n o u s , ~ o w e l harmony produces: en
-S
'that'
i n i Q , ( f o r enit],'that
one; he'
inku [ f o r en-ko], 'those ones,theyt
9-
I n t h e formation of t h e passive, vowel harmony i s optionally applied: k a j i , 'say'
+ %,'passivev
= kajiu', o r kajio'
2. The low morphemes of Mundari use t h e low vowels [ e l and [o], and t h e
p e b t r a l vowel [a]. The high sounds [ i ] and [u] a r e excluded.
1
r
The laws of vowel harmony, and t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between high and low
-I
Mundari morphemes helps i n our diagnosis of t h e vocoid glides. If every
intervocalic [ i ] and [u] i s written as a consonant,i.e.
as [ y ] and [w],
then t h e laws of vowel harmony a r e kept inviolate. The problem i s t h a t although high morphemes may t a k e e i t h e r glide,low morphemes have neither. a ) The t r u e diphthongs [ a i l and [au!, =curing i n f i n a l position, o r i n medial position followed by a consonant, a r e always high morphemes. tai, bai, l a i , s a i , hai;
au, bancau, parau,etc.
b a i r i , paisa;
a w l , sauri, cauli,etc.
b ) The diphthongs [ a i l and [au] when followed by a vowel, may be high o r low morphemes, depending upon whether that mweX,:.iBr!high o r low. ayar, saya, sayad, magang, daya, h a m , bayar, a y u b . e ~ a , e t c . In contrast with tayom, mayom (low morphemes) nawa
9 -
(high morpheme)
c ) A l l other intervocalic g l i d e s must be interpreted a s consonants i n order t o keep t h e vowel harmony, whenever a low vowel appears. loyaw, oyar , moyod, d o p , soya; hoyo, (low morphemesb bCwa
-9-9
hews ,(:low morphemes )
tuyu, kiwa, (high morphemes) Similarly,the on-glide [u] i n e t l u a r , must be changed t o [w], a s t h e morpheme i s established a s a low morpheme by t h e presence of fef;.lrt?. Vowel harmony i s meserved i f t h e following r u l e i s followed: Within a morpheme, t h r e e consecutive vowels cannot occur. Intervocalic
L [ u ~must be written a s [w] , intervocalic [ i ] written a s [y]
.
A
r( c ) The
f i v e lott tali zed vowels a r e d i s t i n c t fpam t h e simple vowels.
7
The g l o t t a l i z e d vowels a r e d i s t i n c t from t h e simple vowels according t o two d i s t i n c t i v e features, combined i n t h e s i n g l e f e a t u r e of t h e g l o t t a l i z a t i o n . F i r s t , i f t h e simple vowel be considered t o c o n s i s t of
a,
s i n g l e mora, o r musical beat, t h e g l o t h l l i z e d vowel c o n s i s t s
of a double mora, Second, t h i s double mora i s broken, i n t h e middle, by a contraction of t h e t h r o a t nuscles, a g l o t t a l "catchv. By t h i s second f e a t u r e , t h e g l o t t a l i z e d vowels are d i s t i n c t even from t h e geminate, o r long vowel. The t r i p l e d i s t i n c t i n n may be summed up: Simple vowels : one beat (mora) Long Vowels:
two beats (two moras)
Clottalized Vowels: two beats plus a g l o t t a l catch. It i s r e a l l y t h e g l o t t a l catch which t h e native speaker l i s t e n s f o r , and f o r which he c o r r e c t s t h e foreigner learning t h e language. m e
length a s such i s not phonemic. The g l o t t a l i z e d vowels appear equally i n c o n t r a s t t o both long and short vowels,and a r e s e t apart. A l l vowels a r e characterized a s with t h e g l o t t a l catch, o r without it. This contrast ,can be demonstrat.~,df o r t h e f i v e vowel positions: i
,i
?
With: High. .Ffant W&bei
-glottal6zatibh:. . . Is.~.dilitfnct ive.
Glottalized vowel / i ? i /
l e l l i 8 a , ' S first saw him'
Unglottalized vowel /i/ l e l l i a , 'S w i l l first see him' These forms a r e grammatical construct ions, not morphemes, but they a r e forms i n which t h e /i/ vs./i?i/
Ls
-
r a r e , i n forms l i k e -it,'he';
contrast i s evident. The g l o t t a l / i ? i / =,'this
one*; =,*hand'.
1
r
/e/,/e?e/
1
With Mid W o n t Vowels, glottalization is distinctive. Glottalized vowel /e?e/ Unglottalized vowel /el
re',[re?e], PO^' s, [re], 'in '
[EM.3452] [EMe35461
MriimsP:~pairsamong the mid front vowels are quite conrmon,for example ge?e/ge, he?e/he, re?e/re, le?e/-le, ne?e/ne, The glottalized form is found elsewhere in many fonns,always fina1,as goe?e, pere?e, pereye, je*e?e, dele, sare?e, lebele, ef;e?e, e?e, etc. Contrset.~among the glottalized vowels may also be found
ni?i, 'this one' eta?a
9-
/a/,/a?a/
ne?e
'here it is1
9 -
'other '
-*
ete?e 'begin'
9-
With Low Central Vowels, glottalization is distinctive: [ js?a], 'perhsps(EM.19hBl
Glottalized vowel /a?a/ Unglottalized vowel /a/
&, [ja], 'any1
[EMe19471
Minimal prdiv among the low central vowels are also frequent,as Ja?a/ja , ksta. /ka, ~ a ? a / g anatalma, ~ na?a/na,
ha?a/ha, a?a/a.
The glottalized forms of the low central vowel are found elsewhere,as
data 9-rs?a ja~a?a,keca?a, lijala, nuba?a,ora?a, menata, la?a,ta?a.
9 -
,.
Other disyllabic pairs often confused by beginningers in Mundari,are
/oL,/o?o/
9 -
seta 'dog'
9-
pura,'whole'
pura','many8
seta' 'morning1
[me 39311 [EM*39321 [me 34291 [EM. 34301
With Mid Back Vowels, glottalization is distinctive. Clottalized vowel /o?o/ Unglottalized vowel lo/
j o ~ o, ]' sweep'
ss [ ~ o o, ]'fruit'
[m.20803
[me 20791
@.though similar in time lapse(2 beats) ,the glottal is distinctive.
J
r
The g l o t t a l i z e d mid back vowels a r e of f a i r l y f'requent occurence,as
bo?o, co?o -
,jo?o, ko?o, golo, h o ? ~ ,noto, lo?o i n monosyllabics,aaid
9 -
dfsyllabics , a s oro?o , oco?o, goso?o, lsbo?o, keco?o, bano?o, e t c
.
The d i s t i n c t i o n between /o?o/ and /a?/ can be demonstrated i n forms l i k e ~ ! , , [ 6 ~ o ? o ]'and'(con3.) , oyat , [orals] , 'house'
(Floun)
aye', [ore?e], ' t o be excessive' (verb) With H i ~ hBack Vowels, g l o t t a l i z a t i o n is distinctive.
/u/,/u?u/
Glottalized vowel /u?u/
x, [bu?u] , ' t o bark'
Unglottalized vowel /u/
s, [bu] ,'we(you & I ) ' [ E M . o ~ ~ o ]
[EM.O630]
The glottalized high back vowels a r e of r e l a t i v e l y frequent occurence, butu, ltu?u, urutu, hiju?u, siu?u, giu?u. I n general, t h e glottalized vowels a r e much r a r e r among t h e high morpheme g l o t t a l s [ i t i ] ,[utu], but a r e r e l a t i v e l y more frequnt i n neutral and low [a?a] ,[e l e l , [o?o]
.
COMPARISON OF MONSYLLABICS
[ i l [iti] P t $
--
-
-
0,
-
_k---
b d
g 8
c
3
h 8
m n
-r
-0
O n
ci
-J--i i
---
''f&]
[&el
----
'E8d
i [afal
[ o l . *[o?o.] :
[63?~.[u?ul
------- - -- --- - - ---' ' ----30' go-.-- -----ni! ----- . ---
ti'
pe te
9,
-0
. . I
-0
. I -
ke
kaa baa
kaq
ko
-0
0-0
-9
---'
tat
de'
dat
do
-0
N I
o
-0
ge
ge
no
hee
me ne le' re
he'
net lev re
ga caa Jaa haa
ma na
n
ga
3a' ha' sat ma' na' la' rat
go coo joo ho
-0-
0-
0-
0-
ku bu
ku' bu'
0-
-0-
9-
RO'
I
OH
-0
ko' bo'
---
cot
H I
Ju
ho'
H I
H I
mo
- m no' 10'
I
u nuu
No
I -
-
CHART OF THE VOWEL PHONEMES
High,
Simple Glottalized
Mid,
Simple Glottalized
Low,
Simple Glottalized I
\
I
t
1.B. THE VOWEL PHONEMES (12)
m e vowel phonemes of Mundari, given in the above chart, are divided into high sounds, which enter into hi&-vowel
morphemes, the
mid sounds, which enter into low-vowel morphemes, and the low vowel which acts as a neutral between high and low morphemes,occuring in both. Within the sounds given above, there are two .cambinations which occur as close knit unit, and serve as diphthongs, the clusters /ai/,/au/. The vowel phonemes fall naturally into the following classes: (a) The five simple vowels, /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/; (b) The five glottalized vowels, /i?i/, /e?e/,/a?a/, /o?o/, and /u?u/. (c ) The two diphthongs, /ai/ and /au/. Limits on occurence are as follows:.Three vowels never occur together; where three are listed,the central vowel is a medial consonant glide. vowels may occur,but /ailand /au/slso occur medially before consonyts.
