A critical examination of evaluations of James K. Polk by American historians

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A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF EVALUATIONS OF JAMES K. POLK BY AMERICAN HISTORIANS

A T h e s is P r e s e n te d t o th e F a c u l t y o f t h e D ep artm en t o f H is to r y The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t o f t h e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e D egree M a s te r o f A r ts

by G len n T farren P r i c e J a n u a ry 1950

UMI Number: EP59616

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under the guidan ce of h..is... F a cu lty C o m m itte e , and a p p r o v e d by a ll its m em bers, has been p resen ted to and a c ce p te d by the C ou n cil on G rad u a te S tu d y a nd R esearch in p a r tia l fu lfill­ m ent o f the requirem ents f o r the d egree of MASTER OF ARTS

Date...........JAN.yARY.12£

Faculty Committee

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A p p ro v a l i s g r a n te d f o r t h i s t h e s i s t o b e p r e s e n te d i n e l i t e ty p e*

Owen C. Coy, Ph. D. C hairm an o f T h e s is C om m ittee

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

PAGE

I* HISTORY AND HISTORIES

II.

..................................................................................

6

The w r i t i n g o f h i s t o r y . . . ......................................................... V a r ia n t f r u i t s o f a d i s c i p l i n e d a r t

6 7

The p r o b l e m ....................................................................................................... P r e s i d e n t •P o lk ; a c e n tu r y o f c h a n g in g e v a l u a t i o n s . . .

7 7

O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e s t u d y ................... . ..............................................

12

THE POLITICAL CAREER OF JAMES K. P O L K ..............................................

13

P re -p re s id e n tia l c a re e r .............................................................. . . C ongressm an, J a c k s o n ia n S p e a k e r o f th e H ouse, G ov ern o r .

13 1k

N o m in a tio n f o r P r e s i d e n t

......................................................................

18

Cam paign o f iQhh: C la y v s . P o l k ........................... " R e -a n n e x a tio n " o f T e x a s; " R e -o c c u p a tio n " o f O regon . . ........................... V o te s and t h e t a r i f f : Kane l e t t e r

20 21 21

E le c tio n

....................................................................................

23

A n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s; j o i n t r e s o l u t i o n and B enton amendment

2l|

A m erican s o c i e t y i n l314ij e x p a n s i o n i s t dem ocracy

25

. . . . .

In a u g u ra l a d d re ss

. . . .

.....................................

26

S e l e c t i o n o f th e c a b i n e t ...........................................................................

27

M exico and Texsis ................................ R u p tu re o f r e l a t i o n s ............................................................................... T exas a p p ro v e s a n n e x a tio n ................................................................. G e n e ra l T a y lo r t o C orpus C h r i s t i ....................................................

29 29 30 31

B ackground o f t h e "M exican P r o b l e m " ............................................... P o in s e tt, B u tle r .................................................................................... The T exas r e v o l u t i o n ............................................................................... C l a i m s ................................................................................................................ M i l i t a r y i n c i d e n t s ...................................................

31 32 3h 36 37

P a r r o t t ' s n e g o t i a t i o n s ............................................................................... S l i d e l l 1s m is s io n ; m i n i s t e r o r s p e c i a l envoy? ........................

38 39

3 CHAPTER

PAGE

............................................................ P r e s i d e n t P o lk d e c id e s f o r w ar May 9 : M orning - War f o r C l a i m s ....................................................... S k irm is h on th e R io G rande ............................................................. May 9 : E v ening - "War b y a c t o f M e x i c o " ................................. War m essagej d e b a te i n C o n g re ss ; d e c l a r a t i o n ........................ P o l k ’s w ar aim s ■

Ij.2 li.2 lj-3 Ill* ilp> 2*6

O regon d ip lo m a c y ......................................................................................... Buchanan - "God w i l l n o t j u s t i f y y o u " ...................................... ................... P o lk - t’Look Jo h n B u ll s t r a i g h t i n th e e y e " Compromise on U9 0 ....................................................................................

JU7 bl lj.8 JU8

The War W ith M e x i c o .................................................................................... P o lk - S a n ta Anna i n t r i g u e . ............................................................. P o lk v s . T a y lo r . ........................... ......................................................................................... P o lk v s . S c o t t C a l i f o r n i a : d ip lo m a c y , r e b e l l i o n , o c c u p a tio n . ................... P o lk arid w ar p r o p a g a n d a ..................................... P o lk v s . T r i s t ................................................... O p p o s itio n t o th e w a r ......................................... H enry C l a y ............................................................ L o w e ll, T h o re a u , E m e r s o n .................................................................. P o lk d e fe n d s th e w a r .............................................. House r e s o l u t i o n : The w ar " u n n e c e s s a r i l y an d u n c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l l y beg u n by t h e P r e s i d e n t " ..................................... L i n c o l n ....................................................................................................... C orw in .................................................................................................. C a lh o u n , S te p h e n s ............................................................................... ................................. C o n g r e s s io n a l d e fe n s e o f t h e w ar T r e a ty o f G uadalup e H id a lg o . . . . . ......................................

h9 h9

The " P o lk D o c tr in e " - A m erica f o r t h e N o r th A m ericans The t a r i f f , tre a s u ry S la v e r y

III.

51 51 53 55 56 58 58 59 6l 62 63

6h 65 66 68

. .

69

i n t e r n a l im pro cem ents and t h e in d e p e n d e n t ....................................................................................

70

.......................................................

71

P o lk a s an a d m i n i s t r a t o r ; p a tr o n a g e p r o b l e m s ..................................

73

Home t o T e n n e s s e e ; d e a t h ...........................................................................

75

POLEMICS AND REMINISCENCES: l 8 i| 8 - 1886 . . . . . . . . . W illia m J a y .................................................................................................. Jo h n S t i l l w e l l J e n k in s ............................................................................... Thomas H a rt B enton ....................................

76 79

82 8 I4.

k CHAPTER

PAGE

Jam es G. B la in e ......................... ....................................................... U ly s s e s S. G r a n t .................................................................................... 038111113 M. W ilco x .. ............................................................................ B enjam in P e r le y P o o r e .............................................. H o r a tio 0 . Ladd .................................... . . . . ................................ W. A. P e t e r s ............................................................................................. IV.

VON HOLST, H. H. BANCROFT, RHODES: 1881 - 1892

. . . . .

88 89

90 91 92 9h 96

Hermann Von H o l s t ........................... . . H u b e rt Howe B a n c r o f t ........................... ............................................................................................. C a r l S c h u rz Jam es F o rd R h o d e s .................................................................................... T heodore R o o s e v e lt . . . .

97 109 107 109 110

V. POLK’S DIARY BECOMES AVAILABLE TO HISTORIANS: UNITED STATES DESTINY AGAINBECOMES MANIFEST: lQ9k “ 1918 .

113

Jam es S c h o u l e r ................................ Jo h n W. B u rg e ss .................................................................................... .................................................................................... Edward Stanw ood Woodrow W ilso n ....................... .............................................................. E l i s h a B enjam in Andrews . ................... Enoch W a lte r S ik e s an d W illia m M orse K een er C yrus T. B rady .................................................................................... C h a r le s H. Owen .................................................................................... G eorge P ie r c e G a r r is o n . ............................................................. J e s s e S. R eeves ................................................................................... John Bach M c M a s t e r ................................ M ilo M ilto n Q u a i f e ............................................................................... G eorge L o c k h a rt R iv e s . ............................................................. C. C. K o h l ................................................... C a r l R u s s e l F i s h .............................................. A l b e r t B u s h n e ll H a r t ..................................... V I. THE WAR JUSTIFIED — THE PRESIDENT ACHIEVES RESPECTABILITY J u s t i n H arvey S m ith . . . Eugene I r v i n g M c C o r m a c

* ..........................

119 119 123 12k 129 126 127 128 130 137 li |0 llix li;3 Ik9 190 191 193

*

193 172

...................

179

Edw ard C hanning . ..................................... A lla n N e v i n s ............................................................................................. D a v id S a v i l l e Muzzey .......................................... L o u is M a rtin S e a r s ...............................................................................

182 18U 186 187

V I I . THE SMITH-DIPLOMAT AND THE MCCORMAC-EXBCUTIVE

5 CHAPTER

PAGE Jo h n H o lla d a y L a ta n e . . ....................................................... R u s s e l B. Nye .................................... A lf r e d Hoyt B i l l ....................... . M arth a Mac B rid e M o rre l ........................... .

V I I I . JUSTIFIABLEPRESSURE

188 190 190 191

BY AN' ABLEP R E S ID E N T ...................................

J . F re d R ip p y . .............................. . ..*.......................................... S t . G eorge L. S io u s s & t . F r e d e r ic k J a c k s o n T u rn e r . . . . C h a r le s W inslow E l l i o t t ‘ . Sam uel F la g g Bemis . . . . . . . . ................ ...... . . . A r th u r M. S c h le s i n g e r J r . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19U

19k 195 196 197 198 203

.....................................

206

IX . RESORT TO WAR BY A WILFUL P R E S ID E N T ..............................................

208

C h a r le s A. B ea rd

. . . . . . . . . .

N a th a n ie l W rig h t S t e p h e n s o n .............................................. R an d o lp h G. Adams . ..................................................... A r th u r M eir S c h le s i n g e r . . . . . ................................. . Sam uel E l i o t M o riso n an d H enry S t e e l e Commager . . . B e rn a rd DeVoto . ................................. . . . . . . . . . X. THE UNSCRUPULOUS INSTRUMENT OF MANIFEST DESTINY

. . .

208

21 210 212 215 220

R ic h a rd R. S te n b e rg . . . . . ........................................................ D e x te r P e r k in s . ................................................................... W. E. Woodward ................................................................ ....................................... Jam es T ru slo w Adams Ray A lle n B i l l i n g t o n . ................................................................ X I. PRESIDENT POLK ANDCITIZEN-HISTORIANS

..............................

P o lk a "N ear G r e a t" P r e s i d e n t ..................................... A r th u r M. S c h l e s i n g e r fs p r e s i d e n t i a l r a t i n g p o l l . C r i t e r i a f o r g re a tn e s s . D ocum entary f a c t o r s I n t h e r e - v a l u a t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk ........................................................................................................... P a t r i o t i s m a s a f a c t o r i n P o lk ! s r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . • R a tin g t h e man o f Pow er; some ju d g m e n ts on P r e s i d e n t Jam es K. P o lk ................... .... ..................................... BIBLIOGRAPHY

...........................................................................................................

220 225 22? 228 230 233 233 233 231+ 236 239 21+3

2h7

CHAPTER I HISTORY AND HISTORIES I t i s a t r u i s m t h a t t h e r e i s no s u c h t h i n g a s a d e f i n i t i v e h i s ­ t o r y o f e v e n th e s m a l l e s t seg m en t o f t i m e . H is to r y h a s t o b e c o n t i n u a l ­ l y r e w r i t t e n * The u n e n d in g e f f o r t i s n e c e s s a r y n o t so much b e c a u s e m ore o f t h e m a t e r i a l s o f t h e human p a s t a r e a lw ay s b e in g l a i d b a r e a s b e c a u s e o f th e v e r y n a t u r e o f th e a r t * H i s t o r y i s t h e memory o f t h e r a c e b u t i t i s n o t c a r r i e d fo r w a rd i n s t i n c t i v e l y and w h o le b y t h e human community* I t i s a l i g h t , f e d a n d g u a rd e d b y h i s t o r i a n s an d made t o illu m i n e one a s p e c t o r a n o t h e r o f human a f f a i r s i n re s p o n s e t o t h e c h a n g in g n e c e s s i ty * And i n t h e c o n tin u in g a tte m p t t o make t h e body o f human e x p e r ie n c e u s e ­ f u l new i n s i g h t s a r e g a in e d o f th e e x p e r ie n c e i t s e l f * Man m ust b e f o r e v e r r e - c a s t i n g h i s e x p e r ie n c e b e c a u s e h e i s con­ t i n u a l l y r e - o r i e n t i n g h im s e l f i n th e w o rld * He m u st r e - e v a l u a t e h i s p a s t b e c a u s e h i s v a lu e s a r e new ones* Thus e a c h g e n e r a t i o n , a s h a s b e e n , - s a i d , m ust w r i t e i t s own h i s t o r y ; e v e r y man, in d e e d , m ust b e h i s own h i s t o r i a n * But a lth o u g h h i s t o r i c a l w ork i s e s s e n t i a l l y s u b j e c t i v e t h e c r a f t h a s d e v e lo p e d s t r i c t d i s c i p l i n e s l e s t t h e " r e c o r d ” become a m e a n in g le s s c o l l e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i d i o s y n c r a s i e s * W ith o u t e n g a g in g i n a d i s c u s ­ s i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l m ethods we may sum m arize b y n o tin g t h a t th e p rim a ry aim s a r e t h a t t h e d a t a b e p r e s e n t e d w ith o u t d i s t o r t i o n , t h a t t h e s e l e c ­ t i o n o f d a ta b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e an d t h a t th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p ro c e e d l o g i ­ c a l l y fro m t h e s o u rc e s * T h ere i s am ple room w i t h i n t h a t p a t t e r n f o r d i f ­ f e r e n c e s o f ju d g m en t b u t i t p r o v id e s t h e fram ew ork f o r c o h e r e n t h i s t o r —

7 i c a l p r o g r e s s . H i s t o r i a n s a r e s h a r p ju d g e s o f e a c h o t h e r * s w o rk , lo o k ­ in g s u s p i c i o u s l y f o r e v id e n c e o f s u p p r e s s io v e r i o r s u g g e s tio f a l s i . Has v a l i d d a t a , dam aging t o th e w r i t e r ’ s t h e s i s , b e e n o m itte d ? Has q u e s t i o n ­ a b le m a t e r i a l b e e n a c c e p te d when i t b o l s t e r s t h a t th e s i s ?> Has th e s e l e c ­ t i o n and e x p o s i t i o n o f th e h i s t o r i a n b e e n c o lo r e d b y any o f t h e m y ria d e g o - b o l s t e r i n g p r e j u d i c e s w h ic h dog t h e s e e k e r f o r t r u t h s I s t h e c a r r i e r o f t h e memory o f t h e r a c e i n f e c t e d w ith p a r t y b i a s , n a t i o n a l b i a s , r a c i a l b i a s , r e l i g i o u s b i a s ? The h i s t o r i a n a s i n t e r p r e t e r o f e v e n ts i s l i m i t e d and h e ld i n c h e c k b y th e d i s c i p l i n e o f h i s c r a f t . H i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts an d p e rs o n a g e s w h ich a r e th e s u b j e c t s o f w ide d is a g r e e m e n ts among a b l e h i s t o r i a n s t h e r e f o r e p o s e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y i n ­ t e r e s t i n g p ro b le m s . A s tu d y o f t h e ’’f a c t s ” and o f th e v a r i o u s d e p a r­ t u r e s from th o s e f a c t s p r o v id e s v a l u a b l e t r a i n i n g i n t h e m eth o d s o f h i s ­ t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h a n d e x p o s i t i o n . T h is s tu d y i s a s u rv e y o f c o m p a ra tiv e h i s t o r i c a l e v a l u a t i o n s on a c o n t e n t i o u s p e r i o d an d p e rs o n a g e i n U n ite d S t a t e s h i s t o r y . I t w i l l , i t i s h o p e d , th ro w some l i g h t u p o n t h e d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s in v o lv e d i n a n y a tte m p t t o p r e s e n t th e t r u t h i n h i s t o r y an d p e r ­ h a p s m ark o u t some f o r c e s w h ic h d i s a b l e th e h i s t o r i a n i n h i s a tte m p t t o r e c a p t u r e t h e p a s t i n m e a n in g fu l fo rm . Jam es Knox P o lk , e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , h a s 4

h a d a n e x h i l a r a t i n g c a r e e r i n A m erican h i s t o r y . H is s t a r t i n g p o i n t , i n t h e w ork o f Herman von H o ls t and H u b e rt Howe B a n c r o f t, was t h e ig n o ­ m in io u s , i n g l o r i o u s p o s i t i o n w here c o n te m p o ra ry p u b l ic o p in i o n , in fo rm ­ e d an d u n in fo rm e d , h ad d e p o s i t e d him .

8 "Who i s Jam es K. P o lk ? ,f was h e a r d on e v e r y s id e when t h e news o f h i s n o m in a tio n was te l e g r a p h e d fro m th e D e m o c ra tic C o n v e n tio n i n B a l t i ­ more on May 2 9 , 18UU* The announcem ent was g r e e t e d w ith a s to n is h m e n t t h e c o u n tr y o v e r l and t h e W higs to o k u p t h e b e w ild e r e d q u e ry a n d u s e d i t w i t h d e r i s i o n th ro u g h o u t t h e cam paign* P h i l i p H one, t h e Hew Y ork W hig, n o te d i n h i s d i a r y th e in c o n g r u ­ i t y o f “ru n n in g S i l a s W rig h t s u b o r d in a te t o Gen* J a c k s o n 's c h i e f cook and b o t t l e w a s h e r, Col* P o lk J " and q u o te d a L o co fo co a s s a y in g “t h e t i c k e t i s l i k e a k a n g a ro o — i t g o e s on i t s

h in d

l e g s * "2

A lth o u g h t h e D ark H o rse was n o t r e a l l y unknown i n p o l i t i c a l c i r ­ c l e s he c e r t a i n l y w a s n 't co m p arab le i n p u b l i c renow n t o h i s o p p o n e n t, H enry C la y . O ld Jo h n Q uincy Adams h ad s u rv e y e d him w i t h a c r i t i c a l eye when th e young T e n n e sse a n w as th e J a c k s o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 's l e a d e r i n t h e House an d p ro n o u n c e d him “j u s t q u a l i f i e d f o r a n e m in e n t C ounty C o u rt law y er* "3 Even P o l k 's s u p p o r t e r s a d m itte d t h a t he w a s n o t o f th e f i r s t r a n k a n d , e y e in g th e s w e e te r g ra p e t h e W higs w e re p a r a d in g , c o m p la in e d s o u r l y t h a t g r e a t men and dem o cracy w ere in c o m p a tib le .^ - And a f t e r th e d e f e a t o f t h e fam ous H enry C la y i n a g e n e r a l D e m o c ra tic v i c t o r y , R i t c h i e ,

1 J . B* M cM aster, H is t o r y o f t h e A m erican P e o p le , V I I , 358* McM a s te r madea r a t h e r th o ro u g h s tu d y o f c o n te m p o ra ry n e w sp a p e rs. 2 P h i l i p Hone, D ia r y (A lla n N e v in s , e d i t o r ) , I I , 705* W rig h t p ro m p tly d e c li n e d th e c a n d id a c y . 3 J.

Q.

Adams, D ia ry (N e v in s , e d i t o r ) ,

h E.

I.

McCormac, Jam es K. P o lk , 2i;9*

144-6

.

9 P o l k ’s j o u r n a l i s t i c m o u th p ie c e , c a l l e d h i s e l e c t i o n " a b o ld e x p e r im e n t ,”5 A f t e r f o u r e v e n t f u l y e a r s i n t h e Yi/hite House " L i t t l e Jimmy P o lk o f Duck R i v e r , ” a s G e n e ra l S c o t t c a l l e d him ,

6

h ad r e a p e d l i t t l e o r no

g l o r y f o r h i m s e l f w h ile h i s p o l i c i e s e l e v a t e d t h e man who s u c c e e d e d him* In d e e d , i n th e m id -te rm e l e c t i o n s , d u r in g a w ar w h ich was u n i v e r s a l l y s u c c e s s f u l and s u p p o rte d b y t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f th e p e o p le , t h e ad ­ m i n i s t r a t i o n l o s t c o n t r o l ' o f t h e C o n g re s s , c o n t r a r y t o a l l p r e c e d e n t an d p r e d i c t a b l e p o l i t i c a l b e h a v io u r* B e fo re he l e f t th e YYhite House h e a d e d f o r an u n tim e ly g ra v e t h e p o p u la r b ra n c h o f t h e C o n g re ss c a s t i ­ g a te d him f o r " u n n e c e s s a r i l y a n d u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y ” h a v in g s t a r t e d t h e M exican War7 an d a D em ocrat i n t h e S e n a te c o in e d t h e b i t t e r e p i t h e t "P o lk th e M e n d a c io u s," a s "a f i t t i n g a p p e l a t i o n i n , a f t e r t i m e s * " 8 Thomas H a rt B en to n p a id him a d o u b t f u l co m p lim en t b y a s s e r t i n g t h a t " a l l t h e f a u l t s o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w ere th e f a u l t s o f h i s c a b i n e t ^ a l l i t s m e r i t s w ere h i s own, i n d e f ia n c e o f th em . • • • H is own w i l l was n o t s tr o n g enough f o r h i s p o s iti o n * tt9

5 H. v o n H o l s t , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l an d P o l i t i c a l H i s t o r y o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , I I I , 28* 6

Q uoted b y A* H* B i l l , R e h e a r s a l f o r C o n f l i c t , 27•

7 C o n g r e s s io n a l G lob e, 3 0 th C o n g ., 1 s t* S e s s * , 95 ( J a n u a r y 3> 181*8). Amendment b y Ashmun o f M ass. t o m o tio n b y H o u sto n o f D e la w a re ; v o te — 8 5 t o 8 1 on t h e am endm ent. 8 I b i d *,- 912 ( J u l y 1 0 , 181*8). A le x a n d e r S te p h e n s o f G e o rg ia made t h e s ta te m e n t i n n o tin g t h e c h o ic e b e tw e e n b e l i e v i n g Gen. K e arn e y o r P r e s i d e n t P o lk :; "Jam es K* P o lk — a man whom none c o u ld b e l i e v e . "

9 T. H* B e n to n , T h i r t y T e a r s ’ View, I I , 737*

10 Thus Jam es K. P o lk a s h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s saw him ; and th e p o r ­ t r a i t draw n b y h i s t o r i a n s f o r h a l f a c e n t u r y a p p ro v e d an d r e - e n f o r c e d t h a t ju d g m e n t. But i n l89lj. Jam es S c h o u le r fo u n d t h a t P o lk h ad b een g r e a t l y u n d e r - r a t e d b y c o n te m p o r a r ie s . He w as one o f " th e b e s t o f a d ­ ministrators, "TO

he a s s e r t e d , an d e x p r e s s e d r e s p e c t f o r h i s i n f l e x i b l e

c h a r a c t e r and s a g a c i t y , re m a rk in g t h a t he l e d h i s c a b i n e t and h e l d them t o h i s p u rp o s e

P o l k ’ s h a n d lin g o f t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T exas and h i s

d ip lo m a c y w i t h M ex ico , h o w ev er, was a s d i s t a s t e f u l t o S c h o u le r a s i t h a d b e e n t o t h e New E n g la n d a b o l i t i o n i s t s . B ut w ith t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f J u s t i n S m ith ’ s " r e v i s i o n i s t " h i s t o r y o f t h e M exican War i n 1919 P o l k ’s d ip lo m a c y a n d f o r e i g n p o l i c y a c h ie v e d r e s p e c t a b i l i t y and he e x p e r ie n c e d an im m ed iate i n c r e a s e i n s t a t u r e .

12

The f i r s t f u l l b io g ra p h y o f t h e ' E le v e n th P r e s i d e n t a p p e a re d i n 1 9 2 2 . McCormae c o n c lu d e d t h a t s tu d y by a s s e r t i n g t h a t " th e p r e v io u s p a g e s h av e shown t h a t P o lk w as n e i t h e r a c o n s p i r a t o r n o r a w e a k lin g , b u t t h a t he was a c o n s t r u c t i v e s ta te s m a n , a n u n u s u a l l y a b le e x e c u t i v e , and a sou n d p a t r i o t . • • • [few ] h av e done more t o i n c r e a s e t h e pow er and p r e s t i g e o f t h e n a t i o n . "13

10 Jam es S c h o u le r , H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , ? , 1*98. 11 Jam es S c h o u le r , " P o l k 's D i a r y ," The A t l a n t i c M o n th ly , 7 6 :2 ij.l, A u g u st, 1895* 12 Not t o b e c o n fu s e d w ith t h e W orld War I r e v i s i o n i s t s who l a ­ b o re d t o shovf t h a t t h e l a t e enemy h a d h a d no m onopoly on d e v io u s d i p l o ­ m acy. S m ith ’ s w ork was a r e v i s i o n l i k e l y , a s he n o t e d , " to g r a t i f y pa­ t r i o t i c A m e ric a n s ." S m ith , War W ith M exico, I , i x . 13 McCormac, Jam es K. P o lk , 725*

11 A lla n N e v in s , w r i t i n g i n 192*7 > o b s e rv e d t h a t P o lk l e f t o f f i c e un­ d e r a " d is m a l c lo u d o f u n p o p u la r ity " an d s u f f e r e d i n r e p u t a t i o n fro m h i s t o r i a n s w hose " in k w e lls w ere f i l l e d w ith c o r r o s i v e a n t i - s l a v e r y p r e ­ ju d ic e *

’P o lk t h e M e n d a c io u s ,’ q u o th Yon H o l s t 1 A c t u a l l y , t h i s t r u t h f u l ,

h ig h m in d e d l e a d e r h a d w ie ld e d th e n a t i o n ’ s sw ord w ith h u m a n ity ; he h a d k e p t t h e n a t i o n a l t r e a s u r y f u l l , h a d a v o id e d w a rtim e c o r r u p t i o n , and • • • h a d c a r r i e d A m erican s o v e r e ig n ty t o th e s u n s e t o c e a n , o p e n in g i l ­ l i m i t a b l e new v i s t a s * * • *» 1 U I n 192*9, an e v e n c e n t u r y a f t e r P o l k ’s d e a th , a le a d i n g g ro u p o f A m erican h i s t o r i a n s h e ad e d b y A r th u r M. S c h l e s i n g e r r a t e d t h e P r e s i d e n t s i n o r d e r o f " g r e a t n e s s . " They p la c e d Jam es K. P o lk i n t h e "N ear G re a t" g ro u p a lo n g w ith T heodore R o o s e v e lt, C le v e la n d and Jo h n Adams an d above su c h "A verage" P r e s i d e n t s a s J . Q. Adams, Monroe and M ad iso n . 3-5 The r e ­ h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e E le v e n th P r e s i d e n t h a d a c h ie v e d so m e th in g l i k e a c a ­ dem ic f i n a l i t y * T h ere i s s t i l l w id e d is a g r e e m e n t on P o l k ’s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , how­ e v e r , an d th e v a r i a t i o n s i n ju d g m e n ts f o r t h e l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s h av e n o t b e e n th e p r o d u c t o f u n e q u a l know ledge o f th e d a t a w h ich re m a in s on h i s a c ti o n s * Some h i s t o r i a n s r e g i s t e r a v ig o r o u s d i s s e n t t o t h e r e v i s e d v ie w o f P o lk and f i n d i n t h e new s o u r c e m a t e r i a l a d d ed p r o o f o f t h e a c ­ c u ra c y o f th e ju d g m en t e x p r e s s e d b y h i s c o n te m p o ra ry c r i t i c s *

ll* A lla n N e v in s , O rd e a l o f t h e U n io n ,

I,

The i s s u e

229*

1$ A. M. S c h l e s i n g e r , "A Y a r d s t ic k f o r P r e s i d e n t s , " P a th s t o th e P r e s e n t , 97*

12 i s f a i r l y jo in e d * C h a p te r I I w i l l c o n s i s t o f an a c c o u n t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r o f P o lk w ith p rim a ry a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e p is o d e s i n h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w h ich h av e b e e n o f im p o rta n c e i n h i s e v a l u a t i o n b y h i s t o r i a n s . An a tte m p t w i l l be made t o p r e s e n t t h e s e c o n t e n t i o u s e v e n ts a s t h e y a p p e a re d ( 1 ) t o him­ s e l f an d ( 2 ) t o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , f r i e n d l y an d u n f r i e n d l y c o n te m p o r a r ie s . T h is p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t - p e r i o d i s o n ly i n t r o d u c t o r y t o t h e i n ­ v e s t i g a t i o n p r o p e r b u t i t a p p e a rs n e c e s s a r y t o p r e s e n t i t i n some de­ t a i l and a t c o n s id e r a b le l e n g t h t o make i n t e l l i g i b l e th e c r i t i c a l exam­ i n a t i o n s w h ich f o llo w . C h a p te rs I I I th r o u g h X c o n s t i t u t e t h e s u rv e y o f th e A m erican h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g on t h e P o lk A d m in is tr a tio n ; c h a p t e r s I I I th r o u g h VI w i l l c a r r y t h a t s u rv e y i n g e n e r a l c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r th ro u g h th e im­ p o r t a n t w ork b y J u s t i n S m ith an d E . I . MeCormac. I n th e f o llo w in g f o u r c h a p t e r s th e more r e c e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n s w i l l b e g ro u p e d i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l ju d g m e n ts on P o lk . C h a p te r XI w i l l c o n s i s t o f s u m m a riz a tio n , c r i t i c i s m an d e v a l u a t i o n .

CHAPTER I I

THE POLITICAL CAREER OF JAMES K. POLK Jam es Knox P o lk , th e e l d e s t o f t e n c h i l d r e n , was b o rn November 2 , 1795 i n M ecklenburg C o u n ty , N o rth C a ro lin a * H is f a t h e r was a f a r m e r an d i n 1806 t h e f a m ily moved t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f T en n essee* As a b o y James* h e a l t h w as p o o r and i t w as t h e r e f o r e d e te r m in e d t o e d u c a te him f o r a p r o f e s s io n * I n I8l5> he e n t e r e d th e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth C a r o li n a , g r a d u a tin g i n

1818

w ith f i r s t h o n o rs i n th e c l a s s i c s an d m a th e m atics*

He m ade a r e p u t a t i o n a s a young man o f d e te r m in e d a m b itio n who r e g a r d e d a s w a s te d a n y tim e t h a t was d e v o te d t o m ere p le a s u r e * He b e g an t o s tu d y la w i n t h e o f f i c e o f F e l i x G rundy i n N a s h v il l e in

1819

, was a d m itte d t o th e b a r th e n e x t y e a r and v e r y soon a c h ie v e d

a s a t i s f a c t o i y p r a c t i c e i n t h e boom ing s t a t e * The P o lk f a m ily to o k a k e e n i n t e r e s t i n p o l i t i c s , b e in g e n t h u -

'

s i & s t i c J e f f e r s o n i a n s , and i n 1823 Jam es was e l e c t e d t o th e p o s i t i o n o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f h i s c o u n ty i n t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e * He a t t r a c t e d no­ t i c e f o r h i s b u s in e s s c a p a c i t y a n d d e b a tin g s k i l l an d fo rm ed a n a t t a c h ­ m ent t o G e n e ra l J a c k s o n whom he h e lp e d t o se n d t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s Sen­ a te * ’’i Vhile i n th e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e , i n 1821}., P o lk m a r r ie d S a ra h C h i l d r e s s , a l a d y o f r e f in e m e n t an d a b i l i t y ( i n t h e sm ooth p h r a s e o lo g y o f th e t i m e ) ; sh e was o f a s s i s t a n c e t o P o lk i n h i s c a r e e r , w in n in g th e a d m ir a tio n o f many who w ere e x tr e m e ly c r i t i c a l o f h e r husband* I n 1825 P o lk m s c h o se n t o r e p r e s e n t h i s d i s t r i c t i n C o n g re ss;,

1

k

n o t q u i t e t h i r t y y e a r s o l d , he w as one o f th e y o u n g e s t members o f t h a t body* lie was r e - e l e c t e d c o n tin u o u s ly u n t i l

1839

when he r e s i g n e d t o r u n

f o r th e o f f i c e o f G overnor o f T en n essee* He b e g an h i s c o n g r e s s io n a l c a r e e r a s a n o p p o n e n t o f t h e adm in­ i s t r a t i o n i n p o w e r, a s s a i l i n g n o t o n ly t h e f e d e r a l i s t p ro g ram b u t a t t a c k ­ in g Adams f o r h i s " a u t o c r a t i c " u s e o f po?/er* Many o f h i s s t r i c t u r e s on th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n , su c h a s b i t t e r d e n u n c ia tio n o f pa­ tr o n a g e a p p o in tm e n ts and s c o r n a t t h e s u b s e r v ie n c y o f th e a s s o c i a t e s o f Adams i n t h e House w e re l a t e r com pared w it h h i s own b e h a v io u r when J a c k ­ so n was P r e s id e n t* H is s p e e c h e s an d a c t i o n s th ro u g h o u t h i s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r d e n o te a s t r i c t , a lm o s t f a n a t i c a l , p a r t y s p i r i t e x c e p t i o n a l e v e n i n a tim e o f h ig h p a r t y f e e l i n g * H is " s l a v i s h " s u b s e r v ie n c e t o J a c k s o n i s a t l e a s t i n p a r t e x p la i n e d by t h i s i n t e n s e p a r t y o r i e n t a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a s sim ­ p l e o p p o r t u n i s t b o o t l i c k i n g . D u rin g t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s i n p o l i t i c s P o lk was re m a rk a b ly c o n s i s t e n t i n h i s p o l i t i c a l v ie w s on th e p rim a ry i s s u e s o f t h a t p e rio d * H is s t r i c t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n i n m a t t e r s o f i n t e r n a l im p ro v em en ts; h i s a d v o ca c y o f a t a r i f f f o r " re v e n u e o n ly " ; h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o a U n ite d S t a t e s Bank o f an y k in d ; h i s b e l i e f i n t h e r i g h t n e s s a n d e x p e d ie n c y o f n a t i o n a l e x p a n s io n ; a n d h i s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t s l a v e r y was n o t a p r o p e r s u b j e c t f o r d i s c u s s i o n i n th e n a t i o n a l C o n g re ss w ere a l l p o s i t i o n s t h a t he assum ed d u r in g h i s f i r s t y e a r s i n W ashington* They w ere a l s o , o f c o u r s e , th e v ie w s o f th e d o m in a n t p o r t i o n o f h i s p a r ty * W ith t h e e l e c t i o n o f J a c k s o n i n 1828 P o l k !s r o l e became t h a t o f

is s u p p o r te r f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r ! and h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o J a c k s o n ’s p ro ­ gram w ere su ch t h a t he soon becam e J a c k s o n ’ s l i e u t e n a n t i n t h e H ouse. I n Decem ber o f 1833 P o lk became c h a irm a n o f t h e C om m ittee o f Ways an d Means and i n t h a t p o s i t i o n was more r e s p o n s i b l e th a n an y one e l s e i n t h e House f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l f i g h t a g a i n s t th e U n ite d S t a t e s B a n k .l P o lk ’ s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w , A. C. H ay es, w ro te t o him on t h e o c c a s io n o f h i s becom ing c h a irm a n o f t h i s im p o r ta n t c o m m itte e t h a t some o f h i s good f r i e n d s , w h ile p le a s e d b y h i s e l e v a t i o n , h ad some d o u b ts o f h i s a b i l i t y t o cope w ith t h e o p p o s i t i o n , t h e r e b e in g ’’g r e a t w e ig h t o f ta l- * e n t a g a i n s t y o u , ” on t h e Bank q u e s t i o n . 2 p 0l k n e v e r e n jo y e d an e x c e s s o f c o n fid e n c e from h i s c o lle a g u e s th o u g h h e g r a d u a l l y won t h e r e s p e c t o f f r i e n d and f o e f o r h i s co m petence an d in d u s tr y * T h ere was a b i t t e r c o n tr o v e r s y b etw ee n P o lk an d B e l l , a n o th e r D e m o c ra tic C ongressm an from T e n n e ss e e , f o r t h e S p e a k e r s h ip i n 183U* B e l l was th e v i c t o r on t h i s o c c a s io n b u t he soon a l i e n a t e d J a c k s o n by h i s s u p p o r t o f Ju d g e W h ite 's c a n d id a c y t o s u c c e e d J a c k s o n a s P r e s i d e n t $ J a c k s o n h a d s e t t l e d on Van B uren a s h e i r - a p p a r e n t . When C o n g re ss co n ­ v e n e d i n D ecem ber o f 1835 P o lk was e l e c t e d S p e a k e r an d h e r e t a i n e d t h i s p o s i t i o n u n t i l he l e f t t h e C o n g re ss i n 1839# P o l k ’s p e r io d o f S p e a k e r s h ip was a s to rm y o n e . The c o n s c ie n c e of