I--
2. THE CONSONANT SYSTEM OF MUNDARI
The Mundari Consonant System consists of 20 consonant phonemes. Among these are 4 voiceless stops, 4 voiced stops, 2 affricates and 2 fricatives, 4 Continuants, 2 retroflex continuants and 2 glides. The 18 contoid nontrPlnna~lt8act as onset and coda to the syllable nuclei; the 2 glides act as intervocalic interludes.
2.A.
ESSENTIAL PHONEMIC FEATURES
The hndari consonant phonemes ars in contrast with each other according t o a limited number of identifying-contrastive features. These features include the manner of articulation and the place of articulation. Stops and affricates are also distinguished by voicing. (a) Voiceless stops are distinct from voiced stops: In Mundari, the voicing feature is an essential distinguishing feature only among the stops and affricates. According to this feature, the set of voicless stops and affricates, /p/, /t/, /$/,
/c/, and /k/,
is distinguished from the voiced set, /b/, /d/, /Q/, /j/, and /g/, The voicing feature does not occur as a contrasting feature with other manners of articulation,..for all continuants and glides are voiced with no voiceless contrast; and the fricatives are all voiceless; The sdt of voiced sounds not in contrast includes /m/, /n/, / p / , /r/, / X I ,/1/ p d the glides /y/,/w/. The voiceless sounds sre fricatives /s/,/h/.
_1
r
/p/,/b/
Labial Stops, voiced and voiceless, a r e i n contrast. parca, 'docume~t
fEM.3258
Voiced l a b i a l stop
barea, ' spear '
[EM. 0397 1
/b/
Other contrasts occur i n such p a i r s a s piri.'upland'/ ~JU,
1
Voiceless l a b i a l stop /p/
'father1 /
e, 'we;you
biri,'cigarettet
and I' ; i p i l , 'star' / 9-i b i l 'thick'
.However,
does no contrasts are found i n f i n a l position, for'Che~::v~iteless:.$top dot' occ\ir: f n:.,these~poait50nB'~:~Media2ly: :befbre..a ;consonimt ;-the:voice.is i
lesi-.stops.;.fo found only i n such forms a s dip'li,'time';hop'ta,'week'
/t/, /d/ Dental Stops, voiced and voiceless, a r e i n contrast Voiceless dental stop /t/
=,
Voiced dental stop
&, 'perhaps'
/d/
'teach'
[EM.1941] [EM.1890]
Other contrasts occur In such forms a s badi, 'string', l b a t i , 'lamp' ; da' 'water1/ *,'towards';
-9
kanta,'patch'/
kanda,'roam';
ganda.'fingert
a s opposed t o ~ a n t a',a basket used f o r storing grains. / However, no contrasts a r e found i n f i n a l position, f o r t h e voiceless stop does not occur i n t h i s position. Medially before a consonant, the
,
voiceless stop occurs only i n such forms a s a t 'kar ,'f eel' ;et 'kan, 'bad '
/$/ ,/d/ .. Retroflex Stops, voiced and voiceless, are i n conGast: V1. Retroflex stop /$/
p e a , 'hour'(~.ghqa)
[EM.1377]
Vd. Retroflex stop /$/
ganCla, 'one anna!
iEM.13711
.::
Other contrast occur i n such forms a s kanda, 'cut piece' / k t a , 'thorn' The voiceless stop occurs f i n a l l y only i n a few words,as piv,'bazaar' m e voiced r e t r o f l e x stop does not occur f i n a l l y a t a l l , and medially p n l y occurs i n t h e e nasal environment, i n t h e cluster/#n+/.
A
r
/k/,/g/
Velar Stops, voiced and voiceless, a r e i n contrast : Voiceless v e l a r s t o p /k/
haka. ' h a g 1
[EM015711
Voiced v e l a r stop
haga, 'brother'
1m.15621
/g/
Other c o n t r a s t s occur i n such paf i s - a s panka, 'fan' / panga, 'chink'. No c o n t r a s t s are found i n f i n a l position, f o r t h e voiceless stop does not occur i n t h a t position. Medially before a consonant, t h e v ~ i c e l e s s s t o p i s found i n such forms a s kak'la,'shout'and
sek'ra, 'quick'
The voiced s t o p does not occur i n f i n a l position,being re$laced by The following s e t s of four show t h e /k/,/g/
contrast, a s well a s t h e and t h e r e t r o f l e x /$/,/g/.
contrast between t h e dental phonemes / t / , / d / kanta, 'patch' kanta
'thorn' [EM. 22161
kanda, 'room' kart*,
[EM.22161
[EM. 22061
'piece' [EM. 23201
/g.
ganta, 'basket
'
[EM.1377]
ganta, 'hour' ganda,
[EM.1377]
'finger '
[EM. 13691
gan$a, 'anna'
[EM.1371]
The forms kanda and ganta, have a l t e r n a t e s , where aspiration i s phonemic
and a r e writiten ?ae khanda, 'cut -$iece9-.kmd'ghabt8', :.'hour!. contrasting forms occur i n k s n t i , ' n a i l t ; kanai,'half t o ganti,'small b e l l ' ; and gan4i,'crooked, /c/,/ j /
Similar
a maund9;opposed
elanting',with f i n a l /i/.
P a l a t a l Affricates,. voiced and voiceless ,are i n contrast : Vaf Palatsl-.'Affricate
/c/
Vd.Palata1 A f f r i c a t e / j /
cetan, 'above;upper
'
[EM. 08191
jetan, 'any(inan.form)'
Other c o n t r a s t s occur Pn such forms a s cZ,'tea'/JE,'any';
[~~.2036] &,'kiss'/
jo', 'sweep' ; parca, 'document ' / parka, 'remove' .~~'Ke~:.v6icClcss Icy does ~ o occur t f i n a l l y ; t h e voiced / j / only i n loans,such as
&,a,&. _I
rfb) Stops
7
at different places af articulation are distinct:
The stops, including the affricated stops, are formed at five different places of articulation. The stops at each of these positions, whether voiced or voiceless, are distinct from the stops in any other position. The pos,itions are labial,dental,retroflex,palatal,and velar. According to these positions /p/ # /t/ # /$/ # /c/ # /k/, and for the voiced stops likewise,
/b/
# /dl # /d/ # /j/ # /g/. Among these sets of
sounds, the only suspect pairs involve the dental/retroflex~contrast. /t/,/t/ Dental and Retroflex voiceless stops are in contrast ; Dental vl.Stop
/t/
Retroflex vl.Stop /f /
bati , [bati], 'lamp'
[EMb04k31
m, [bati], 'overturn'
[EM.04491
Other contrasts are found in the dental clusters given before, in kanta,'patcht/ kanta,'thorn;
ganta,'baskett/ ganta,'hour'
position, the dental does,not occtlr, the retroflex in
. In final
&, 'bazaar'
Id/,/$/ Dental and Retroflex voiced stops are in contrast; Dental Vd. Stop
d
Retroflex Vd;Stop /Q/
,
manda, [manda],'headcold ' [EM.27691 man*,
[mangal,'footprint ' [ ~ ~ e 2 7 7 0 ]
Other contrasts occur in the environments given above,.such as the pairs kanda, 'room' / kanda, 'piece' ; sanda, 'finger' / ganda, 'anna'
.
The retroflex stop does not occur in final position; the dental stop occurs with a nasalized allophone. Medially /$/ occurs only in /-XI#-/ In initial positions, we have the contrasts dsli , 'Pulse &4,
/dali, 'basket ' ; dm&, 'indeedf/
'a spring'
K,'strike' /9l ', shield;
m, 'pole ' ;dari, 'be able'
09991[EM.11881, as well as many others.
1
r ( c ) Some -Con*iBuants'&e
d i s t i n c t accord in^ t o place of articulation:
1
Among t h e nasal eontinuants, /m/ # /n/ # /p/; and among t h e o r a l ones t h e resonants /r/ # /h/. The nasals d i f f e r from o r a l s i n manner. Dental and Retroflex Nasals are i n contrast
/n/,/?/
Dental Nasal
/n/
sena 'S goes' ( c f - s e n )
9 -
Retroflex nasal /?/
[EM.3902]
sega, 'wisdom' (cf. s e ~ a ) [EM.393?1
Other contrasts are rnana,lforbiddenl/m~a,lcorpse;mani, ' o i l seedt/ &,'slow1.
The r e t r o f l e x nasal i s never found i n i h i t i a l position. Dental and Retroflex Resonants are i n contrast
r
Dental Resonant
/r/
Retroflex Resonant /r/
horo, 'turtle'
[EM.1808]
h o ~ o , 'man1
[EM.18131
Other contrasts are p i r i , 'shield1 / p i p i , 'upland' ; pere' ,' f u l l ' / and perel,'strengthl.
/?/,/?/
The retroflex resonant i s never found i n i t i a l l y .
Retroflex Nasal and Resonant are i n contrast Retroflex Basal
/Q/
Retroflex resonant /;
~ona, 'cowsbed! Ccf .gora)
[EM.1509]
p o p , 'upland r i c e 1
[EMe14991
Even i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l orthography, nasalization i s t h e d i s t i n c t i v e feature,putting these two forms i n contrast. Also contrast siri,'ladder' sipi,
[s?~?], 'grindstone'.
Neither consonant occurs i n i t i a l l y .
The comparison of t h e simple continuants among themselves is not necessary, f o r they a l l occur f r e e l y i n a l l positions, and t h e number of minimal p a i r s found f o r aiy two continuants is endless. Eontr&$t:
.. ,:.'.;.. L
-, 'YOU' mma,'cut '
.,; ''-me
ne ' t h i s '
-9
nal 'now'
9 -
ole -9 ' w e ( p 1 . e ~ ~ ) -re,'inl ' l a ' :exceesl
-9
r a t 'of1
-9
1
r( d ) The f r i c a t i v e
/s/, and /h/. are & i s t i n c t from t h e nearest sounds.
7
The sound closest t o t h e voiceless dental s i b i l a n t /s/ i s t h e voiceless
p a l a t a l a f f r i c a t e , which has a composite structure similar t o [ t s ] . /s/,/c/
Voiceless Dental Sibilant and Palatal Affricate a r e d i s t i n c t . V1.Dental Sibilant
Is/
V1.Palatal Affricate /c/ Other contrasts include
sandi , 'male'
[EM. 3814 1
candi, 'a bonga'
[ m e07371
e, 's e i z e v / cab,'yawn' [EM.3713],
[m.o6791.
Both sounds a r c r a r e i n f i n a l position, or occur only i n loan words. The sound closest t o t h e voiceless aspirate, ( g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e ) , /h/, i s t h e t o t a l absence of a consonant or Zero Onset, marked /#/.
/h/,/#/
Voiceless Aspirate contrasts with Zero Onset. Voiceless Aspirate
/h/
Zero Consonant Onset /#/ Other contrasts include
e, 'wash
.
hatam, 'aunt'
[m.1662]
#atom, 'edge; border' [EM.0258] away' / hatu, 'village.
In medial
position, /h/ i s often deleted, and i s not contrasted i n t h a t position. For example:
paham = paam, pa*
( e ) The phoneme
/a/
and
baha = baa*
does not contrast with /r/.l'hey
The voiced r e t r o f l e x stop nasal clusters.
P-,
/a/
may be one phoneme.
occurs i n i t i a l l y , and medially only i n
The voiced r e t r o f l e x resonant
/r/ occurs f i n a l l y , and
medially between vowels or i n non-nasal nlusters.
The complementary
distribution i s perfect.
However, t h e native speaker seems t o equate
t h e c l u s t e r /pp/ and /T/,
as in the alternates o
loans such a s sarak/sandak,'xoad'. pistinct
m ,'andt,
or i n
These sounds atre~~:h&rcl!.letfas
phonemes on the grounds of symmetry of phonemic pattern.
-1
CHART OF THE CONSONANT PHONEBES Labial
Dental Retroflex P a l a t a l Velar
Stops, voiceless
/P/
/t/
1% /
/k/
voiced * Affricate,voiceless
/b/
/a/
/:
1431 /C
/
Lat e r a 1
I
Glides
2.B..THE
/Y/
, /w/
COIVSOIVAMT PHONEMES
The Consonant phonemes of Mundasi, given i n t h e above c h a r t , f a l l n a t u r a l l y i n t o f i v e phonetic groupings, which groupings a r e even
f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t h e i r distribution. These groups a r e ( a ) The voiceless stops, /p/,/t/,/$/,/k/, (b),-!Che voiced stops;,
which a r e r a r e l y f i n a l
.
/b/, /dl,/$/ ,/g/ ,which occur i n a l l positions;
( c ) The a f f r i c a t e s and f r i c a t i v e s , /c/,/J/,/h/
,/s/, r a r e l y f i n a l ;
( d ) The simple continuants, /m/, /n/, /r/ ,/l/, which occur
i n a l l pos.itions ,
. .
( e ) The r e t r o f l e x continuants ,and glides, In/, /r/ ,/w/ ,/y/ ,which neyer
p:~: ~~cwi.iwbi?d b n l t i a l l y . The g l i d e s occur only intervocalically.
_I
THE CONSOMAMT PHONEMES (20)
A. OBSTRUENTS /P/
Voiceless Labial Stop
parca, 'document'
/t/
Voiceless Dental Stop
't a l a
/
Voiceless Retroflex Stop
$undu, ' f i n i s h '
Voiceless Velar Stop Voiced Labial Stop Voiced Dental Stop
'middle'
-9
kanda
'room'
-9
barca
'spear '
daru
'tree'
-9
Voiced Retroflex Stop
ponga, 'canoe'
Voiced Velar Stop
gama,
'rain'
-9
cetan
'above'
Voiced P a l a t a l Aff'ricate
1
'meat'
Voiceless Aspirate
hega,
'brother8
sad-
'horse'
Voiceless P a l a t a l A f f r f c a t e
Voiced Dental S i b i l a n t
-9
B. COmm ISA 'vl!
/m/
Labial Nasal Continuant
marang, 'big'
/n/
Dental Nasal Continuant
-9
nida
'night'
/q/
Retroflex Nasal Continuant
cene
'bird'
/r/
Dental Oral Resonant
rabal
'easy'
/
Retroflex Oral Resonant
horo
'man'
/1/
Lateral Oral Continuant
latar
'below'
/w/
High Back Rounded Glide
'a, 'accuatoaa~
iy/
High Front Unrounded Glfde
hoyo,
-9
-9
-9
-9
'wind'
DISTRIBUTION OF ALLOPHONES CONSONANTS 1. Voiceless Stops ( 4 )
( ~ a r e l yF i n a l ) Voiceless Labial St02 I n i t i a l Position,
parca, [parca] , 'document
Medial before V,
gapa, [gapa] , 'tomorrow'
[p' ]
Medial before C,
d i p ' l i , [ d i p ~ l i,]'time'
---
Final Position
[p]
/t/
,
'
( No oc curence )
Voiceless Dental Stop
[t]
[ t '1
---
I n i t i a l P o s i t ion,
-9
tala
[ t a l a ] , 'middle'
Medial before V,
9 -
hatu
[ hatu] , ' v i l l a g e '
Medial before C,
e t 'kan, [ e t ~ k a n, ] 'evil'
Final Position,
(No occurence)
Voiceless Retroflex S t o ~
[$]
[$'I
/k/
'
I n i t i a l Position,
sundu, [tundu] , f i n i s h '
Medial before V,
potom, [potom], 'bale'
Medial before C,
='-re,
Final Position,
pit',
[ p i t ~ r e,'in ] t h e bazaar' [ p i t I ] , 'bazaaro
Voiceless Velar Stop [k]
I n i t i a l Position,
kanda, [kanda] , 'roam1
Medial before V,
s-sukul
[kt] Medial before C,
---
Final Position,
[sukul] , 'smoke'
kak 'l a [kakAla ] ,'shout '
9-
(Bo occurencef)
q
DISTRIBUTION OF ALLOPHOlOES CONSONANTS 2. Voiced Stops
(4)
(All positions )
/b/
Voiced B i l a b i a l S t o e [b]
[b' ]
9-
Medial before V ,
9 -
Medial before C,
9-
caba
[cabal ,
'complete '
bab'ta [ b a b ~ t a,] ' i t c h '
[bm] Final Posit ion,
/dl
barca [barca] , Ispear'
I n i t i a l Position,
dub
-9
[dubm],
'sit'
Voiced Dental Stop [dl
I n i t i a l Position,
9 -
daru
[daru],
Otree'
Medial before V,
9 -
nida
[nida] ,
'night
[d' ]
Medial before C,
j a d ' k a , [ j a d ~ k a ] , 'more'
[dn]
Final Position,
----
med,
[medn],
'
'eye'
Voiced Retroflex Stop I n i t i a l Position.
gonga, [ G o ~1a,'canoe '
Medial before V,
pundi ,[pu?$i], 'white'
---
Medial before C,
(no occurence )
---
Final Position,
(no occurenge )
[$I
Voiced Velar Stag I n i t i a l Posit ion,
pus,
[gama],
'rain!
& d i a l before V,
hags,
[haga],
'brother'
[g' ]
Medial before C,
batau, [ b a g m u ] ,?spoilt
[@I
Final Posit ion,
[g]
. ..
~ , [ . i r 'bigq .
.
-.€hWitit&Ir?Lve Adjectives: a r e positioned f u r t h e r from t h e noun than t h e q u a l i t a t i v e , and l i m i t t h e object: soben,'alll
2. Quantitative w j c c t i v e s a r e e i t h e r limiting o r determining
Limiting Adjectives describe t h e quantity, without s p e c i f i e a l l y pointing out t h e object i n question. These may be General Quant it a t ives : s~bcn.;' d l';..;$ura1, 'many1 ,etc Numerals: miad;,'onel;
.
baria,'twol,etc.
Determining adjectives may be d e f i n i t e o r i n d e f i n i t e These always point out t h e object being described. Definite : ne,-this
' , =,@that' , &,'that
Indefinite: &,'any1,
yonder '
Jeta,lsomsl, eta9,'other1
3. Possessive Adjectives a r e not adjective but adjectivals; These have t h e p a r t i c u l a r signalling function of t h e i r c l a s s , Personal : aingal ,'mine'
Demonstrative: inia1,'his'
Indefinite: Janialslanybody's'
&. Interrogative Adj e c t ives always signal quest ions.
Numerals a r e a sub-class of quantitative adjectives, trhich a r e a l s o used a s nouns. They constitute a r e l a t i v e l y small c l a s s of k t m s , which can be defined by complete l i s t i n g . They occur following t h e demonstratives and preceding other modifiers i n t h e maximum expansion of t h e noun phrase.