Hew E n g lan d on t h e s u b j e c t o f s l a v e r y was c a u s in g many t o b e more

a g g r e s s iv e i n u r g in g t h e C o n g re ss t o c o n t a i n t h e s la v e i n t e r e s t s i n

1 McCormac, P o lk , 25,1*9* 2 I b i d . , k9i l e t t e r , H ayes t o P o lk , J a n . 1 0 , 183U*

16 e v e r y p o s s i b l e m anner and th e y fo u n d a spokesm an i n t h e v e n e r a b le e x ­ p r e s i d e n t , Jo h n Q uincy Adams. A c o n s t a n t f l o o d o f p e t i t i o n s w ere p r e ­ s e n te d , many o f them r e q u e s t i n g t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y i n t h e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia. A more s t r i n g e n t "gag r u l e " th a n h ad b e e n i n e f f e c t u n d e r B e l l was a d o p te d and a l l p e t i t i o n s d e a l i n g w it h s l a v e r y w ere im m e d ia te ­ l y t a b l e d w ith o u t e v e n r e f e r r i n g th em t o a c o m m itte e . P o lk w as h im s e lf a s la v e h o l d e r b u t h i s c o n d u c t a s c h a irm a n and i n t e r p r e t e r o f t h e r u l e s was r e l a t i v e l y u n b ia s e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e te s tim o n y o f some o f h i s op­ p o n e n ts . 3 Though a n u n p re c e d e n te d num ber o f a p p e a ls w ere ta k e n fro m h i s r u l i n g s he w a s a lm o s t alw ay s s u s t a i n e d b y t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e H ouse. On P o lk * s r e t i r e m e n t fro m o f f i c e i n 1 8 3 9 , h o w ev er, e x c e p tio n was ta k e n t o t h e c u sto m a ry r e s o l u t i o n o f th a n k s t o th e S p e a k e r f o r th e " a b l e , i m p a r t i a l and d i g n i f i e d m a n n e r," i n w h ic h h e h a d p r e s i d e d . P r e n t i s s o f M i s s i s s i p p i a s s e r t e d t h a t he c o u ld n o t a g r e e t h a t th e r e t i r i n g S p e a k e r h a d b e e n i m p a r t i a l — he c h a r g e d him w ith b e in g a t o o l o f P r e s i d e n t an d p a r t y . "A more p e r f e c t l y p a r t y S p e a k e r, " s a i d h e , "one who w o u ld b e more d is p o s e d t o b e n d t h e r u l e s o f t h e ^ o u s e t o m eet th e p u rp o s e s o f h i s own s i d e i n p o l i t i c s , n e v e r had p r e s s e d t h e s o f t and am ple c u s h io n s o f t h a t g o rg e o u s c h a i r . " B ut b y a m a j o r i t y o f 9h t o 57 th e v o te o f th a n k s was p a s s e d an d i n h i s f a r e w e l l s p e e c h P o lk to o k o c c a s io n t o e x p r e s s h i s g r a ~ t i t u d e an d a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h i s r e s o l u t i o n , " u n d e r t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s , n o t a m ere an d a m e a n in g le s s f o r m a l i t y . " ^

3 S ee Adams* com m ent, A p p le to n 1 s C y c lo p a e d ia o f A m erican B io ­ g ra p h y , V, 5 1 .

h C ong. G lo b e , 2 5 th C o n g ., 3 r d S e s s . , 2 5 0 -2 5 3 (M arch 3* 1839)*

17 P o lk waged a v ig o r o u s cam paign i n T e n n e sse e an d on A u g u st 1 , X 1839* was e l e c t e d G o v ern o r b y a m a j o r i t y o f t h r e e th o u s a n d v o t e s o v e r th e incum bent* G o vernor Cannon* The v i c t o r y was r e g a r d e d a s a p e r s o n a l one f o r P o lk s i n c e n01d H ic k o r y ’s ” s t a t e h ad b e e n Whig s i n c e t h e e l e c ­ t i o n o f 1836 when t h e y r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t Van B uren a s th e c h o ic e o f t h e D em ocrats* I t was w e l l known t h a t P o lk w as p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d i n n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s and d u rin g t h e cam paign f o r th e g o v e r n o r s h ip h i s o p p o n e n ts c h a r g e d t h a t h e in te n d e d t o r u n f o r t h e v i c e - p r e s i d e n c y w i t h Van B u ren an d t h u s h i s p r e s e n t c a n d id a c y was a f r a u d on t h e v o t e r s . Soon a f t e r t h e s t a t e S e n a te m et t h e y p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n n o m in a tin g Van B u ren a n d Polk* an d t h e D e m o c ra tic r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f T e n n e sse e i n C o n g re ss w orked t o g e t th e seco n d p l a c e on th e t i c k e t f o r t h e i r g o v e r n o r . B u t th e incum ­ b e n t v i c e p r e s i d e n t , C o lo n e l R ic h a r d M. Johnson* p ro v e d t o h ave a g r e a t d e a l o f s u p p o rt and th e m ost t h a t P o lk ! s f r i e n d s c o u ld a c c o m p lis h was t o p r e v e n t t h e n a t i o n a l c o n v e n tio n fro m m aking an y n o m in a tio n f o r v i c e p r e s i d e n t , l e a v i n g s e v e r a l c a n d id a te s i n t h e f i e l d * H ow ever, t h e W higs w i t h H a r r is o n and T y le r sw e p t i n t o o f f i c e , a g a in c a r r y i n g T e n n e s s e e . I n 181*1 P o lk was d e f e a te d f o r r e - e l e c t i o n a s g o v e r n o r , r e c e i v i n g / 3*000 l e s s v o t e s th a n a M ajo r J o n e s w ho, i n t h e i r d e b a te s on t h e stu m p , r e f u s e d t o m eet P o l k ’s s e r i o u s a rg u m e n ts and p le a s e d t h e p o p u la c e w i t h jo k e s and w i t t i c i s m s . A g a in i n 181*3 J o n e s d e f e a t e d P o lk , i n c r e a s i n g h i s m a jo rity to

1* , 0 0 0

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D u rin g t h e f o u r y e a r s t h a t P o lk was i n f o r c e d p o l i t i c a l r e t i r e m e n t h i s f r i e n d s h a d n o t c e a s e d t o w ork to w a rd s h i s n o m in a tio n f o r t h e v i c e

’

18 p r e s id e n c y i n lBlUu * E a r ly i n l81Ui. th e m ain t o p i c o f d i s c u s s i o n i n Dem­ o c r a t i c ra n k s was t h e c h o ic e f o r th e s e c o n d p la c e on t h e t i c k e t *

s in c e

i t a p p e a re d c e r t a i n t h a t Van B uren w o u ld b e n o m in a te d f o r p r e s i d e n t * C o lo n e l R ic h a r d M. Jo h n so n , Jam es K* P o lk and W illia m R. K ing w e re th e l e a d i n g c o n te n d e r s , w ith Jo h n so n a p p a r e n t l y i n t h e f r o n t * P o lk a r d e n t l y d e s i r e d t h e o f f i c e and a s k e d h i s f r i e n d s t o p u sh h i s c a n d id a c y * . F o llo w ­ in g t h e c o n v e n tio n th e c h a rg e was made b y B en to n and o t h e r s t h a t P o lk f s f r i e n d s had b e e n c o n s p ir in g s in c e e a r l y i n I 8 ijl4. t o th w a r t Van B u ren an d w in t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n f o r P o lk . Cave Jo h n so n and o t h e r T ennes­ s e e p a r t i s a n s d e n ie d t h i s b u t t h e c h a rg e g a in e d g e n e r a l c u rre n c y * T h e re w as i n d e e d , no q u e s t i o n b u t t h a t Van B u r e n 's c a n d id a c y was n o t v e r y p o p u la r i n t h e S o u th and a f t e r h i s l e t t e r o f A p r i l 2 0 , o p p o s­ in g im m e d ia te a n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s, t h e r e b e g a n t o d e v e lo p a c o n c e r te d movement t o p r e v e n t h i s n o m in a tio n . On A p r i l 23* w ith o u t know ledge o f Van B uren*s p o s i t i o n , P o lk r e p l i e d t o a l e t t e r r e q u e s t i n g h i s v ie w s on T exas i n w hich he a d v o c a te d

11im m ed iate

r e - a n n e x a t i o n , lf r e f e r r i n g t o t h e X

t r e a t y o f 1819 w i t h S p a in b y w h ic h a l l c la im s t o t e r r i t o r y w e st and s o u th o f t h e S a b in e h ad b e en g iv e n u p * 5 E x - P r e s id e n t J a c k s o n , l i v i n g o u t h i s l a s t y e a r s a t th e H e rm ita g e , h a d b e e n s u p p o r tin g Van B u ren b u t he now f e l t t h a t t h e D em o crats w o u ld h av e t o s e l e c t a c a n d id a te a b le and w i l l i n g t o b r in g T ex as i n t o t h e U n io n . On May 1 3 , I 8 I4I1., P o lk v i s i t e d J a c k s o n an d r e p o r t e d t o Cave J o h n so n t h a t ”0 1 d H ic k o ry *1 had g iv e n u p

£ McCormac, P o lk , 227* P o lk * s l e t t e r was p r i n t e d i n th e W ashingt o n G lo b e , May 6 , iT O u

19 Van B u ren an d u rg e d t h a t h e , P o lk , was t h e "m ost a v a i l a b l e man * " 6 I t i s n o t known how much i n f l u e n c e J a c k s o n e x e r t e d i n P o l k ’ s b e h a l f b u t i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t a m a j o r i t y o f t h e d e l e g a t e s w en t t o B a ltim o re on May 27 d e ­ te r m in e d t o d e f e a t Van B u ren * s b i d f o r t h e n o m in a tio n . T h is r e q u i r e d some m a n eu v e rin g s in c e a l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f th e d e ­ l e g a t e s h a d b e e n i n s t r u c t e d t o v o t e f o r th e New Y o rk e r b y s t a t e co n v en ­ t i o n s w h ic h h a d b e e n h e ld b e f o r e h i s a n ti- T e x a s l e t t e r w as p u b l i s h e d . H is o p p o n e n ts f i r s t s u c c e e d e d i n g e t t i n g a t w o - t h i r d s r u l e f o r n o m in a- / t i o n a d o p te d and t h e n , Van B u ren h a v in g f a i l e d t o r e c e i v e t h a t p e r c e n ­ ta g e on th e f i r s t b a l l o t , f e l t f r e e t o v o te f o r o t h e r c a n d id a te s * D ur­ in g th e f i r s t s e v e n b a l l o t s Van B u ren * s p l u r a l i t y s t e a d i l y d e c r e a s e d , C a s s , C a lh o u n , B uchanan a n d o t h e r f a v o r i t e so n s r e c e i v i n g t h e d e s e r t e r s * The c o n v e n tio n t h e n a d jo u r n e d f o r t h e n i g h t and P o lk ’ s f r i e n d s b e g a n t o w ork f o r h i s n o m in a tio n t h e n e x t d a y . P il lo w o f T e n n e sse e an d G eorge B a n c r o f t o f M a s s a c h u s s e ts e a c h c la im e d f i r s t h o n o rs f o r t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e f i r s t "D ark H o r s e ." On th e f i r s t b a l l o t t h e n e x t m o rn in g , th e e i g h t h b a l l o t o f t h e c o n v e n tio n , P o lk r e c e i v e d bh v o t e s and b e f o r e t h e n i n t h b a l l o t h ad b e e n c o m p le te d h i s n o m in a tio n w as made u n a n im o u s. S i l a s W rig h t o f New Y o rk , a c l o s e f r i e n d o f Van B u re n , was n o m in a te d f o r V ice P r e s i d e n t b u t d e c l i n e d , f e e l i n g i t w o u ld n o t b e c o n s i s t e n t w i th h i s f r i e n d s h i p f o r t h e d e f e a t e d c a n d id a te and G eorge D a lla s o f P e n n s y lv a n ia w as c h o s e n .

6

McCormac, P o lk , 232*

20 Jam es K* P o lk was t h e H r s t man t o r e c e i v e a p r e s i d e n t i a l n om ina t io n w ith o u t h a v in g b e e n p r e v i o u s l y p r o m in e n tly m e n tio n e d f o r t h a t o f ­ f i c e a n d , th o u g h he was n o t r e a l l y unknow n, a wave o f a s to n is h m e n t sw ep t t h e c o u n tr y . J o s e p h S to r e y w as " t h u n d e r s t r u c k , "7 an d B en to n , r e f e r r i n g t o i t a f e w 'y e a r s l a t e r i n h i s m em oirs a s s e r t e d t h a t " th e n o m in a tio n was a s u r p r i s e a n d a m a rv e l t o t h e c o u n tr y . . . . th e p o l i t i c a l h o r iz o n had an n o u n ced i t .

no v i s i b l e s i g n o n

"8

The W higs had p r e v i o u s l y n o m in a te d H en ry G la y , r e g a r d e d by f r i e n d and fo e a s one o f th e g r e a t men o f t h e ag e and h i s p a r t y c o n t i n u a l l y com pared him w ith th e " n o n - e n t i t y " s e l e c t e d b y t h e D em ocrats* The Dem­ o c r a t i c R eview d id n o t deny t h a t i n t h e p o p u la r m ind C la y w as r a t e d h ig h e r th a n P o lk b u t made t h e b e s t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n b y s a y i n g t h a t " o u r o p p o n e n ts a r e welcome t o a l l t h e i r p r i d e i n t h e i r c h i e f a s a

1g

r e a t man*

— we a r e c o n t e n t w ith o u rs a s a g o o d o n e , and g r e a t enough f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s ."9 The Whig o r a t o r s made i t c l e a r t h a t i n t h e i r o p in io n P o lk was n o t g r e a t e n o u g h . Tom C orw in o f Ohio h a d a r e g u l a r r o u t i n e i n h i s stum p s p e e c h e s :, he w ould a s k i n h i s d ra w lin g w a y , "an d who h av e th e y n o m in a te d ? Jam es K* P o lk o f T e n n e s s e e ? " T hen, p a u s in g an d t u r n i n g h i s h e a d s lo w ly fro m one s i d e o f t h e a u d ie n c e t o th e o t h e r , w it h an e x p r e s ­ s i o n o f c o m p le te a s to n is h m e n t, " A f te r t h a t , who i s s a f e ? "10

7 McCormac, P o lk , 2l±6. 8

Thomas H a r t B e n to n , T h i r t y Y e a r s 1 View, I I , $9k*

9 (Q uoted i n ) McCormac, P o lk , 25>0. 10 (Q u o te d in ) A r th u r S c h le s i n g e r J r . , Age o f J a c k s o n , k39»

/

21

A c l e v e r o p p o n e n t i n T e n n e sse e c h a r a c t e r i z e d P o lk a s "a b l i g h t e d b u r r t h a t h a s f a l l e n fro m th e mane o f t h e War H orse o f t h e H e rm ita g e . "11 The W higs t r i e d t o make th e e l e c t i o n t u r n on t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s

^

o f th e c a n d id a te s w h ile t h e D em o crats e m p h asiz ed t h e i r p l a t f o r m , " r e o c c u p a tio n " o f O regon and " r e - a n n e x a t i o n " 1 o f T e x a s. The f o rm e r o f t h e s e f o r m u la t io n s was m e re ly cam p aig n v e r b ia g e t o r e - e n f o r c e an d s t i m u l a t e e x p a n s i o n i s t b u m p tio u s n e s s . The l a t t e r im p lie d t h a t t h e L o u is ia n a P u r­ chase o f

1803

h ad i n c lu d e d t h a t t e r r i t o r y s o u th and -west t o t h e R io

G rande an d t h a t th e a r e a h a d b e e n u n w is e ly g iv e n up b y th e t r e a t y w ith S p a in i n 1819* C la y h ad e x p e c te d Van B u ren t o b e h i s o p p o n e n t an d h a d f e l t no h e s i t a t i o n i n p u b l i s h i n g a s ta te m e n t o p p o sin g t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s, ^ know ing t h a t Van B u re n f s p o s i t i o n w as e v e n more o p p o s e d . B ut when P o lk becam e t h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f a ra m b u n c tio u s ly e x p a n s i o n i s t D em ocracy an d p u b lic o p in io n , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e S o u th , seem ed t o f a v o r " m a n if e s t d e s ­ t i n y , " C la y d e c id e d t o h e d g e . D u rin g t h e cam p aig n he w r o te s e v e r a l l e t ­ t e r s in te n d e d t o a p p e a s e th e a n n e x a t i o n i s t s w ith o u t a l i e n a t i n g th e a n t i s l a v e r y e le m e n ts i n t h e N o rth . He a p p a r e n t l y f a i l e d i n e a c h d i r e c t i o n . The L i b e r t y P a r t y c a n d i d a t e , Jam es G. B im e y , f l a y e d him f o r h i s o p p o r­ tu n is m an d c a r r i e d enough v o t e s i n New Y ork t o th r o w t h a t s t a t e , and w i t h i t t h e e l e c t i o n , t o P o lk . P o l k 's e f f o r t t o s t r a d d l e a n u n c o m fo rta b le i s s u e w a s m ore s u c ­ c e s s f u l* P e n n s y lv a n ia w as n o rm a lly D e m o c ra tic b u t t h e r e w ere d o u b ts

11 (Q u o te d i n ) G eorge F o r t M ilto n , Eve o f C o n f l i c t , 28*

t h a t P o l k 'c o u l d c a r r y t h a t s t a t e i n v ie w o f th e s t r o n g s e n tim e n t t h e r e i n f a v o r o f a p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f an d P o l k ! s r e c o r d a g a i n s t p r o t e c t i o n * On J u n e 19 P o lk w ro te h i s fam ous “K ane 11 l e t t e r ,

s ta tin g h is p o s itio n a s

b e in g i n f a v o r o f a t a r i f f f o r re v e n u e p r i m a r i l y , th o u g h a t t h e sam e tim e one t h a t w o uld a f f o r d " r e a s o n a b le , i n c i d e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n t o o u r home

industries*

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A lth o u g h he m ade s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e i n t h e l e t t e r

t o h i s C o n g r e s s io n a l r e c o r d on t h e i s s u e h e w as c r i t i c i s e d th e n and l a ­ t e r f o r f a c i n g b o t h ways* Sim on C am eron, th e n a D e m o c ra tic l e a d e r i n P e n n s y lv a n ia , w r o te t o P o lk t h a t t h e y h a d s u c c e e d e d i n f i x i n g t h e b e ­ l i e f t h a t "you a r e a s good a t a r i f f man a s C la y , "13 and t h e y ev en u s e d th e c r y o f " P o lk , D a l l a s an d t h e T a r i f f o f 181*2* " I k The c a n d id a te o f c o u r s e made no e f f o r t t o u n d e c e iv e su c h s u p p o r t e r s . /

The c am p aig n had b eg u n a s a th r e e - w a y ra c e * T y l e r , d iso w n ed b y b y t h e Yi/higs, h ad p la c e d f e e l e r s w it h t h e D em o crats b u t f i n d i n g no r e ­ c e p t i o n t h e r e h e h a d d e te r m in e d t o r u n in d e p e n d e n tly . I t was by h i s a c ­ t i o n t h a t t h e T exas q u e s ti o n becam e t h e d o m in a n t i s s u e i n th e c am p aig n a n d h i s p a r t i s a n s h e l d a c o n v e n tio n i n B a ltim o re a n d n o m in a te d him w i t h t h e c r y " T y le r an d T e x a s !" The D em o crats im m e d ia te ly b e g a n t o u rg e T y l e r t o w ith d ra w a s he w ou ld draw h i s s u p p o rt a lm o s t e n t i r e l y fro m t h e i r ra n k s * F i n a l l y , on A u g u st 2 0 , he to o k h i m s e l f o u t o f th e r a c e , t e l l i n g J a c k s o n t h a t he h a d

12 McCormac, P o lk , 26 l* 13 I b i d . ,

278*

li* C a r l S c h u rz , H enry C la y , I I , 2 £ 8 .

23 b e e n p e rs u a d e d t o do s o b y a l e t t e r -which th e l a t t e r h a d w r it t e n * F . P . B l a i r , th e e d i t o r o f t h e G lo b e, t h e D e m o c ra tic o rg a n i n W ash in g to n , h ad e a r n e d T y le r * s b i t t e r e n m ity b y h i s sa v a g e a t t a c k s on h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and w hen P o lk d i s p l a c e d B l a i r a n d i n s t a l l e d R i t c h i e a s e d i t o r o f t h e p a r t y p a p e r , some sa w e v id e n c e o f th e consum m ation o f a d e a l* B en to n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t C a lh o u n , T y l e r *s l a s t S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , h a t e d B l a i r and a s s e r te d t h a t th e in fe re n c e i s i r r e s i s t i b l e , t h a t th e c o n s id e ra tio n o f re c e iv in g th e v o te o f S o u th C a r o l i n a , an d o f g e t t i n g Mr* T y l e r o u t o f t h e way o f M r. P o lk , w as t h e a g re e m e n t t o d i s p l a c e Mr* B l a i r a s g o v ern m en t e d i t o r i f he s h o u ld be e l e c t e d . V? The p o l i t i c a l t r e n d g e n e r a l l y p o i n t e d to w a rd a D e m o c ra tic v i c ­ t o r y b u t t h e p o p u la r v o te was f a i r l y c l o s e th o u g h i n t h e e l e c t o r a l c o l ­ le g e P o lk r e c e i v e d 1 7 0 , C la y o n ly 1 0 $ . The W higs to o k some c o n s o l a tio n i n c a r r y i n g P o l k ’ s own s t a t e o f T e n n e s s e e , an d e v e n th e p r e c i n c t s o f b o th P o lk an d J a c k s o n . B ut P o l k ’ s v i c t o r y i n P e n n s y lv a n ia and New Y ork, a d d ed t o h i s s o u th e r n sw eep, c a r r i e d t h e day* Jo h n Q u in cy Adams made a m e la n c h o ly e n t r y i n h i s d i a r y , November

8

, 181*1*j

I u n d e r s to o d t h e m eaning o f th e g uns f i r e d l a s t n i g h t on r e c e i p t o f th e e l e c t i o n r e t u r n s fro m t h e w e s te r n c o u n t i e s o f New Y ork. * . • They s e t t l e t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n , and Jam es K* P o lk o f T e n n e sse e i s t o b e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s f o r f o u r y e a r s fro m t h e l*th o f M arch, 181*5* What t h e f u r t h e r e v e n ts o f t h i s i s s u e may b e i s n o t c l e a r , b u t i t w i l l b e t h e s ig n a l f o r my r e t i r e m e n t fro m p u b l ic l i f e . I t i s th e v i c t o r y o f th e s l a v e r y e le m e n t i n th e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e ' U n ite d S t a t e s *1^ P r e s i d e n t T y le r r e g a r d e d P o l k ’ s v i c t o r y a s a m andate fro m t h e

15 B e n to n , T h i r t y Y e a rs ’ V iew , I I , 6 5 1 . 16 Adams, M em oirs, X I I , 1 0 3 .

2h p e o p le f o r t he a n n e x a tio n o f Texas, a n d he d e te r m in e d to make a n o t h e r e f ­ f o r t t o a c c o m p lis h i t d u r in g h i s t e r n . S in c e i t w as im p o s s ib le t o ob­ t a i n a t w o - t h i r d s m a j o r i t y i n t h e S e n a te t o a n n ex T exas by t r e a t y i t was d e c id e d t o a d m it T exas b y a s im p le m a j o r i t y v o te o f e a c h house* Even so t h e p r o - a n n e x a t i o n i s t s la c k e d s u f f i c i e n t v o t e s i n t h e S e n a te a n d t o s e c u r e a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t an amendment was a d d e d t o t h e b i l l w h ich p r o ­ v id e d t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t c o u ld , a t h i s d i s c r e t i o n , p ro c e e d b y n e g o t i a ­ t i o n w ith t h e R e p u b lic o f Texas an d i f m u tu a lly s a t i s f a c t o r y te rm s c o u ld be a r r a n g e d T exas s h o u ld be a d m itte d a s a s t a t e * The b i l l h a d o r i g i n a l l y s im p ly d i r e c t e d th e P r e s i d e n t t o a n n e x T exas w i t h t h e i r c o n s e n t. T h ere was l i t t l e

enough d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s b u t i t

s u ffic e d

t o e n l i s t t h e s u p p o r t o f f i v e s e n a t o r s , and th u s p a s s th e b i l l , a f t e r t h e y w e re p e rs u a d e d t h a t t he e x e c u tiv e w o u ld c h o o se t h e m ethod p r o v id e d by th e amendment* I t was assum ed t h a t t h e in co m in g P r e s i d e n t w o u ld make t h e c h o ic e s i n c e T y l e r 1 s te r m h ad o n ly a few d a y s t o r u n l7 an d a c c o rd ­ in g t o B en to n a n d o t h e r s P o lk p le d g e d h im s e lf t o u s e t h e p ro c e d u re o f t h e amendment* To e v e r y o n e ! s s u r p r i s e , h o w e v er, T y le r a c t e d t o im p lem en t th e b i l l h i m s e l f , ig n o r e d t h e amendment a n d , on t h e l a s t d a y o f h i s incum ­ bency s e n t o f f a c o u rie r t o

in fo r m T exas t h a t o n ly h e r c o n s e n t w as n e ­

c e s s a r y t o become t h e tw e n t y - e i g h t h s t a t e * P o lk , who w as i n t h e c a p i t a l a t th e t i m e , was a p p ro a c h e d by C alh o u n t o a s c e r t a i n h i s v ie w s on th e

17 M cD u ffie, a c l o s e f r i e n d o f T y le r an d C a lh o u n , a s s e r t e d i n S e n a te t h a t T y le r w o u ld n o t have t h e ” a u d a c i t y ” t o make t h e im p o r ta n t d e c i s i o n an d a c t o n i t on th e e v e o f g iv in g up t h e e x e c u tiv e power* Me C orm ac, P o lk , 317*

25 a l t e r n a t i v e m ethods b u t h e r e f u s e d t o i n d i c a t e an y

position;1 8

a f t e r he

assum ed o f f i c e he c o n tin u e d w ith t h e m eth o d s e l e c t e d b y T y ler# N ear t h e end o f h i s te rm P o lk w as c h a r g e d w ith d e l i b e r a t e l y b r e a k in g h i s w ord i n t h i s m a t t e r ; he m ade no p u b l i c r e p l y b u t p r i v a t e l y d e n ie d h a v in g made an y s u c h p ro m is e . F . P . B l a i r an d S e n a to r Tappan o f O hio m a in ta in e d t h a t he h a d v e r b a l l y p le d g e d h im s e lf t o t h e amendment an d p u b l i s h e d b i t ­ t e r c r i t i c i s m o f h is c h a r a c te r .1 9 I n t a k i n g up P O lk 's A d m in is tr a tio n i t w o u ld b e w e ll t o c o n s i d e r , how ever b r i e f l y , t h e A m erican s o c i e t y some i f i f t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e fo u n d ­ in g o f th e r e p u b l i c , f o r no m an’ s a c t i o n s a r e i n t e l l i g i b l e u n l e s s t h e y a r e s e e n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s t a g e upon w h ich t h e y o ccu r* The d e c a d e W ith w h ich we a r e c o n c e rn e d h a s b e e n c a l l e d t h e ’’r o a r i n g f o r t i e s ”; i t was a p e r i o d d i s t i n c t i v e f o r i t s o p tim ism , i t s a s s e r t i v e p a t r i o t i s m , i t s r e l i g i o u s p r e t e n s i o n s an d i t s

’’f u n c t i o n a l ” m a n n e rs. C i t i z e n s o f th e

U n ite d S t a t e s had no d o u b t i n t h a t p o s t - J a c k s o n i a n e r a t h a t t h e C o n s ti­ t u t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c u lm in a tio n o f m an’ s a g e - lo n g s e a r c h f o r t h e i d e a l fo rm u la f o r s e lf - g o v e r n m e n t. They f e l t t h a t t h e h a n d o f God h o v e re d o v e r t h e R e p u b lic and t h a t t h e i r n a t i o n was d e s t i n e d t o e x te n d i t s b e n ­ e f i c e n t sw ay u n t i l u n t o l d m i l l i o n s s h o u ld r e a l i z e i t s b o u n t i f u l b l e s s i n g . God, th e y knew, e x p e c te d e v e r y A m erican t o do h i s d u ty — t o r u n w ith ’’m an ly v i g o r ” th e r a c e b e f o r e him . On M arch I4., I 8 i4.lt, Jam es K. P o lk s t e p -

18 G eorge L o c k h a rt

^ i v e s , U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico, I ,

6 9 I4..

19 B e n to n , w r i t i n g i n 1 8 5 6 , s a i d — ’’Thus was T exas i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o th e U nion — b y a d e c e p tio n and b y d e lu d in g f i v e . s e n a t o r s o u t o f th e ir v o t e s . I t was n o t a b a r r e n f r a u d , b u t one p r o l i f i c o f e v i l , an d p r e g n a n t w i t h b lo o d y f r u i t . ” ' T h i r t y Y e a r s 1 View, I I , 6 3 8 .

26 p e d i n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p o f t h a t e x p a n s iv e , a d o le s c e n t

society*20

I t seem ed t o Adams t h a t — t h e r e was a n u n u s u a l d e g re e o f p o m p o s ity p a ra d e d i n t h e in a u g u r a ­ t i o n o f Jam es Knox P o lk a s P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s b y t h e D em ocracy . . . . Mr* P o lk d e l i v e r e d h i s i n a u g u r a l a d d r e s s , h a l f a n h o u r lo n g , t o a l a r g e a sse m b la g e o f u m b r e lla s , f o r i t was r a i n ­ in g h a r d a l l t h e t i m e * 2 1 P o lk made a r a t h e r c o m p le te s ta te m e n t o f h i s v ie w s on f o r e i g n p o lic y * A f t e r a s s e r t i n g t h a t "T exas was once p a r t ' o f ' o u r C o n fe d e ra c y — w as u n w is e ly c e d e d away t o a f o r e i g n pow er — i s now in d e p e n d e n t" . he

*

c o n tin u e d : I r e g a r d th e q u e s ti o n o f a n n e x a tio n a s b e lo n g in g e x c l u s i v e l y t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s and T e x a s . • • • F o r e ig n pow ers do n o t seem t o ap ­ p r e c i a t e t h e t r u e c h a r a c t e r o f o u r G overnm ent. Our U nion i s a con­ f e d e r a t i o n o f in d e p e n d e n t S t a t e s , w h o se p o l i c y i s p e a c e w ith e a c h o t h e r a n d a l l t h e w orld* To e n la r g e i t s l i m i t s i s t o e x te n d t h e do­ m in io n o f p e a c e o v e r a d d i t i o n a l t e r r i t o r i e s an d i n c r e a s i n g m illio n s * The w o rld h a s n o th in g t o f e a r from m i l i t a r y a m b itio n i n o u r G overn— . m e n t. W hile t h e c h i e f m a g i s t r a t e an d t h e p o p u la r b r a n c h o f C o n g re ss a r e e l e c t e d f o r s h o r t te rm s b y t h e s u f f r a g e s o f th o s e m i l l i o n s who m ust i n t h e i r own p e r s o n s b e a r a l l t h e b u rd e n s and m i s e r i e s o f w a r , o u r G overnm ent c a n n o t b e o th e r w is e than- p a c i f i c * 2 2 P o lk e x p r e s s e d a b e l i e f t h a t t h e e x p a n s io n o f th e t e r r i t o r y o f th e U nion

y»

a s f e a s i b l e and p ro v e n b e n e f ic e n t* The o b j e c t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y

u rg e d h a d p ro v e n t o be n o t w e l l fo u n d e d . New s t a t e s h a d b e e n a d m itte d and new t e r r i t o r i e s c r e a t e d , a n d th e t i t l e o f num erous I n d ia n t r i b e s t o v a s t t r a c t s o f c o u n tr y h ave b e e n e x tin g u is h e d * * * • I t i s c o n f i d e n t l y b e l i e v e d t h a t o u r s y ste m may b e s a f e l y e x te n d e d t o t h e u tm o s t b o u n d s o f o u r t e r r i t o r i a l l i m i t s • •

•

•

21 22

s id e n ts , 23

23

Adams, M em oirs, Jam es III,

D*

178-9*

R ic h a r d s o n , e d i t o r , M essages an d P a p e rs o f t h e P r e ­

2230*

I b id .,

XII,

2230.