Numerals may be simple, complex o r compound stems. The numeral system i s b u i l t up fram a r e l a t i v e l y few simple morpheme roots i n a vicesimal system. There a r e d i s t i n c t Mundari roots f o r t h e words 'one1 t o (ten', a d i s t i n c t word for a score,or 'tventy',
and more recently,
t h e Mundas have adopted t h e Hindi words f o r 'hundred' and 'thousand'.
a) SimplecStars-=arenumerals which consist of a single root morpheme These include t h e numerals from one t o ten,twenty,hundred,thousmd. miadl,'one
*-t u r u i a 'six1
-9
b s r i a 'two'
-9
ea
-9
apia, 'three'
9-
upwia, 'four'
9 -
monea, 'five'
jge1ea,'teng
9 -
'seven'
irilis 'eight
area
h i s i 'twenty' 8au 'hundred1
'
hajar, 'thousand1
'nine'
The form ~mrid!,'me' has many a l l ~ o r p h s ,among which a r e mid1, mod',
-
- i s t h e most genersl,and
h d moiad! The form m i a d '
i s used throughout. _]
r
-I
b) Derived Sterns: Stems composed of s stem and affix are derived stems. Nmerals have various affixes which adapt them to different uses, and which occur with all the simple and compound numerals. These affixes include the process of reduplication,/^-/ ,and suffixes -sa, -1eka. Reduplication occurs with all numerals, and transforms them into the distributives,lone each','tvo
eacht,etc. Reduplication is accaarplished
by repeating the initial CV- or -VC. (mo~e-repeats mop, 1. mi-miad,'one
3. ap-apia, 'three each1
each
2. ba-baria,'two
4. up-upunia ,'four each '
each1
5.*moa-monea,'five
ea repeats z.)
each1
7.*e-ea,
6. tu-tunria, 'six each'
'seven each'
8. ir-irilia,'eight
each1
9. ar-area, 'nine each'
10. ge-gelea, ten each1 20. hi-hisi,ltwenty each1 100. sa-sau,'100
1000. ha-ha1 ar ,'1000 each'
each1
These distributive adjectives may be transformed into adverbs by the addition of the instrumental mi-miad-te,'onc
s,'by',
by one1
in the sense lone by one1,etc. ba-baria-t e ,'two by two *
When these distributives are used of persons, the word horo,'personl with the numeral is used twice, and followed by the instrumental.
s,
or, the word horo occurs between the dietributive and the final suffix. bar horo bar hoyo-te, -
*two by two; two men by two men*
ba-baria...horo-te ,
'two by two; by two-each men1
Whenever a campound is reduplicated, onlythe first form is reduplicated.
L
pel-bar ia , *&elre*
gesel-baria,*twelve each1
A
IThe suffix
z, 'times * , and t h e
1 corresponding suf fix.,4uang;(-dua), are
used t o transform t h e numeral i n t o an a temporal adverb. ( ~ ~ ~ 6 8 ) This suffix i s added t o t h e short form of t h e numerals, and produces
-
t h e following adverbs of time, with t h e formation of.miad' irregular: misa,
'once'
turuisa,
' 6 times'
barsa
'twice1
9 -
'7 times'
apisa,
'3 times'
9-
9-
-esa
irilsa
r 8 times1
upunsa, '4 times1
9-
aresa
'9 times'
monesa, ' 5 times1
gelsa,
'10 times1
mid'hisi-sa,'20
times'
mid'haJar-sa,'1000
times'
The form misa,:once has t h e allamorphs, midv-sa, and mosa. In approximations, t h e s u f f i x
-sa i s
only added t o t h e l a s t numeral.
api upun-sa, 'three or four times' The second order s u f f i x -leka,'approximately'
may be added d i r e c t l y t o
t h e numeral t o i n d i c a t e ' t h a t it i s approximately t h i s number. mid'hiei-leka,
'about twenty1
This s u f f i x m y a l s o be added t o t h e adverbials i n
upun-sa-leka,
-ss f o r
approximation
'about four times'
-
The idea of approxi&tion can a l s o be expressed without t h e s u f f i x -1eka by t h e Juxtaposition of two numerals i n t h e range approximated. a ~ upun i horo, 'three o r four men'
& upun-%crhs. .hero, 'about three aP four men1 kdverbisls with -leks remain adverbs ; adjectives remain adjectives
.
I-
1
t
(c) Compound Numerals: All of the numerals except the numbers one to ten, sad the words for twenty, hundred, sad a thousand, are compounds. To form these, the words one-to-ten have a special compounding form: For most of these, the final -W is truncated From the numeral stem. For the forms apia, monea, turuia, ea, and For the numeral miadt,'one',
twui-
mid *
e, the final-V
is lost.
the allomorphs mid' and mod' are used.
bar-
-e-
&- upun-
mope-
iril-
gel-
are-
These compounding allomorphs occur only in the primary member of a compound; the second member of the compound retains its original form. 1. miadg
11. gel-miad'
30. mid'hisi
2. baria
12. gel-baris
40. bar-hisi
3. apia
13. gel-apia
50. bar-hisi-gelea
4. upunis
14. gel-upunia
60. api-hasi
5. monea
15. gel-monea
70. api-hisi gelea
6. turuia
16. gel-turuia
80. upun-hisi
7. ea
17, gel-ea
90. upun-hisi-gelea
8. irilia
18, gel-irilia
100. mid 'sart
9. area
19. gel-area
500. move-sau
10. gelea
20, midlhisi
1000. midlharjar
gelea
The compounding alloarnorphs as used as regular adjectives in counting, with the forms horo, eman', These nouns,horo,bol.ora,are
L
E,'hesd(of
cattle),and
s, 'house ' (
~ ~ ~ 6 5 )
counting units,and take no number suffix.
kora honko.api horo; kuri honk0 ,bar horo, '2 sons;3 daughters '
1
-I 4.
ADVERBS
An Adverb is an uninflected p a r t i c l e which f i l l s t h e adjunct -
s l o t s on clause level. These adverbs include, according t o t h e s l o t wh which they f i l l , adverbs of place, time, manner and purpose, answering t h e questions: Where? When? Why? and How? Adverbs a r e f r e e forms which f i l l t h e s l o t s f i l l e d a l s o by t h e oblique cases of nouns. The s l o t
therefore i s formally marked by t h e forhative elements -re, -te,-ete, - s a t , -tat 9 -
-te(ins),
-a horate, - l o q , -leka, and -mente.
Adverbs, accordirgto t h e i r form, a r e simple, derived, and compound. The simple stems consist of a s i n g l e root morpheme, t h e der.tued stems of a r o o t plus a f f i x , and a compound stem of two roots. a ) Simple Stems: Simple adverb stems a r e t h e stems of a s i n g l e root. These cannot be i d e n t i f i e d by any morphological c r i t e r i a . I n syntax they f i l l t h e same s l o t s as t h e adverbial8 which a r e oblique cases of nouns. Most simple stem adverbs a r e adwe~bsoof':thq, aanmwPf ng':.the
-
questions: ciuls9,'when; what day?: cimta,(cimtang), 'when?'. ciula?, 'when'
t ising, 'today'
~ a p a ,'tomorrow'
I
cimta?
-9
na'
-9
'whenfv
'now'
hola imta
S-
nimir
9-
qyesterday'
,
'then'
'nowadays '
r
-I
b ) Derived Adverbs:
The derived adverbs usually consist of an adjective
bese followed by t h e suffixes, -re,-te.-kote,
indiceting place or t h e .
Adverbs of manner a r e a l s o adjective based, but a r e marked with modal suffixes, -te(ins),-leks,-lekate. Final adverbs a r e marked by mente. The general formula f o r a derived adverb i s a s follows: Derived Adverb = Addective Base + Case Suffix Forms which a r e made up of a noun base and a case suffix a r e t h e oblique cases of nouns, and contrast with t h e adjective-based adverbs. Since adjectives have no case concord with t h e nouns they modify, t h e suffix of a derived adverb must be interpreted a s a derivational suffix, S t i l l , some oblique cases of nouns a r e used so frequently a s adverbials, t h a t they a r e oiten l i s t e d among t h e di!$lued-'adver?Bs of t h e language. munu, ns,,'beginningt
munu-re,
'in the heginnine'
d o n , ns.,'back'
doya-re, av. 'behind'
Besides t h e regular case suffixes, adverbs a r e alsc formed ~ i t thh e aciiixes -imta,'thent; b t a av.,
-3
bar-, -
-8s.-duanq,'times';
'then' (+ ne)
num.,'two'
a-, num., 'three'
-sing,-ma,
'day'.
nimta, 'then' barsa
-9
'twice'
api-ma, 'three days '
c ) Campound Adverbs: Adverbs of more than one root occur, with oi: without t h e additional of derivational suffixes, such as:
tisiqg, 'today' + gam,'tomorraw'
=
tising-gaps, 'nomdays'
&,'eat1
+ =,'hand'
-
+ -sa','tot
= J&i'sa','right-hand1
_1
-I
4 . ~ .ADVERB CLASSES
Adverbs belong to one of four principle classes, the adverbs of time, the adverbs of place, the adverbs of manner, and adverbs of purpose. These may be distinguished, at least in some cases, by certain formal markings, particularly among the derived type of adverbs. 1. Adverbs of Place: The adverbs of place are adverbs which fill the locLtiona1 slots on clause level marked by the locative cases of nouns, and are responses to the questions: okore?,'wherel;okotate?,whence?'etc. Formally, they are derived adverbs, marked with the suffixes -re, -te,
-
and -kote, which are added to adjective stems to form these adverbs. As adverbs of place they may take other locative suffixes as well, including -re,-te,-ete,-tare,-ame,etc,,
but
-re and
are common.