I n a n o r t h w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n t h e " u tm o st b o u n d s" a p p e a re d t o be t h e w e s te r n c o a s t o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a t

5

i|P 1*0 ' , an d d u r in g t h e cam p aig n

t h e D e m o c ra tic c r y h a d b e e n "5W *0 o r f i g h t ! " a r e c o u r s e t h a t a p p e a re d n o t u n l i k e l y g iv e n t h e p o w er, p r e s t i g e an d p r e v a i l i n g te m p e r o f th e B r i t i s h E m p ire . The D e m o c ra tic p la tf o r m h a d a s s e r t e d t h a t " o u r t i t l e t o a l l o f O regon i s c l e a r an d i n c o n t e s t a b l e " ^ so w hen, i n r e p e a t i n g t h i s p h r a s e i n h i s in a u g u r a l P o lk l e f t o u t t h e e x p a n s iv e a d j e c t i v e some a n x io u s n o r t h e r n e x p a n s i o n i s t s th o u g h t t h e y p e r c e iv e d a s o f t e n i n g i n th a t d ire c tio n . The P r e s i d e n t made some m e n tio n o f h i s v ie w s , " lo n g e n t e r t a i n e d , " on t h e s t r i c t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n an d a t a r i f f p r i m a r i l y f o r re v e n u e , q u o tin g fro m h i s Kane l e t t e r i n p a r t . He d e p lo r e d t h e abo­ l i t i o n i s t movement w ith o u t m e n tio n in g i t b y name an d c a l l e d f o r a r e ­ newed d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e com prom ises o f t h e P o u n d in g F a t h e r s . 25 Acknowl­ e d g in g t h a t he w as t h e y o u n g e s t o f a l l who had assum ed t h e "m ost h o n o r­ a b le an d r e s p o n s i b l e o f f i c e on e a r t h , " he c a l l e d on th e " A lm ig h ty R u le r o f t h e U n iv e rs e . . .

t o g u a rd t h i s H e a v e n -fa v o re d la n d a g a i n s t t h e

m i s c h ie f s w h ich w ith o u t H is g u id a n c e m ig h t

a r i s e . "26

The f i r s t t a s k t h e new P r e s i d e n t f a c e d w a s t h a t o f s e l e c t i n g a c a b i n e t . Some o f T y l e r ’ s a d v i s e r s hoped he w ould r e t a i n them b u t i n a n i n t e r v i e w w ith C a lh o u n , th e n S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , P o lk s t a t e d h i s i n t e n -

2h McCormac, P o lk , 5 6 3 . 25 R ic h a r d s o n , M essa g e s, I I I , 2 2 2 6 . 26 I b i d . , 2223.

28 t i o n o f h a v in g a n e n t i r e l y new c a b in e t* He o f f e r e d C alh o u n t h e p o s i t i o n o f m i n i s t e r t o G re a t B r i t a i n b u t he r e f u s e d i t *27 P o lk f i r s t te n d e r e d t h e p o s i t i o n o f S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e to S i l a s ? f r ig h t o f Mew Y ork i n a n e f f o r t t o c o n c i l i a t e th e Van B uren f a c t i o n b u t W rig h t r e f u s e d t h e o f f e r . A f t e r some h e s i t a t i o n P o lk t h e n s e l e c t e d Bu­ c h a n a n o f P e n n s y lv a n ia . He w as a p ro m in e n t f i g u r e i n D e m o c ra tic p o l i t i c s d u r in g t h a t p e r i o d an d i t was g e n e r a l l y assum ed d u r in g P o l k 's incum bency t h a t B uchanan w as t h e r e a l h e a d o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The e v id e n c e i n P o l k 's d i a r y , ho w ev er, s u p p o r te d b y l a t e r w r i t i n g s o f i n t i m a t e contem ­ p o r a r i e s , le a v e s no d o u b t t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t e x e r c i s e d f i r m c o n t r o l . The p i c t u r e o f B uchanan w h ic h one g e t s fro m P o l k 's d i a r y i s o f a t i m i d , s e l f s e e k in g an d v a c i l l a t i n g s t u f f e d - s h i r t . N e a rth e en d o f h i s te r m P o lk c h a r ­ a c t e r i z e d him w i t h c o n d e s c e n d in g f i n a l i t y a s "a n a b le m an, b u t . . . s m a ll m a t t e r s w ith o u t ju d g m en t and so m etim es a c t s l i k e a n o ld

m a id .

in ,f28

B o b e r t J . W alker o f M i s s i s s i p p i was made S e c r e t a r y o f t h e T r e a s ­ u r y . He w as a man o f c o n s id e r a b le a b i l i t y b u t d i s t r u s t e d b y many i n h i s own p a r t y b e c a u s e o f h i s s p e c u l a t i o n s i n T exas l a n d s c r i p t s a n d o t h e r d e v io u s f i n a n c i a l e n t e r p r i s e s #29 W illia m L . M arcy o f t h e H unker f a c t i o n o f New Y ork D em o crats became S e c r e t a r y o f W ar; a n o p p o n e n t o f Van B u re n , h i s s e l e c t i o n f u r t h e r e m b itte r e d t h a t g ro u p . G eorge B a n c r o f t o f M assa­ c h u s e t t s , a " re n e g a d e " D em ocrat i n a f a m ily an d s o c i e t y o f F e d e r a l i s t s ,

27 McCormac, P o lk , 289-90* 28 M ilo M ilto n Q u a if e , e d i t o r , The D ia ry o f Jam es K. P o lk , IV , 355* 29 J a c k s o n w a rn ed P o lk a g a i n s t him : McCormac, P o lk , 3 2 2 .

29 became S e c r e t a r y o f t h e Navy* He h a d e x p r e s s e d a p r e f e r e n c e f o r a d i p l o ­ m a tic m is s io n an d a f t e r s e r v in g a b o u t tw o y e a r s was s e n t t o

L o n d o n * 30

Jo h n Y* Mason o f V i r g i n i a becam e A tto r n e y G e n e ra l;, when B a n c r o f t w en t t o London Mason s h i f t e d t o th e N avy, t h e p o s t he had h e ld u n d e r T y l e r , b e ip g t h e o n ly one o f t h e C a b in e t t o have b e e n r e t a in e d * Cave Jo h n so n o f T e n n e s s e e , P o l k f s c l o s e s t f r i e n d , w as made P o s tm a s te r G e n e ra l* 3 1 P r e s i d e n t P o lk , w as im m e d ia te ly f a c e d w i t h a d ip lo m a tic r u p t u r e w i t h Mexico* T h a t g o v ern m en t h a d r e p e a t e d l y w arn ed t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t h h t t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T exas w ould be ta n ta m o u n t t o a d e c l a r a t i o n o f w ar and a s so o n a s t h e j o i n t r e s o l u t i o n h ad p a s s e d C o n g re ss A lm o n te, t h e M exican m i n i s t e r , a d d r e s s e d a l e t t e r t o C a lh o u n , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e a c t a s “a g g r e s s io n t h e m ost u n j u s t w h ic h c a n be fo u n d r e c o r d e d i n t h e an­ n a l s o f m odern h is to r y * ' *an d c l o s e d b y dem anding h i s p a s s p o r ts * B uchanan r e p l i e d t h a t w h ile P r e s i d e n t P o lk d e s i r e d t o c o n tin u e f r i e n d l y r e l a ­ t i o n s w i t h M exico, a n n e x a tio n o f T exas w as “i r r e v o c a b l y d e c id e d " so f a r a s th e U n ite d S t a t e s w as

concerned.32

A lm onte r e t u r n e d t o Mexico*

T h e re was some d o u b t a s t o w h e th e r T exas w o u ld a g re e t o th e

30 B a n c r o f t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e n a v a l academ y a t A n n a p o lis* he i s r e ­ membered p r i m a r i l y a s an h i s t o r i a n . He c o n c e n tr a te d on t h e p e r i o d o f t h e fo u n d in g o f t h e R e p u b lic a n d , t r u e man o f h i s tim e , h i s w ork i s th e c l a s s i c exam ple o f s p r e a d - e a g le p a t r i o t i s m i n A m erican h is to r io g r a p h y * 31 G ideon W e lle s , i n a l e t t e r t o Van B u re n , A p r i l 299 l 8 U£j to o k a d i s p i r i t e d v ie w o f t h e c a b i n e t . W e lle s s a i d he h a d no c o n fid e n c e i n a n y o f them an d y e t t h e y w ould h a v e m ore i n f l u e n c e t h a n an y p r e c e d in g one* “I t i s . . . a s o r t o f j o i n t S to c k Company i n w h ich t h e P r e s i d e n t i s b y no m eans t h e p r i n c i p a l p a r t n e r . " McCormac, P o lk , 32k* 32 Jo h n B a s s e t t M oore, e d i t o r , The W orks o f Jam es B uchanan, V I, 1 1 8 -1 2 0 . (B uchanan t o A lm o n te, M arch 1 0 , l81i£.

30 te rm s o f a n n e x a tio n a s p ro v id e d i n t h e j o i n t r e s o l u t i o n . The P r e s i d e n t , A nson J o n e s , w as c o o l t o t h e p r o j e c t an d w as e n d e a v o r in g , m ore o r l e s s s e c r e t l y t o o b t a i n a r e c o g n i t i o n o f in d e p e n d e n c e from M ex ico . And Gen­ e r a l Sam H o u sto n , h e ro o f t h e R e p u b lic , w as o p e n ly c r i t i c a l o f t h e “d ie t a t e d te r m s ,

11

a n d t h e v ague n a t u r e o f t h e n o r th w e s te r n b o u n d a iy .3 3

T h e re was a l s o a g r e a t d e a l o f a n x i e t y i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s co n ­ c e r n in g t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f G re a t B r i t a i n i n a tte m p tin g t o th w a r t a n n ex ­ a tio n * The B r i t i s h made a r e a l a tte m p t t o p e r s u a d e M exico t o r e c o g n iz e T exan in d e p e n d e n c e p r o v id e d t h e l a t t e r w ould p le d g e n o t t o j o i n a n o th e r pow er a n d w ere s u c c e s s f u l i n w r e s t in g s u c h a r e c o g n i t i o n fro m t h e Mex­ i c a n gov ern m en t i n M arch o f I 8 I4

b u t when t h e a g re e m e n t w as r e j e c t e d

b y t h e T exans t h e B r i t i s h made no e f f o r t t o i n t e r f e r e .

They h a d p r o ­

b a b ly n e v e r in te n d e d t o go f u r t h e r t h a n d ip lo m a tic m a n e u v e rin g b u t t h e p e o p le o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s w ere a r o u s e d a g a i n s t them b e c a u s e o f t h e O regon d i s p u t e an d t h e i r " i n t e r v e n t i o n ” i n T exas p ro d u c e d a . r a s h o f v i o ­ l e n t e d i t o r i a l s * 3b On Ju n e 1 6 , l81j.£, P r e s i d e n t J o n e s p la c e d b e f o r e th e T ex as Con­ g r e s s t h e A m erican j o i n t r e s o l u t i o n an d on t h e 1 8 th he s u b m itte d t h e te rm s o f c o n d i t i o n a l in d e p e n d e n c e w h ic h t h e B r i t i s h a g e n t , C h a r le s E l­ l i o t , had n e g o t i a t e d w i t h M exico. By unanim ous v o te t h e C o n g re ss o f t h e T exas R e p u b lic a g re e d t o a c c e p t t h e o f f e r o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d by a

33 J u s t i n H. S m ith , A n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s , U 37-8. 3l| S ee E phriam D. Adams', B r i t i s h I n t e r e s t s and A c t i v i t i e s i n T e x a s , 183S-18U 6, B a ltim o r e , 1 9 1 0 .

31 s i m i l a r v o te t h e y r e j e c t e d t h e t r e a t y w i t h M exico.3 5 The Texan go v ern m en t h ad r e q u e s te d a s s u r a n c e o f a i d fro m t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s s h o u ld M exico a t t a c k h e r w h ile n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r ^ a n n e x a tio n w e re p r o c e d i n g .. P o lk w ro te t o D o n e lso n , t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a g e n t i n Texas* u r g in g t h a t t h e Texan C o n g re ss s h o u ld , on t h e d a y o f m e e tin g , p a s s a g e n e r a l r e s o l u t i o n a c c e p tin g t h e U n ite d S t a t e s o f f e r . The moment th e y do s o , s a i d P o lk , T exas w ould b e d e fe n d e d a s an y o t h e r p a r t o f t h e U n io n . He g a v e D o n e lso n a u t h o r i t y t o c a l l upo n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s arm ed f o r c e s b e f o r e t h a t tim e i f n e c e s s a r y a n d c o n c lu d e d — "Of c o u r s e I w o u ld m a i n - ' t a i n t h e Texan t i t l e

t o t h e e x t e n t w h ich sh e c la im s i t t o be and n o t

p e r m it an in v a d in g arm y t o occu p y a f o o t o f t h e s o i l e a s t o f th e R io G r a n d e ."36 On Ju n e 28 D o n e lso n w ro te t o G e n e ra l Z a c h a ry T a y lo r t h a t a l l t h e e x i s t i n g b ra n c h e s o f t h e Texan governm ent h ad a s s e n t e d t o a n n e x a tio n a n d t h a t t h e c o n v e n tio n w o u ld do so on t h e f o u r t h o f J u l y . He a d v is e d T a y lo r t o m o v e -h is t r o o p s fro m New O rle a n s d i r e c t l y t o C orpus C h r i s t i , " th e m ost w e s te r n p o i n t now o c c u p ie d b y T e x a s ," a d d in g t h a t t h e o c c u p a tio n o f t h e c o u n tr y b e tw ee n t h e N ueces and t h e R io G ra n d e, you a r e aw are, i s a d is p u t e d q u e s t i o n . T ex as h o ld s C o rp u s C h r i s t i , M exico, S a n tia g o , n e a r t h e m outh o f t h e R io G ra n d e .37 M exico c o n s id e r e d t h e o c c u p a tio n by t h e U n ite d S t a t e s o f a n y p a r t o f th e "D ep artm en t o f T e x a s" a " d is p u t e d q u e s t i o n , " and i t i s im p o s s ib le

3$ McCormac, P o lk , 3 6 8 . 36 I b i d . , 363- I t a l i c s i n McCormac q u o t a t i o n . 37 I b i d . , 3 6 4 . From &ouse E x e c u tiv e D ocum ent, 6 0 , 3 0 th C o n g ., 1 s t S e s s io n , U 00-80f>.

32 t o u n d e r s ta n d t h e d ip lo m a tic and m i l i t a r y m a n e u v e rin g s o f 18U5 an d I81j6 w ith o u t a know ledge o f t h e e a r l i e r h i s t o r y o f t h a t a r e a . W ilso n Shannon* th e l a s t A m erican m i n i s t e r t o M exico b e f o r e th e war* i n a h e a te d d e n u n c ia ti o n o f M exico f o r h e r r e f u s a l t o b e r e a l i s t i c a b o u t t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f t h e T ex as t e r r i t o r y t o l d t h e M exican g o v ern m en t t h a t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f T exas h ad b een a p rim a ry aim o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s f o r a s c o r e o f y e a r s .3 8

T h is o u t b u r s t was a s u n d ip lo m a tic a s i t was

a c c u ra te . F o r many y e a r s a f t e r 1803 t h e U n ite d S t a t e s h ad a tte m p te d t o m a in ta in t h a t th e a r e a b e tw e e n t h e S a b in e an d t h e R io G rande w as a p a r t o f t h e L o u is ia n a P u rc h a s e t e r r i t o r y w h ich N ap o leo n h ad s o ld t o J e f f e r ­ s o n ’ s envoys f o r $3*000*000. B ut b y t h e F l o r i d a t r e a t y o f 1819 t h e c la im was re n o u n c e d an d t h e S a b in e and t h e Red r i v e r s w ere s e l e c t e d a s m ark­ in g t h e s o u th w e s t b o u n d a ry o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . Jo h n Q u in cy Adams* Mon­ r o e ’ s s e c r e t a r y o f s t a t e * w a s a c c u s e d th e n an d l a t e r o f ’’u n w is e ly c e d in g away A m erican t e r r i t o r y ” b u t he a s s e r t e d t h a t h e h a d b e e n t h e l a s t o f t h e c a b i n e t t o a g re e t o t h e l i n e o f t h a t t r e a t y . W ith in a few m onths o f h i s t a k i n g o f f i c e a s P r e s id e n t* i n 182£* h e ta d h i s s e c r e t a r y o f s t a t e * H enry Clay* i n s t r u c t P o i n s e t t * t h e f i r s t A m erican m i n i s t e r t o t h e Re­ p u b l i c o f M exico, t o a tte m p t t o b u y p a r t o r a l l o f T e x a s . C la y s u g g e s te d t o P o i n s e t t t h a t h e u rg e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f th e s a le on t h e M exican go­ v e rn m e n t by c a l l i n g t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t w ould h ave th e e f f e c t o f p l a c i n g t h e C i t y o f M exico n e a r e r t h e c e n t e r o f i t s t e r r i -

38

G eorge L . R iv es* The U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico* I* 667*

33 t o r i e s . 39 The M exican gov ern m en t d i d n o t seem t o f i n d t h i s r e a s o n in g co n ­ v i n c i n g , I n d e e d , th e m ere o f f e r a p p e a re d t o t h a t g o v ern m en t t o b e i n ­ s u l t i n g and i t s r e p e t i t i o n a lm o s t y e a r l y th r o u g h t h e n e x t d e c a d e a r o u s e d t h e i r s u s p ic io n . The U n ite d S t a t e s was n o t f o r t u n a t e i n i t s m i n i s t e r s t o M exico i n t h e y e a r s p r e c e d in g th e w a r w i t h t h a t c o u n tr y . P o i n s e t t was a c a ­ p a b le an d d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e b u t he c o n c e iv e d i t t o b e h i s d u ty t o a i d th e M exican p e o p le i n s e c u r in g more r e s p o n s i b l e g o v ern m en t an d h e w a s so o n d e e p ly in v o lv e d i n t h e s t r u g g l e b e tw e e n t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e c l e r i c a l f a c t i o n a n d t h e more r a d i c a l r e v o l u t i o n i s t s . He e s t a b l i s h e d t h e Y ork r i t e M asons t h e r e i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e S c o t t i s h r i t e g ro u p an d became in v o lv e d w i t h t h e fo rm e r i n a l l t h e i r i n t r i g u e s . Even h i s “a s s o ­ c i a t e s 11 t u r n e d a g a i n s t him a t t h e l a s t . Heirade n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t p r o ­ g r e s s to w a rd s s e c u r in g a b o u n d a ry “b e tw e e n t h e N ueces an d t h e R io G ra n d e ," f o r f i v e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , i n a c c o rd a n c e w it h h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s , and on D ecem ber 1 9 , 1 8 2 9 , J a c k s o n ’s good f r i e n d A nthony B u t l e r a r r i v e d t o r e ­ p la c e him , B u t l e r had f i n a n c i a l i n t e r e s t s i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f T exas b y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d was c e r t a i n t h a t he w o u ld s u c c e e d w h ere P o i n s e t t h a d f a i l e d . When t h e u s u a l m eth o d s o f d ip lo m a c y p ro v e d i n e f f e c t u a l he u rg e d on h i s c h i e f t h e u s e o f a few m i l l i o n s t o “sm ooth t h e n e g o t i a ­ t i o n s . " J a c k s o n ’ s r e a c t i o n w as a h a s t y s c r i b b l e on t h e b a c k o f B u t l e r ’s d i s p a t c h — "A. B u t l e r , What a sca m p i"iO J a c k s o n d i d n ’t r e c a l l h i s m in -

39 S . E . M o riso n an d H. S . Coramager, G row th o f A m erican R e p u b lic , I , U76. I4.O R iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s an d M ex ico , I , 2

3k i s t e r , how ever* an d B u t l e r k e p t up h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y d ip lo m a c y th r o u g h 1 8 3 5 . A t one tim e he b r i b e d a h ig h - r a n k in g p r e l a t e i n M exico C i t y t o in f l u e n c e t h e g overnm ent b u t a l l h i s e f f o r t s came t o n o t h i n g . I n t h e m eantim e o t h e r th a n d ip lo m a tic f o r c e s w ere a t w ork i n t h e n o r t h e r n M exican p r o v in c e . S te p h e n F . A u s t in had o b t a i n e d a c o n c e s s io n fro m I t u r b i d e , t h e i l l - f a t e d E m peror o f .th e new n a t i o n , t o c o lo n iz e two h u n d re d A m erican f a m i l i e s i n one o f t h e m o st f e r t i l e a r e a s o f Texas* I n 182U t h e M exican C o n g re ss g r a n t e d A u s tin t h e f u r t h e r p r i v i l e d g e o f c o l ­ o n iz in g s i x t y - s i x th o u s a n d a c r e s . By 1830 t h e r e w ere 2 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le t h e r e , s l a v e and f r e e , g r a d u a l l y gro w in g r e s t l e s s u n d e r th e c h a o t i c , r e v o lu ­ t i o n a r y m is -g o v e rn m e n t. The M exican g o v ern m en t h ad a t v a r i o u s tim e s p a s ­ s e d la w s d e c l a r i n g t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y th r o u g h o u t t h e R e p u b lic b u t s u c h la w s had re m a in e d i n o p e r a t i v e i n T e x a s. B ut t h i s a b o l i t i o n i s t a t ­ t i t u d e was a c o n s t a n t t h r e a t t o t h e i r " p r o p e r ty " a n d t h e r e w ere o t h e r p o i n t s o f f r i c t i o n ; t h e r e w ere c o n t i n u a l s q u a b b le s a b o u t t h e im m ig ra­ t i o n la w s and th e t a r i f f and t h e r a c e - c o n s c i o u s w h ite s r e s e n t e d t h e Mex­ i c a n arm y g a r r i s o n s i n t h e p o r t s . I n t h e e a r l y t h i r t i e s t h e p r o v in c e b e ­ came t h e r e f u g e o f a n a m b itio u s ty p e o f s w a s h b u c k le r fro m t h e U n ite d . S t a t e s who so o n assum ed t h e i e a d i n r e s e n t i n g t h e la w s o f t h e " f o r e i g n e r s . " When S a n ta Anna p ro c la im e d a c e n t r a l i s t c o n s t i t u t i o n i n 1835 ih e s e t t l e r s i n T exas e x p e l l e d t h e M exican g a r r i s o n an d e s t a b l i s h e d a p r o ­ v i s i o n a l g o v e rn m e n t. S a n ta Anna r u s h e d n o r t h w i t h 3>000 m en, c a p tu r e d t h e Alamo on M arch 6 , 1836 an d k i l l e d th o s e few T ex an s who h a d s u r v iv e d t h e a s s a u l t . He o r d e r e d some t h r e e h u n d re d o t h e r p r i s o n e r s s h o t down i n c o l d b lo o d and moved e a s t a n d n o r t h o v e r t h e r e b e l l i o u s p r o v i n c e . B ut on A p r i l 21 t h e T exans u n d e r Sam H o u sto n r o u t e d t h e M exican arm y, s la u g h ­

t e r i n g h u n d re d s and ta k in g t h e g e n e r a l c a p t i v e . M exico made no s e r i o u s s u b s e q u e n t a tte m p t t o re d u c e t h e p r o v in c e an d th e T exans a d o p te d a co n ­ s t i t u t i o n l e g a l i z i n g s l a v e r y ; th e y t h e n s e n t an en v o y t o W ash in g to n a s k ­ in g f o r a n n e x a tio n t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s o r r e c o g n i t i o n a s a n in d e p e n d e n t re p u b lic . D u rin g t h e m i l i t a r y p h a se o f t h e r e v o l t t h e M exican g o v ern m en t h ad p r o t e s t e d v i g o r o u s l y a g a i n s t t h e a i d b e in g g iv e n t h e r e b e l s b y U n i­ t e d S t a t e s c i t i z e n s . P r e s i d e n t J a c k s o n b a r e l y w en t th r o u g h t h e fo rm o f p u b l i c i s i n g t h e la w s o f n e u t r a l i t y b u t he made no r e a l e f f o r t t o en­ f o r c e th em . The U n ite d S t a t e s arm y u n d e r G e n e ra l G a in e s made a n i n c u r ­ s io n i n t o n o r t h e r n T exas d u r in g t h e r e v o l u t i o n , o s t e n s i b l y c h a s in g I n ­ d i a n s , o r s e a r c h in g f o r I n d ia n s t o c h a s e , b u t M exico p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h i s " in v a s io n .

J a c k s o n p a id l i t t l e

a t t e n t i o n t o s u c h p r o t e s t s and

on M arch 3* 1637* he e x te n d e d r e c o g n i t i o n t o t h e Lone S t a r R e p u b lic . T exas c o n tin u e d t o p r e s s f o r a n n e x a tio n an d t h e T ex as Q u e s tio n becam e a p rim a ry i s s u e i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s f o r th e n e x t d e c a d e . The S o u th o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f T ex as w o u ld , i f d iv id e d i n t o s e v e r a l s t a t e s , s e r v e t o m a in ta in a b a la n c e a g a i n s t t h e a r e a n o r t h o f t h e M is s o u r i Compromise l i n e w h ic h w as r a p i d l y b e in g s e t t l e d a n d was c e r t a i n t o come i n t o t h e U nion a s f r e e s t a t e s . C alh o u n to o k up t h e c a u s e a n d u r g e d T exas a n n e x a tio n w i t h e x tre m e s l a v e r y a rg u m e n ts . N o r th e r n e r s l i k e Adams u s e d C a lh o u n !s a rg u m e n ts a g a i n s t t h e a d m is s io n o f "an y s la v e

i l l See T. M a itla n d M a r s h a ll, The W e s te rn B o u n d ary o f t h e L o u i­ s i a n a P u r c h a s e , 170 f f .

36 s t a t e 0; hz an d th o u g h t h e a b o l i t i o n i s t s w ere a s m a ll an d u n p o p u la r s e c t i n th e n o r t h t h e y i n f l u e n c e d many more m o d e ra te men t o o p p o se t h i s e f ­ f o r t t o s t r e n g t h e n th e s l a v e pow er i n t h e Union* T ex as i n t h e m eanw h ile h ad r e c e i v e d r e c o g n i t i o n b y B r i t a i n and F ra n c e and Sam H ouston and o t h e r T exans b e g a n t o m anuever f o r a g u a ra n ­ t e e b y t h e s e pow ers a g a i n s t an y f u r t h e r a tte m p ts b y t h e M exican g o v e rn ­ m ent t o re c o n q u e r t h e p r o v in c e . T h is f r i g h t e n e d th e s l a v e s o u th w it h ' t h e s p e c t r e o f a c o u n tr y on t h e i r b o r d e r s w h ich w ould com pete w i t h them f o r th e c o t t o n m a rk e t i n E u rope an d t h e i r f e a r s w e re h e ig h te n e d when i t becam e known t h a t L o rd A b e rd e e n , t h e B r i t i s h P rim e M i n i s t e r , h a d a g re e d t o e x te n d a lo a n t o T ex as i f t h a t c o u n tr y w o u ld a b o l i s h s la v e r y .U 3 C alh o u n becam e T y le r * s s e c r e t a r y o f s t a t e a f t e r t h e d e a th o f Up­ s h u r i n 181+3 a n d he im m e d ia te ly o p en ed a cam p aig n t o s e c u r e t h e a n n ex ­ a t i o n o f T e x a s. B ut a n a c t p r o v id in g f o r a n n e x a tio n f a i l e d t o p a s s th e S e n a te i n t h e sum m er o f 18U5> a n d , a s we h av e s e e n , t h e q u e s t i o n became t h e p r im a ry i s s u e i n th e P r e s i d e n t i a l cam paign* * M ex ican -A m erican r e l a t i o n s w e re f u r t h e r i r r i t a t e d b y c la im s w h ic h t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , l i k e m ost n a t i o n s , h e ld a g a i n s t M exico f o r damage done t o t h e i r c i t i z e n ’ s p r o p e r t y o r p e rs o n s* A m ix ed c o m m issio n , p r e s id e d o v e r b y a P r u s s i a n , i n l 8 i t l vaw ard ed t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a b o u t one and a h a l f m i l l i o n d o l l a r s ; s i n c e t h a t tim e c la im s i n t h e am ount o f a n o th e r t h r e e m i l l i o n s h a d a c c u m u la te d . I n 181+3 a ./c o n v e n tio n p r o v id e d t h a t Mex-

hZ M o riso n an d Commager, G row th o f t h e A m erican R e p u b lic , I , 1^79. U3 I b i d . , I , 1+81.

37 i c o s h o u ld p a y t h e e n t i r e am ount w it h t h e a c c r u e d i n t e r e s t i n tw e n ty q u a r t e r l y i n s t a l l m e n t s * b u t a f t e r t h r e e p ay m en ts M exico c e a s e d r e m i t t i n g th o u g h s h e d id n o t r e p u d i a t e t h e d e b t. P r a n c e .h ad r e s o r t e d t o a bom bardm ent o f f V e ra C ruz i n 1839 t o f o r c e paym ent o f c la im s h e ld b y h e r n a t i o n a l s an d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s was c l o s e t o a s i m i l a r a c t s e v e r a l t i m e s . J a c k s o n d e c l a r e d i n a m essag e t o C o n g re ss on F e b r u a r y 6* 1837 t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w o u ld b e f u l l y j u s ­ t i f i e d i n ta k in g su c h m e a s u re s t o s e c u r e re d re ss .W iT h e re w ere a l s o ’’i n c i d e n t s ” t o c o m p lic a te r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e tw o g o v e rn m e n ts. One d a y i n 181;2 Commodore Thomas C a t e s ty J o n e s r a n h i s U n ite d S t a t e s f l a g s h i p i n t o M onterey* t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e M exican s t a t e o f A l t a C a l i f o r n i a * la n d e d h i s f o r c e an d r a n up t h e U n ite d S t a t e s f l a g . W ith in tw e n ty - f o u r h o u rs Thomas 0 . L a rk in * t h e U n ite d S t a t e s c o n s u l th e r e * p e rs u a d e d him t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico w ere s t i l l a t p e a c e and t h e Commodore to o k down h i s f l a g an d s a i l e d away a f t e r a p o l­ o g iz in g t o t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . The M exican g o v ern m en t c h o se t o con­ s i d e r t h i s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f a n u n f r i e n d l y a t t i t u d e an d A lm o n te, t h e Mex­ i c a n m i n i s t e r to W ashington* demanded t h a t an exam ple b e made o f J o n e s . B ut A lm onte was in fo rm e d t h a t J o n e s m ean t no i n d i g n i t y t o t h e M exican g o v ern m en t;, J o n e s w as p r i v a t e l y commended f o r h i s z e a l . W The T exan g overnm ent re o p e n e d t h e f i g h t i n g w i t h M exico b y a f a n -

ill; R iv es* U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico* I , 1;27* il£ J u s t i n H. S m ith , War W ith M exico* I , lj.23. C o rre sp o n d e n c e i n W illia m R. M anning* e d i t o r * D ip lo m a tic C o rre sp o n d e n c e o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s ^ I n te r - A m e r ic a n A f f a i r s * 1 8 3 I - I 8 6 O* V III* 5>2f>-5>Ii2.

38 t a s t i c e f f o r t , c o n c e iv e d by t h e s t a r r y - e y e d p r e s i d e n t M ira b ea u B. Lam ar, t o c o n q u e r th e p r o v in c e o f New M exico an d a d d i t t o t h e Lone S t a r Repub­ l i c . The arm y s e n t o u t on t h i s m is s io n r e a c h e d S a n te Fe i n a c o n d i t i o n o f c o l l a p s e an d t h e s u r v i v o r s w ere f o r t h w i t h s e n t t o M exico C i ty w here t h e y w ere im p r is o n e d . F o r s e v e r a l y e a r s t h e r e a f t e r t h e r e w ere r a i d s and c o u n te r -ra id s a c ro ss th e u n e s ta b lis h e d b o rd e r. T h is was t h e b a c k g ro u n d o f d i s l i k e an d s u s p i c i o n a n d a c c u m u la te d i s s u e s w h ic h P r e s i d e n t P o lk f a c e d when he assu m ed t h e o f f i c e on M arch li, 181|£. And a n y a tte m p t t o s e t t l e t h e o u t s ta n d in g i s s u e s b e tw e e n th e tw o c o u n t r i e s w as c o m p lic a te d b y t h e e x tre m e o f i n s t a b i l i t y e x h i b i t e d b y t h e M exican g o v e rn m e n t. P o lk im m e d ia te ly s e t a b o u t t o r e - e s t a b l i s h a d i p l o ­ m a tic r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith M exico p r e p a r a t o r y t o th e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e o u t ­ s ta n d in g i s s u e s : on t h e p a r t o f M exico t h e i n j u r y a s s e r t e d l y s u s t a i n e d b y h e r b e c a u s e o f t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f T exas an d on t h e p a r t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e c la im s an d a n a g re e m e n t on t h e new M ex ican U n ite d S t a t e s b o u n d a ry . On M arch 2 8 , 181*5, P o lk a p p o in te d W illia m S . P a r r o t , a d e n t i s t who had l i v e d f o r some y e a r s i n M exico and who h i m s e l f h ad a c la im a g a i n s t th e M exican g o v e rn m e n t, t o a s e m i - s e c r e t m is s io n t o M ex ico . He was i n s t r u c t e d t o a s c e r t a i n w h e th e r t h e M exican g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld r e c e i v e a U n ite d S t a t e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a c c r e d i t e d t o n e g o t i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e i s s u e s b e tw e e n t h e two c o u n t r i e s . F o r s e v e r a l m o n th s he was u n a b le t o o b t a i n a r e s p o n s i b l e com m ittm en t f rom t h e H e r r e r a g o v ern m en t a n d on J u l y 26 he e x p r e s s e d h i s e x a s p e r a t i o n i n a n o te t o B uchanan: fro m t h e lo n g a c q u a in ta n c e I have had w ith t h i s p e o p le I c a n n o t do

39 l e s s t h a n e x p r e s s my c o n v i c t i o n t h a t n o th in g b u t a s e v e r e c h a s t i s e ­ m ent w ould s e c u r e o u r p e o p le • • • [from} v e x a t i o u s a n n o y a n c e s an d in s u lts * U 6 A m onth l a t e r , h o w e v er, he was a b le t o w r i t e W ash in g to n t h a t t h e p r e s e n t c a b i n e t d e s i r e d t o s e t t l e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e two g o v e rn ­ m en ts b y n e g o t i a t i o n ; t h a t t h e r e w as a d e s i r e “e v en p u b l i c l y m a n i f e s t e d , t o r e c e i v e a c o m m issio n e r fro m t h e U n ite d S ta te s * ,f^.7 On November 9 P a r r o t t a r r i v e d i n W ash in g to n w i th a n o te fro m t h e M exican S e c r e t a r y o f F o r e ig n A f f a i r s e x p r e s s in g a w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c e p t a c o m g iissio n er* P o lk h ad a l r e a d y s t a r t e d t o a c t , h o w ev er, on t h e b a s i s o f th e e a r l i e r c o m m u n icatio n an d on November 10 he co m m issio n ed Jo h n S l i d e l l m i n i s t e r p l e n i p o t e n t i a r y t o M exico w ith c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c ­ ti o n s * S l i d e l l was t o s e c u r e t h e R io G rande l i n e as t h e b o u n d a ry b e ­ tw e e n T exas an d M exico, i n r e t u r n f o r w h ich t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w ould a s ­ sume t h e l i a b i l i t y f o r a l l c la im s w h ic h i t s c i t i z e n s h e l d a g a i n s t Mex­ ic o * S l i d e l l was a l s o t o a tte m p t t o p u rc h a s e New M exico f o r f i v e m il­ l i o n d o l l a r s an d i f he c o u ld s e c u r e C a l i f o r n i a money w o u ld be no o b j e c t ; t h e P r e s i d e n t s a i d he w ould b e w i l l i n g t o p a y f o r t y m i l l i o n s f o r i t th o u g h he s u p p o se d i t c o u ld b e h a d f o r l e s s * The m o d e ra te H e r r e r a g o v ern m en t t o w h ich S l i d e l l w as a c c r e d i t e d was u n d e r s t r o n g c r i t i c i s m fro m t h e m i l i t a r y e le m e n ts te m p o r a r i l y o u t o f pow er f o r “t r e a s o n a b l e ” b a r g a i n i n g w i t h th e U n ite d S ta te s * The g o v e rn ­ m ent t h e r e f o r e b e g g ed S l i d e l l , on h e a r in g t h a t h e h a d la n d e d a t V e ra C ru z ,

2|6 M anning, D ip lo m a tic C o rre s p o n d e n c e , V I I I , 7 ^ 2 . h7 I b i d * , 7W>-7* I t a l i c s b y P a r r o t .

ko t o d e la y h i s a p p ro a c h t o t h e c a p i t a l u n t i l t h e s i t u a t i o n h ad become m ore s t a b l e . S l i d e l l ig n o r e d t h e r e q u e s t an d p ro m p tly p r e s e n t e d h i s c r e ­ d e n t i a l s . A f t e r a few w eeks d e l a y S l i d e l l w as n o t i f i e d t h a t he c o u ld n o t b e r e o e iv e d b e c a u s e t h e M exican g o v ern m en t h a d s p e c i f i e d t h a t t h e y w ould r e c e i v e a c o m m issio n e r a u t h o r i z e d t o d i s c u s s t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s, n o t a r e g u l a r m i n i s t e r w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s t o n e g o t i a t e a l l o u t­ s ta n d i n g q u e s ti o n s b e tw e e n th e two c o u n t r i e s . S l i d e l l p r o t e s t e d t h a t t h i s was a n o u tr a g e o u s b r e a c h o f f a i t h . D u rin g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f D ecem ber G e n e ra l P a re d e s m arch ed on t h e c a p i t a l and by th e f i r s t o f J a n u a r y , 181*6, was i n c o n t r o l o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t. He had s e i z e d pow er on t h e g ro u n d s t h a t i t was n e c e s s a r y t o s a v e t h e h o n o r o f M exico b y d r i v i n g th e A m erican s o u t o f T ex as and S l i ­ d e l l h ad l i t t l e

hope o f r e a c h in g a n u n d e r s ta n d in g now, w h ere h e h ad f a i l ­

ed b e f o r e , b u t h e w ent th r o u g h t h e fo rm o f s e e k in g r e c o g n i t i o n i n r e ­ sp o n se t o d e f i n i t e o r d e r s fro m P o lk who w is h e d t o h av e th e r e f u s a l i n w ritin g . On M arch 12 t h e M exican g o v ern m en t r e p l i e d t o S l i d e l l ' s demand f o r r e c o g n i t i o n . They p r o t e s t e d a g a in s t* t h e m i l i t a r y m a n eu v e rs o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s i n s e n d in g t h e i r army i n t o t h e d i s p u te d a r e a s o u th o f th e N ueces and i n p a t r o l l i n g t h e n o r t h - e a s t c o a s t o f M exico w i t h t h e i r w ar­ s h i p s . They a s s e r t e d t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o r e c e i v e a c o m m issio n e r " c l o t h ­ e d w i t h s p e c i a l p o w ers t o t r e a t u p o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f T e x a s ," b u t r e f u s e d to a c c e p t S l i d e l l in h is c a p a c ity o f re g u la r m in is te r .M

1*8 M a n n in g , D i p l o m a t i c C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , V I I I , 818-823#

la . Such tr e a tm e n t p ro d u c e d a r e a c t i o n fro m S l i d e l l s i m i l a r t o P a r ­ r o t t * s o u t b u r s t . On M arch 15 he w ro te B uchanan some in f o r m a t io n and a d ­ v ic e : My D e ar S i r : I have b a r e l y tim e t o s a y , t h a t I h av e t h i s moment r e ­ c e iv e d my d e f i n i t i v e a n sw e r o f t h i s G overnm ent r e f u s i n g t o r e c e i v e me. I s h a l l im m e d ia te ly a p p ly a s i n s t r u c t e d f o r my p a s s p o r t s . . . • Be a s s u r e d t h a t n o th in g i s t o b e done w i t h t h e s e p e o p le u n t i l t h e y s h a l l h av e b e e n c h a s t i s e d . B e lie v e me v e r y f a i t h f u l l y a n d r e ­ s p e c t f u l l y , • • . ,b 9 More t h a n a m onth P o lk h ad o r d e r e d G e n e ra l

b e f o r e S l i d e l l h a d come

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R io G ra n d e . He a r r i v e d t h e r e on M arch 28 an d b e g a n b u i l d i n g f o r t i f i c a ­ t i o n s . The G e n e ra l m ounted h i s c an n o n so th e y b o re d i r e c t l y on th e p l a z a o f t h e M exican tow n o f M atam oros a c r o s s t h e r i v e r j ; " t h e i r o b j e c t , " r e ­ p o r t e d T a y lo r , " c a n n o t b e m is ta k e n t y t h e enem y. "50 I t w as now a p p a r e n t t o a l l o b s e r v e r s t h a t t h e r e w as im m in en t ' d a n g e r o f w ar and on A p r i l 18 C alh o u n c a l l e d on P o lk t o p r e s s on him t h e w isdom o f m a in ta in in g p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s w i t h M ex ico . P o lk r e c o r d e d h is r e p ly in h is d ia ry : I t o l d him t h a t S l i d e l l h a d , on b e in g r e j e c t e d a s M i n i s t e r o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , r e t u r n e d , an d t h a t o u r r e l a t i o n s w i t h M exico h ad r e a c h e d a p o i n t w here we c o u ld n o t s ta n d s t i l l b u t m u st a s s e r t o u r r i g h t s f i r m l y ; t h a t we m ust t r e a t a l l n a t i o n s w h e th e r w eak o r s tr o n g a l i k e , a n d t h a t I saw no a l t e r n a t i v e b u t s tr o n g m e a su re s to w a rd s M ex ico . M r. C alh o u n d e p r e c a te d w a r . . . .$ 1 On A p r i l 25 P o lk e x p r e s s e d t o h i s c a b i n e t h i s g ro w in g d e te r m in a -

h9 M anning, D ip lo m a tic C o rre s p o n d e n c e , V I I I , 823« 50 McCormac, P o lk , 1+11 • £1 D ia r y * I* 337*

h2

a t i o n t o t a k e " s t r o n g m e a s u re s ” a g a i n s t M exico. I e x p r e s s e d my o p in io n t h a t we m u st ta k e r e d r e s s f o r t h e i n j u r i e s done u s i n t o o u r own h a n d s , t h a t we h a d a tte m p te d t o c o n c i l i a t e M exico i n v a i n , and h a d f o r b o r n e u n t i l f o r b e a r a n c e was no l o n g e r e i t h e r a v i r t u e o r p a t r i o t i c ; an d t h a t i n n y o p in io n we mp.st t r e a t a l l n a t i o n s , w h e th e r g r e a t o r s m a l l, s t r o n g o r w eak , a l i k e , a n d t h a t we s h o u ld ta k e a b o ld an d f ir m c o u r s e to w a rd s M ex ico . On t h e 6 t h o f May t h e P r e s i d e n t n o te d t h e r e c e i p t o f d i s p a t c h e s fro m t h e army on t h e R io G rande d a te d t h e 15>th o f A p r i l a n d re m a rk e d t h a t "No a c t u a l c o l l i s i o n h ad t a k e n p l a c e , th o u g h t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s a r e t h a t h o s t i l i t i e s m ig h t t a k e p l a c e s o o n .”53 S l i d e l l , j u s t r e t u r n e d fro m M exico, saw P o lk on May 8 and u r g e d him t o a c t p r o m p tly . On S a tu r d a y m o rn in g , May 9* a t t h e r e g u l a r m e e tin g o f t h e c a b i n e t P o lk b r o u g h t up th e M exican q u e s tio n ;. A l l a g r e e d t h a t i f th e M ex ican f o r c e s a t M atam oros c o m m itte d a n y a c t o f h o s t i l i t y on G e n e ra l T a y l o r 's f o r c e s I s h o u ld im m e d ia te ly se n d a m e ssa g e t o C o n g re ss recom m ending a n im m e d ia te d e c l a r a t i o n o f w a r. I s t a t e d t o t h e C a b in e t t h a t up t o t h i s tim e , a s we knew, we h ad h e a r d o f no o pen a c t o f a g g r e s s io n b y t h e M exican arm y , b u t t h a t t h e d a n g e r was im m inen t t h a t s u c h a c t s w o u ld be c o m m itte d . I s a i d t h a t i n my o p in io n we h a d am ple c a u s e o f w a r , and t h a t i t was im­ p o s s i b l e t h a t we c o u ld s t a n d i n s t a t u quo, o r t h a t I c o u ld re m a in s i l e n t much l o n g e r ; t h a t I th o u g h t i t w as my d u ty t o s e n d a m essag e t o C o n g re ss v e r y so o n an d recommend d e f i n i t e m e a s u r e s . I t o l d th e m t h a t I th o u g h t i t was my d u ty t o make s u c h a m e ssa g e b y T u esd ay n e x t , t h a t t h e c o u n tr y w as e x c i t e d a n d im p a t i e n t on th e s u b j e c t , an d i f I f a i l e d t o do so I w o u ld n o t b e d o in g my d u ty . . . . Jp o lk t h e n a s k e d th e members o f t h e s h o u ld recommend a d e c l a r a t i o n o f w ar

c a b in e t in d iv id u a lly a g a i n s t M ex ico 3

i f he

A l l e x c e p t t h e S e c r e t a r y o f t h e Navy gave t h e i r a d v ic e i n th e a f f i r ­ m a tiv e . Mr. B a n c r o f t d i s s e n t e d b u t s a i d i f a n y a c t o f h o s t i l i t y s h o u ld b e c o m m itte d b y t h e M exican f o r c e s he. was t h e n i n f a v o u r o f

52 D ia r y , I , 351*. 53 I b i d . , I , 3 8 0 .

h3 im m e d ia te w a r. Mr. B uchanan s a i d he w o u ld f e e l b e t t e r s a t i s f i e d i n h i s c o u r s e i f t h e M exican f o r c e s s h o u ld commit a n y a c t o f h o s t i l i t y , 'b u t t h a t a s m a t t e r s s to o d we h a d am ple c a u s e o f w ar a g a i n s t M exico, an d he g a v e h i s a s s e n t t o t h e m e a s u re . I t was a g r e e d t h a t t h e mes­ s a g e s h o u ld b e p re p a re d .5 U P o lk had b eg u n t o p r e p a r e a m essage on A p r i l 25 recom m ending w ar on th e b a s i s o f S l i d e l l 1s r e j e c t i o n a n d t h e u n p a id c la im s an d h e now d e te r m in e d t o se n d i t t o C o n g re ss on t h e f o l l o w i n g T u e sd ay , May 1 2 . The n a t u r e o f t h e m essage w as c o n s i d e r a b l y a f f e c t e d — an d t h e a rg u m e n ta tio n d e c i s i v e l y a l t e r e d — b y a m essage w h ich P o lk r e c e i v e d fro m T a y lo r a b o u t 6 p . m. t h a t S a tu r d a y . The news fro m t h e f,f r o n t t, was c a l c u l a t e d t o make M r. B uchanan " f e e l b e t t e r " an d t o p e rs u a d e B a n c r o f t t o a p p ro v e o f th e w a r. An a c t o f h o s t i l i t y h a d b e e n c o m m itte d . G e n e ra l T a y lo r , a s n o te d a b o v e , h ad s t a r t e d b u i l d i n g a f o r t d i r e c t l y a c r o s s t h e R io G rande fro m M atam oros, w h ere a somewhat s m a l le r M exican arm y was s t a t i o n e d , an d was c o n s t r u c t i n g a n encampment n e a r e r th e m outh o f t h e r i v e r t o r e c e i v e s u p p l i e s b y s e a . On A p r i l 11 G e n e ra l Ampudia a r r i v e d i n M atam oro s, r e p l a c i n g G e n e ra l M e jia .and im m e d ia te ly o r d e r e d t h e A m erican g e n e r a l t o r e t i r e w i t h h i s tr o o p s b e y o n d t h e N ueces* T a y lo r r e p l i e d b y b l o c k a d i n g .t h e R io G ran d e, t h u s c u t t i n g o f f fo o d su p ­ p l i e s fro m M atam oros a n d f o r c i n g th e m , a s h e r e p o r t e d t o W a sh in g to n , e i t h e r t o r e t r e a t f a r t h e r s o u th i n t o M exico o r to a tte m p t t o d r i v e him away fro m t h e r i v e r , i&npudia p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h i s a c t o f w ar b u t Tay­ l o r r e p l i e d t h a t i t w as t h e l e a s t w a r - l i k e a c t he c o u ld t h i n k o f an d was i n f a c t a s im p le d e f e n s i v e m e a s u r e .55

5U D ia r y , I , 38U-5* 55 S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I , 11*8-50.

ItU On A p r i l 2l+th G e n e ra l A r i s t a a r r i v e d a t M atam oros b e a r in g o r d e r s from t h e M exican go v ern m en t t o a t t a c k t h e A m e ric an s who h a d in v a d e d t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f T a m a u lip a s . On t h e 2 5 th a d e ta c h m e n t o f M exican c a v a l r y c r o s s e d t h e r i v e r an d s u r p r i s e d a s c o u tin g p a r t y u n d e r C a p ta in T h o rn to n a t a M exican fa rm , k i l l i n g a fe w and c a p t u r i n g t h e r e s t . I t was T a y l o r 's r e p o r t o f t h i s s k ir m is h w i th t h e comment — " h o s t i l i t i e s may now be co n ­ s i d e r e d a s commenced" — w h ic h a r r i v e d i n W ash in g to n on May 9« P o lk im­ m e d ia te ly re c o n v e n e d h i s c a b i n e t and th e y w ere now "u n a n im o u sly o f t h e o p in io n " t h a t a m essag e s h o u ld b e s e n t t o C o n g re ss on Monday recommend­ in g v ig o r o u s m e a s u re s t o e n a b le t h e e x e c u t i v e t o p r o s e c u t e t h e w a r .£6 P o lk " k e p t" t h e S a b b a th v e r y s t r i c t l y a s a n a lm o s t i n f l e x i b l e r u l e 5 ? b u t he la b o r e d a l l d ay on h i s w ar m essage on S u n d ay , May 1 0 , ex ­ c e p t f o r t h e tw o h o u rs w h ic h h e s p e n t a t c h u r c h . B e fo re he r e t i r e d he n o te d w e a r i l y i n h i s d i a r y A t h a l f p a s t t e n o 'c l o c k t h e company l e f t and I r e t i r e d t o r e s t . I t was a d ay o f g r e a t a n x i e t y t o me, and I r e g r e t t e d t h e n e c e s s i t y w h ic h h a d e x i s t e d t o make i t n e c e s s a r y f o r me t o s p e n d t h e S a b b a th i n t h e m anner I h a v e .58 The m essag e was s e n t t o C o n g re ss a t noo n o f t h e n e x t d a y . I n t h a t m essag e t h e P r e s i d e n t re v ie w e d t h e h i s t o r y o f M ex ican -A m erican r e ­ l a t i o n s , d w e lt e s p e c i a l l y upon t h e i n j u r i e s t o U n ite d S t a t e s c i t i z e n s an d th e u n p a id c la i m s , c o m p la in e d o f M e x ic o 's r e f u s a l t o a c c e p t a m in is ­ t e r from t h i s c o u n tr y t o s e t t l e t h e o u ts ta n d in g p ro b le m s a n d th e n made

56 D ia r y , I , 3 8 6 . 57 See i b i d . , I , 38 ( S e p t. 2 1 , 181+5). 58 I b i d . , I , 3 8 9 -9 0 .

h$ a d e f e n s e o f t h e c la im o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t o t h e c o u n tr y b e tw e e n th e N ueces an d t h e R io G ran d e. He n o te d t h a t t h e C o n g re ss o f T ex as on De­ cem ber 1 9 , I

836

, had d e c l a r e d t h e l a t t e r r i v e r t o b e t h e b o u n d a ry l i n e .

He s a i d t h a t t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f T exas h a d b een 0e x te n d e d a n d e x e r c i s e d beyond th e N u e c e s ,” and t h a t w hen t h e a r e a was an n ex ed t o t h e U n ite d ¥

S t a t e s t h a t p o r t i o n o f Tex a s s o u th o f t h e N ueces h ad b e e n made a r e ­ v en u e d i s t r i c t . I t t h e r e f o r e b ecam e, he s a i d , ”p f u r g e n t n e c e s s i t y t o p r o v id e f o r t h e d e fe n s e o f t h a t p o r t i o n o f o u r c o u n t r y '.” Hence he h ad s e n t G e n e ra l T a y lo r t o t h e l e f t b a n k o f t h e R io G rande t o g u a rd a g a i n s t M exican a t t a c k . He th e n la u n c h e d i n t o h i s fam ous p e r o r a t i o n : : B ut now, a f t e r r e i t e r a t e d m e n a c e s, M exico h a s p a s s e d t h e b o u n d a ry o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , h a s in v a d e d o u r t e r r i t o r y an d s h e d A m erican b lo o d upon t h e A m erican s o i l . . . . As w a r e x i s t s , a n d , n o tw ith s t a n d in g a l l o u r e f f o r t s t o a v o id I t , e x i s t s b y t h e a c t o f M exico h e r s e l f , we a r e c a l l e d upon t y e v e r y con­ s i d e r a t i o n o f d u ty a n d p a t r i o t i s m t o v i n d i c a t e w i t h d e c i s i o n th e h o n o r, t h e r i g h t s , a n d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f o u r c o u n t r y . £9 %

W ash in g to n w as i n a h ig h p i t c h o f w ar e x c ite m e n t a n d b e f o r e t h e d a y w as o v e r t h e House v o te d t o d is p e n s e w it h t h e r e a d in g o f t h e s u p p o r t ­ in g docum ents an d p a s s e d a b i l l d e c l a r i n g t h a t rfw ar e x i s t s by a c t o f M e x ic o ,” b y a v o te o f 171; t o lU* I n t h e S e n a te , h o w e v er, e f f o r t s t o b r in g t h e b i l l t o a n im m e d ia te v o t e w ere u n s u c c e s s f u l due t o t h e oppo­ s i t i o n o f some n o r t h e r n Tftiigs an d D em o crats B en to n an d C a lh o u n . C alh o u n was f e a r f u l o f t h e r e s u l t s w h ich t h e w ar an d a prO babl© a c c e s s i o n o f )

t e r r i t o r y w huld h av e on t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e U nion an d h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s e n s i b i l i t i e s w ere w ounded b y t h e a tte m p t t o d e c l a r e t h e w ar a l r e a d y i n

5 9 R ic h a rd s o n , M e ssa g e s, I I I , ljij.0-U;2.

1*6 e x i s t e n c e : t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t o n ly t h e C o n g re ss s h o u ld h av e th e pow er t o d e c l a r e w ar* W hen .th e b i l l was b r o u g h t t o a v o t e , how­ e v e r , o n ly two v o te d a g a i n s t , th o u g h C alh o u n an d s e v e r a l o t h e r s a b s t a i n e d from v o tin g * P o lk s ig n e d th e w a r b i l l on W ednesday an d t h a t same d a y he r e ­ c o rd e d a d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e c a b i n e t m e e tin g w h ic h g iv e s f u r t h e r a m p li­ f i c a t i o n on t h e c a u s e s an d p u rp o s e s o f t h e w a r . B uchanan r e a d t h e d r a f t o f a d i s p a t c h w h ic h he h a d p r e p a r e d t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s m i n i s t e r s a t f o r e i g n c o u r t s , a n n o u n c in g t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f w ar a g a i n s t M exico an d in c lu d in g a s ta te m e n t o f t h e c a u s e s an d o b j e c t s o f t h e w a r. P o lk r e c o r d ­ e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n h i s d ia r y :. Among o t h e r t h i n g s M r. B uchanan h ad s t a t e d t h a t o u r o b j e c t w as n o t t o dism em ber M exico o r t o make c o n q u e s ts , an d t h a t t h e D e l N o rte £ i . e . t h e R io Grande) was t h e b o u n d a r y - to . w h ic h we c la im e d ; o r • r a t h e r t h a t i n g o in g t o w ar we d i d n o t do so w ith a v ie w t o a c q u ir e e i t h e r C a l i f o r n i a o r New M exico o r an y o t h e r p o r t i o n o f M exican t e r ­ r i t o r y . I t o l d Mr. B uchanan t h a t I th o u g h t s u c h -a d e c l a r a t i o n t o f o r e i g n g o v e rn m e n ts u n n e c e s s a r y an d im p r o p e r; t h a t t h e c a u s e s o f t h e w ar as s e t f o r t h i n my m essag e t o C o n g re ss an d th e accom panying d o c­ um ents w e re a l t o g e t h e r s a t i s f a c t o r y . I t o l d him t h a t th o u g h we h ad n o t gone t o w a r fo r c o n q u e s t, y e t i t was c l e a r t h a t i n m aking p e a c e we w o uld i f p r a c t i c a b l e o b t a i n C a l i f o r n i a an d s u c h o t h e r p o r t i o n o f t h e M exican t e r r i t o r y a s w o u ld b e s u f f i c i e n t t o in d e m n ify o u r c la im ­ a n t s on M exico, an d t o d e f r a y t h e e x p e n se o f t h e w ar 'w h ich t h a t pow er by h e r lo n g c o n tin u e d w rongs a n d i n j u r i e s h a d f o r c e d u s t o w ag e. I t o l d him i t was w e l l known t h a t t h e M exican G overnm ent h a d no o t h e r m eans o f in d e m n ify in g u s . . . . T hen, s a i d Mr. B u ch an an , y o u w i l l have w ar w i t h E n g la n d a s w e l l a s M ex ico , and p r o b a b ly w i t h F ra n c e a l s o , . . . . I t o l d him t h a t b e f o r e I w o u ld make t h e p le d g e w h ich he p ro p o s e d , I w o uld m eet th e w ar w h ic h e i t h e r E n g lan d o r F ra n c e o r a l l t h e pow ers o f C h riste n d o m m ig h t w ag e, an d t h a t I w o u ld s t a n d and f i g h t u n t i l t h e l a s t man among u s f e l l i n t h e c o n f l i c t . I t o l d him t h a t n e i t h e r a s a c i t i z e n n o r a s P r e s i d e n t w o u ld I p e r m it o r t o l e r a t e a n y in te r m e d d lin g o f a n y E u ro p ea n Pow ers on t h i s c o n t i n e n t . 60

60 D ia r y , I , 3 9 7 -8 .

hi B e fo re t a k i n g up P o l k 's c o n d u c t o f t h e w ar i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o exam ine some E u ro p ean " in te r m e d d lin g " w h ic h was th e n i n p r o g r e s s on t h e n o r th - w e s t c o a s t o f t h e A m erican c o n t i n e n t . The cam p aig n c r y o f " r e - a n n e x a tio n " o f T ex as h ad b e e n b a la n c e d w i t h t h e dem and f o r " r e - o c c u p a ti o n " o f O regon. The b o u n d a ry l i n e b e tw e e n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t e r r i t o r y an d t h e B r i t i s h p o s s e s s i o n s i n t h a t q u a r t e r h ad b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f much c o n tr o v e r s y f o r t h e d e c a d e p r e c e d in g . An a tte m p t t o s e t t l e t h e c d is p u te h a d f a i l e d and an a g re e m e n t h ad b e e n made f o r j o i n t o c c u p a tio n o f th e t e r r i t o r y f o r te n - y e a r s ,- s u b je c t to c a n c e lla tio n by e i t h e r p a r ty a f t e r one y e a r 's n o t i c e . On J u l y 1 2 , l8 i;5 , P o lk i n s t r u c t e d B uchanan t o o f f e r t h e l i n e o f

h9° t o t h e B r i t i s h m i n i s t e r , P o lk s a i d he f e l t c o n s t r a i n e d t o a c c e p t l e s s t h a n t h e D e m o c ra tic p l a t f o r m h a d dem anded b e c a u s e th e com prom ise o f f e r had b e e n t e n t a t i v e l y made b y t h e p r e v io u s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . When Pakenham p r e - e m p t o r i l y r e j e c t e d th e o f f e r w ith o u t c o n s u l t i n g h i s g o v e rn ­ m ent P o lk was a n g e r e d an d w i t h i n a m onth d e te rm in e d t o i n s i s t t h e r e a f t e r on $h° ItO '. The d e c i s i o n t o w ith d ra w t h e o f f e r o f 1*9° b r o u g h t a s h a r p e x c h a n g e ' b e tw ee n t h e P r e s i d e n t and h i s m ore tim id s e c r e t a r y o f s t a t e . I n th e c a b i n e t m e e tin g B uchanan r e f e r r e d t o t h e t r o u b l e w i t h M exico a n d s a i d i t w as n o t w is e t o t a k e a f i r m c o u r s e w i t h E n g la n d u n t i l i t w e re known i f t h e r e was t o . b e .w a r w ith M ex ico , The P r e s i d e n t s a i d he saw no n e c e s s a r y c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n t h e tw o q u e s t i o n s 5 t h a t t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e one w as n o t d e p e n d e n t on t h e o t h e r ; t h a t we s h o u ld do o u r d u ty to w a rd s b o th M exico an d G re a t B r i t a i n an d f i r m l y m a i n t a i n o u r r i g h t s , and l e a v e t h e r e s t t o God a n d t h e c o u n tr y . M r. B uchanan s a i d he t h o u g h t God w o u ld n o t have much t o do i n j u s t i f y i n g u s i n a w ar f o r th e c o u n tr y n o r t h o f ii 9 ° * ^ l

61 D ia r y , I , 5-6* A t t h i s tim e P o lk was r e f e r r i n g t o h i m s e l f i n th e t h i r d p e r s o n i n h i s d i a r y .

T h is e x ch an g e to o k p la c e i n l a t e A u g u st o f I8ii5» I n O c to b e r L o rd A b erd een t o l d t h e

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m i n i s t e r t h a t he r e g r e t t e d t h a t Pakenham h ad

r e j e c t e d t h e t e n d e r o f 1+9°; P o lk r e f u s e d t o ren ew t h e o f f e r . I n h i s o p in io n , t h e P r e s i d e n t t o l d a v i s i t o r , t h e ’’o n ly way t o t r e a t Jo h n B u l l was t o lo o k him s t r a i g h t i n t h e e y e , ”62 a n d on D ecem ber 2 h e s e n t a m es­ sa g e t o C o n g re ss a d v o c a tin g t h a t t h e one y e a r 's n o t i c e f o r t h e te r m in a ­ t i o n o f j o i n t o c c u p a tio n o f O regon b e g iv e n im m e d ia te ly * The p r o p o s a l g e n e r a te d a g r e a t d e a l o f h e a t i n C o n g re s s . Some s o u th e r n D em o crats a n d many n o r t h e r n W higs o p p o sed w h at t h e y c o n s id e r e d t o b e a r e c k l e s s f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h a t d i d n o t have t h e b e n e f i t o f f a c t s to su p p o rt it*

The o ld J a c k s o n ia n D e m o c ra t, Thomas B e n to n , made i t p l a i n

t o P o lk t h a t i n h i s o p in io n t h e A m erican c la im t o t e r r i t o r y n o r t h o f t h e C olum bia r i v e r w as v e r y te n u o u s an d n o r t h o f h9° a b s o l u t e l y u n t e n a b l e . B ut t h e n o r th w e s te r n D em o crats l e d b y D o u g la s and H annegan w axed a lm o s t i n c o h e r e n t a t w h a t t h e y c o n s id e r e d a b r a z e n a tte m p t o f some o f t h e i r f e l l o w D em o crats t o w e ls h on t h e i r p a r t o f t h e B a ltim o re p l a t f o r m . A f t e r m onths o f d e b a te , on A p r i l 23* 181+6, C o n g re ss a u t h o r i s e d P o lk t o g iv e E n g la n d n o t i c e . ^he U n ite d S t a t e s was so o n t h e r e a f t e r in v o lv e d w i t h M exico b u t t h e B r i t i s h gov ern m en t made no a tte m p t t o ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f t h a t f a c t an d i n e a r l y Ju n e made a d i r e c t o f f e r t o s e t t l e t h e c o n t r o v e r s y b y a com prom ise on 1*9° • P o lk was t h e r e b y p la c e d i n a d ile m n a . H is d i a r y r e ­ c o rd f o r t h i s p e r i o d m akes i t c l e a r t h a t he w o u ld b e h ap p y enough t o

62 I b i d . , 155- He w as s p e a k in g t o C ongressm an B la c k o f S o u th C a r o l i n a , J a n u a r y 7* 18A6.

s e t t l e f o r 1*9° a t t h i s tim e b u t he was aw are o f th e i n t e n s e f e e l i n g f o r " a l l o f O reg o n "; he a l s o knew t h a t h i s e a r l i e r s ta te m e n ts w o u ld be u s e d a g a i n s t h im . He e s c a p e d b y s u b m ittin g t h e B r i t i s h o f f e r t o th e S e n a te f o r t h e i r " a d v i c e ," r e f e r r i n g a s he d id so t o a s i m i l a r a c t i o n b y P r e s i d e n t W a sh in g to n . H annegan an d o t h e r n o r t h e r n e x p a n s i o n i s t s fo u g h t f i e r c e l y a g a i n s t t h i s " b e t r a y a l " b u t b y a v o te o f more th a n f o u r to one th e Sen­ a t e , on J u n e 1 5 , a d v is e d P o lk t o a c c e p t t h e co m p ro m ise. The P r e s i d e n t im m e d ia te ly f o llo w e d t h a t a d v ic e and w as th e n f r e e t o d e v o te h i s e n t i r e a t t e n t i o n t o th e M exican w a r.6 3 I t seem s f a i r l y c e r t a i n t h a t P o lk e x p e c te d t h e w ar w i t h M exico t o b e o f v e i y s h o r t d u r a t i o n , and he made c o n tin u o u s a n d p e r s i s t e n t a tte m p ts t o " c o n q u e r a p e a c e " w i t h a minimum o f f i g h t i n g . An a g e n t o f S a n ta A nna, th e d u r a b le s tr o n g man o f M ex ico , c a l l e d o n th e P r e s i d e n t on F e b r u a r y '13 a n d 16 o f 181*6, 'some t h r e e m onths b e f o r e t h e s t a r t o f th e w a r . T h is M r. A to c h a a s s e r t e d t h a t S a n ta An n a , t h e n i n e x i l e i n Cu­ b a , w as i n f a v o r o f a n a m i c a b l e s e t t l e m e n t w i t h t h e U n ite d S t a t e s b u t t h a t n e i t h e r he n o r an y o t h e r M exican c o u ld h o ld pow er lo n g en ough t o n e g o t i a t e one u n l e s s i t a p p e a re d t h a t t h e y w ere f o r c e d t o do so b y t h e show o f o v e r-p o w e rin g A m erican m i l i t a r y m ig h t. T h is m ig h t h ave h a d some i n f l u e n c e on P o l k 's s u b s e q u e n t c o n d u c t o f t h e p re -w a r d ip lo m a c y , f o r h i s d i a r y e n t r i e s show t h a t he was d e e p ly im p r e s s e d . 61*

63 F o r t h e C o n g r e s s io n a l d e b a t e s on O regon an d t h e r e s e n tm e n t o f t h e w e s te r n e x p a n s i o n i s t s , s e e : Cong. G lo b e , 2 9 th C o n g ., 1 s t . S e s s . , Ap­ p e n d ix , 1*5 fT (B e e . 3 0 , 181*5), an d 1168 f f (J u n e 1 0 , 181*6). 61* McCormac, P o lk , 3 9 8 . D ia r y , I , 222-5* 2 2 7 -3 0 .