The principbl adjective stems used to forn these adverbs are as follows; aiar aj
9 -
taim
9 -
.,'ahead'
aj.,'behind'
aiar-re,av.'ahead' taian-re,av,'behindl
cetan aj.,'upper'
cetan-re, av., 'above '
latar, rrj. ,'lower1 -
latar-re, av. ,'below'
Jam., a$., 'near'
Japa-re, av.,'nearbyl
sangin, aje,'farl
sanginore, av.'far
parom, 4. ,'across
prom-re, av.,'across'
tala aj ,ns., 'middle'
tala-re, av. 'in the midst'
9-
biter 83. (H. 1, 'inside '
biter-re, avmVinside'
bahar aj.(H.),'outsidel
bab--~e, av. 'outside'
9-
9 -
9-
.
away1
r
f
Some of the loeat ional adverbs are based on no=
stems, and are more
properly considered as adverbials,-the locative case of nouns. Such raca
ns.,'front
9 -
kundam, ns.,'back
yard' yard1
9-
sirma
ns.,'roof;heavens'
9 -
cut i
ns
9 -
suba
ns.,'lower
doya,
ns. ,'back(of body) '
., summit ' part'
raca-re,
av.,
'
kundam-re,av.,'out
c?sc:
front ' back'
sinna-re, av.,'above1 cuti-re,
av.,'on
top'
suba-re,
av., 'below'
doya-re , av. ,'behind' 8
danang, ns, ,'a screen'
.,
'border '
gena,
ns
atom
ns. ,'edge1
9 -
dm--re,av.,'screened' ~ena-re, av.,'on
the border'
atom-re,
the edge'
av.,'on
It should be noted that the Mundari adverbial8 are more specific than the corresponding English formations, The adverbial base indicates the general locative area in question: the suffix specifies the adverbial:
'
'
'.
-re, 'in(this area) ; -te,ttowards(~hisarea) ; -&,'fm(this area)
The choice of suffix depends upon the context in which the form occurs. emgmHe is further forward, He went forward.
ayar-re, 'in the formud(area) ' ayar-te, 'to the fomard(area) '
This area can be ftwther specified by prefixing a demonstrative fom. ne-ayar-te,'to
this forward'
en-eyax-te,"bo that forward'
Any f'urther specification of the area of reference of the adverb would involve the pre-positing of a noun or noun phrase describing the place. This is what happene, in fact, when the above locational adverbs are bsed as prepositions governing locational nouns and noun phrases.
1
I2. Adverbs of Time:
1 The adverbs of time a r e adverbs which f i l l t h e
temporal s l o t s on clause l e v e l , marked by t h e locative c l a s e s of nouns, and by c e r t a i n temporal words and suffixes,such..as -sa,-duang,
-imta,
and acting a s responses t o t h e questions: ciula?,'what day?,when?' and cimta, cimtang?, 'when?'.Simple,derived,compound
stems occur.
2a) Simple Temporal Adverbs, consisting of one morpheme. c i u l a ? 'when ,what day? '
tisin&, 'today'
~ a ~ 'at m, a m o t ~ '
9 -
nal
9 -
hola
'now'
-9
'yesterday' 'nowadays '
nimir
enang, 'a while ago'
9 -
honder, 'some days ago1
3snhb+ :always
maha, IS, ' l a s t year
9 -
imta,imtang, 'then'
neskan ,'next time '
dinaki dinam
99 --
auri
'later' ‘
Ira-
'
'next year'
'daily8
2b) Derived c ~ ~ ~ ~ p o u with n d s , both stem and s u f f i x SmeEf6rm8;-. ( ~ ~ . 7 9 )
-
c i + hula(ng) = ciula?, 'what day; when?' ja + hula(ng) = Jaula,
'any day, then'
c i + imta(ng) = c i m t a , c W a ~ & 'when? ~~ * ne + imta(ng) = nimta, nimtang, 'then' en + imtang
= e n i m t a n ~ ,-at t h a t time'
han + im%ang, = han-imtanq, ja
+
imtang
' a t t h a t time'
= Jaimtans, ' a t any time'
j e t s + imtang = Jetaimntanq, ' a t rramb'.,~fmb!*.'4' k:ompounds of *,'same'
and e t a 1,*other1 with imta do not occur.
A
2c ) Derived compounds, with the suffixes -sa,-duan~,-sin&(~) (~G.79)
Numerals and other quantitative adverbs take the suffix -sa (-duns).
miss,qBncett
._...
'
miad' + -sa
+ -sa
barsa, 'tdve
bar
isu-sa, 'many timesioften'
purags8, 'many times: often'
isupura'sa,'very
often'
Numerals 'onew and 'two'take the suffix -sinp~,other numemUs add mu-sing, 'one day'
miad + c&i.ag
bar-sing, 'two days'
bar + -sing
api-aa, 'three days'
api + -ma
upun-ma, 'four days'
upun + -wr
s.
2d) Derived conpounds with the locative suffixes,-re ,-te ,-kote. (~G.79)
munu ns.,
9 -
'beginning'
munu-re,bv.,'in
the beginning'
tundu ns.,'end,finish'
tundu-re,av. ,'in the end'
oisr aj. 'previous;early'
aim-re,av.,'before:sooner'
s-tsiam
taiom-re,av.,'art;er;later'
9 -
9 -
aj.,'following;later'
sida aj.,
9 -
'first'
sib-re, av.,
'before'
2e)~amp~unda of more than one root occur,often of two adverbs together ti~inR+Bbpi;~dowadays' gapa-dananq,'day
tising
after tamorrow'
+ gaps
gaps + danang,'hiddenl
hola-t ere, 'day before yesterdsy '
hola + -t+re (bound)
sing-satub, 'all day longv
singi +-satub(bound)
2r) Sane adverbs are repeated for intensification
L
misa misaS Bsametimenl
sirma sirma,'yearly
'
1
I3. Adverbs of Manner, of Modal adverbs, are adverbs which fill the modal slots on c l w e level, marked by the oblique non-locative case suffixes. They are marked by the other case suffixes, such as the instrumental,
&, manner, -leks, accompaniment,-lol,or are free forms.
They answer the questions: cikana? 'what kind?',cileka? ohow?' a) Simple Adverbs of manner occur, which are single morphemes. ( ~ ~ ~ 7 6 ) isu av.,
'very1
-9
memer, av.,
'intensely*
era-ge , 'very* ( one morpheme ) kented, av.,
'violently1
Often the adverbial usege is signalled by the emphatic suffix sekeral aj
., '
sama aj
'useless'
3 -
.,
quick'
.,'only' aj .,'sudden
sekera-ge,'quicklyl sama-~e, 'uselessly,in vain8
eskar aj
eskar-ge,'only9
roka
roka-ge, 'suddenly1
9-
9 -
3b) Derived adverbs of manner are marked with *(ins),
'+lyl (Mt3.77)
sekera-te, 'quickly
manf-te, 'slowly'
rabd-te,
hambal-te,'with
l
easily8
s.
--
difficulty*
misa-te, 'together'
mi-miad-te,'separately'
bode-te, 'quickly'
andaga-te,lsuddenly'
This is an open class of adverbs,formed from m y adjective. A set of adverbials also occurs,~,thnouns or participles as a base form. boro, ns., -
fear9
eklatan,part
.,
rasika,ns.,
joy1
*tremblingg
I
raatan ,part. ,'crying '
boro-te,'with
fear;feariully'
eklatsn-te ,'tremblingly ' rasika-te,'joyf'ullyl rattan-te, 'cryinglyl
I-
.
1
3c ) Derived adverbials occur with the suffix -leks,-lekate (MG.~?-78) The only true adverbs formed in this way from adgective steas are the adverb* substitutes built on demonstrative,indefinite,fnterrogative roots. All other adverbials of manner are formed by nouns + leka(te).
an animal'
cileka?, 'how; in what way?'
jontu-leka,'like
raja-leka, 'like a king'
dasi-leka, 'like a servant'
Time words with the leka suffix are adverbs of manner, answering the question cileka/,'how?',and
formally marked with a-.manner ryffix:
nag-leka, 'like now'
enang-leka,'like
tising-leka,'like
honder-leka,'like
today'
then' then'
The base upon which these temporal-manner adverbs are formed are listed as adverbs, but also have nominal use, in the subject slots on clause level, and also as a nominal base for adverbs, as in this case.
4. Adverbs of Purpose: If -mente,'forl be considered a bound form,then there'&re? dvbrbel'&.-~ne.:as~-~Poma, if not, there are nor,such adverbs. Adverbs of purpose are adverbs(or adverbbals) which fill the purpose slot on cluuae leve1,are marked by mente, and act as responses to the question: cikana mente? cina-mente?, 'why? for what reason?' The forms most likely to be considered single word adverbs are derived: cina--mente, 'why?'
ens mente,'therefore'
nee mente,'for
hana mente, 'for that reason'
this reason'
The prefered interpretation seems to be that all forms in mentq are two words, and that these are adverbial phases,marked by the free form
'
bepositions, mente, 'for ' ; nagen ,nagente , for'.
1
I5 . ADVERB SUBSTITUTES
Adverb Substitutes are forms which according t o t h e i r outward shape are formally adverbs, 3ut which have an overlaid signalling function ~hSrC::i$sihddpmdent of morphological shape. The form c l a s s of a substitute i s called i t s (morphological) type; i t s overlaid function i s called i t s ( r e f e r e n t i a l ) domain.