50 Once in v o lv e d i n th e w a r P o lk d e te r m in e d t o h e lp S a n ta Anna r e ­ t u r n t o M exico i n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t h e?Y o u ld p ro v e c o o p e r a t i v e . On J u l y 5* P o l k ’ s a g e n tj A le x a n d e r S l i d e l l M a c k e n z ie , h ad a n a u d ie n c e w i t h S a n ta % m a i n H avanna. He t o l d th e e x i l e d "N ap o le o n ” t h a t P o lk w as d e ­ s i r o u s o f e n d in g th e h o s t i l i t i e s a s so o n a s an h o n o ra b le p e a c e c o u ld be made a n d , b e l i e v i n g S a n ta Anna was a b l e a n d w i l l i n g t o make s u c h a p e a c e , " th e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w o u ld s e e w i t h p l e a s u r e h i s r e s t o r a t i o n t o pow er i n M e x ic o ." M ack en zie made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e R io G rande ia u st b e t h e b o u n d a ry o f T ex as a n d t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s m ust hav e a t l e a s t enough o f C a l i f o r n i a t o g iv e them t h e b ay o f San F r a n c is c o * A c c o rd in g t o M a c k e n z ie ’ s r e p o r t , S a n ta A nna, a f t e r f i r s t a s s e r t i n g t h a t t h e N ueces was t h e r e a l b o u n d a ry o f T e x a s, a g r e e d t o s u c h a t r e a t y and v o l u n t e e r e d some a d v ic e on t h e m i l i t a r y m e a s u re s w h ic h T a y lo r s h o u ld ta k e t o e f f e c t u a l l y c o n t r o l t h e c o u n tr y . On May 13 S e c r e t a r y B a n c r o f t h ad i n s t r u c t e d Commodore C onner t o b lo c k a d e t h e G u lf p o r t s o f M exico b u t e n c lo s e d a " p r i v a t e and c o n f id e n ­ t i a l " o r d e r w h ic h r e a d : " I f S a n ta Anna e n d e a v o rs t o e n t e r th e M ex ican p o r t s , you w i l l a llo w him t o p a s s f r e e l y . "66 On A u g u st 8 , r e l y i n g on P o l k ’s a s s u r a n c e s , S a n ta Anna l e f t H avanna on b o a r d t h e B r i t i s h s h ip A ra b , and e i g h t d a y s l a t e r la n d e d a t V e ra C ru z , w hence he soon w e n t t o M exico C ity t o assum e t h e o f f i c e w h ic h h i s s u p p o r t e r s h ad k e p t o p en f o r him . He became t h e f i e r c e s t , m o st e n e r g e t i c an d c a p a b le fo e w h ic h th e

65

J e s s e S . R e e v e s , A m e r ic a n D ip lo m a c y u n d e r T y l e r a n d P o l k ,

299-307* 66 M cC orm ac, P o l k , U39*

51 U n ite d S t a t e s h a d i n M exico an d when P o l k 's p a r t i n h i s r e t u r n became known t h e P r e s i d e n t came i n f o r much c r i t i c i s m . The two h i g h e s t r a n k in g m i l i t a r y men, G e n e ra ls S c o t t an d T a y lo r , w ere b o th W higs, and th e h i s t o r y o f t h e M exican w ar on t h e t o p l e v e l i s a s t o r y o f c o n s t a n t d i s t r u s t b e tw e e n t h e C o m m a n d er-in -C h ie f an d h i s com­ m anders i n t h e f i e l d . On November li+, 181+6, P o lk t o l d h i s c a b i n e t h i s o p in io n o f G e n e ra l T a y lo r : I s t a t e d , w h a t a l l t h e C a b in e t knew , t h a t I h ad n e v e r s u f f e r e d p o l ­ i t i c s t o m in g le w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e w a r; t h a t I h a d p ro m o ted G e n e ra l T a y lo r and t r e a t e d him v e r y k i n d l y and g iv e n him my c o n f i ­ d e n ce a s c h i e f i n command o f th e arm y, b u t t h a t I w as c o m p e lle d to b e l i e v e t h a t h e h ad b e e n weak enough t o s u f f e r h im s e lf t o b e co n ­ t r o l l e d by p o l i t i c a l p a r t i s a n s .6? .• The G e n e r a l, on h i s s i d e , e v e n t u a l l y a r r i v e d a t a v i o l e n t d i s ­ l i k e o f P o lk . I n a l e t t e r t o h i s s o n - in - l a w , November 2 , 181+7 > h e s a i d he h a d r e c e iv e d a r e p o r t t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t h a d d ie d :

"W hile I r e g r e t

t o h e a r o f t h e d e a th o f a n y o n e , I w ould a s so o n have h e a r d o f h i s t

d e a th i f t r u e , a s t h a t o f an y o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e w h o le U n io n ."68 The P r e s i d e n t becam e ev en more e s t r a n g e d , i f t h a t w ere p o s s i b l e , fro m h i s o t h e r m i l i t a r y com m ander. P o lk h ad f i r s t t e n d e r e d S c o t t t h e c h i e f command b u t when t h e g e n e r a l a s s e r t e d t h a t i t w o u ld t a k e s e v e r a l m onths f o r him t o b e p r e p a r e d t o move t o th e f r o n t he m s s u m m a rily d e ­ m o te d . B ut w hen, s e v e r a l m o n th s l a t e r , t h e P r e s i d e n t d e c id e d t o f o ll o w S c o t t ' s reco m m en d atio n an d la u n c h a c am p aig n a t M exico C i t y fro m V era

6? D ia r y , I I , 236* 68 McCormac, P o lk , £32 ( T a y lo r t o Wood, Nov* 2 , 181*7).

52 C ruz he r e l u c t a n t l y gave S c o t t t h e command. When h e d i d s o , P o lk n o te d i n h i s d i a r y , S c o t t was so g r a t e f u l t h a t "he a lm o s t s h e d t e a r s . "69 I n p r e p a r in g t h e cam p aig n t h e P r e s i d e n t an d S c o t t m et d a i l y f o r a w eek o r so a n d S c o t t was c o m p le te ly won o v e r , a c c o r d in g t o h i s own a c c o u n t:; I n t h e s e i n t e r v i e w s e v e r y e x p r e s s i o n o f k in d n e s s an d c o n f id e n c e w ere l a v i s h e d u pon m e. Such was th e w arm th an d e m p h a sis o f h i s p r o f e s s i o n s , t h a t he f u l l y won my c o n f id e n c e . I g av e him a c o r d i a l r e c i p r o c a t i o n o f my p e r s o n a l sy m p ath y a n d r e g a r d * 70 S c o t t d i d n o t know t h a t th r o u g h t h i s same w eek P o lk was p la n n in g w ith some o f h i s C o n g r e s s io n a l l e a d e r s t o a s k C o n g re ss t o c r e a t e a ra n k o f L i e u t e n a n t - g e n e r a l t o w h ic h he c o u ld a p p o in t a man m ore i n sy m p ath y w i t h h i m s e l f , o f h i s own p a r t y , who w o u ld o u t - r a n k S c o t t f o r t h e cam­ p a ig n t h e n b e in g p r e p a r e d . Weeks l a t e r , when he was i n t h e a c t o f em­ b a r k in g a t New O rle a n s f o r V e ra C ruz S c o t t h e a r d o f t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e P r e s i d e n t s p l a n s . H is i n d i g n a t i o n was i n t e n s e . He c r i e d i n h i s M em oirs t h a t "A g r o s s e r a b u se o f human c o n f id e n c e i s now here r e c o r d e d . "71 The r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e tw o men s t e a d i l y w o rs e n e d a n d m ost o f t h e o f f i c e r s i n t h e f i e l d s i d e d w i t h G e n e ra l S c o t t . R o b e rt A n d e rso n , a c a p t a i n o f a r t i l l e r y w ro te h i s w if e — " I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e G o v t, a t W ash in g to n w ou ld do a n y h o n o ra b le t h i n g — may b e t h a t w ord i s to o s h o r t — t o p r e v e n t G e n l. S c o t t fro m c o n q u e rin g a p e a c e . "72 D u rin g t h e cam p aig n

69 D ia r y , I I , 2k$9 Nov. I P , 1 8 4 6 . 70 A lla n N e v in s , The D ia r y o f a P r e s i d e n t , n o t e , 1 7 1 -2 ( q u o ti n g fro m S c o t t , M emoirs W r itte n b y H im s e lf, I I , 3 9 9 -^ 0 0 ) . 71 I b i d . , 172 f f . 72 A n d e rso n , An A r t i l l e r y O f f i c e r i n t h e M exican W ar, l81i6-7* 57*

S3 S c o t t a r r e s t e d some o f P o lk ! s p o l i t i c a l a s s o c i a t e s who h a d b e e n made g e n e r a l s and so o n a f t e r M exico C it y was ta k e n t h e P r e s i d e n t rem oved ^ c o t t fro m h i s command# He had p e rfo rm e d h i s t a s k , s a i d R o b e rt E# L e e , and now w as " tu r n e d o u t a s a n o l d h o rs e t o d i e # ”73 The d e c i s i v e f i g h t i n g i n th e w ar w i t h M exico o c c u r r e d a t Mon­ t e r e y and Buena ^ i s t a a n d i n t h e V a lle y o f th e C i t y o f M exico b u t i n r e v ie w in g P o l k ! s c o n d u c t o f t h e w ar i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o b s e r v e a n o th e r t h e a t r e # The P r e s i d e n t , a s h a s b e e n n o te d , h a d a n i n t e n s e d e s i r e t o a c ­ q u i r e C a l i f o r n i a a n d lo n g b e f o r e t h e w ar b e g a n he a p p o in te d Thomas 0# L a r k in , t h e A m erican c o n s u l i n M o n terey , a c o n f i d e n t i a l a g e n t o f t h e P r e s i d e n t , a u t h o r i z e d t o e n c o u ra g e t h e C a l i f o r n i a n s t o r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e i r g o v e rn m e n t a n d r e l y upon t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t o p r o t e c t them# The U n ite d S t a t e s go v ern m en t a l s o s e n t a p a r t y o f arm y e n g i n e e r s u n d e r L t . Jo h n C* F rem o n t t o C a l i f o r n i a an d t h e s e men p la y e d a p ro m in e n t r o l e i n t h e s e i z u r e o f t h e p ro v in c e # A f t e r w ar h ad b e e n d e c l a r e d b e tw e e n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico, b u t b e f o r e new s o f i t re a c h e d C a l i f o r n i a , F rem o n t a id e d some a d v e n tu r o u s and d i s g r u n t l e d A m erican im m ig ra n ts i n a m o c k -h e ro ic p a g e a n t i n w h ic h th e y " c a p tu r e d " t h e d e f e n s e l e s s s e t t l e m e n t o f Sonoma an d p r o c la im e d a s o v e r e ig n r e p u b lic # They j a i l e d t h e b e w ild e r ­ ed c i t i z e n s an d l e c t u r e d them i n F o u r th o f J u l y s t y l e on t h e g l o r i e s o f A m erican l i b e r t y . T h is a lm o s t e n t i r e l y u n p ro v o k e d a g g r e s s i o n w e n t f a r to w a rd s u n i t i n g t h e C a l i f o r n i a n s a g a i n s t t h e A m erican s an d e m b i t t e r e d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s f o r d e c a d e s ; h a d t h e w ar n o t p r o v i d e n t i a l l y b eg u n when

73 S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I I , 188

Sk i t d i d t h e a c t w o uld h av e s to o d a s a n o t h e r g r ie v a n c e o f M exico a g a i n s t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and m ig h t w e l l h av e r e s u l t e d i n p r o lo n g e d f i g h t i n g b e tw e e n t h e A m erican im m ig ra n ts an d t h e n a t i v e C a l i f o r n i a n s * The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s b lu n d e r in g c o n s t i t u t e s a m a jo r co n ­ t r o v e r s y i n C a l i f o r n i a h i s t o r y . F rem o n t a s s e r t e d t h a t he had b e e n g iv e n v e r b a l in s tr u c tio n s by P o lk f s a g en t G ille s p ie to a c t d e c is iv e ly to f o r e ­ s t a l l t h e E n g l i s h . The a c t i o n he to o k , h o w ev er, r a n c o u n te r t o P o l k ’ s i n s t r u c t i o n s t o L a rk in w h ic h was c a l c u l a t e d t o a c q u i r e t h e p r o v in c e b y p e a c e f u l i n t r i g u e and i t w o u ld seem t h a t F rem o n t c a n n o t e s c a p e some r e ­ s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s i l l - a d v i s e d ’’c o n q u e s t. ”71* D u rin g t h e p r e - w a r ’’p e a c e f u l d ip lo m a c y ” p h a s e P o lk h a d i n s t r u c t e d th e P a c i f i c f l e e t t o t a k e o v e r t h e C a l i f o r n i a p o r t s , e s p e c i a l l y San F ra n ­ c i s c o , a s so o n a s t h e y r e c e i v e d w ord t h a t h o s t i l i t i e s h ad b e g u n , an d a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f w a r h e to o k s t e p s t o i n s u r e m i l i t a r y p o s s e s s io n * He in fo rm e d h i s c a b i n e t o f h i s p l a n s on May 3 0 th : I s t a t e d t h a t i f t h e w ar s h o u ld b e p r o t r a c t e d f o r a n y c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e , i t w ould i n my ju d g m e n t b e v e r y im p o r ta n t t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s s h o u ld h o ld m i l i t a r y p o s s e s s i o n o f C a l i f o r n i a a t t h e tim e p e a c e w as m ade, and I d e c l a r e d my p u rp o s e t o b e t o a c q u i r e f o r t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , C a l i f o r n i a , New M ex ico , a n d p e rh a p s some o t h e r s o f t h e N o r th e r n P r o v in c e s o f M exico w h en ev er a p e a c e w as made* I n Mr* S l i d e l l ’ s s e c r e t i n s t r u c t i o n s l a s t autum n t h e s e o b j e c t s w ere i n ­ c lu d e d . Now t h a t we w ere a t w ar t h e p r o s p e c t o f a c q u i r i n g th em was much b e t t e r , a n d t o s e c u r e t h a t o b j e c t m i l i t a r y p o s s e s s i o n s h o u l d . w i t h a s l i t t l e d e la y a s p o s s i b l e b e ta k e n o f a l l t h e s e p r o v i n c e s . 75

7k F o r a n e a r l y b u t e x h a u s tiv e and p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y p e n e t r a t i n g s tu d y o f t h e s e e v e n ts s e e J o s i a h R o y ce , C a l i f o r n i a , 1 8 9 6 . 7$ D ia r y , I , 1*37-8

An e x p e d i t i o n u n d e r G e n e ra l K e arn e y was t h e r e f o r e s e n t o v e r la n d t o C a l i f o r n i a b y way o f S a n ta F e , New M ex ico . K earn ey a r r i v e d i n C a l i f ­ o r n i a w ith o n ly one h u n d re d men, h a v in g l e f t t h e re m a in d e r t o g a r r i s o n New M exico, becam e in v o lv e d i n some b lo o d y s k ir m is h e s w it h t h e C a l i f o r ­ n i a n s an d t h e n i n a c o n tr o v e r s y w i t h Commodore S to c k to n and F rem o n t o v e r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o s i t i o n s i n t h e m i l i t a r y h i e r a r c h y . F rem o n t r e f u s e d t o su b m it t o K e a r n e y 's o r d e r s a n d t h e c o n q u e re d i n h a b i t a n t s w ere w i t n e s s e s t o t h e k in d o f t o p - l e v e l q u a r r e l i n g t o w h ich t h e y h a d lo n g b e e n a c c u s ­ to m ed . K earn ey e v e n t u a l l y r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n f ir m in g h i s a u t h o r i t y an d r e - e n f o r c e m e n ts t o make i t good; F rem o n t w as a r r e s t e d f o r m u tin y an d i n t h e c o u rs e o f tim e fo u n d g u i l t y b y c o u r t m a r t i a l a n d d is c h a r g e d fro m t h e s e r v i c e . 76 The g e n e r a l c o n d u c t o f t h e w ar an d t h e s t r a t e g y o f th e c am p aig n s w e re l i t t l e

i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e P r e s i d e n t an d n e e d n o t c o n c e rn u s h e r e

b u t i t w i l l b e p r o p e r to ,,o b s e r v e a t l e a s t one e f f o r t b y P o lk i n w a r p r o ­ p a g a n d a . P o lk seem ed t o b e g r e a t l y c o n c e rn e d o v e r t h e e f f e c t s o f r e l i ­ g io u s a p p e a ls b y t h e M exican g o v ern m en t a n d im m e d ia te ly a f t e r w a r was d e c l a r e d he d e te r m in e d t o s e n d ^oman C a t h o lic p r i e s t s w i t h t h e U. S. arm y. He r e c o r d s an i n t e r v i e w w i t h B ish o p H ughes o f New Y ork an d n o t e s : Our o b j e c t was t o p r o c u r e h i s a i d i n d is a b u s in g t h e m in d s o f t h e C a t h o lic p r i e s t s a n d p e o p le o f M exico i n r e g a r d t o w h a t th e y e r r o n ­ e o u s ly su p p o se d t o b e th e h o s t i l e d e s ig n s o f t h e g o v ern m en t and

P o lk im m e d ia te ly r e - i n s t a t e d him b u t F rem ont r e s i g n e d i n h ig h dudgeon. B e n to n , F r e m o n t's f a t h e r - i n - l a w , h a d p r e v i o u s l y a s k e d th e P r e ­ s i d e n t t o o v e r - r u l e t h e d e c i s i o n an d when P o lk r e f u s e d , t h e M is s o u r i S e n a to r c e a s e d s p e a k in g t o him a n d r e f u s e d t o s u p p o r t h i s m e a s u re s . 76

56 p e o p le o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s u p o n t h e r e l i g i o n an d c h u rc h p r o p e r t y o f M e x ic o .77 T h is p o l i c y w as c a r r i e d o u t an d w as p r o b a b l y somewhat s u c c e s s f u l i n i t s o b j e c t b u t w hen i t becam e g e n e r a l l y known i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p o s i t i o n ; t h i s w as t h e p e r i o d when t h e KnowN o th in g s w e re e m e rg in g a s a p a r t y w i t h p r im a r y e m p h a sis upon r e s i s t a n c e t o th e Roman C a t h o lic c h u rc h . The r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r was a m e a s u ra b le f o r c e i n d e s e r t i o n s t o t h e M exican army; t h e M ex ican s c o n t in u o u s ly p ro p a g a n d iz e d t h e A m erican t r o o p s a n d s u c c e e d e d i n r e - e n f o r c i n g t h e i r arm y w i t h a b a n d o f d e s e r t e r s ; m o s tly

I r i s h o f C a t h o lic f a i t h * who p la y e d an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n s e v e r a l

b a t t l e s . A f t e r t h e b a t t l e o f C h u ru b u sco a b o u t e i g h t y d e s e r t e r s w ere c ap ­ t u r e d an d some f i f t y e x e c u te d * f i f t e e n b e in g b ra n d e d w i th a D. D u rin g t h e w ar m ore th a n f o u r tim e s a s many d e s e r t e d a s w ere a c c o u n te d f o r b y th e enemy i n b a t t l e . 78 The C o m m a n d e r-in -'-'h ie f r s d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s i n t h e f i e l d r e a c h e d a l u d i c r o u s c lim a x w ith h i s p eac e -m a k er* N ic o la s T r i s t * t h e c h i e f c l e r k o f t h e S t a t e D e p a rtm e n t. T r i s t was s e n t i n A p r i l o f 181*7 t o a c c o m p a n y -th e arm y to w a rd s M exico C i t y an d t o u t i l i z e e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y t h a t p r e s e n t e d i t s e l f t o n e g o t i a t e a t r e a t y . T r i s t and S c o t t im m e d ia te ly becam e e m b ro ile d i n a l o n g - d i s t a n c e d i s p u t e o v e r t h e i r r e ­ s p e c t i v e p o s i t i o n s b u t a f t e r m e e tin g e a c h o t h e r th e y becam e c l o s e f r i e n d s . The P r e s i d e n t soon l o s t c o n f id e n c e i n h i s a g e n t an d when he rem oved S c o t t

77 D ia r y * I* 1*08 (May 1 9 , 181*6). 78 Sm ith* War wi t h M exico* I I * 319 and 3 8 5 .

fro m command, o f t h e arm y he a l s o r e c a l l e d T r i s t * B ut N ic o la s T r i s t , f e e l i n g t h a t h i s in f o r m a t i o n was s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f t h e g o v ern m en t i n W ash in g to n a n d b e in g n o t w it h o u t c o n f id e n c e i n h i s own a b i l i t y , c o n t i n ­ u e d n e g o t i a t i o n s w ith t h e M exican g o v e rn m e n t, d e te r m in e d i f he c o u ld , t o make a t r e a t y on t h e b a s i s o f h i s o r i g i n a l i n s t r u c t i o n s , a lth o u g h he knew t h a t P o lk now in te n d e d t o g e t a much l a r g e r s l i c e o f M exican t e r r i ­ t o r y . On Decem ber

6

, 181±7* T r i s t s e n t t h e P r e s i d e n t a s i x t y - f i v e p a g e

l e t t e r i n w h ic h he s a i d , a lo n g w ith much f r e e comment on t h e “w e a k n e ss" o f t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l p o l i c i e s , t h a t he h a d d e c id e d t o s a v e t h e a d m in is ­ t r a t i o n from a p e r i l o u s p o s i t i o n , an d t h e c o u n tr y fro m d i s a s t e r , b y mak­ in g a t r e a t y w i t h M e x ic o ., P o lk w as f u r i o u s : H is d e s p a tc h i s a r r o g a n t , im p u d en t and v e r y i n s u l t i n g t o h i s G overn­ m ent an d e v e n p e r s o n a l l y o f f e n s i v e t o t h e P r e s i d e n t . . . . I t i s man­ i f e s t t o me t h a t he h a s become t h e t o o l o f G e n 'l S c o t t a n d h i s men­ i a l in s t r u m e n t . . . . I h av e n e v e r i n my l i f e f e l t so i n d i g n a n t . . . . H is d e s p a tc h p ro v e s t h a t h e i s d e s t i t u t e o f h o n o r o r p r i n c i p l e , and t h a t he h a s p ro v e d h im s e l f t o b e a v e r y b a s e m an .79 When T r i s t d i d n e g o t i a t e a t r e a t y em bodying P o l k 's minimum d e ­ mands o f a y e a r b e f o r e t h e P r e s i d e n t d e c id e d t o d i s r e g a r d th e i n s t r u ­ m ent and ju d g e th e t r e a t y on i t s own m e r i t s . He a l s o h ad t o c o n s i d e r t h e p r o b a b le r e s u l t s s h o u ld he r e j e c t th e t r e a t y . The w ar was by now v e r y u n p o p u la r w ith a h i g h l y v o c a l p a r t o f t h e c i t i z e n r y an d a s u b s t a n t i a l g ro u p o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s h a d r e s i s t e d t o t h e e x t e n t o f ‘ r e f u s i n g “t o v o te s u p p l i e s f o r t h e arm y. A ls o , t h e M exican g o v ern m en t was d i s p e r s e d a n d i t w as n o t u n l i k e l y t h a t l f ^ p e a c e s h o u ld n o t be made now t h e cam p aig n

79 D ia r y , I I I , 3 0 0 -1 .

58 w o u ld d e g e n e r a te i n t o g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e . On F e b r u a r y 22 P o lk s e n t th e t r e a t y t o t h e S e n a te w ith t h e re co m m en d atio n t h a t i t b e a p p ro v e d w ith b u t m in o r c h a n g e s . P o lk h a d g ra v e d o u b ts a s t o w h e th e r t h e S e n a te w o u ld r a t i f y t h e t r e a t y . Some o p p o se d i t b e c a u s e i t a c q u ir e d to o much t e r r i t o r y a n d some b ecause i t

a c q u ir e d to o l i t t l e .

P o lk was s u r e t h a t t h e o p p o s i t i o n was

due s o l e l y

to p o l i t i c a l m o tiv a tio n :

I f t h e t r e a t y i n i t s p r e s e n t fo rm i s r a t i f i e d , t h e r e w i l l b e a d d ed t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a n immense e m p ire , t h e v a l u e o f w h ic h tw e n ty y e a r s h e n c e i t w o u ld b e d i f f i c u l t t o c a l c u l a t e , and y e t D e m o c ra tic an d Tifhig S e n a to r s d i s r e g a r d t h i s , an d a c t s o l e l y w i t h t h e v ie w t o t h e e l e v a t i o n o f th e m s e lv e s o r t h e i r f a v o r i t e s t o th e P r e s i d e n t i a l o ffic e . 8 0 Even b e f o r e t h e I h i g tr iu m p h i n th e m id -te rm e l e c t i o n s P o lk h a d h ad d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h e C o n g re ss on h i s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . I n e a c h o f h i s a n n u a l a d d r e s s e s a f t e r t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e w ar he w as on t h e d e f e n ­ s i v e , a tte m p tin g t o j u s t i f y h i s a c t s . R e s p o n s ib le an d p ro m in e n t c i t i ­ z e n s made th e m ost dam ning c r i t i c i s m s o f h i s p o l i c y . H enry C la y , v iew ­ in g t h e w ar fro m o u t s i d e h i s own s o c i e t y s a i d f l a t l y A l l t h e n a t i o n s , I a p p re h e n d , lo o k u pon u s , I n t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t w a r, a s b e in g a c t u a t e d b y a s p i r i t o f r a p a c i t y , a n d an i n o r d i n a t e d e s i r e f o r t e r r i t o r i a l a g g ra n d iz e m e n t . 8 1 The P r e s i d e n t a tte m p te d t o d e fe n d h i s M ex ican p o l i c y i n h i s s e c o n d a n n u a l a d d r e s s . He b e g a n b y re m a rk in g on t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e

80 D ia r y , I I I ,

3 6 6

. F e b r u a r y 2 8 , l81j.8.

81 S c h u rz , H enry C la y , I I , 289* C la y s a i d o f th e p re -e m b le t o . t h e w ar b i l l : "no e a r t h l y c o n s i d e r a t i o n w o u ld e v e r h av e te m p te d o r p r o ­ vo k ed him t o v o te f o r a b i l l w i t h a p a l p a b l e f a l s e h o o d stam p ed u p o n i t s f a c e ." I b i d ., 289.

59 n a tio n : I n re su m in g y o u r l a b o r s i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e p e o p le i t i s a su b ­ j e c t o f c o n g r a t u l a t i o n t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n no p e r io d i n o u r p a s t h i s t o r y when a l l t h e e le m e n ts o f n a t i o n a l p r o s p e r i t y h av e b e e n so f u l l y d e v e lo p e d . S in c e y o u r l a s t s e s s i o n no a f f l i c t i n g d is p e n s a ­ t i o n h a s v i s i t e d o u r c o u n t r y . . . . The p r o g r e s s o f o u r c o u n tr y i n h e r c a r e e r o f g r e a t n e s s . . . i s w ith o u t a n exam ple i n t h e h i s t o r y o f n a tio n s . . . . The e x i s t i n g w ar w i t h M exico w as n e i t h e r d e s i r e d n o r p ro v o k e d b y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , a l l h o n o ra b le m eans w e re r e ­ s o rte d to to a v e rt i t . . . . Long b e f o r e th e a d v an c e o f o u r arm y t o t h e l e f t b an k o f t h e R io G rande we h ad am ple c a u s e o f w a r a g a i n s t M exico, an d had t h e U n ite d S t a t e s r e s o r t e d t o t h i s e x t r e m i t y we m ig h t h av e a p p e a le d t o t h e i^hole c i v i l i z e d w o rld f o r t h e j u s t i c e o f our cause. . • • The w ar h a s b e e n r e p r e s e n t e d a s u n j u s t an d u n n e c e s s a r y a n d a s one o f a g g r e s s io n on o u r p a r t upon a weak a n d i n j u r e d enem y. . . . . A m ore e f f e c t u a l m eans c o u ld n o t h av e b e e n d e v is e d t o e n c o u ra g e t h e enemy and p r o t r a c t t h e w ar th a n t o a d v o c a te a n d a d h e re t o t h e i r c a u s e , an d t h u s g iv e them na i d a n d c o m f o r t . ’1 I t i s a s o u rc e o f n a ­ t i o n a l p r i d e an d e x u l t a t i o n t h a t t h e g r e a t b o d y o f o u r p e o p le have th ro w n no s u c h o b s t a c l e s i n t h e way o f t h e G overnm ent i n p r o s e c u t i n g t h e w a r s u c c e s s f u l l y , b u t h av e shown th e m s e lv e s t o b e e m in e n tly p a ­ t r i o t i c and r e a d y t o v i n d i c a t e t h e i r c o u n tr y * s h o n o r a n d i n t e r e s t s a t any s a c r i f i c e . 8 2 The r e f e r e n c e t o g iv i n g ua i d and c o m f o r t” t o t h e enem y, a d i r e c t . q u o t a t i o n fro m t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f t r e a s o n , s tu n g h i s c r i ­ t i c s t o r e p l y w i t h ev en m ore v ig o r o u s d e n u n c i a t i o n . L i t e r a r y New E n g lan d o p p o se d t h e w ar a lm o s t u n a n im o u s ly . The P r e s i d e n t m ig h t h av e r e f e r r e d t o an y o f a num ber o f s u c h men who r e p r e s e n t e d t h e w ar a s one o f a g g r e s s io n ”on o u r p a r t . ’1 P r o b a b ly t h e m o st c e l e b r a t e d e x p r e s s io n w as Jam es R u s s e l L o w e ll’ s B ig lo w P a p e r s . I n one poem he p u t i n i d io m a tic Y an k eese t h e r e ­ f l e c t i o n s o f a y o u th f i g h t i n g i n M ex ico :

82 R ich a rd so n , M essa g es, I I I , 2321-2323*

60 A fo re I come away fro m hum I h ad a s t r o n g p e r s u a s i o n T h a t M ex ican s w a rn 1t human b e a n s , — an o u ra n g o u ta n g n a t i o n , A s o r t o 1 f o l k s a c h ap c o u ld k i l l a n d n e v e r dream o n ’t a r t e r , Mo m o re ’n a f e l l e r ’d dream o p i g s t h e t he h e d l e d t o s l a r t e r ; I ’d a n i d e e t h e t th e y w e re b u i l t a r t e r t h e d a rk ie * f a s i o n a l l , An* k i c k i n ’ c o l o r e d f o l k s a b o u t, y o u know ’ s , a k in d o ’n a t i o n a l ; B ut when I j i n e d I w a m ’t so w is e e s t h e t a i r q u e en o ’S h eb y , F e r , come t o lo o k a t ’em, t h e y a i n t much d i f f ’r e n t fro m w ut we b e , A n’ h e r e we a i r a s c r o u g i n ’ em o u t o ’ t h i r own d o m in io n s , A s h e l t e r i n ’ em, e z C a le b s e z , u n d e r o u r e a g l e ’s p i n i o n s , W ich m eans t o ta k e a f e l l e r up j e s t b y t h e s l a c k o ’ ’ s t r o w s e r s A n’ w a lk him S p a n is h c l e a n r i g h t o u t o ’ a l l h i s homes an* h o u s e s ; W al, i t d o e s seem a c u fu s w a y , b u t t h e n h ooraw f e r Ja c k so n J I t m u st b e r i g h t , f e r C a le b s e z i t ' s r e g ’l a r A n g lo -s a x o n .8 3 H en ry D avid T h o re a u sp o k e o f t h e w a r - f e v e r a s a n i n f e c t i o n fro m t h e r o t t e n p o l i t i c a l c e n t e r o f t h e n a t i o n an d w e n t t o j a i l r a t h e r th a n t r a c e t h e c o u rs e o f h i s t a x d o l l a r t i l l i t

’’b u y s a man o r a m u sk et t o

s h o o t w i t h . ”8U W hich l e d Em erson t o re m a rk t h a t T hese — r a b b le — a t W ash in g to n a r e r e a l l y b e t t e r t h a n t h e s n i v e ­ l i n g o p p o s i t i o n . They h av e a s o r t o f g e n iu s o f a b o ld an d m an ly c a s t , th o u g h S a t a n i c . . . . Mr. W e b s te r t o l d th e m how much t h e w ar c o s t , t h a t was h i s p r o t e s t , b u t v o te d t h e w a r, an d s e n d s h i s so n t o i t . They c a l c u l a t e d r i g h t l y on M r. Y fe b ste r. l^y f r i e n d Mr. T h o re a u h a s gone t o j a i l r a t h e r t h a n p a y h i s t a x . On him t h e y c o u ld n o t c a l ­ c u l a t e . 85 B ut Em erson d i d n ’t s u p p o se t h a t i t w as j u s t Mr. P o l k ’ s w ar; he saw t h e f o r c e o f e x p a n s i o n i s t d e s i r e a n d re m a rk e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y t h a t t h e p e o p le w e re no w o rse s i n c e th e y in v a d e d M exico t h a n t h e y w e re b e f o r e , " o n ly th e y h av e g iv e n t h e i r w i l l a d e e d , " an d s a i d p r o p h e t i c a l l y The U n ite d S t a t e s w i l l c o n q u e r M gxico, b u t i t w i l l b e a s t h e man

83. L o w e ll, B ig lo w P a p e r s , No. 2 .

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61 sw a llo w s th e a r s e n i c , w h ic h b r i n g s him down i n t u r n , M exico w i l l p o is o n u s . 8 6 . I n h i s t h i r d a n n u a l m essag e P o lk s o u g h t o nce a g a in t o d e m o lis h t h i s t r e a s o n a b l e o p p o s i t i o n . Ife re v ie w e d i n d e t a i l t h e r e l a t i o n s b e ­ tw e e n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico b e f o r e th e w ar an d h i s a tte m p te d n e ­ g o t i a t i o n w i t h t h a t c o u n tr y . He a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e p o l i c y o f ,fp e a c e a n d good w i l l 11 to w a rd s a l l n a t i o n s h ad b e e n s t e a d i l y p u r s u e d . P o lk spoke o f h i s d e s i r e t o s p a r e t h e p e o p le o f M exico fro m t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f w a r an d th e n d e fe n d e d h i s new p o l i c y o f le v y in g s u p p l i e s upon t h e p o p u la ­ t i o n o f t h a t c o u n tr y : 1’he M ex ican s h a v in g • . . shown th e m s e lv e s t o b e w h o lly i n c a p a b le o f a p p r e c i a t i n g o u r f o r b e a r a n c e a n d l i b e r a l i t y , i t was deem ed p r o ­ p e r t o ch an g e t h e m ann er o f c o n d u c tin g t h e w a r, b y m aking th em f e e l i t s p r e s s u r e a c c o r d in g t o t h e u s a g e s o b s e r v e d u n d e r s i m i l a r c irc u m ­ s ta n c e s by a l l o t h e r c i v i l i z e d n a t i o n s . 87

8 6 E m erson, J o u r n a l s , V I I , 2 0 6 . C a p ta in E th a n A l la n H itc h c o c k , f i g h t i n g in M exico on November 1 0 , I 8 I4.6 , e x p r e s s e d t h e sam e id e a s " I am v e r y much d i s g u s t e d w i t h t h i s w ar i n a l l i t s f e a t u r e s . I am i n t h e p o s i ­ t i o n o f t h e p r e a c h e r who r e a d S t r a u s 1 c r i t i c i s m o f t h e G o sp e l H i s t o r y o f C h r i s t . S h a l l he p r e a c h h i s new c o n v i c t i o n s ? S h a l l he p r e a c h v/hat h i s a u d ie n c e b e lie v e ? .; S h a l l he te m p o riz e ? S h a l l h e r e s i g n ? H ere t h e p r e a c h e r h a s th e a d v a n ta g e o v e r t he s o l d i e r , f o r , w h ile t h e l a t t e r may b e o r d e r e d i n t o an u n j u s t an d u n n e c e s s a r y w a r, h e c a n n o t a t t h a t tim e ab an d o n h i s p r o f e s s i o n — a t a l l e v e n t s , h o t w ith o u t m aking h i m s e l f a m a r t y r . I n th e p r e s e n t c a s e I n o t o n ly t h i n k t h i s M exican w ar u n n e c e s s a r y an d u n j u s t a s r e g a r d s M exico, b u t . . . a l s o . . . h o s t i l e t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f o u r own gov ern m en t — . a s t e p a n d a g r e a t s t e p to w a rd s th e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e U n io n . A nd-1 d o u b t n o t t h a t a d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e U n io n w i l l b r i n g on w a rs b e tw e e n th e s e p a r a t e d p a r t s . 11 F i f t y Y e ars i n Camp a n d F i e l d , 2 2 8 .

87 R ic h a r d s o n , M e ssa g e s, IV , 2397* On M arch 30 P o lk fo rw a rd e d t o t h e C o n g re ss a memorandum by h i s S e c r e t a r y o f t h e T r e a s u r y , W a lk e r, d e ­ f e n d in g t h e p o l i c y o f c o l l e c t i n g d u t i e s i n M exico: 11I n t h e m e a n tim e , i t i s n o t j u s t t h a t M exico, b y h e r o b s t i n a t e p e r s i s t e n c e i n t h i s c o n t e s t , s h o u ld com pel u s t o o v e rth ro w o u r own f i n a n c i a l p o l i c y a n d a r r e s t t h i s g r e a t n a t i o n i n h e r h ig h an d p r o s p e r o u s c a r e e r , ” I b i d . , IV , 2 3 7 8 .

62 T h e re h a d b e e n some t a l k , e v en among t h o s e who s u p p o r te d t h e w a r, o f m aking a p e a c e w ith o u t t a k i n g a n y t e r r i t o r y a n d P o lk a t t a c k e d s u c h a p o l i c y a s b e in g an a d m is s io n t h a t t h e w ar w as i n i t s o r i g i n u n j u s t : M exico h a s no money t o p a y , an d no o t h e r m eans o f m aking t h e r e q u i r e d in d e m n ity . I f we r e f u s e t h i s , we can o b t a i n n o t h i n g e l s e . To r e j e c t in d e m n ity by r e f u s i n g t o a c c e p t a c e s s i o n o f t e r r i t o r y w o u ld be t o ab an d o n a l l o u r j u s t ’ dem ands, and t'o wage t h e w a r , b e a r i n g a l l i t s e x p e n s e s , w ith o u t a p u rp o s e o r d e f i n i t e o b je c t * . . . The d o c t r i n e o f no t e r r i t o r y i s t h e d o c t r i n e o f no in d e m n ity , a n d i f s a n c tio n e d w o u ld be a p u b l i c ack n o w led g em en t t h a t o u r c o u n tr y was w rong an d t h a t t h e w ar d e c l a r e d b y C o n g re ss w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r y u n an ­ i m i t y was u n j u s t and s h o u ld b e a b an d o n e d — an a d m is s io n u n fo u n d e d i n f a c t an d d e g r a d in g t o t h e n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . 8 8 P o l k ’ s a tte m p te d j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e w ar w ith M exico becam e t h e p r im a ry s u b j e c t o f t h e C o n g re ss t h a t w i n t e r o f I8 1 ;7 -k 8 . On D ecem ber 22 Abraham L i n c o ln , a Whig R e p r e s e n t a t i v e fro m I l l i n o i s r o s e t o p r e s e n t h i s fam ous S p o t R e s o l u t i o n s . O b s e rv in g , t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t r e p e a t e d i n e v e r y a d d r e s s h i s w ar m essage p h r a s e t h a t M exico h ad s h e d b lo o d u p o n A m erican s o i l , L in c o ln f o r m u la te d e i g h t q u e r i e s a b o u t t h e

11S p o t 11

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b lo o d w as s h e d , d e s ig n e d t o d e m o n s tra te t h a t th e s p o t i n q u e s t i o n was n o t an d n e v e r h a d b e e n , A m erican s o i l . On J a n u a r y 3 , l 8 ij.8 , b y a v o te o f e i g h t y - f i v e t o e i g h t y - o n e , t h e H ouse f o r m a ll y d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e vrar h ad b e e n ’’u n n e c e s s a r i l y an d u n c o n ­ s t i t u t i o n a l l y b eg u n b y t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . ”89

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89 S u p ra , 9 , n o te 1 .

63 Some i f n o t a l l o f t h e g e n tle m e n on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e H ouse • • • have sp o k en r a t h e r c o m p la in in g ly . « . . o f t h a t r e s o l u t i o n I w as one o f th o s e who j o i n e d i n t h a t v o t e ; an d I d id so u n d e r my b e s t Im p r e s s io n o f t h e t r u t h o f th e c a se * How I g o t t h i s im p r e s s io n , a n d how i t may p o s s i b l y b e re m e d ie d , I w i l l now t r y t o show. When t h e w ar b e g a n , i t w a s my o p in io n t h a t a l l t h o s e who b e c a u s e o f know­ in g to o l i t t l e , o r b e c a u s e o f know ing to o .m u c h , c o u ld n o t c o n s c ie n ­ t i o u s l y a p p ro v e t h e c o n d u c t o f th e P r e s i d e n t i n th e b e g in n in g o f i t s h o u ld n e v e r t h e l e s s , a s good c i t i z e n s an d p a t r i o t s , re m a in s i l e n t on t h a t p o i n t , a t l e a s t t i l l t h e war s h o u ld b e e n d e d . • • • B ut t h e P r e s i d e n t an d h i s f r i e n d s w o u ld n o t h av e i t s o . He t h e r e ­ f o r e p ro p o s e d t o show t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t ’s m essag e was t h e ’’s h e e r e s t d e c e p t i o n . ” He r i d i c u l e d P o l k ’ s i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t s i n c e t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s e x te n d e d b ey o n d t h e N ueces i t t h e r e f o r e e x te n d e d t o t h e R io G ra n d e. Some s im p le -m in d e d p e o p le t h i n k i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c r o s s one r i v e r a n d go b e y o n d i t w ith o u t g o in g a l l t h e way t o t h e n e x t , t h a t j u r i s ­ d i c t i o n may b e e x e r c i s e d b e tw e e n two r i v e r s w ith o u t c o v e r in g a l l t h e c o u n tr y b e tw ee n th em . I n a s p e e c h o f a b o u t a n h o u r ’ s l e n g t h L in c o ln s u b j e c t e d e a c h p o i n t i n P o l k ’ s d e f e n s e t o an h i s t o r i c a l an d l o g i c a l e x a m in a tio n an d c o n c lu d e d : I am now th r o u g h t h e w h o le o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ’s e v id e n c e ; an d i t i s a s i n g u l a r f a c t t h a t i f an y o n e s h o u ld d e c la r e , t h e P r e s i d e n t s e n t t h e arm y i n t o t h e m id s t o f a s e t t l e m e n t o f M exican p e o p le who h a d n e v e r s u b m itte d , b y c o n s e n t o r by f o r c e , t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f T e x a s o r o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , an d t h a t t h e r e a n d t h e r e b y t h e f i r s t b lo o d o f t h e w ar w as s h e d , t h e r e i s n o t one w ord i n a l l t h e P r e s i d e n t h a s s a i d w h ic h w ould e i t h e r a d m it o r d e n y t h e d e c l a r a t i o n . T h is s t r a n g e o m is s io n i t d o e s seem t o me c o u ld n o t h av e o c c u r r e d b u t b y d e s ig n , l y way o f l i v i n g l e a d s me t o b e a b o u t t h e c o u r t s o f j u s t i c e ; an d t h e r e I h av e so m etim es s e e n a good la w y e r , s t r u g g l i n g f o r h i s c l i e n t ’ s n e c k i n a d e s p e r a te c a s e , em p lo y in g e v e r y a r t i f i c e t o w ork a ro u n d , b e f o g , and c o v e r up w i t h many w o rd s some p o i n t a r i s i n g i n t h e c a s e w h ic h he d a r e d n o t a d m it a n d y e t c o u ld n o t d e n y . He c h a ll e n g e d P o lk t o a n sw e r h i s S p o t R e s o l u t i o n s : L e t him a n sw e r f i l l y , f a i r l y , a n d c a n d i d l y . L e t him a n sw e r w i t h f a c t s a n d n o t w i t h a rg u m e n ts . L e t him rem em ber he s i t s w h ere W ash in g to n

6b s a t , an d so re m e m b erin g , l e t him a n sw e r a s Y fesh in g to n w o u ld a n sw e r. As a n a t i o n s h o u ld n o t , an d t h e A lm ig h ty w i l l n o t , b e e v a d e d , so l e t him a tte m p t no e v a s io n — no e q u iv o c a tio n . . • . B ut i f h e c a n n o t o r w i l l n o t do t h i s , — i f on an y p r e t e n c e o r no p r e te n c e he s h a l l r e f u s e o r o m it i t — th e n I s h a l l b e f u l l y co n ­ v in c e d o f w hat I m ore t h a n s u s p e c t a l r e a d y — t h a t he i s d e e p ly co n ­ s c io u s o f b e in g i n t h e w rong; t h a t he f e e l s t h e b lo o d o f t h i s w a r, l i k e t h e b lo o d o f A b e l, i s c r y i n g t o h e a v e n a g a i n s t h im ; • • • • How l i k e t h e h a l f - i n s a n e m um blings o f a f e v e r dream i s th e w h o le w ar p a r t o f h i s l a t e m essaged A t one tim e t e l l i n g u s t h a t M exico h a s n o th in g w h a te v e r t h a t we c a n g e t b u t t e r r i t o r y ; a t a n o t h e r show­ in g u s how we c a n s u p p o r t th e w a r b y le v y in g c o n t r i b u t i o n s on Mex­ i c o . A t o n e t ime u r g i n t h e n a t i o n a l h o n o r, th e s e c u r i t y o f th e f u ­ t u r e , t h e p r e v e n tio n o f f o r e i g n i n t e r f e r e n c e , an d e v e n t h e good o f M exico h e r s e l f a s among t h e o b j e c t s o f t h e w a r; a t a n o th e r t e l l i n g u s t h a t nt o r e j e c t in d e m n ity , ly r e f u s i n g t o a c c e p t a c e s s i o n o f t e r r i t o r y , w o u ld b e t o ab an d o i a l l o u r j u s t dem ands, an d t o wage t h e w a r, b e a r i n g a l l i t s . e x p e n s e , w ith o u t a p u rp o s e o r d e f i n i t e ob ­ je c t. ^ . . . * A l l t h i s shows t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t i s i n n o w ise s a t i s f i e d w i t h h i s own p o s i t i o n s . F i r s t he t a k e s up o n e , an d i n a tte m p tin g t o a r ­ gue u s i n t o i t he a r g u e s h im s e lf o u t o f i t , t h e n s e i z e s a n o t h e r an d g o e s th r o u g h t h e same p r o c e s s , . . . . H is m in d , ta x e d b ey o n d i t s p o w e r, i s r u n n in g h i t h e r an d t h i t h e r , l i k e some t o r t u r e d c r e a t u r e on a b u r n in g s u r f a c e , f i n d i n g no p o s i t i o n on w h ich i t c a n s e t t l e down and be a t e a s e . . . . As I h a v e b e f o r e s a i d , he knows n o t w h ere he i s . He i s a b e ­ w i l d e r e d , c c n fo u n d e d , an d m is e r a b l y p e r p le x e d man.God g r a n t he may b e a b l e t o show t h e r e i s n o t so m e th in g a b o u t h i s c o n s c ie n c e m ore p a i n f u l t h a n a l l h i s m e n ta l p e r p l e x i t y . 90 P r o b a b ly t h e m o st fam ous s p e e c h made i n t h i s s e s s i o n o f C o n g re ss was b y Thomas C orw in o f O h io . R i d i c u l i n g w ith b i t t e r i r o n y t h e c o n te n ­ t i o n t h a t T ex as o r th e U n ite d S t a t e s h ad e x e r c i s e d a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e t e r r i t o r y w h ic h G e n e ra l T a y lo r h a d ,fd e f e n d e d ,n he a s k e d I f t h e r e w e re a T exan p o p u la ti o n on t h e e a s t b an k o f t h e R io G ra n d e , why d i d n 'o t G e n e ra l T a y lo r h e a r so m e th in g o f th o s e T exans h a i l i n g t h e a d v e n t o f t h e A m erican arm y, com ing t o p r o t e c t th em fro m t h e r a v a g e s o f t h e M e x ic a n s, an d t h e m ore m u rd e ro u s o n s la u g h t s o f t h e n e ig h b o r in g s a v a g e s ?

90 Jo h n G. N ic o la y an d Jo h n H ay, e d i t o r s , C om plete Works o f Abraham L in c o ln , I , 327-3ld?*

65 Do you h e a r a n y th in g o f t h a t ? No! On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e p o p u l a r t i o n f l e d a t t h e a p p ro a c h o f y o u r a rm y . I n G o d 's nam e, I w is h t o know i f i t h a s come t o t h i s , t h a t w hen a n A m erican arm y g o e s t o p r o t e c t A m erican c i t i z e n s on A m erican t e r r i t o r y , t h e y f l e e fro m i t a s fro m t h e m ost b a r b a r o u s enemy?91 C o rw in 's o r a t o r y r o s e t o a p e a k w i t h t h e p h r a s e t h a t h a u n te d him t o t h e en d o f h i s c a r e e r . O b s e rv in g t h a t t h e w ar w as b e in g j u s t i f i e d on t h e g ro u n d s t h a t "we w i l l be tw o h u n d re d m i l l i o n s i n a few y e a r s , and we w ant ro o m ," he c r i e d : I f I w ere a M exican I w o u ld t e l l y o u , "Have you n o t. room i n y o u r own c o u n tr y t o b u ry y o u r d e a d 'men? I f y o u come i n t o m ine w e w i l l g r e e t y o u w ith b lo o d y h a n d s ,- ‘a n d welcome y o u t o h o s p i t a b l e g r a v e s .

"92

B ut i t w as n o t o n ly t h e " c o n s c ie n c e W higs" who a t t a c k e d t h e P r e - . s i d e n t f o r h i s M exican p o l i c y . Jo h n C. C alh o u n o f f e r e d a r e s o l u t i o n i n t h e S e n a te on J a n u a r y 1*, I 8 I4.8 , a g a i n s t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f M ex ico , " e i t h e r a s a p r o v in c e o r t o i n c o r p o r a t e i t i n t h e U n io n ," and s t a t e d t h e g ro u n d s f o r h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e w a r: I , t h e n , o p p o sed t h e w a r, n o t o n ly b e c a u s e i t . m i g h t h av e b e e n e a s i l y ' a v o id e d j n o t o n ly b e c a u s e t h e P r e s i d e n t h a d no a u t h o r i t y t o o r d e r a p a r t o f t h e d i s p u t e d t e r r i t o r y i n p o s s e s s i o n _o f t h e M ex ican s t o be o c c u p ie d b y o u r t r o o p s ; n o t o n l y b e ca u se I b e l i e v e d t h e a l l e g a ­ t i o n s upon w h ic h C o n g re ss s a n c ti o n e d t h e w ar u n t r u e ; b u t from h ig ji c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f p o l i c y — b e c a u s e I b e l i e v e d i t w ould l e a d t o many an d s e r i o u s e v i l s t o t h e c o u n tr y , a n d g r e a t l y e n d a n g e r i t s f r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s . 93

91 J o s i a h M orrow, e d i t o r , The L i f e an d S p e e c h e s o f Thomas C o rw in , 29U. 92 I b i d . ,

305.

93 R ic h a r d K. C r a l l e , e d i t o r , The Works o f Jo h n £♦ C a lh o u n , Hif, 3 9 6 -7 . On a n o th e r o c c a s io n , r e f e r r i n g t o P o l k 's "w ar e x i s t s b y a c t o f M e x ic o ," he s a i d : " I t w as j u s t a s im p o s s ib le f o r him t o v o te f o r t h a t p re -e ra b le a s i t w as f o r him t o p lu n g e a d a g g e r i n t o h i s own h e a r t , a n d m ore s o ." Q uo ted b y N e v in s , D ia r y o f a P r e s i d e n t , 8 9 j n o t e .

66 I n t h e same s e s s i o n o f G o n g re ss A le x a n d e r H. S te p h e n s , a n o th e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e ’’s l a v o c r a c y , ” a s s e r t e d t h a t " th e p r i n c i p l e o f wa­ g in g w a r a g a i n s t a n e ig h b o r in g p e o p le t o com pel them t o s e l j . t h e i r coun­ t r y i s n o t o n ly d i s h o n o r s t i e , b u t d i s g r a c e f u l a n d in f a m o u s .”9^ A g a in s t t h i s a r r a y o f c r i t i c s t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n 's d e f e n d e r s made w hat headw ay th e y c o u ld . H ow ell Cobb o f G e o rg ia a tte m p te d t o p ro v e t h a t M exico h ad d e te r m in e d upon w a r an d t h a t i t was t h e r e f o r e P o l k 's p l a i n d u ty t o se n d t h e arm y t o "the -Rio G rande t o m eet th em a t t h e m ost ad­ v a n ta g e o u s p o i n t . He s a i d h e c o u ld u n d e r s ta n d t h e c o n d e m n a tio n ' o f th e P r e s i d e n t ’ s m e a s u re s b y t h o s e * p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n ts who h a d a lw a y s op­ p o se d th e a n n e x a tio n o f T exas b u t he was b a f f l e d b y t h e a c t i o n o f s u c h men a s S te p h e n s a n d C a lh o u n . H o w e ll, l i k e o t h e r d e f e n d e r s o f t h e w a r, r e l i e d m a in ly upon a n a p p e a l t o p a t r i o t i s m s I h u t i t t o t h e good s e n s e o f t h e House an d t h e c o u n tr y w h e th e r i t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h w e l l - j u d g e d p a t r i o t i s m f o r g e n tle m e n t o u t t e r and s e n d f o r t h t o t h e w o rld t h e s e lo n g an d l a b o r e d s p e e c h e s ' denun­ c i a t o r y o f t h e w a r, an d i n t e n d e d t o im p re s s t h e p u b l i c m ind — t h e m ind o f th o s e v e r y v o l u n t e e r s on w hose s t r o n g arm y o u m ust r e l y f o r t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e r i g h t s and h o n o r o f y o u r c o u n t r y — w i t h t h e b e ­ l i e f t h a t th e y a r e e n g a g e d i n an u n j u s t , u n h o ly , u n r ig h t e o u s c a u s e . 9% C ongressm an H a ll o f. M is s o u r i s a i d t h a t P o lk h a d b e e n a s s a i l e d f o r t e l l i n g t h e t r u t h i n h i s a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e o p p o n e n ts o f th e w ar w ere g iv in g a i d and c o m fo rt t o t h e enem y. He s a i d t h a t t h e s e o p p o n e n ts h ad been" r e s p o n s i b l e f o r much s h e d d in g o f b lo o d b y t h e i r e n c o u ra g e m e n t o f M exico •— b lo o d t h a t c r y s 'o u t f o r v e n g e a n c e . T h ese men, he s a i d , w i l l

9l| Cong. G lo b e , 3 0 th 'C o n g ., 1 s t . S e s s . , A p p e n d ix , 163* See a l s o s u p r a , 9* 95 Cong. G lo b e , 2 9 th C o n g ., 1 s t . S e s s . , 1 1 0 2 -3 ( J u l y 1 6 , 18U 6).

67 n o t b e f o r g i v e n b y t h e A m erican

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S te p h e n A. D o u g las l a s h e d o u t a t P o l k 's c r i t i c s i n v ig o r o u s i n ­ v e c tiv e * He d e c l a r e d t h a t A m erica w a n ts no f r i e n d s , a c k n o w le d g e s t h e f i d e l i t y o f no c i t i z e n , who, a f t e r w ar i s d e c l a r e d , condem ns t h e j u s t i c e o f h e r c a u s e o r s y m p a th iz e s w ith t h e enem y. A l l s u c h a r e t r a i t o r s i n t h e i r h e a r t s j a n d w o u ld t o God t h a t t h e y w o u ld com m it s u c h o v e r t a c t f o r w h ich t h e y c o u ld be d e a l t w ith a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r d e s e r t s . 97 S e n a to r Jo h n so n o f M a ry la n d s a i d t h a t he h a d o p p o se d t h e P r e s i ­ d e n t i n m ost o f h i s m e a s u re s b u t I h ave a n i n s t i n c t i v e re p u g n a n c e t o b e l i e v e my c o u n tr y w rong i n an y w a r i n w h ic h s h e c a n e n g a g e ; an d I r e j o i c e t h a t i n t h i s i n s t a n c e my f e e l i n g s a n d my ju d g m en t i s o n e . 98 As t h e s e s ta t e m e n ts i n d i c a t e , t h e d e f e n d e r s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t r e s t e d t h e i r c a s e l e s s on l o g i c a l a rg u m e n t o r h i s t o r i c a l p r o o f t h a n upon a n a p p e a l t o n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t . T h is a p p ro a c h i s s t r i k i n g l y ex ­ p r e s s e d i n r e s o l u t i o n s a d o p te d by t h e • ''h a rd ” o r "H unker" f a c t i o n o f New f o r k D em o crats a s t h e y sp o k e f o r t h e a n n e x a tio n o f a l l o f M exico: /

S h a l l we o c cu p y i t ? • . . . S h a l l we now r u n w i th m an ly v i g o r th e r a c e t h a t i s s e t b e f o r e u s ? Or s h a l l we y i e l d t o t h e s u g g e s tio n s o f a s i c k l y f a n a t i c i s m , o r s i n k i n t o an e n e r v a t i n g slu m b e r? . . . . We f e e l no e m o tio n b u t p i t y f o r t h o s e w hose p h i l a n t h r o p y , o r p a -

96 Gong. G lo b e , 3 0 th C o n g ., 1 s t . S e s s . , A p p e n d ix , 108 ( J a n . 1 9 , 1 8 1 $ ). 97 C h a r le s A. an d M ary R . B e a rd , R is e o f A m erican C i v i l i z a t i o n , I , 6 0 6 - 7 . B ea rd re m a rk s : "A c l o s e s t u d e n t o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , D o u g la s , ev en s o , h a d e i t h e r f o r g o t t e n h i s h i s t o r y o r c o u ld n o t d i v i n e t h e l i m i t ­ l e s s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s e d i t i o n la w s . I f " th e L i t t l e G ia n t o f I l l i n o i s " h ad b e e n in g e n io u s en o u g h , Jam es H u s s e l L o w e ll 's B ig lo w P a p e rs w o u ld h av e la n d e d th e a u th o r i n j a i l a n d t h e men an d women who c o u ld n o t s e e t h e j u s t i c e o f t h e A m erican c a u s e w o u ld h a v e b e e n g iv e n t e n o r f i f t e e n y e a r s b e h in d p r i s o n b a r s i n w h ich t o m e d i ta t e upon t h e m u t a b i l i t y o f human a f f a i r s . " 98 Cong. G lo b e , 3 0 th C o n g ., 1 s t . S e s s . , A p p e n d ix , 6U ( J a n . 1 0 , 1 8 1 $ ).

68 t r i o t i s m , o r r e l i g i o n , h av e l e d th em t o b e l i e v e t h a t th e y c a n p r e ­ s c r i b e a b e t t e r c o u r s e o f d u ty th a n t h a t o f t h e God who made u s a l l . 99 When P o lk p r e s e n t e d T r i s t ' s t r e a t y t o t h e S e n a te w i t h a r e q u e s t t h a t th e y r a t i f y i t w ith , m in o r am endm ents i t came u n d e r a t t a c k b y r e ­ p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a l l e le m e n ts i n C o n g re s s . S o u th w e s te rn e x p a n s i o n i s t s l i k e J e f f e r s o n D a v is a n d Sam H o u sto n , s u p p o r te d by much " m a n if e s t d e s ­ t i n y " s e n tim e n t i n t h e N o rth , dem anded a t r e a t y a c q u i r i n g much more t e r ­ r i t o r y fro m M exico; New E n g la n d e rs l i k e B ald w in o f C o n n e c tic u t w is h e d t o i n c l u d e a c l a u s e i n t h e t r e a t y a g a i n s t s l a v e r y e v e r b e in g in tr o d u c e d i n t o t h e t e r r i t o r y t o b e a c q u ir e d ; W eb ste r w a n te d no i n c r e a s e i n t e r r i ­ t o r y a t a l l ; B e n to n , i n P o l k 's o p in io n , was u s in g h i s i n f l u e n c e a g a i n s t th e t r e a t y f o r p e r s o n a l r e a s o n s — he h ad o p p o se d a l l A d m i n is tr a t io n p o l i c y f o ll o w i n g P o l k ’ s r e f u s a l t o o v e r - r u l e t h e m i l i t a r y c o u r t - m a r t i a l o f h i s s o n - i n - l a w , F re m o n t. The p r e s s u r e f o r p e a c e f i n a l l y f o r c e d many o f t h e d i v e r s e oppo­ s i t i o n t o g iv e t h e t r e a t y r e l u c t a n t s u p p o r t an d on t h e t e n t h o f M arch i t was r a t i f i e d b y a v o te o f t h i r t y - e i g h t t o f o u r t e e n . R a t i f i c a t i o n s w e re e x c h a n g e d i n M exico on May 3 0 th an d on J u l y 6 P o lk e x p r e s s e d some s a t i s f i e d r e f l e c t i o n s when s u b m ittin g t h e t r e a t y i n f i n a l fo rm t o t h e S e n a te . He s a i d t h a t i t w o u ld be d i f f i c u l t t o c a l c u l a t e t h e v a lu e o f t h e immense a d d i t i o n s t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s : t e r r i t o r y t h a t w as l a t e r t o b e d iv i d e d i n t o t h e s t a t e s o f C a l i f o r n i a , A r iz o n a , N evada, New M exico and p a r t o f U ta h an d C o lo ra d o . And he made a n o th e r p o i n t :

99 C a r l R . F i s h , The R is e o f th e Common Man, 307*

69 The e x t e n s i v e a n d v a l u a b l e t e r r i t o r i e s c e d e d b y M exico t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s c o n s t i t u t e in d e m n ity f o r t h e p a s t , a n d t h e b r i l l i a n t a c h ie v e m e n ts and s i g n a l s u c c e s s e s o f o u r a rm s w i l l b e a g u a r a n ty o f s e c u r i t y f o r t h e f u t u r e , b y c o n v in c in g a l l n a t i o n s t h a t o u r r i g h t s m u st b e r e s p e c t e d . The r e s u l t s o f t h e w ar w i t h M exico h av e g iv e n t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r a b ro a d w h ic h o u r c o u n t r y n e ­ v e r b e f o r e e n jo y e d . Our pow er an d o u r r e s o u r c e s h av e become known and a r e r e s p e c t e d th r o u g h o u t t h e w o r ld , and we s h a l l p r o b a b ly b e s a v e d fro m t h e n e c e s s i t y o f e n g a g in g i n a n o t h e r f o r e i g n w ar f o r a lo n g s e r i e s o f y e a r s . 100 I n h i s f o u r t h a n n u a l a d d r e s s he lo o k e d b a c k w i th s a t i s f a c t i o n a t h i s h a n d lin g o f t h e “M exican problem *1 an d i n h i s o p e n in g re m a rk s t o t h e C o n g re ss he e v a l u a t e d h i s c o u n t r y ’ s p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e A lm ig h ty and t o o t h e r p e o p le s on t h i s p l a n e t i n r e f u l g e n t p h r a s e o lo g y : U nder t h e b e n ig n a n t p ro v id e n c e o f A lm ig h ty God t h e r e p r e s e n t a ­ t i v e s o f th e S t a t e s an d o f t h e p e o p le a r e a g a in b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t o d e l i b e r a t e f o r th e p u b l i c g o o d . The g r a t i t u d e o f t h e n a t i o n t o t h e S o v e re ig n A r b i t e r o f A l l Human E v e n ts s h o u ld be co m m en su rate w i t h t h e b o u n d le s s b l e s s i n g s w h ic h we e n jo y . P e a c e , p l e n t y , a n d c o n te n tm e n t r e i g n th r o u g h o u t o u r b o r d e r s , an d o u r b e lo v e d c o u n tr y p r e s e n t s a s u b lim e m o ra l s p e c t a c l e t o t h e w o r l d .101 P r e s i d e n t P o lk was d e s t i n e d t o b e ju d g e d p r i m a r i l y upon t h e b a s ­ i s o f h i s O regon a n d M exican p o l i c i e s a n d i t h a s t h e r e f o r e a p p e a re d n e c e s s a r y t o p r e s e n t c o n te m p o ra ry o p in io n on t h e s e m a t t e r s i n some de­ t a i l . O th e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n m e a s u re s w ere c o n c e iv e d t o be o f g r e a t im p o r­ ta n c e a t t h e t im e , h o w e v e r, an d th e y s h o u ld be m e n tio n e d i n t h i s s u r v e y . B e fo re t u r n i n g t o P o l k ’ s d o m e s tic p o l i c i e s we s h o u ld o b s e rv e h i s e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e M onroe D o c t r i n e . I n r e f e r r i n g t o p o s s i b l e B r i t i s h a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e H a w a iia n I s l a n d s a n d B r i t i s h o r F re n c h s e i z u r e o f

100 R ic h a r d s o n , M e ssa g e s, IV , 2lj.37-8 101 I b i d . , IV , 2 4 7 9 .

70 C a l i f o r n i a , Cuba o r Y u c a ta n , he s p o k e n o t o n ly a g a i n s t E u ro p ean c o lo n ­ i z a t i o n b u t d e n ie d t h e r i g h t o f a n y E u ro p ea n pow er t o e x e r t an y i n ­ f l u e n c e i n t h i s h e m isp h ere * P o lk f s S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e w ro te t o S l i d e l l i n 181*5: To t o l e r a t e a n y i n t e r f e r e n c e on t h e p a r t o f E u ro p ea n s o v e r e ig n s w i t h c o n t r o v e r s i e s i n A m erica; t o p e r m it th em t o a p p ly t h e w o rn -o u t dogma o f t h e b a la n c e o f pow er t o th e f r e e S t a t e s o f t h i s c o n t i n e n t • • • w o u ld b e t o m ake, t o some e x t e n t , a v o l u n t a r y s a c r i f i c e o f o u r in d e p e n d e n c e . . . . L i b e r t y h e re m u st b e a llo w e d t o w ork o u t i t s n a t u r a l r e s u l t s ; an d t h e s e w i l l , e r e lo n g a s t o n i s h t h e w o rld * 102 I n 1903 W h ite la w R e id c a l l e d t h i s th : a

P o lk D o c t r i n e , a s a d i s ­

t i n g u i s h i n g e x t e n s i o n o f t h e M ohroe D o c tr i n e . P o l k f s d o m e s tic p o l i c y w as th o r o u g h ly J a c k s o n ia n . On A p r i l lU , 18U6, a re v e n u e b i l l w as in t r o d u c e d i n t h e Nouse. b a s e d on recom menda­ t i o n s made by t h e P r e s i d e n t an d t h e S e c r e t a r y o f t h e T r e a s u r y . I t was denounced, a s a f r e e t r a d e m e asu re b y t h e W higs b u t i t w as f a r fro m t h a t , th o u g h i t r e p r e s e n t e d a s u b s t a n t i a l lo w e r in g o f t h e d u t i e s s e t b y th e t a r i f f o f 181*2. The P r e s i d e n t e m p h a siz e d t h a t i n a n y t a r i f f , re v e n u e s h o u ld be t h e o b j e c t a n d p r o t e c t i o n m e re ly i n c i d e n t a l . He p o i n te d o u t t h a t i n t h e s c a l e o f d u t i e s t h e r e i s a p o i n t a t w h ich an y i n c r e a s e i n t h e d u t i e s lo w e rs t h e re v e n u e ta k e n i n b e c a u s e t h e p r o d u c t no l o n g e r moves i n t o t h e c o u n tr y , an d he s t a t e d t h a t a s a f i x e d la w t h e d u t i e s s h o u ld re m a in b elo w t h a t p o i n t . T h e re was a h a r d f i g h t o v e r th e b i l l i n t h e S e n a te b u t t h e Wal­ k e r T a r i f f f i n a l l y p a s s e d b y a v o t e o f t w e n t y - e i g h t t o tw e n ty - s e v e n ,

102 Moore, e d i t o r , Works o f Buchanan, V I, 295 (Nov* 1 0 , 181*5)*

71 D a l l a s , t h e v i c e p r e s i d e n t , f i n d i n g i t n e c e s s a r y t o c a s t t h e d e c id i n g v o t e . P o lk -was w e l l p le a s e d by h i s s u c c e s s b u t to o k t h e o c c a s io n t o r e ­ c o rd i n h i s d i a r y h i s d i s t r u s t o f t h e b u s in e s s com m unity: T h is g r e a t m e a su re o f r e fo rm h a s b e e n t h u s s u c c e s s f u l . . . . The c a p i t a l i s t s & m o n o p o lis ts h av e n o t s u r r e n d e r e d t h e immense a d v an ­ t a g e s w h ic h th e y d e r i v e d u n d e r th e t a r i f f o f 181*2, u n t i l a f t e r a f i e r c e an d m ig h ty s t r u g g l e . T h is c i t y h a s swarmed w i t h them f o r w e e k s. . . • T h e ir e f f o r t w i l l p r o b a b ly now b e t o r a i s e a p a n i c . 103 The s t r u g g l e f o r a " c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t r e a s u r y , rr a s P o lk c a l l e d Van B u re n 1s In d e p e n d e n t T r e a s u r y s y ste m w h ic h h a d b e e n r e p e a l e d b y t h e W higs a t t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n o f t h e H a r r is o n - T y l e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , was c a r r i e d on a t t h e same t i m e . A b i l l e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s p r i n c i p l e , a u t h o r i z i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f i r e p r o o f v a u l t s f o r t h e s a f e - k e e p i n g o f t h e p u b lic m oney, was in t r o d u c e d i n t h e ^ o u se on M arch 3 0 , 181*6 a n d became la w i n A u g u s t. I t was a l s o i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s s t r i c t - c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t J a c k s o n ia n is m t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t v e to e d a r i v e r s an d h a r b o r s b i l l p r o ­ v i d i n g f o r i n t e r n a l im p ro v em en ts w h ic h he th o u g h t c l e a r l y u n c o n s t i t u ­ tio n a l. I t was d u r in g P o lk * s te r m t h a t t h e i s s u e o f t h e e x te n s io n o f • s l a v e r y i n t o t h e w e s te r n t e r r i t o r i e s , w h ic h was t o b e t h e v e h i c l e o f s e c t i o n a l a n ta g o n is m fro m th e n t i l l t h e C i v i l W ar, f i r s t w as r a i s e d a f ­ t e r t h e lo n g t r u c e f o ll o w i n g t h e M is s o u r i C om prom ise. I n A u g u s t, 181*6, *

h a v in g r e c e i v e d n o t i c e t h a t t h e M exican g o v ernm ent m ig h t re n e w n e g o t i a ­ t i o n s , P o lk a s k e d C o n g re ss f o r a n a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f two m i l l i o n d o l l a r s

103 D ia r y , I I , $3*

12

t o b e u s e d i n h i s 11d ip lo m a c y " w i t h t h a t governm ent* To t h e c o m p le te s u r p r i s e o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , D a v id W ilm o t, a D em ocrat from P e n n s y l­ v a n i a , i n tr o d u c e d a ’’p r o v is o " b y w h ich s l a v e r y s h o u ld b e e x c lu d e d from a l l t e r r i t o r y t o be a c q u ir e d b y t h e u s e o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n . P o lk was annoyed* "What c o n n e c tio n s l a v e r y h a d w i t h m aking p e a c e w ith M e x ic o ," he re m a rk e d i n h i s d i a r y , " i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o c o n c e iv e . *'10U The House p a s s e d t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n b i l l w i t h t h e P r o v is o b y a v o t e o f 87 t o 62* b u t i t came b e f o r e t h e S e n a te on t h e l a s t d a y o f t h e s e s s i o n a n d i t w as n o t p o s s i b l e t o b r i n g i t t o a v o t e . The P r o v i s o , i n one form o r a n o t h e r , was b r o u g h t u p s e v e r a l tim e s t h e r e a f t e r d u r in g P o l k ’ s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n an d i n D ecem ber o f 182*6 P o lk had a n i n t e r v i e w w ith W ilm ot i n w h ic h he e x p r e s s e d h i s o p in io n s u pon t h e s l a v e r y q u e s tio n s I t o l d him I d id n o t d e s i r e t o e x te n d s l a v e r y , t h a t I w o u ld be s a t i s f i e d t o a c q u i r e b y t r e a t y fro m M exico t h e P r o v in c e s o f New Mex­ i c o & t h e C a l i f o r n i a s , and t h a t i n t h e s e P r o v in c e s s l a v e r y c o u ld p r o b a b ly n e v e r e x i s t . . . . I t o l d him t h a t s l a v e r y was a p u r e l y d o m e s tic q u e s t i o n . 10$ I t i s o b v io u s t h a t P o lk w o u ld h a v e p r e f e r r e d t o a v o id a p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n o f s l a v e r y b u t h e f i n a l l y h ad t o ta k e a p o s i t i o n on t h i s " v e x a t i o u s ” q u e s t i o n w h ic h was consum ing a l l t h e tim e o f t h e C o n g re s s . He t h e n e x p r e s s e d h i m s e l f a s f a v o r i n g t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e M is s o u r i Com­ p ro m ise l i n e on th r o u g h t o t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t . A t t h e sam e tim e he to o k a p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e W ilm ot P r o v is o t o a n y t e r r i -

10k D ia r y , I I , 75* 105 I b i d . , I I , 289 (D ec. 2 3 , 182*6).