Adverb substitutes according t o
morphological type, are adverbs of t h e locative and non-locative types; i.e. adverbs marked by -re,-te,-ete,
etc. and adverbs marked by -1eka.
Adverb substitutes according t o r e f e r e n t i a l domain, are t h e demonstrative, indefinite, and interrogative adverbs.
5.A. Locative Marked Adverbs Adverb substitutes of t h e demonstrative, indefinite, and interrogative substitute classes, occur formally marked with t h e locative suffixes. These are adverbs of place and t h e . The adverbs of time have a few extra suffixes, such a s %a,'thent 1; Adverbial S ~ b s t i t u t e s ~ L o c a t i o n a l :Adverbs of place a r e formed
f r o m a ad$ectire substitute base, t o which i s added t h e locative
suffixes. The base may be a demonstrative,indefinite,tbr interrogative. a ) Demonstrative Adverbs of Place are formed by using t h e demonstrative adjectives: ne, * t h i s 1 , en,'thatl; &,'that
yonder1 as a base, t o
h i c h a r e added t h e locative suffixes, -re. -te, -ete,
-88,
-*a,
etc.
1
IThis combination produces adverbs of place, t r a n s l a t e d a s follows: 9 -
nere
'here'
9 -
enre
'there'
9 -
hanre
'there yonder'
nete
'hither'
9 -
ente
'thither'
S-
hante
' t h i t h e r yonder'
neate
'hehce'
9-
9 -
9-
enate
'thence1
hanete
9-
'thence yonder1
b ) I n d e f i n i t e Adverbs of Place a r e formed by using t h e i n d e f i n i t e adjectives, &,'any1;
jetalsome'; =,'some1,
'somewhere ' je t a r e , 'anywhere
j are,
soben,'all'
okore
9-
a s a base.
'somewhere'
sobenre, 'everywhere'
c ) Interrogative Adverbs of Place are formed by using t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e adjectives as a base, such a s t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e *?,
'what?'
okore, 'where?'
lit. ' i n what place? '
okote
l i t . ' t o what place?'
9-
'whither?'
okoate 'whence?'
9-
'
lit. from what place?'
2. Adverbial Substitutes,Temporal: Certain adverbs of time a r e a l s o
formed with t h e l o c a t i v e suffixes. The Bdverbs formed from t h e demons t r a t i v e adyerb
=,
' t h a t ' ,with Locative ,suffixes, are used with
reference t o a point i n time r a t h e r than space. These temporal adverbs a r e often used as conjunctions, r e f e r i n g back t o a previous statemen't. 9 -
enre
' a t t h a t time; meanwhile; i n t h e meantime'
enre-o
' a t t h a t time even; s t i l l , nevertheless'
ente(-do),
' t o i t h a t time; then,and then'
9-
enate(-do),'from
t h a t time;and then, afier t h a t '
The i n d e f i n i t e s and Interrogatives,refering t o time, would use t h e forms h . n -%a,
'then ' ,and
sobenre, 'e v e w h e r e ' ,contrast ' k i t h Janao, 'always'
1
I-
>.B. Non-locat ive Adverbs Adverbs of t h e demonstrative, indefinite, and interrogative classes are formed with t h e non-locative suffixes, -imta,'then*.t -1eka
9-
-lekate,
and
. The r e s u l t s are adverbs of time and manner.
'l i k e
1. Adverbs of Time bre formed 'fri%a hn adJ'edtiV!
which i s added the temporal suffix - M a ,
Uubdtifute b a s t , t o
'then'.
a ) Demonstrative Adverbs of Time a r e formed frcuu t h e demonstrative adjectives: n e , ' . t h i s t ; =,'that1;
&, 'that yonder'.
nimta nimtang,
' a t t h i s timet
enimta enimtanq,
'a t
haninrta, hanimtang,
'at that remote t i m e t
9-
9-
t h a t time '
b ) Indefinite Adverbs of Time a r e formed from t h e indefinite adjectives &,*anyt; Jeta,'sme';
sbben,'allt has a contrasting form,Janao,'alwsys'
jaimta ,A aimtang,
'at any time'
Jetaimta, Jetaimtang, 'at some time' L
anao 9Janao 3 anao ,
'at a l l timee; always'
,c) Interrogative Adverbs of Time a r e idnned from t h e interrogative p a r t i c l e &-,'what?'
and t h e s u f f i x -imta,'then'
cimta,cimtang,
' a t what time, when? '
2. Adverbs of Manner a r e d h h from an ad3ect ive substitute base, t o
:
which i s added one of t h e manner suifixes,-leks,-lekate,'liket: These occur with a l l t h e demonstrative,indefinite and interrogatives. [Same have contracted forms, such as neka,nelka,enka,hanka,and
cilka.
.
DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERBS Dem.av.
= demajsj' + case suffix (~ttested)
Class Al: ne,'thisq (~ase:ne-)
+ locative
neta',
(EM. 2999)
nesa'
,
(EM*2997)
nere ,
(EM.2997)
neta9re,
(EM.2999)
nesa're,
(EM.2997)
nete ,
(EM.3000)
neta'te,
(EM.2999)
nesa'te,
(EM.2997)
neat e ,
(EM.2985)
neta'ate,
(EM.2999)
nesa'ate,
(EM,2997)
nekore ,
.:
(~G.72)
neta'kore,
(Eia.72)
nesa'kore,
(~~.72)
(~0.72)
neta'kote,
(~G.72)
nese'kote,
(MG.72)
nekote ,
Class #2: en.'thatt (Base: en-)
+ locative
ents',
(EM.1301)
ensa' ,
(EM.1301)
enre,
(EM.1300)
enta're,
(EM,1301)
ensa 're,
(EM.1301)
ent e ,
(EM.1302)
enta'te,
(EM.1301)
ensa'te,
(EM.1301)
enate,
(EM.1292)
entatate,
(EM.1301)
ensa'ate,
(EM.1301)
enta'kore,
(MG.72)
ensa'kore,
(MG.72)
(~G.72)
ensa'kote,
(MG.72)
enkore ,
(M~.72)
enkote ,
( ~ ~ ~ 7 enta'kote, 2 ) Class 1 3 : han. 'that '
(Base: han-) hanre ,
hanta'
,
( ~ ~ ~ 1)5 9hanta're, 8
+ locative
(~u.1600)
hansa' ,
(rn.1.600) hansa're,
(m.1599) (EM.1599)
IIVDEFIIVITE ADVERBS 1ndef.A~. = 1ndef.ajs. + case suffix ''
'
#
MUNDARI VERB PHRASES A. Imperfects Formed from Present Tenses 7
A!-
1. Indeterminate I m ~ e r f e c t
l e l k o taikena,
'S was accustomed t o seeing them.'
sen taikena,
'S was accustomed t o going.'
-TAN
2. Simple Present Imperfect
l e l t a n k o taikena,
'S was then seeing them/
sentantaikena,
'Swasthengoing/
...
..
.about t o see them.
abouttogo.'
3. I n d e f i n i t e Present Imperfect
l e l j a d k o taikena,
'S was seeing them/
...about t o see them.' J
4. Continuous R e s e n t Imperfect
JAD -
OAKAD
lelakadko taikena, IS kept on seeing them.' B. Imperfects Formed from Past Tenses 1. Simple Past Imperfect
-KED/-KEH*
*lelkedko taikena, 'S had been seeing them' senken taikena,
'S had been going.'(w.sen 2. S t a t i c Past Imperfect
l e l t a d k o taikena,
(rare,use -LED) only)
(rare,use -LEN)
-TAD -
'S had once seen them.' 3. Anterior Past Imperfect
l c l l e d k o taikena,
'S had been seeing them.'
senlen taikena,
'S had been going.'
4. Perfect Past Imperfect
-LED/-LEN
OAKAD/-AKAN
lelakadko taikena, 'S had seen them.' senakan taikena.
'S had uone.'
7
CONCLUSION A Descriptive Analysis of Pfundari
This descriptive analysis has been a study of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e Mundari l ~ n g u a g e ,with p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e u n i t s of sound, t h e u n i t s of meaning, t h e u n i t s of grammar, and t h e i r mutually contrastive arrangement patterns.
The Mundari language i s t h e language
of t h e Munda people, whose home i s i n t h e Chota Nagpur region of south Bihar S t a t e i n India. This language i s a member of t h e Munda family of languages, closely r e l a t e d t o Santhali, Kharia and Ho i n t h e immediate I
vicinity.
This family of languages has existed from pre-Vedic times,
and developed s i d e by s i d e with Indo-European and Dravidian languages i n t h e r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n of t h e Indian sub-continant.
The phonology of Mundari i s characterized by t h e following features.
The vowel system i s made up of t h e f i v e simple vowels, /a/,
/ e l , /i/, l o / , a$d /u/, together with a corresponding s e t of f i v e g l o t t a l i z e d vowels of t h e form /V?V/.
By t h e laws of vowel harmony,
t h e high vowels may not occur i n t h e same morpheme with low vowels. The consonant system includes a s e t of r e t r o f l e x consonants.
There
a r e no i n i t i a l or f i n a l c l u s t e r s , and only t h e continuants, /m/, /n/ ,/I/, and /r/ form a 'smooth medial c l u s t e r .
Open s y l l a b l e s a r e CV, closed
s y l l a b l e s a r e CVC, but zero onset i s allowed.
Final closed s y l l a b l e s
h r e s t r e s s e d , but elsewhere str-ess i s on t h e penultimate syllable.