73 t o r y , b u t w hen t h e S e n a te p a s s e d t h e O regon b i l l p r o v id i n g g o v ern m en t f o r t h a t t e r r i t o r y b u t w i t h a p r o h i b i t i o n o f s l a v e r y he d e c id e d t o s i g n t h e b i l l , o v e r t h e p r o t e s t s o f C a lh o u n , b e c a u s e o f t h e u r g e n t n e e d f o r g overnm ent i n t h a t c o u n tr y a n d b e c a u s e none o f t h e t e r r i t o r y was s o u th o f t h e l i n e o f t h e M is s o u r i C om prom ise. I n so d o in g he f e l t i t n e c e s s a r y t o make a s ta te m e n t o f h i s r e a ­ s o n s an d h e u s e d t h e o c c a s io n t o p l e a f o r " m u tu a l c o n c e s s io n ” t o s t i l l th e d a n g e ro u s c o n t r o v e r s y . N o tin g t h a t t h e a g i t a t i o n o f t h e s l a v e r y q u e s t i o n nmay e n d a n g e r o u r g l o r i o u s U n io n , t h e s o u r c e o f o p r g r e a t n e s s and a l l o u r p o l i t i c a l b l e s s i n g s , 11 he p o i n t e d o u t t h a t W ith t h e s la v e h o ld in g S t a t e s t h i s d o e s n o t em brace m e re ly t h e r i g h t s o f p r o p e r t y , how ever v a l u a b l e , b u t i t a s c e n d s f a r h i g h e r , a n d i n ­ v o lv e s t h e d o m e s tic p e a c e an d s e c u r i t y o f e v e r y f a m i l y . 106 B ut t h e c o n tr o v e r s y was n o t s t i l l e d a n d w hen P o l k f s te rm e x p ir e d t h e t e r r i t o r y w h ic h h e h a d a c q u ir e d from M exico w as s t i l l w ith o u t a c i v i l g o v e rn m e n t. He grew b i t t e r to w a rd s t h e e x t r e m i s t s on e a c h s i d e ; t h e r e was no p a t r i o t i s m i n . e i t h e r f a c t i o n , he s a i d . B o th d e s i r e t o moun£ s l a v e r y a s a h o b b y , an d hope t o s e f u r e th e e l e c t i o n o f t h e i r f a v o u r i t e upon i t . . . . I now e n t e r t a i n a w o rse o p in io n o f Mr. C alh o u n th a n I h av e e v e r done b e f o r e . He i s w h o lly s e l f i s h , I am s a t i s f i e d he h a s no p a t r i o t i s m . . . . he s e l e c t s s l a ­ v e r y upon w h ich t o a g i t a t e t h e c o u n tr y , and b l i n d l y m ounts t h a t t o ­ p i c a s a h o b b y .1 0 7 P o lk to o k h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a s P r e s i d e n t v e r y s e r i o u s l y ; d u r­ in g h i s e n t i r e te rm he was a b s e n t fro m t h e c a p i t a l n o t m ore t h a n s i x

106 R ic h a r d s o n , M essa g e s, IV , 2l+5>7* 107 D ia r y , I I , b $ l-h 5 9 ( A p r i l 6 , 181+7)*

7h w e e k s. He w orked e n e r g e t i c a l l y a n d f o r lo n g h o u rs s i x d a y s a w eek . N e ar t h e m id d le o f h i s te rm he n o t e d i n h i s d i a r y t h a t l,I h av e p e rfo rm e d g r e a t la b o u r and i n c u r r e d v a s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . I n t r u t h . . .

I am

t h e h a r d e s t w o rk in g man i n t h i s c o u n t r y . "108 He fo u n d t h e i m p o r t u n i t i e s o f o f f i c e s e e k e r s v e r y a g g r a v a t i n g . A lth o u g h n o t more s c r u p u lo u s t h a n h i s f e l l o w p o l i t i c i a n s i n re w a rd in g d e s e r v in g s u p p o r t e r s a t t h e e x p e n se o f in c u m b e n t p u b li c o f f i c i a l s , he f e l t t h a t t h e r e s h o u ld b e a l i m i t t o t h i s en cum brance upon h i s tim e . On t h e a n n i v e r s a r y o f h i s i n a u g u r a t i o n h e w ro te i n h i s d i a r y : I am r e a d y t o e x c la im w i l l t h e p r e s s u r e f o r o f f i c e n e v e r cease'J I t i s o n e y e a r to d a y s i n c e I e n t e r e d on t h e d u t i e s o f my o f f i c e , a n d s t i l l t h e p r e s s u r e f o r o f f i c e h a s n o t a b a te d . I m o st s i n c e r e l y w is h I h a d no o f f i c e s t o b e s to w .109 B e fo re t h e en d o f h i s te r m t h e c a r e s o f h i s o f f i c e b e g a n t o t e l l on him j he h ad assum ed t h e P r e s id e n c y a t t h e r e l a t i v e l y y o u t h f u l ag e o f k9 b u t h i s f r i e n d s came t o re m a rk on h i s g ra v e a n d e l d e r l y a p p e a r ­ a n c e . H O The u n a v o id a b ly g r e a t l o a d w h ich t h e c h i e f e x e c u tiv e m u st c a r r y

was made g r e a t e r t y h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o d e l e g a t e an y l a r g e am ount o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I t w as h i s v ie w t h a t No P r e s i d e n t who p e rfo rm s h i s d u ty f a i t h f u l l y an d c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y c a n have a n y l e i s u r e . I f h e e n t r u s t s t h e d e t a i l s an d s m a l l e r m a t­ t e r s t o s u b o r d in a te s c o n s t a n t e r r o r s w i l l o c c u r . I p r e f e r t o s u p e r ­ v i s e t h e w hole o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e g o v ern m en t r a t h e r th a n e n t r u s t t h e p u b l i c b u s i n e s s t o s u b o r d i n a t e s , and t h i s m akes my d u t i e s v e r y great. H I

108 D ia r y , I I , 360 ( J a n u a r y 2 8 , 181;7)*

109 I b i d . , I , 261 (M arch k , I 8 U6 ) . 110 S e e , e . g . , B en: P e r l e y P o o r e , R g m in is c e n o e s , 3 2 8 -9 . 111 D ia r y , IV , 2 6 l (D ecem ber 2 9 , I8i}.8) .

75 I t w a s, t h e n , w i t h a g r e a t f e e l i n g o f r e l i e f , th o u g h , w ith s a d m is g iv in g s f o r t h e f a t e o f t h e R e p u b lic i n t h e h a n d s o f G e n e ra l T a y lo r , " w ith o u t e x p e r ie n c e " an d u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e F e d e r a l p a r t y , 112 t h a t P o lk l e f t T fa sh in g to n on M arch 5* 18I;9* h e a d e d f o r N a s h v il l e and r e ­ t i r e m e n t , A jo u r n e y th r o u g h t h e lo w e r S o u th h ad b e en a r r a n g e d f o r him an d b e f o r e he a r r i v e d home he f e l l i l l o f c h r o n ic d i a r r h o e a . S u rro u n d e d by f r i e n d s an d r e l i e v e d o f h i s b u r d e n s , he seem ed t o im p ro v e f o r a w h ile b u t o n Ju n e 15* 181;9* he d i e d , i n t h e f i f t y - f o u r t h y e a r o f h i s a g e .

112 D ia r y , IV, 181;.

JAMES K. POLK IN AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER I I I POLEMICS AMD REM INISCENCES181*8 - 1886 I n a l e t t e r t o Jam es S c h o u le r i n 1887* G eorge B a n c r o f t r e c o r d e d h i s r e c o l l e c t i o n o f a f o r m u l a t i o n o f e x e c u ti v e p o l i c y w h ich P o lk h a d made soon a f t e r t a k i n g t h e o a t h o f o f f i c e . "T h e re a r e f o u r g r e a t m e a s u re s * " s a i d he* w i t h em p h asis* s t r i k i n g h i s t h i g h f o r c i b l y a s h e spoke* "w h ich a r e t o b e th e m e a su re s o f my a d m i n i s t r a t i o n : one* a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e t a r i f f ; a n o th e r* t h e in d e ­ p e n d e n t t r e a s u r y ; a t h i r d , t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e O regon b o u n d a ry q u e s t i o n ; and* l a s t l y * t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f C a l i f o r n i a . " ! As we h a v e seen* t h e s e m e a s u re s d i d becom e th o s e o f h i s a d m in is ­ t r a t i o n a n d P o lk w as s u c c e s s f u l i n e v e r y p o i n t o f h i s p ro g ra m . We s h a l l fin d * how ever* t h a t a lth o u g h h i s f i n a n c i a l p ro g ram was b i t t e r l y c o n te s te d * a n d th o u g h he to o k g r e a t s a t i s f a c t i o n i n a c h ie v in g th o s e J a c k s o n ia n mea­ s u re s * h i s t o r i a n s have c o n c e n t r a t e d a lm o s t a l l o f t h e i r a t t e n t i o n u pon h i s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . W hether t h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e p r o f e s s i o n f e e l s u n e q u a l t o t h e t a s k o f p a s s i n g d e f i n i t i v e ju d g m e n ts upon econom ic p ro g ra m s an d h a s a s p e c i a l co m p eten c y f o r th e e v a l u a t i o n o f a f f a i r s o f s t a t e o r i s t h e r e s u l t o f a c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l im p o r­ ta n c e o f th o s e m easurds* we s h a l l f i n d t h a t Jam es K. P o lk a n d h i s Admin­ i s t r a t i o n h a s b e e n a s s e s s e d a lm o s t e n t i r e l y u p o n t h e b a s i s o f p o i n t s t h r e e and f o u r i n h i s p ro g ra m — an d u p o n p o i n t f o u r a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t y

1 Jam es S c h o u le r* H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s * IV* 1*98. Some h av e q u e s ti o n e d t h i s n e a t an d e x a c t f o r m u la t io n ; i t lo o k s re m a rk a b ly l i k e h i n d - s i g h t . B a n c r o f t f i r s t r e v e a l e d i t some f o r t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e e v e n t.

77 w ith M exico w h ich i t e n t a i l e d f a r more t h a n upon t h e o t h e r t h r e e to g e ^ th e r. F or s e v e r a l d ecad es a f t e r th e c lo s e o f h is a d m in is tr a tio n such a t t e n t i o n a s was fo c u s e d u pon P o l k 's a c t i v i t i e s a s P r e s i d e n t w as d e v o te d e x c l u s i v e l y t o h i s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . When new h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l becam e a v a i l a b l e d u r in g t h e l a s t d e c a d e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y * P o lk b e g a n t o r e c e i v e som e a t t e n t i o n f o r t h e o t h e r p o i n t s i n h i s p ro g ra m ; n o t* how­ e v er* so much on t h e b a s i s o f t h e v a lu e o r q u a l i t y o f h is t a r i f f an d b a n k in g p o l i c i e s b u t r a t h e r b e c a u s e t h e y d e m o n s tra te d * so i t was a s s e r ­ te d * a c o m p e te n t m a n a g e r ia l h an d a t t h e h elm o f t h e s h i p o f s t a t e w h ic h was a b le t o g u id e a s e t o f m e a su re s th r o u g h t h e C o n g re ss i n t o la w . And th o u g h r e c e n t h i s t o r i a n s have g iv e n som ewhat m ore a t t e n t i o n t o P o l k ’ s t o t a l program * t h e y have seldom e v a l u a t e d h i s d o m e s tic m e a s u re s an d have* w i th o u t e x c e p tio n * p r a i s e d o r dam ned t h e e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t f o r h is fo re ig n p o lic y . We may g e n e r a l i z e b y s a y in g t h a t th r o u g h o u t t h e one h u n d re d y e a r s t h a t h a v e p a s s e d s i n c e h i s a d m i n is tr a tio n * P o l k ’ s m o st a r d e n t s u p p o r te r s h av e a g r e e d w i t h h i s m o st c r i t i c a l d e t r a c t o r s i n s t a k i n g h i s h i s t o r i c a l r e p u t a t i o n upon t h e d ip lo m a c y w it h Mexico* and* t o a l e s s e r e x te n t* upon t h e P r e s i d e n t ’ s c o n d u c t o f t h e w a r w i t h t h a t c o u n tr y . An e x a m in a tio n o f h i s t o r i c a l e v a l u a t i o n s o f P o lk a s P r e s i d e n t t h e r e f o r e becom es l a r g e l y a n e x a m in a tio n o f h i s t o r i c a l e v a l u a t i o n s o f th e o r i g i n o f t h e w a r w i t h M exico a n d o f P o l k 's p a r t i n t h e o n s e t and c o n d u c t o f t h a t c o n f l i c t .

I t w as a lm o s t f o r t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e e v e n t b e f o r e a r e c o g n iz e d

h i s t o r i a n * i n th e p e r s o n o f Herman v o n H o ls t* p r e s e n t e d a c o m p re h e n s iv e s tu d y o f P o lk » s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , f h e r e w e re s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r t h e f a i ­ l u r e o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n 'to e n g ag e th e m s e lv e s m ore p r o m p tly w i t h t h e p o s t J a c k s o n ia n d e ca d e o f e x p a n sio n * I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e th e p r o f e s s i o n was v e r y im m ature i n t h i s c o u n tr y a t t h a t .tim e ; t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l A m erican h i s t o r i a n s w r i t i n g U n ite d S t a t e s h i s t o r y i n t h e m id d le o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y c a n a lm o s t b e num bered on t h e f i n g e r s o f one h a n d . And t h e s e men* S p a rk s* B a n c ro ft* P a lf r e y * H ild r e th * w e re f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e s t i r r i n g e v e n ts o f th e fo u n d in g o f t h e R e p u b lic * A gain* th e h i s t o r i a n th e n * a s now* h ad a r e l u c t a n c e to w a rd s h a n d lin g e v e n ts w h ich w e re s t i l l 11h o t * 11 an d f o r w h ic h many o f t h e m ost v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l s w ere s t i l l u n a v a i l ­ a b l e , F i n a l l y i t s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t th e g r e a t s e c t i o n a l w ar w h ich o c c u r r e d j u s t w hen t h e h i s t o r i a n s m ig h t h av e b e e n e x p e c te d t o b e c a r r y ­ in g t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e i r c o u n tr y th r o u g h t h e f o r t i e s *

c u t so s h a r p l y

a th w a r t A m erican h i s t o r y a n d so d o m in a te d t h e e n e r g i e s an d p a s s i o n s o f men f o r y e a r s t h e r e a f t e r t h a t t h e r e c o r d w as n o t c a r r i e d fo rw a rd i n t h e n o rm a l f a s h i o n . ^ h e re w e re th o s e * how ever* who d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o r u s h i n t o p r i n t on t h e h e e l s o f h i s t o r y an d i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s u rv e y t h e i r e v a l ­ u a tio n s * b o th t o u n d e r s ta n d t h e b a c k g ro u n d o f o p in io n i n th e s o c i e t y f o r t h e s e f o r t y y e a r s an d b e c a u s e t h e s e p r e s e n t a t i o n s b y l a y h i s t o r i a n s w ere n o t w ith o u t i n f l u e n c e upon t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w h ic h f o l ­ lo w e d , The e a r l y a c c o u n ts * some v i r t u a l l y c o n te m p o ra ry w i t h t h e e v e n ts t h e y w e re d e s c r ib in g * w ere a lm o s t a l l s t r o n g l y p a r t i s a n an d i t w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e p u rp o s e s o f t h i s e x a m in a tio n -to r e v ie w tw o r e p r e s e n -

79 t a t i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , one i n t h e e u l o g i s t i c m anner o f a n a d m ir e r and t h e o t h e r e x tr e m e ly c r i t i c a l * 2 I n I 8 I4.9 t h e r e w as p u b lis h e d i n B o sto n A R eview o f t h e C au ses an d C o n se q u e n ce s o f th e M exican W ar* The a u th o r was W illia m J a y , m o ra l r e ­ fo r m e r a n d j u s t i c e on th e M a s s a c h u s s e ts b e n c h . I n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o h i s r e v ie w o f o v e r t h r e e h u n d re d p ^ g e s J a y s t a t e s h i s p u rp o s e w ith pug­ n a c io u s f r a n k n e s s : The R eview h a s f a r l o f t i e r o b j e c t s th a n th o s e o f a n h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d . I t aim s t o recommend ah d e n f o r c e th e d u t y o f p r e s e r v i n g P e a c e , b y e x h i b i t i n g t h e w ic k e d n e s s , t h e b a s e n e s s , an d t h e c ala m ­ i t o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a v i c t o r i o u s War, e f f e c t i n g Csic] a l l t h e e n d s f o r w h ic h i t was w aged. I t s e e k s t o w arn t h e c o u n tr y a g a i n s t t h a t I t s t r i v e s to e x c ite th e a b a d m ir a tio n o f m i l i t a r y p ro w re s s . . . . h o re n c e o f t h e g o o d f o r t h a t s ta t e s m a n s h ip w h ic h s e e k s t h e a g g ra n ­ d is e m e n t o f t h e c o u n tr y i n d e f ia n c e o f t h e la w s o f G od.3 J a y a l s o fo u n d i t a p ro p o s t o an n o u n ce t h a t he was a b e l i e v e r i n t h e D iv in e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s an d t h a t h e a ck n o w le d g e d no s ta n d ­ a r d o f r i g h t a n d w rong b u t t h e W ill o f God. B ut o n e i s r a t h e r s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d t h i s s ta t e m e n t o f d o g m a tic a b s o l u t e n e s s f o llo w e d b y a re m a rk a s t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n f a c t and o p in io n : t h e a u th o r " f l a t t e r e d h im -

2 A m ore th o ro u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e p o p u la r h i s t o r i e s on t h i s s u b j e c t o f t h e l a t e f o r t i e s and e a r l y f i f t i e s w o u ld i n c l u d e a t l e a s t t h e f o ll o w i n g : N. C. B ro o k s , A C o m p lete H i s t o r y o f t h e M ex ican W ar, P h i l a . : I81t9; L u c ie n B. C h ase , A H i s t o r y o f t h e ffo lk A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , New Y ork: 1850; B u r d e tt H a r t , The M ex ican War, New H aven; X8it7> G eorge W ilk in s K e n d a ll, The War B etw een t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico, New Y ork: 1 8 5 1 ; A. A. L iv e rm o re , The War Y fith M exico R ev iew ed , B o s to n : 1 8 5 0 ; Edw ard D. M a n s f ie ld , The M exican "War, New Y ork: 18h8; B ra n tz M ayer, A H i s t o r y o f t h e War B etw een M exico a n d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , New Y ork: 18TJ8; A. C. Ram­ s e y , The O th e r S id e , New Y o rk : l 8 5 0 ; R o b e r t S . R ip l e y , The War W ith Mex­ i c o , 2 v o l s . , l8 li9 ; H e n d e rso n Yoakum, A H i s t o r y o f T exas fro m 1685 t o l 8 t| 6 , 2 v o l s . , 1 8 5 6 . — 3 W illia m J a y , R eview o f t h e M exican W ar, i|.

80 s e l f " t h a t h i s f a c t s w ould b e f o u n d 'i n c o n t r e v a r t i b l e — " f o r h i s o p in ­ io n s he c la im s no i n f a l l i b i l i t y , a n d a n t i c i p a t e s no g e n e r a l a s s e n t ." U W r itin g im m e d ia te ly a f t e r t h e e v e n t J a y h a d , o f c o u r s e , no a s s i s ­ t a n c e fro m o t h e r ’ s w ork on t h e s u b j e c t an d no s o u rc e m a t e r i a l s e x c e p t t h o s e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p u b l i c g e n e r a l l y . I n h i s i n d ic tm e n t o f t h e a d ­ m i n i s t r a t i o n he m akes f r e q u e n t u s e o f t h e ex e c u tiv e docu m en ts s u b m itte d t o th e C o n g re s s . Add t o t h i s t h e C o n g r e s s io n a l G lobe f o r t h e p r o c e d in g s o f t h e C o n g re ss an d a f a i r l y l a r g e an d v a r i e d sa m p lin g o f n e w sp a p e rs th r o u g h o u t t h e U nion a n d one h a s l i s t e d J a y f s m a t e r i a l s . I t s h o u ld b e re m a rk e d t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o u s in g t h e p r e s s f o r e d i t o r i a l o p in io n he c u l l e d fro m i t a r a t h e r l a r g e am ount o f s o u rc e m a t e r i a l i n t h e way o f l e t t e r s o f " w i t n e s s e s ." P e rh a p s b e c a u s e h i s o b j e c t s w ere " l o f t i e r ” t h a n a m ere h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d he o f t e n f a i l s t o g iv e s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e f o r h i s s ta t e m e n ts o f f a c t s , e v e n d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n s $ b u t s t i l l i t c o u ld be s a i d t o b e f a i r l y w e l l d o cu m en ted . A f t e r g iv in g a l a r g e am ount o f s p a c e t o t h e l o n g - c o n ti n u e d a t ­ te m p ts t o " w r e s t T exas from M ex ico ,

J a y comes t o th e more im m e d ia te

e v e n ts p r e c e d in g t h e w a r. M r. P o lk had p r o c u r e d t h e D e m o c ra tic n om ina­ t i o n , he a s s e r t e d , b y a m anuever o f t h e s o u t h e r n e r s . The q u a l i f i c a t i o n s w h ic h p r o c u r e d f o r t h i s g e n tle m a n t h e h o n o r o f a n o m in a tio n , w e re d o u b t l e s s h i s d e v o tio n t o t h e c a u s e o f s l a v ­ e ry , h is v itu p e r a tio n o f th e a b o l i t i o n i s t s and a r e c e n t p r in t e d l e t ­ t e r i n w h ic h he a d v o c a te d t h e IMMEDIATE ANNEXATION OF TEXAS.6 it J a y , R eview o f t h e M ex ican W ar, 3 -it.

$ Ib id . , 9 f f • 6 I b i d . , 1 0 0 . The c a p i t a l s a r e J a y ’ s . Any e m p h a s is , e i t h e r c a p i ­ t a l s o r i t a l i c s , w h ic h a p p e a r s i n a d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n fro m an h i s t o r i a n i n t h i s su rv e y w i l l b e t h a t o f th e h i s t o r i a n i n q u e s tio n !

81 J a y d e v o te s s e v e r a l c h a p t e r s t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e b e g in n in g o f h o s t i l i t i e s , p l a c e s t h e blam e s q u a r e l y upon t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and i n a p a r a g r a p h d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e nr e a l n fro m t h e " p r e ­ te n d e d " c a u s e s o f t h e "war i n d i c a t e s h i s b e l i e f i n B u ch a n a n ’ s im p o rta n c e i n t h e p o l i c i e s o f th e . P o lk A d m in is tr a ti o n : I t se e m s, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e G overnm ent r e s o l v e d on w ar p r o f e s ­ s e d l y f o r tw o c a u s e s ; 1 s t , The i n j u r i e s t o o u r c i t i z e n s , a l l o f w h ich w e re e s t i m a t e d i n d o l l a r ® an d c e n t s . To c o l l e c t a few m i l l i o n s o f a l l e g e d d e b t s , i t a ck n o w le d g e s i t £ i t s ] w i l l i n g n e s s t o commence t h e w ork o f human s l a u g h t e r , an d t h a t , t o o , a t t h e v e ry moment when n o l e s s t h a n s i x S t a t e s o f t h e U nion w e re i n d e b te d i n t h e p r o d i g i o u s am ount o f $>5 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , o f w h ich t h e y p a i d n e i t h e r p r i n c i p a l o r i n ­ t e r e s t . The v e r y i d e a o f c o l l e c t i n g tw o o r t h r e e m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s by s p e n d in g a h u n d re d o r so i n m u rd e rin g t h e d e b t o r s , i s so u t t e r l y a b s u r d a n d d i a b o l i c a l , t h a t we m u st b e e x c u s e d fro m b e l i e v i n g Mr. B uchanan when he p r e t e n d s t h a t su ch was t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e C a b i­ n e t . The s e c o n d c a u s e a s s ig n e d i s l i t t l e l e s s c r e d i b l e . The i n s u l t s t o o u r G overnm ent w h ic h w e re t o b e re v e n g e d b y k i l l i n g M e x ic a n s, a r e t h e im p u ta tio n s o f b a d f a i t h c a s t b y t h e i r r u l e r s upo n t h e G overn­ m ent a t W a sh in g to n f o r i t s c o n d u c t to w a rd s Tte x a s ; im p u ta tio n s w h ic h , how ever d i s a g r e e a b l e , w e re u n h a p p ily s u p p o r te d b y f a c t s . . . . The a c q u i s i t i o n o f C a l i f o r n i a , an d th e e x te n s io n o f s l a v e r y , a f ­ f o r d e d m o tiv e s f o r w ar w h ic h t h e p r e te n d e d c a u s e s a s s ig n e d b y Mr. B uchanan f a i l e d t o s u p p ly .7 J a y ’ s t h e s i s i s t h a t Jam es K. P o lk was a s e r v i l e a g e n t o f t h e s l a v e p ow er; t h a t t h e w ar a g a i n s t M exico w as t h e r e s u l t o f a g g r e s s iv e m e a su re s b y t h e s l a v o c r a c y t o g a in new t e r r i t o r y f o r t h e i r I n s t i t u t i o n t o b u t t r e s s t h e i r "su p rem acy " i n W a sh in g to n ; a n d , i n c i d e n t a l l y , t h a t P o lk r a t h e r h a b i t u a l l y f a i l e d t o s p e a k t r u t h , h i s m essag e o f D ecem ber, I 8 I4 6 i n d e f e n s e o f h i s d ip lo m a c y b e in g te rm e d b y J a y " a p y ra m id o f m e n d a c ity . ’’8 '

7 J a y , R eview , 135 f

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82 T h is v ig o r o u s w ork i s r a t h e r c o n v in c in g d e s p i t e t h e w r i t e r ! s d o g m a tic to n e a n d l a v i s h u s e o f c a p i t a l s an d i t a l i c s t o d r i v e home t h e h o r r i b l e t r u t h t o t h e r e a d e r . D e fe n d e rs o f t h e w a r c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r a t t a c k u pon i t f o r h a l f a c e n t u r y t h e r e a f t e r and t h e f i r s t s e r i o u s h i s ­ t o r i c a l w ork drew r a t h e r h e a v i l y , w i t h in a d e q u a te ack n o w le d g e m en t, on t h i s p o le m ic . A fe w m onths a f t e r t h e T r e a t y o f G u ad alu p e H id a lg o was s i g n e d , J o h n S t i l l w e l l J e n k in s p u b lis h e d a H i s t o r y o f t h e War B etw een t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico. He was a p r o l i f i c w r i t e r i n t h e l a t e f o r t i e s a n d e a r ­ l y f i f t i e s ; h e w ro te b i o g r a p h i e s o f t h e p ro m in e n t D e m o crats o f h i s t im e , J o h n C. C alh o u n an d S i l a s W rig h t, among o t h e r s — i n a l l , a d o z en f u l l l e n g t h " h i s t o r i c a l 11 w orks w i t h i n a d e c a d e . I n h i s h i s t o r y o f th e w ar J e n k in s a d o p ts t h e v ie w s o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n e v e r y p a r t i c u l a r , j u s t i f y i n g th e P r e s id e n t in i t s

o r i g i n an d p r a i s i n g him f o r i t s c o n d u c t.

I n 18^1 J e n k in s b r o u g h t o u t Jam es Knox P o lk and a H i s t o r y o f H is A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a volum e w h ic h he d e d i c a t e d t o W illia m L. M arcy , P o l k ’s S e c r e t a r y o f W ar, a s a " to k e n o f h ig h p e r s o n a l e s te e m . "9 A f t e r c o m p arin g P o lk * s p a r t i n s e c u r in g v a s t new t e r r i t o r i e s f o r t h e U nion w i t h t h e r e ­ m ark made o f A u g u stu s C a e s a r t h a t h e f ound Rome a c i t y o f b r i c k an d l e f t i t a c i t y o f m a rb le , he r e f e r s t o t h e R eview o f J a y a s a w ork p r o ­ d u ced w ith " p u re an d h o n e s t m o tiv e s , b u t w ith d o g m a tic a s s u m p tio n s , a n d a p p e a ls t o t h e p a s s i o n s a n d s y m p a th ie s , r a t h e r th a n w ith w e ll- f o u n d ­ e d a r g u m e n ts ." J e n k in s a d d s t h a t h e d o e s n o t c la i m t h a t h i s own w ork i s

9 J e n k i n s , P o lk , v i i .

33 ■e n t i r e l y i m p a r t i a l . 10 A lm ost h a l f o f t h i s b o o k o f f o u r h u n d re d p a g e s i s com posed o f P o l k 's a d d r e s s e s th r o u g h o u t h i s p o l i t i c a l l i f e . The b io g r a p h y i s a mo­ d e r a t e e u lo g y o f a c o m p e te n t, i n d u s t r i o u s an d v ig o r o u s p r e s i d e n t w hose e f f o r t s r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t a d v a n ta g e t o t h e n a t i o n . He so m etim es r e s o r t s t o a s t r i d e n t p a t r i o t i s m t o e x p l a i n a n d d e fe n d P o l k 's c o n d u c t o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s b u t w ith much more r e s t r a i n t th a n some l a t e r d e f e n d e r s . J e n k i n 's g e n e r a l to n e i s shown i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f H o ik 's d e c i s i o n t o r e c e d e fro m 5k° hO1: T h e re w as . . . a new c o n s i d e r a t i o n c o n n e c te d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n , — one o f p o l i c y an d e x p e d ie n c y , m o tiv e s w h ich a lw a y s h a v e , and w h ic h a lw a y s s h o u ld , w ith some l i m i t a t i o n s , c o n t r o l t h e a c t i o n o f . n a tio n s and in d iv id u a ls . . . . w a r now e x i s t e d w ith M ex ico , a n d a s t h a t c o u n tr y w as l a r g e l y in d e b t e d t o A m erican c i t i z e n s , a n d was c o n f e s s e d l y b a n k r u p t, Mr. P o lk , a s a w is e a n d s a g a c io u s s ta te s m a n , c o u ld n o t b u t h a v e f o r e s e e n t h a t t h e c o n t e s t w ould t e r m i n a t e i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n , a s a s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r t h e A m erican c la im s an d th e e x p e n s e s o f t h e w a r , o f a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f c o n tig u o u s t e r r i t o r y , i n w h ic h was em b raced t h e b a y o f San F r a n c i s c o , t h e f i n e s t h a r b o r on t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t *11 J e n k in s a s s e r t s t h a t t h e c la im o f T e x a s , a n d t h e r e f o r e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , was a s good t o t h e c o u n t r y l y i n g b e tw e e n th e N u eces and th e

R io G rande a s i t was t o an y o f T e x a s .12 He a t t r i b u t e s th e c r i t i c i s m

o f P o l k 's move i n s e n d in g t h e arm y p a r t y s t r i f e ." 1 3

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S tr o n g i n t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f r i g h t s h e 1 d e s i r e d o n ly t o d is c h a r g e w h a t he c o n c e iv e d t o b e h i s d u ty . He was a man o f p e a c e . . . . He w o u ld , i n d e e d , h av e b e e n r e c r e a n t t o d u ty , — f a l s e t o h i m s e l f a n d f a l s e t o h i s c o u n tr y , — h a d he n o t o r d e r e d th e a d v a n c e t o t h e &lo G ran d e. I t w as t h e p o l i c y o f w isdom — t h e p o l i c y o f r i g h t — t h e p o lic y o f ju s tic e * lu C r i t i c i s m o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk , J e n k in s r e p e a t e d , was s im p ly due t o p a r t y s t r i f e . He com pared i t t o t h e c a lu m n ia ti o n o f M adison b y h i s op­ p o n e n ts f o r t h e w ar o f 1812 a n d lo o k e d fo r w a rd t o t h e d a y when P o lk w ou ld b e e n s h r in e d i n t h e h e a r t s an d a f f e c t i o n s o f t h e A m erican p e o p le a s M adison was by t h e m id d le o f t h e c e n t u r y . One h i s t o r i c a l w ork o f t h e f i f t i e s , a com p en d io u s p e r s o n a l h i s ­ t o r y , i s o f g r e a t e r im p o rta n c e i n t h i s s u r v e y . I n I8 g 6 Thomas H a rt Ben­ t o n , J a c k s o n ia n D em ocrat a n d e x - S e n a to r fro m M is s o u r i, p u b l i s h e d a two volum e T h i r t y Y e a r s 1 V iew , a h i s t o r y o f “t h e w o rk in g o f A m erican G overn­ m ent fro m 1820 t o 1 8 5 0 .” T hese v o lu m es a r e l a r g e l y com posed o f s p e e c h e s i n t h e C o n g re s s , i n s e r t e d v e r b a tim , w ith a g e n e ro u s s u p p ly o f t h o s e b y S e n a to r B e n to n , an d w i t h a com m entary c o n n e c tin g t h e a d d r e s s e s . B en to n h a d b e e n a s t r o n g s u p p o r t e r o f Van B u ren d u r i n g h i s te rm a n d h e g r e a t l y r e s e n t e d t h e “i n t r i g u e ” b y w h ich P o lk s e c u r e d t h e n o m in a tio n i n l81jl** B en to n h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e n g t h i n t h e S e n a te an d h e h e l d a l o o f fro m P o l k ’s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d u r in g t h e f i r s t few m onths b u t he so o n swung h i s s u p p o r t t o P r e s i d e n t i a l m e a s u re s , g iv i n g g r e a t a i d t o t h e T a r i f f b i l l a n d t h e Bank a c t* A c c o rd in g t o h i s own a c c o u n t B en to n a l s o d e s e r v e s much c r e d i t

Xit J e n k i n s , P o lk , 272* l g I b i d . , 2 7 1 -2 .