1
r
-I The morphology of Mundari i s t y p i c a l of an agglutinative The noun system and verb system a r e characterized by groups
language.
of t y p i c a l suffixes.
Nouns have gender, number and case; verbs have
voice, t e n s e and mocd. Other forms a r e i n i n f l e c t e d p a r t i c l e s . ?refixes do not occur excep* i n reduplication, and i n f i x e s a r e derivational. Mundari nouns a r e animate or inanimate gender, with plant l i f e l i s t e d a s inanimate, and c e l e s t i a l bodies a s animate.
The animate nouns have
singular, dual and p l u r a l number; inanimate nouns do not have number, m . d a r i pronouns have an inclusive and exclusive f i r s t person i n t h e dual and p l u r a l numbers, forming a pronominal system of eleven animate pronouns, and one inanimate.
Mundari verb forms, besides voice, tense
and mood, have infixed pronominal objects and pronominal subjects which occur i n word f i n a l position i n t h e verb form.
The syntax of Mundari i s buYlt around t h e verb form, which i s already a complete clause i n miniature with i t s own subject, object and predicate.
A l l other s l o t s i n t h e clause s t r u c t u r e a r e optional
s p e c i f i e r s of a subject and object already expressed i n t h e verb form, or a r e optional sentence adjuncts peripheral t o t h e sentence s t r u c t u r e . Functional s l o t s i n t h e syntactic frame a r e marked by t y p i c a l sets of nominal and verbal suffixes; case endings a r e used a s phrase and clause r e l a t o r s , pronominal s u f f i x e s match t h e pronouns i n form.
This syntax
i s here expressed i n a twemic-transformational model, using matrices
b show t h e r e l a t i o n of sentence t o clause, and clause t o i t s ,elementsd
r
-I This analysis was based upon the work of Rev.John Hofftnann,S.J.
particularly his Mmdari Grammar (19~3)and Encyclopedia ~undarica(l930) The phonetic trenscription was accepted as sound, and developed here into a phonemic system. The morphological system was complete,but had to be reworked in terms of form classes. The syntactic system, however, was not developed in Hofhann's traditional approach, and had to be supplied by an analysis of Mundari structures. In order to make these results universally verifiable, citation forns were taken from the works of Hoffhann, rather than f r m private sources. The result is an updating of the work of Hoffhann in terms of modern linguistic science, based upon eight years actual experience working among the Munda people.
The descriptive analysis of a language is never complete. Not only does the language change in time, but the tools of linguistic science are in a state of flux. Methods unknown to Hoffmann fifty years ago are in common use today; methods unknown to us will be in use tomorrow. But a beginning must be made. With a preliminary descriptive analysis of the complete language in hand, it is possible to move towards an ever more accura1;e knowledge of this language, and through a comparison with the analyses of other languages, towards an ever more comprehensive view of the nature of language.
APPENDIX
1. Mundari Verb Forms: Future Tenses 2. Mundari Verb Forms: Present Tenses
3. Mundari Verb Forms: Past Tenses
4. Mundari Verb Forms: Imperative
5. Mundari Verb Forms: Optative
L i s t of I l l u s t r a t i o n s
Bibliography
MUNDARI VERB FORMS ..
1. Simple Future Tense:
M u r k Tenses
24 forms, with each pronominal subject
( a ) Transitive:
.
With marked
i.0.
Withunmarkedd.0.
11 forms, t v s
12 forms, t v s
(b) I n t r a n s i t i v e :
With no object
2. S t a t i c Future Tense:
( a ) TransitivS:
(b) I n t r a n s i t i v e :
3. Anterior Future Tense:
1 form,
+
i.0.
+ a
$ + d.0.
+ a
ivs/tvm/tvp + @
+ a
(Tense Marker -TA) 12 forms, t v s
+ TA + d.0. + a
no form.
1 3 forms, ~ 5 t heach :pronominal subject (Tease Marker OLE) 12 forms, t v s
+ LE + i.o./d.o.
(Tense Marker -KO' )
(b) Intransitive: With no object
+ a + Id +
12 forms, with each pronominal subject
( a ) Transitive: With i.o./d.o.
-8)
(Tense Marker -$)
:
With d.0. only
, ( ~ e n s eMarker
lform,
Note 1: In tense l b , tvm = t v s
ivs
+KOt + a
+ -en, and t v p = t v s +
Note 2: In tense 2a, i n d i r e c t objects do not occur;
-0'
+ a
+
6/8
1. SIMPLE FUTURE INDICATfVE Tpansitive Verbs tva = tvs f
t!
+ 8 + d.o./i!o.
+a
,
'S will see it'
lelina,
'S will see me'
omaina
'S w i l l see us (dl.inc)'
omalanga
l w g a ,
'S wfll see us (dl.exc)@
a0 -
lelbua,
'S Will see us (pl.inc)'
omabua
lellea,
'S Will see us ( p 1 . e ~ ~ ) '
omalea
'S will see you (sg)'
omamea
lelbena,
'S w i l l see yo= (dl)'
omabena
lelpea,
'S will see you ( p l y
omapea
leli'a,
'S will see him/her'
oma'ia
'S w i l l see them (dl)'
omakinga
'S wiU. see them (pl)'
omakoa
lel.ea
ldanga
,
-
lelmea,
lelkinga lelkoa,
,
/
'S sees it'
With
i.0.
tvm~tvs+en+B+a lelena
,
'S w i l l see themselves*
tv~=tvs+o'+8+a lelo'a,
'S w i l l be seen'
1, SIMPLE FUTURE INDICATIVE Intransitive Verbs
iva = i v s 5-1
'
+6+a
'S w i l l gom
/
'S goes'
-
E
2. STATIC FUTUFE INDICATIVE
TA
/---
Wansitive Verbs tva = tvs lelta'
,
+ TA + d.0. + a
'S will see it, once and f o r all'
lelta'ina,
'S will once see me'
leltalanga,
'S w i l l once see us (dl.inc)'
leltalinga
,
'S w i l l once see us (dl. exc)'
leltabua
,
'S will once see us (pl.inc)'
leltalea
,
'S w i l l once see us ( p 1 . e ~ ~ ) '
leltamea,
'S wlll once see you (sg)'
leltabena,
'S w i l l once s e e you (dl ) '
leltapea,
'S w i l l once see you (pl)'
lelta'ia,
'S w i l l once see w h e r e
leltakinga leltakoa,
,
No i , o ,
'S w i l l once see them (dl)' 'S will once see them ( p l )
'
Middle Static Future *No form
Use Simple F'uture Middle passive Static Future
*No form
Use Sinple F u k e Passive
.
2. STATIC FWlJRE INDICATIVE
Intransitive Verbs StaUc Fukrre Intransitive *No form
Use Simple Future Intsansitive 7
I
LE /---
3. ANTERIOR FUTURE INDICATIVE Transf tfve Verbs tva = tv8
+ LE + d.o./i.o.
lellea,
'S w i l l f i r s t see
lemaa,
'S ' w i l l f i r s t see me'
, lellelinga , lellebue , lellelanga
lellelea,
+a
it'
/
'S w i l l f i r s t see f o r me'
*S w i l l f i r s t see us (dl.inc)' 'S w i l l f i r s t see us (dl.exc)'
'S dl f i r s t see us (pl.inc)*
'S nil1 f i r s t see us (pl.exc!*
,
'S w i l l f i r s t see you (sg)'
lellebena,
'S w i l l f i r s t see you (dl)'
lellemea
lellepea
,
'S will
first see you ( p l y
lema,
*S will f i r s t see him/her'
lellskfiga,
'S will f i r s t see them (dl)'
leU&a,
*S w i l l :
*No form
use Siluple Future m i d l e
ftht..see.43a;ern :(pl)*
Anterior Future Middle *No forme
Use Simple Future Middle
3. ANTERIOR F U m INDICATIVE Intransitive Verbs iva
'
senko a.
'S
r
-st
ivs
+ KO' + a m* -
/ / / / / /
/ / / /
... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
f o r us* for
US'
for
US*
for
US*
f o r you' f o r you* f o r you*
for him/her* f o r them' for them'
MUNDARI VERB FORMS
-
Present Tenses
-
4. Simple Present Tense:
24 forms, with each pronominal subject. (~enseMarker -TAN)
(a) Transitive: With marked i.0.
11 forms. tvs
With unmarked d.0.
12 forms, tvs
(b) Intransitive:
+ a + i.0. + TAN + a +
d.0. + TAN + a
(~enseMarker -TAN)
With no object,
1 form
ivs/tvm/tvp + TAN + a
2. Indefinite Present Tense:12 forms, with each pronominal subject. (~enseMarker -JBD)
(a) Transitive:
12 forms, tvs + JAD + i.o./d.o.
With i.o./d.o. (b) Intransitive:
+ a
no form.
.
6. Continuous Present Tense:13 forms, with each pronominal subject (qense Marker -AKAD.
(a) Transitive: With i.o./d.o.
,
12 forms, tvs + AKAD
i.o./d.o.
+ GE + a
(Tense Marker -AKAN-GE )
(b) Intransitive: With no object
9
..GE)
1 form, ivs + AKAN + G E + a
Note 1: In Tense ha,the i.o./d.o.
precedes the tense marker -TAN
Note 2: In Tense 6b, -AKAN-GE is used with tingun,'standt,dub,'sit',
'
Pi' I I 3 W B
2
4. SIMPLE PRESENT INDICATIm
TAN / TAN
Transitive Verbs tva = t v s f a
+ d.o./i,o.
+ TAN + a
leltana,
'S i s seeing it now'
Marked
le-N3t= '%
'S i s seeing me .mw*
omaingtana
lellangtana,
'S i s now seeing us (dl.inc)*
omalangtana
lellingtana,
'S i s now seeing us (dl.exc)*
omalingtana
-'S i s now seeing us (pl,inc)'
lelbutana,
i.0,
omabutsna
lelletana,
'S i s now seeing us (pl,exc)*
omaletana
lelmetana,
'S i s now seeing you (sg)'
omamtana.
*S i s now seeing you (dl)'
onlabentam.
'S i s now seeing you ( p l ) '
omapetana,
'S i s now seeing him/her*
omai'tana
lelkingtana,
'S i s now seeing them (dl)'
omakingtana
lelkatana,
'S i s now ~eeingthem ( P I ) *
omakotana
lelbentana
,
ldpetana, l e l i * tana
,
t v m = t v s + e n + TAN+ a lelentana,
'S a r e now seeing themselves' ~ V = D tvs
l e l o 'tana,
+ 0' + TAN +
a
'S are now being seen'
4. S m E PRESFNT INDICATIVE Intransitive Verbs i v a = ivs sentana,
+
TAN
'S i s now g o h g *
+a /
'S goes* 7
>
b
5, INDEFINITE PRESENT INDICATI'W
JAD' /---
'kansitive Verbs tva = tvs
+ JAR''+
d,o./i.o,
laljada,
'S sees it'
leljaminas
'S sees me/ for me'
leljad'langa,
'S sees us/ for us (dl.inc)'
leljad'linga,
'S sees us/ for us (c2l.e~~)'
lel jad'bua,
'S sees us/ for us (p1.i.n~)'
leljad'lea,
'S sees us/ for us (pl.exc)*
leljad'mea,
'S sees you/ for you (sg)'
leljad'bena,
'S sees you/ for you (dl)'
leljad'pea,
'S sees you/ for you (pl) *
lelja'ia,
'S sees him/here
leljad'kinga,
'S sees them/ for them (dl)'
leljad'koa,
'S sees them/ for them (pl)'
+a d.o.=i.o.
/ 'S sees for him/here
Mefinite Present Midc33.e
*No form
Use Simple Eresent Hiddle in -TAN Indefbite Present Passive
*No form
Use Simple Present Passive in -TAN
5. INDEFINITE PRESENT INDICATIVE Intransitive Verbs Mefinite Present Intransitive *No form 4
Use Simple Present Intransitive in -TAN -l
1
AKAD-GE / AKAN-GE
6 . CONTINUOUS PRESENT TENSE Transitive Verbs tva = tvs + AKAD + i.o./d.o.
+ GE + a
lelakadgea,
'S keeps on seeing it'
lelaka'ingea,
'S keeps on seeing me/ for me.'
lelakadlanggea,
'S keeps on seeing us/ for us (dl.inc ) '
lelakadlinggea,
'S keeps on seeing us/ for us (dl.exc) '
lelakadbugea,
'S keeps on seeing us/ for us (pl. inc)'
lelakadlegea, -
'S
lelakadmegea,
'S keeps on seeing you/ for you (sg)'
lelakadbengea,
'S keeps on seeing you/ for you (dl)'
lelskadpegea,
'S keeps on seeing you/ for you (pl)'
lelaka'igea,
d.0.
= 1.0.
keeps on seeing us/ for us ( pl .exc ) '
S keeps on seeing him/her ? ,*
...for him/her '
lelakadkinggea,
'S keeps on seeing them/ for them (dl)'
lelakadkogea,
'S keeps on seeing them/ for them (pl)' Continuous Present Middle/ Passive
*No form
Use Simple Present in -TAN
6. CONTINUOUS PRESENT TENSE Intransitive Verbs iva = ivs senakada,
+ AKAD +(GE) +
-
(for most ivs verbs)
'S keeps on going' iva = irs + AKAN
tingunakangea,
a
9
GE + a (w. dub, tingun, hapen, giti
' S keeps on standing1
-.
MUNDARI VERB FORMS Past Tenses
7. Simple Past Tense:
24 forms, with each pronominal subject. (Tense Marker -KED)
(a) Transitive: With marked i.0.
11 forms, tvs + a + KED + i.0.
With unmarked d.0.
12 forms, tvs
8. Static Past Tense:
1 form,
9.
Anterior Past Tense:
ivs + KEN
4
a, (tvp.:=tvs + KEN)
( ~ e n s eMarker -TAD) 12 forms, tvs + TAD + i.o.1d.o.
+a
13 forms, with each pronominal subject. (Tense Marker -LED)
(a) Transitive: With i.o./d.o.
+ a
12 forms, with each pronominal subject.
(a) Transitive only: With i.o.1d.o.
KED + d.0.
(Tense Marker -KEN')
(b) Intransitive: With no object ,
+
+a
12 forms, tvs + LED + i.o.1d.o.
+ a
/
(Tense Marker -LEN)
(b) Intransitive: With no object, 3. Indefinite Past Tense:
1 form,
1 form, with each pronominal subject. (Tense Marker -JAN)
(b) Intransitive only: With no object , 11. Perfect Past Tense:
1 form,
(Tense Marker -AKAD) 12 forms, tvs
(b) Intransitive:
I
With no ob.1ect.
ivs/tvm/tvp + JAN + a
13 forms, with each pronominal subject.
(a) Transitive: With i.o./d.o,
ivs + LEN + a, (tvp = tvs + LEN)
+
AKAD
+ i.o./d.o.
+ a
(Tense Marker -AKAN) 1 form.
ivs
+ AKAN +
a.(tvp
= tvs +AKAIJ)
-- -
7, SIMPLE PAST INDICATm
KED'/
"\
KEN
Transitive Verbs tva = tvs 2
:+ KED' + d.o./i!o.
+a
lelkeda,
f S saw it*
Marked i.0.
lelki 'na,
'S saw me'
oma'ina
lelked'langa,
'S saw us (dl.inc)'
omadelanga
lelked'linga,
'S saw us (dl.exc)'
omad*linga
lelked'bus,
l S saw us (pl.inc)*
omad*h a
lelked'lea,
'S saw
omad' lea
lellced'mea,
'S saw you (sg)'
omad'mea
lelked'bena,
'S saw you (dl)'
omad'bena
lelked'pea,
'S saw you (pl)'
omad*pea
lelki'a
'S
lelked'kinga,
'S saw them (dl)'
omad*kinga
lelked' koa,
'S saw them (pi.)'
omad'koa
-
US
(p1.e~~)'
saw him/her*
tvm = tvs + KEN lelkena,
,.
+a
'S saw themselves'
tw = tvs lelkena
oma'ia
+ KEN + a
'S were seen'
/ 'S
has been busy seeing'
7, SIMPLE PAST INDICATIVE IntransitAve Verbs iva = ivs senkena
,
+ KEN + a
* S went@ 7
8. STATIC PAST INDICATNE
'irmsiejcve Verbs tva = tvs
1
+a
leltada,
'S saw it, once and for a l l '
leltatinas
'S once saw me/ for me1
leltad'langa,
'S once saw us/ for us (dl.inc)'
leltad'linga
I
+ TAD' + d,o,/i.o.
,
'.S once saw.us/ for us (pl.inc)'
leltad'lea,
'S once saw us/ for us (pl. exc)'
leltad'mea,
'S once
leltad'bena,
'S
lelta'ia,
--
,
.
saw you/ for you ( sg)'
once saw you/ for you (dl)'
'S once sai you/ for you 'S once saw him/her'
/
(file
'S once saw for him/herl
'S once saw them/ for them (dl)' 'S once saw them/ for them (pl)'
1
Static Past Middle *NO form
Use Simple Past Middle in
-Kn
Static Past Passive *No form
Use Siqle Past Passive in KEN
8, STATIC PAST INDICATIVE Intransitive Verbs Static Past Intransitive *No form
i,o.
'S once saw us/ for us (dl.exc)'
leltad'bua,
leltad'pea
d.o.=
Use Simple Past Intransitive in -ICE24
I
9,
ANTERfOR PAST INDICATIVE
LED'/
LEN
d.o.=
i,o.
Transitive Verbs tva = tvs lella'
,
+ LED* + d.o./i.o.
+a
'S f i r s t saw it'
Mli'na,
'S f i r s t saw me/ f o r me*
ieUdrfanga,
'S f i r s t saw us/ f o r us (dl.inc)'
lelled'linga,
'S f i r s t saw us/ f o r us (dl.exc)'
l e l l e d l bua,
'S f i r s t saw us/ f o r us (pl.inc)*
lelled'lea
,
'S f i r s t saw us/ f o r us (pLexc)'
lelled'mea,
'S f i r s t saw you/ f o r you (sg)'
lelled'bena,
'S f i r s t saw you/ f o r you (dl)'
lelledepea,
'S f i r s t saw you/ f o r you (pl)'
lelli'a,
'S f i r s t saw him/her'
lelled'kinga,
'S first saw them/ f o r them (dl)'
,
'S f i r s t saw them/ f o r them (pl)'
lelled'koa
tvia
lellena
,
= - tvs
'S f i r s t saw f o r him/her*
+ me.+ a
'S f i r s t saw themselves* t v =~ t v s
lellena,
/
+ LEN + a
* S f i r s t were seen*
9, ANTERfOR PAST INDICATIVE -
Intransitive Verbs
iva = i v s senlena,