85 f o r t h e O regon s e t t l e m e n t . He a s s e r t s t h a t P o lk l e t him know t h a t he w a n te d t o b a c k down fro m h i s “a l l o f O reg o n 1' p o s i t i o n b u t c o u ld n o t seem t o do so l e s t h e a l i e n a t e h i s p a r t i s a n s i n t h e w e s t. B en to n r e ­ m arks w ith some h e a t t h a t w h ile t h e S e n a te was g iv in g t h e P r e s i d e n t f a i t h f u l s u p p o r t -a g a i n s t h i m s e l f , a g a i n s t h i s c a b i n e t a n d a g a i n s t h i s " p e c u l i a r f r i e n d s , " M r. R i t c h i e , i n * P o l k 's o r g a n , was p o u rin g o u t a b u se on th o s e who Y/ere t r y i n g t o s e c u r e a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e B r i t i s h com prom ise at A t one tim e P o lk t r i e d t o c r e a t e a s p e c i a l o f f i c e s o t h a t B en to n c o u ld b e p la c e d i n t h e c h i e f command o f t h e arm y b u t t h e tw o men w ere n e v e r i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s and a f t e r t h e P r e s i d e n t r e f u s e d t o r e v e r s e th e f i n d i n g s o f t h e c o u r t - m a r t i a l a g a i n s t F re m o n t, B e n t o n 's s o n - i n - l a w , t h e y became a lm o s t open e n e m ie s . Some h i s t o r i a n s Yrho a r e c u r r e n t l y e n g a g e d i n t h e a tte m p t t o r e h a b i l i t a t e P o l k 's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h av e a c c u s e d B en to n o f b e in g i n s t r u m e n t a l i n p r e j u d i c i n g h i s t o r y a g a i n s t P o lk b e c a u s e o f a p e r s o n a l b i a s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e T h i r t y Y e a r s ' V iew . 17 T h is p o i n t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o be w e l l t a k e n ; B e n to n o p p o se d t h e m a n eu v e rs i n T@xas lo n g b e f o r e he p a r t e d company w i th P o lk an d i n h i s h i s t o r y h e seem s I n t e n t upon r e s c u i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t fro m t h e c o n d e m n a tio n w h ic h , a c c o r d in g t o h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s h o u ld f a l l u p o n th e o r i g i n a t o r o f t h e M exican p o l i c i e s * B en to n re m a rk s t h a t h e w o u ld h av e a d v is e d P o lk a g a i n s t s e n d in g t h e arm y t o t h e R io G rande i f h e h a d known o f i t b u t t h a t C a lh o u n , n o t

16 B e n to n , T h i r t y Y e a r s ' View, I I ,

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1 17 F o r e x a m p le : A r th u r S c h l e s i n g e r J r . , The A^e o f J a c k s o n , h53*

86 P o lk , was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e w a r b y h i s u s in g t h e T ex as q u e s t i o n t o a d ­ v a n c e h i s p o l i t i c a l a s p i r a t i o n s f o r y e a r s *18 He a l s o p l a c e d much o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e w ar upon t h e s p e c u l a t o r s i n T ex as la n d s c r i p t , a c o n t e n t i o n w h ic h C h a r le s B eard w as t o b u t t r e s s t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f a c e n ­ t u r y l a t e r . R e f e r r i n g t o t h e t r e a t y w h ich e n d e d t h e w a r he s a y s : B ut t h e l a r g e s t g r a t i f i e d i n t e r e s t was one w h ich d i d n o t a p p e a r on t h e f a c e o f th e t r e a t y , b u t h a d t h e f u l l b e n e f i t o f b e in g i n c l u d ­ ed i n i t . They w e re t h e s p e c u l a t o r s i n T ex as la n d s and s c r i p , now a llo w e d t o c a l c u l a t e l a r g e l y upon t h e i r i n c r e a s e d v a lu e u n d e r th e f l a g o f th e A m erican U n io n . They w ere among t h e o r i g i n a l p ro m o te rs o f th e T ex as a n n e x a tio n , among t h e m o st c la m o ro u s f o r w a r, an d among t h e g r a t i f i e d a t t h e p e a c e . . . *19 B e n t o n 's d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e v e n ts l e a d i n g up t o t h e o u tb r e a k o f h o s t i l i t i e s i s c a lm ly c o n d e m n a to ry . S p e a k in g o f t h e a tt e m p t t o th ro w t h e blam e f o r t h e w ar upon M exico h e r e f e r s t o P o l k 's b a s i s f o r s a y in g t h a t sh e h a d s h e d "A m erican b lo o d upo n A m erican s o i l : " H i s t o r y i s bound t o p ro n o u n c e h e r ju d g m en t u pon t h e s e a s s u m p tio n s , an d t o s a y t h a t t h e y a r e u n fo u n d e d . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e l e g a l s t a t e o f w ar • • • w as p ro d u c e d b y t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f Tex a s , w i t h w h ich M exico w as a t w a r. I n t h e n e x t p l a c e , t h e U n ite d S t a t e s g o v e rn ­ m ent u n d e r s to o d t h a t a c t t o b e t h e a s s u m p tio n o f th e w a r i n f a c t , a s w e l l a s i n la w , b y t h e im m e d ia te a d v a n c e o f th e arm y t o t h e f r o n ­ t i e r o f T e x a s, and o f t h e n a v y t o t h e G u lf o f M ex ico , t o t a k e t h e w ar o f f t h e h a n d s o f t h e T e x ia n s ' I s i c l . I n t h e t h i r d p l a c e th e a c t u a l c o l l i s i o n o f arm s w as b r o u g h t on b y t h e f u r t h e r a d v an ce o f A m erican t r o o p s t o th e l e f t b a n k o f t h e lo w e r R io G ra n d e, th e n a n d a lw a y s i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f M ex ico , a n d e r e c t i n g f i e l d w o rk s on t h e b a n k o f t h e r i v e r , a n d p o i n t i n g c a n n o n a t the-*tow n o f M atam oros on t h e op­ p o s i t e s i d e , t h e s e a t o f a M exican p o p u l a t i o n , a n d t h e h e a d - q u a r t e r s o f t h e i r arm y o f o b s e r v a t i o n . I t was vender t h e s e c ir c u m s ta n c e s t h a t th e M exican t r o o p s c r o s s e d t h e r i v e r , an d commenced t h e a t t a c k . And t h i s i s w h a t i s c a l l e d s p i l l i n g A m erican b lo o d on A m erican s o i l . The la w s o f n a t i o n s an d t h e la w s o f s e l f - d e f e n c e , j u s t i f y t h a t s p i l l i n g o f b lo o d ; an d s u c h w i l l be t h e ju d g m e n t o f h i s t o r y . 2 0 18 B e n to n , T h i r t y Y e a rs V iew , I I , 639-k9»

19 I b i d . ^ I I , 7 1 0 . 20 I b i d . , I I , 6 7 8 .

87 B e n to n s a y s e ls e w h e re t h a t t h e a d v a n c e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s tr o o p s c o u ld o n ly be lo o k e d upon b y t h e M ex ican s a s an a g g r e s s i o n a n d t h a t t h e w ar h a d b e e n d e te r m in e d upon b e fo re t h e a d v a n c e o f t h o s e t r o o p s ; t h e a d ­ v a n c e w as a m aneuver to b r i n g i t o n , “W ith o u t t h a t e v e n t f t h e s p i l l i n g o f b lo o d ] i t w o u ld h a v e b e e n d i f f i c u l t — p e rh a p s im p o s s ib le — t o h av e g o t C o n g re ss t o v o t e i t ; w i th i t , t h e v o t e w as a lm o s t u n a n im o u s ,“21 B e n t o n 's a n a l y s i s o f t h e d ip lo m a c y o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s c l e v e r and a p p o s ite : I t i s im p o s s ib le t o c o n c e iv e o f an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n l e s s w a r l i k e , o r more i n t r i g u i n g , t h a n t h a t o f Mr, P o lk . They w e re men o f p e a c e , w ith o b j e c t s t o b e a c c o m p lis h e d by means o f w a r; so t h a t w a r was a n e c e s s i t y a n d a n i n d i s p e n s a b i l i t y t o t h e i r p u r p o s e ; b u t t h e y w a n te d no m ore o f i t t h a n w o u ld a n sw e r t h e i r p u r p o s e s . They w a n te d a s m a ll w a r, j u s t l a r g e eno u g h t o r e q u i r e a t r e a t y o f p e a c e , an d n o t l a r g e enough t o make m i l i t a r y r e p u t a t i o n s , d a n g e ro u s f o r t h e presidency.2 2 I n summing up P o l k 's s t a t u r e a s P r e s i d e n t B e n to n a c q u i t s him o f a lm o s t a l l p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e f a u l t s o f ' h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . He c h a r g e s P o lk o n ly w ith w e ak n e ss an d b ad lu c k : He w as an e x e m p la ry man i n p r i v a t e l i f e , m o ra l i n a l l h i s d e p o r t ­ m e n t, an d p a t r i o t i c i n h i s p u b l ic l i f e , a im in g a t t h e good o f h i s c o u n tr y a lw a y s . I t was h i s m is f o r tu n e t o h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t i n t o t h e p r e s id e n c y b y a n i n t r i g u e , n o t o f h i s own, b u t o f o t h e r s , a n d t h e e v i l s o f w h ic h becam e a n i n h e r i t a n c e o f h i s p o s i t i o n , an d t h e s o l e c a u s e o f a l l t h a t w as o b j e c t i o n a b l e i n h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . . . . A l l t h e f a u l t s o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w e re th e f a u l t s o f h i s c a b i n e t ; a l l i t s m e r i t s w e re h i s own, i n d e f ia n c e o f th e m . . . . H is own w i l l was n o t s t r o n g enough f o r h i s p o s i t i o n , y e t he becam e f i r m and ab ­ s o l u t e w here h i s ju d g m en t was c o n v in c e d a n d p a t r i o t i s m r e q u i r e d d e ­ c i s i o n . . . . The M exican w a r, u n d e r t h e im p u ls e o f s p e c u l a t o r s , and u po n an i n t r i g u e w i t h S a n ta A nna, w as t h e g r e a t b l o t upon h i s adm in­ i s t r a t i o n ; a n d t h a t was w h o lly t h e w ork o f th e i n t r i g u i n g p a r t o f h i s c a b i n e t , i n t o w h ic h he e n t e r e d w ith ' a f i l l b e l i e f t h a t th e i n t r i g u e

21 B e n t o n ,. T h i r t y Y e a r s 1 V iew , I I , 6 7 9 . 22 I b id . , I I , 680

88 was t o b e s u c c e s s f u l , an d th e w a r f i n i s h e d i n " n i n e t y o r one h u n d re d a n d tw e n ty d a y s ; ” and w it h o u t f i r i n g a n o th e r gun a f t e r i t s h o u ld b e d e c l a r e d . . . . The a c q u i s i t i o n o f New M exico an d C a l i f o r n i a w e re t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g e v e n ts o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n — f r u i t s o f t h e w a r w i t h M exico; b u t w hich w o u ld h a v e come t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w ith o u t t h a t w a r i f t h e P r e s i d e n t h a d b e e n s u r r o u n d e d fcy a-‘c a b i n e t f r e e f r o m i n ­ t r i g u e and s e l f i s h n e s s , an d w h o lly i n t e n t u pon th e h o n o r an d i n t e r ­ e s t s o f t h e c o u n t r y . 23 F o r a lm o s t t h r e e d e c a d e s a f t e r B e n to n ’ s T h i r t y Y e a rs * V iew no w ork was done on t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f Jam es K. P o lk , I n t h e l a t e f i f t i e s t h e n a t i o n was r u s h in g h a r d u p o n t h e s h o a ls o f d i s u n io n ; s h e w as t o em erge fro m t h e r e e f s i n p e r i l o u s s t a t e a f t e r t h e s e v e r e s t s t r u g g l e . A l l e n e r g i e s w e re c o n c e n t r a t e d on th e c r i t i c a l c o n t e s t an d f o r y e a r s a f t e r w a r d s i t so f a s c i n a t e d t h e memory t h a t t h e s m a ll w a r o f t h e f o r t i e s was v i r t u a l l y f o r g o t t e n . HVhen P o l k ’ s a d m in is ­ t r a t i o n a g a in a p p e a re d i n h i s t o r y i t was i n p e r s o n a l a c c o u n t s , s i m i l a r t o B e n to n ’ s . Jam es G. B l a i n e ’ s t i t l e was p r o b a b l y c o p ie d fro m B en to n : Tw enty Y e a rs o f C o n g re s s : fro m L in c o ln t o G a r f i e l d , w it h a R eview o f t h e E v e n ts w h ic h Led t o t h e P o l i t i c a l R e v o lu tio n o f i8 6 0 . The R e p u b lic a n p o l i t i c i a n p u b lis h e d t h i s in

1 8 8 2 ;;

h e h a d p la y e d a v e r y m in o r r o l e i n p o l i t i c s d u r ­

in g t h e f o r t i e s a n d h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P o lk i s in a d e q u a te a n d uncon-* v i n c i n g . B la in e t a k e s t h e g r o u n d , a lm o s t u n iq u e u n t i l r e c e n t y e a r s , o f a p p r o v in g t h e w ar w i t h M ex ico , w h ic h h e assu m e s vras t h e s im p le a n d c e r ­ t a i n r e s u l t o f t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T ex as,2 U b u t o f b e in g v e r y c r i t i c a l o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk , who w as —

23 B e n to n , T h i r t y Y e a rs * V iew , I I ,

7 3 7 -8 .

22; B la in e , T w enty Y e a rs o f C o n g re s s , I , 2;0*

89 b y s i n g u l a r f o r t u n e p la c e d a t t h e h e a d o f one o f t h e m o st v ig o r o u s and im p o r ta n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t. He h ad n o t-.b e e n t r a i n e d i n t h e h ig h e r , d u t i e s o f s ta t e s m a n s h ip , a n d was n o t p e r s o n a l l y e q u a l t o t h e w e ig h ty r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w h ic h d e v o lv e d upon h im . He was o v ersh ad o w e d b y t h e a b i l i t y o f a t l e a s t t h r e e mem­ b e r s o f h i s c a b i n e t , an d was k e e n l y s e n s i b l e o f t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y . He h a d , h o w e v e r, a c e r t a i n a p t i t u d e f o r a f f a i r s , was i n d u s t r i o u s , an d i n p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r ab o v e r e p r o a c h . M r. W e b s te r d e s c r i b e d him w ith a c c u r a c y when h e sp o k e o f him a s " r e s p e c t a b l e b u t n e v e r e m i n e n t ."25 B la in e s p e a k s o f P o lk * s " c a u t i o u s an d som ew hat t i m i d c o u r s e " i n h i s n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h M exico w h ic h , he s a y s , r e p r e s e n t e d t h e " r e s u l t a n t b e tw e e n t h e a g g r e s s i v e D em ocrat o f th e S o u th who w as f o r w ar r e g a r d l e s s o f c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d t h e F r e e - s o i l D em o crat o f t h e N o rth who w as f o r p e a c e r e g a r d l e s s o f consequences,"26 a b a la n c e d p h r a s e w h ich r e p r e s e n t s a c o m p le te m is u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f Jam es K. P o lk . T h is i n ­ t r o d u c t o r y s e c t i o n o f t h e T w enty Y e a rs o f C o n g re s s , a p o l i t i c o - h i s t o r i ­ c a l e s s a y o f u n d o c u m e n ta te d f a c t a n d c u r i o u s a n d so m etim es c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e f l e c t i o n s , i s im p o r ta n t o n ly a s a b a r o m e te r t o p o l i t i c a l o p in io n s on P o lk d u r in g t h a t p e r io d * U ly s s e s S . G ra n t h a d b e e n a l i e u t e n a n t o f i n f a n t r y i n t h e M exican War an d i n h i s

P e r s o n a l M em oirs, p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 8 5 , he h a s some re m a rk s

t o make on t h e

c h a r a c t e r o f t h a t c o n f l i c t . G ra n t s a y s t h a t m o st o f t h e

o f f i c e r s w e re i n d i f f e r e n t a s t o w h e th e r T ex as w e re a n n e x e d o r n o t b u t F o r m y s e lf , I was b i t t e r l y o p p o se d t o t h e m e a s u re , a n d t o t h i s d ay r e g a r d t h e w a r, w h ic h r e s u l t e d , a s one o f t h e m o st u n j u s t e v e r waged fcy a s t r o n g e r a g a i n s t a w e a k e r n a t i o n . I t w as an i n s t a n c e o f a r e ­ p u b lic f o llo w in g t h e b a d exam ple o f E u ro p ea n m o n a rc h ie s i n n o t co n ­ s id e r in g j u s t i c e in t h e i r d e s ir e to a c q u ire a d d itio n a l t e r r i t o r y . •

25 B la in e , T w enty Y e ars o f C o n g re s s , I , 59* 26 I b i d . , I , h7.

90 • • The o c c u p a tio n , s e p a r a t i o n a n d a n n e x a tio n w e re , fro m t h e in c e p ­ t i o n o f t h e movement t o i t s f i n a l c o n s ig n a tio n , a c o n s p ir a c y t o a c ­ q u i r e t e r r i t o r y o u t o f w h ic h s l a v e s t a t e s m ig h t be.,’fo rm ed f o r th e A m erican U n io n . Even i f t h e a n n e x a tio n i t s e l f c o u ld b e j u s t i f i e d * th e m anner i n w h ic h t h e s u b s e q u e n t w ar w as f o r c e d u p o n M exico c a n n o t. . . .2 7 G ra n t c l o s e s h i s r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e i n i q u i t y o f t h e

7 *ar

by th e

c o n j e c t u r e t h a t t h e " S o u th e rn r e b e l l i o n " w as l a r g e l y t h e o u tg ro w th o f t h e M ex ican w a r. " N a tio n s , l i k e i n d i v i d u a l s , a r e p u n is h e d f o r t h e i r t r a n s g r e s s i o n s . We g o t o u r p u n is h m e n t i n t h e m o st s a n g u in a r y and ex­ p e n s iv e w a r o f m odem t i m e s . "28 Cadmus M. W ilc o x , a M a jo r -G e n e ra l i n t h e C o n f e d e r a te f o r c e s d u r­ in g t h e C i v i l W ar, a n d , l i k e G r a n t, a l i e u t e n a n t i n t h e w ar w ith M ex ico , w ro te a h i s t o r y on t h a t c o n f l i c t w h ic h i n t e r p r e t s i t v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y . The book i s d e d ic a te d t o t h e "A m erican s o l d i e r s an d s a i l o r s o f t h e Mex­ i c a n War — t o h o n o r t h e l i v i n g a n d rem em ber t h e d e a d " $29 t h e r e i s no d o c u m e n ta tio n h i t i t i s a p p a r e n t l y b a s e d upon arm y r e p o r t s a n d p u b l i s h ­ e d g o v ern m en t d o c u m e n ts. W ilc o x d e v o te s a lm o s t a l l o f h i s s p a c e t o t h e s t r a t e g y a n d b a t t l e s o f th e w a r an d a s a m i l i t a r y h i s t o r y i t h a s some m e r i t , p r e f e r a b l e i n many w ays t o R ip le y f s c o n te m p o ra ry w o rk , b u t i n h i s p r e f a c e W ilc o x s t a t e s a d i f f e r e n t p u rp o s e :, The o b j e c t o f t h i s w ork i s t o r e v i v e some i n t e r e s t i n a n e v e n t

27 G r a n t, P e r s o n a l M em oirs, I , 53-5>5* 28 I b i d . , I , 5>6. G ra n t a l s o c h a r g e s P o lk w i th p l a y i n g p o l i t i c s w ith t h e w a r ; a tte m p tin g t o " n e u t r a l i z e " T a y l o r ! s g ro w in g p o p u l a r i t y a s a Whig c a n d i d a t e b y g i v i n g S c o t t t h e p r i n c i p a l command — a n d t h e n t r y ­ in g t o d i s g r a c e him . 1 2 0 - 1 . 29 W ilc o x , H i s t o r y o f t h e M exican W ar, i i i . The b o o k w as p u b l is h e d p o s t-h u m o u s ly i n 1&92, W ilc o x h a v in g d i e d i n 1 8 9 0 .

f r a u g h t w ith g r e a t n a t i o n a l r e s u l t s ; t o show t h a t t h e w a r was j u s t a n d u n a v o id a b le , s k i l f u l l y m anaged b y w is e an d a b le l e a d e r s • • . . When w aged t h e r e w as a l a r g e p a r t y i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s o p p o sed t o i t , and p u b l i c s e n tim e n t a t home and a b ro a d r e g a r d e d i t a s a n undue a d v a n ta g e t a k e n b y a s t r o n g a n d a g g r e s s i v e n a t i o n o v e r a w eak a n d d i s o r g a n i z e d n e ig h b o r , w hose c i v i l d i s s e n s i o n s an d h e l p l e s s co n ­ d i t i o n i n v i t e d i n v a s i o n . S e e n i n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f y e a r s t h e c o u rs e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s i s p ro v e d t o h ave b e e n j u d i c i o u s , i t s p o l i c y w is e and p r u d e n t , a n d i t s aim s h o n e s t a n d p a t r i o t i c . . . . W ar, un ­ d e r a n y a n d a l l c ir c u m s t a n c e s a g r e a t c a l a m i t y , i s . n o t a n unm ixed e v i l ; t h e c l a s h o f a rm s , l i k e t h e c o n f l i c t o f p h y s i c a l e le m e n ts , c l e a r s th e m o ra l a tm o s p h e re a n d i s fo llo w e d b y a c a lm , im p o s s ib le u n d er d is tu rb e d s o c ia l c o n d itio n s . 3 0 The w o rk , h o w e v er, d o e s l i t t l e t o d e m o n s tr a te e i t h e r th e j u s t i c e o r t h e i n j u s t i c e o f th e w a r, t h e a t t e n t i o n b e in g c e n t e r e d upon t h e cam­ p a ig n in g and b a t t l e s w ith a n ey e f o r g a l l a n t r y an d h e r o is m . He seem s t o p r e j u d i c e h i s c a s e a t one p o i n t when he s a y s t h a t i t c a n s c a r c e l y b e q u e s ti o n e d t h a t P o lk r e g a r d e d t h e T ex as q u e s t i o n a s s e t t l e d a n d was i n ­ t e n t upon " a f u r t h e r a c q u i s i t i o n o f M exican t e r r i t o r y , "31 b u t i n t h e c o n c lu s io n he a v e r s w ith s a t i s f a c t i o n s The o n ly w a r i n w h ic h t h e U n ite d S t a t e s e v e r in v a d e d a n e n e m y 's c o u n tr y , o c c u p ie d i t s c a p i t a l and h e l d i t s t e r r i t o r y b y r i g h t o f c o n q u e s t, i t i s a ls o t h e o n ly one e v e r u n d e r ta k e n b y a n y n a t i o n t o " c o n q u e r a p e a c e ," an d i n w h ic h t h e m a t e r i a l a d v a n ta g e s g a in e d by t h e v i c t o r s w e re c o u n t e r - b a l a n c e d b y t h e p o l i t i c a l , c o m m e rc ia l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l b e n e f i t s a c c r u in g t o t h e v a n q u i s h e d . 32 The r e m in is c e n c e s o f t h a t e r u d i t e c o s m o p o lite B en jam in P e r l e y P o o re p r e s e n t s a p i c t u r e o f t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w h ic h i s f a r m ore r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h i s p e r i o d , h o w ev er. I n h i s Rem in­ i s c e n c e s o f S i x t y Y e a rs i n t h e N a t i o n a l M e tr o p o lis , 1 8 8 6 , h e d raw s a

30 W ilc o x , M ex ican W ar, 1 -2

92

a c a r e f u l p e n - p o r t r a i t o f t h e P r e s i d e n t w ho, h e a s s e r t e d , h a d g a in e d h i s o f f i c e b y f r a u d u l e n t m e a n s :33 P r e s i d e n t P o lk was a s p a r e man, o f u n p r e te n d in g a p p e a ra n c e an d m id d le s t a t u r e , w ith a r a t h e r s m a ll h e a d , a f u l l , a n g u l a r brow , p e n e t r a t i n g d a r k g r a y e y e s , a n d a f i r m m ou th . H is h a i r , w h ic h he w ore lo n g an d b ru s h e d b a c k b e h in d h i s e a r s , was to u c h e d w it h s i l ­ v e r w hen he e n t e r e d t h e W h ite House an d was g ra y when he l e f t i t . . . . C alm , c o l d , and i n t r e p i d i n h i s m o ra l c h a r a c t e r , he was i g ­ n o r a n t o f t h e b e a u ty o f m o ra l u p r i g h t n e s s i n t h e c o n d u c t o f pub­ l i c a f f a i r s , b u t w as a m b itio u s o f pow er a n d s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e p u r ­ s u i t o f i t . He was v e r y m e th o d ic a l an d re m a rk a b ly i n d u s t r i o u s . 3k P e r l e y s t a t e s f l a t l y t h a t P o lk h a d b e e n s e l e c t e d b y t h e ffS o u th e r n D em ocracy" some tim e b e f o r e t h e C o n v e n tio n m et i n l 8 l|i!j a n d t h a t "he w as h e a r t i l y i n sym pathy w i t h t h e movement f o r c o n q u e r in g a p o r t i o n o f M ex ic o , t o be made i n t o s l a v e S t a t e s * ” He s e e s P o lk a s a s o r t o f mana­ g e r i a l f r o n t- m a n : P o lk e n t e r e d h e a r t i l y i n t o t h i s b u s i n e s s , an d w o rk ed h a rm o n io u s ly w i t h t h e i n s t i g a t o r s o f c o n q u e s t, e x c e p t t h a t h e becam e s e l f - w i l l e d when h i s v a n i t y was t o u c h e d .35 I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e b o o k s b y men who h a d p la y e d a p a r t i n t h e e v e n ts o f w h ic h th e y w r i t e t h e r e i s one H i s t o r y o f t h e War W ith M exico b y a n iv o r y - t o w e r m an, H o r a tio 0 . L ad d , A. M ., o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f New M ex ico . I t d o e s n o t h a v e t h e a p p e a ra n c e , o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l j o b , h o w ev er; t h e a u t h o r s t a t e s t h a t he i n t e n d s t o l e a v e a c l e a r im p r e s s io n o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e w ar r a t h e r th a n a t e c h n i c a l know ledge o f th e m a n d he c i t e s no r e f e r e n c e s . The b o d y o f t h e w ork i s n o t r e l e v a n t t o t h i s s t u d y ,

33 P o o r e , R e m in is c e n c e s , I , 326.

3k I b i d . , I , 3 2 8 -9 .

35 I b i d . , I , 328*

93 b e in g a n a r r a t i v e a c c o u n t o f t h e c am p a ig n s i n M ex ico , b u t he d e v o te s one c h a p te r to The

t h e c a u s e s o f t h e w a r an d one

t o t h e ’’im m e d ia te " c a u s e s*

g e n e r a l c a u s e w as a d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o a d d a new d o m in io n t o

t h e S o u th , t o " e n la r g e t h e a r e a o f s l a v e r y a n d p e r p e t u a t e t h i s d i s t i n c ­ t i v e f e a t u r e o f S o u th e rn c ra c y , and

l i f e , w h ic h w as

t h e b a s i s o f S o u th e r n a r i s t o ­

s h o u ld b e t h e c o r n e r - s t o n e o f

th e f u t u r e S o u th e r n E m p ire * '1

Ladd q u o te s C o m m issio n er T r i s t ' s r e a c t i o n t o t h e p r o p o s a l o f t h e M exican n e g o t i a t o r s t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s s h o u ld com m it i t s e l f t o t h e p r o h i b i ­ t i o n o f s l a v e r y i n a n y o f t h e c e d e d t e r r i t o r y : T r i s t a s s e r t e d t h a t he c o u ld n o t a c c e p t t h e new t e r r i t o r y on c o n d i t i o n t h a t s l a v e r y s h o u ld be e x c lu d e d , " n o t i f i t s v a lu e w ere i n c r e a s e d t e n f o l d , a n d i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t c o v e r e d a f o o t t h i c k a l l o v e r w i t h p u re g o l d . " "The p o t e n t c a u s e and r u l i n g m o tiv e , t h e r e f o r e , o f t h e w ar w ith M exico w as t h e p u rp o s e t o e x te n d human s l a v e r y i n t o f r e e t e r r i t o r y . "36 The im m e d ia te c a u s e w as t h e movement o f U n ite d S t a t e s t r o o p s i n ­ t o M ex ican t e r r i t o r y . He a c c u s e s " P r e s i d e n t P o lk and h i s C a b in e t" o f t a k i n g a d v a n ta g e o f t h e e x c ite m e n t an d i n d i g n a t i o n p r e v a l e n t i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s b e c a u s e o f t h e o u tr a g e s o f t h e M ex ican s a n d t h e r e f u s a l o f t h a t gov ern m en t t o p a y t h e c la im s w h ic h h ad b e e n a s s e s s e d b y a r b i ­ tra tio n : (

T h e re a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n no r e a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e e n f o r c e ­ m ent o f t h e s e c la im s b y w a r. I t was t a k i n g a c o w a rd ly a d v a n ta g e o f a w eak n a t i o n t o d r i v e i t s G overnm ent t o a c t s o f v i o l e n c e b y a c t u a l in v a s i o n o f i t s t e r r i t o r y * The U n ite d S t a t e s h a d n e v e r b e e n a b l e t o s e t t l e s i m i l a r c la im s w it h a n y o t h e r pow er i n t h e tim e t o w h ic h i t

36 L ad d , War W ith M exico ( 1 8 8 3 ) , 27-30*

9k l i m i t e d M exico* G re a t B r i t a i n w a ite d tw e n ty y e a r s f o r t h e paym ent o f c la im s on t h e U n ite d S t a t e s s e c u r e d by t h e t r e a t y o f 1763* The U n ite d S t a t e s h a d w a ite d e le v e n y e a r s f o r s e t t l e m e n t o f c la im s a g a i n s t G re a t B r i t a i n a n d o v e r tw e n ty y e a r s f o r r e p a r a t i o n f o r d e­ p r e d a t i o n s c o m m itte d b y F r a n c e . 37 : Ladd l a b e l s t h e P o lk A d m i n is tr a ti o n a " w a r - lo v in g G overnm ent" a n d a c c u s e s i t o f f o llo w in g a " d o u b le p o l i c y : c a r r y i n g on w ar an d p e a c e m e a s u re s a t one and t h e same t i m e , t o m e et t h e d iv id e d s e n tim e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y . " He c o n c lu d e s : "The G overnm ent o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s was t h e f i r s t t o b e g in t h e w a r , an d M exico w as t h e f i r s t t o d e c l a r e i t . "36 I n t h i s g ro u p o f a m a te u r h i s t o r i e s , r e m in is c e n c e s , p o le m ic s an d e u l o g i e s a p l a c e s h o u ld be made f o r a L iv e s o f O ur P r e s i d e n t s , com posed b y W. A. P e t e r s i n 1881; t o " s e t b e f o r e t h e y o u th o f t h i s l a n d f o r t h e i r a d m ir a tio n a n d e m u la tio n t h e n o b l e s t ex am p les o f s e lf -m a d e m an-hood. "39 Such w orks a r e a c q u ir e d b y u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r i e s a n d p re s u m a b ly h a v e some in flu e n c e upon th e i n t e l l e c t u a l m a sse s. I n h i s few p a g e s on P r e s i d e n t Jam es K. P o lk P e t e r s u n d e r ta k e s t o show t h a t t h e w ar f o r w h ic h P o lk h a d b e e n u n j u s t l y c a lu m n ia te d h a d b e e n s t a r t e d b y t h e "u n p ro v o k e d a t t a c k " o f M ex ico . B ut i n summing up t h e mag­ n i f i c e n t r e s u l t s o f P o l k ’ s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n he b e g a n w r i t i n g w i t h t h e o th e r h and, s a y in g : Thus e n d e d t h e w a r, a n d when A m e ric an s t o d a y lo o k upon th e g r e a t and w e a lth y t e r r i t o r y s e c u r e d t h e r e b y , i t i s n o t p r o b a b le t h a t an y ­ one w i l l f a i l t o th a n k M r. P o lk f o r h i s f i r m p o s i t i o n i n b r i n g i n g on t h e c o n f lic t.U O

37 L ad d , War W ith M exico, 33* 38 I b i d . , 3 9 , kO. 39 P e t e r s , L iv e s o f O ur P r e s i d e n t s , i i i . UO I b i d . , 208-9*

95 The e x a m in a tio n o f t h e w ork o f l a t e r h i s t o r i a n s o f g r e a t e r p r e ­ t e n s i o n s w i l l d e m o n s tra te a s i m i l a r s c h iz o p h r e n i a d e c o r a te d w ith a d i ­ v e r tin g d is p la y o f th e f r u i t s o f v ic to r y . The l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s v a r i e d g ro u p o f w r i t e r s who p ro d u c e d a l l t h e h i s t o r y t h e r e w as o f P o l k ’ s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r f o u r d e c a d e s a f t e r i t s c l o s e , s ta n d s upon t h e s u r f a c e . The m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n s w e re l i m i t e d v i r t u a l l y t o th o s e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e c o n te m p o r a r ie s o f t h e e v e n ts d e s c r i b e d a n d t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , w h e th e r i n d e n u n c ia ti o n o r d e f e n s e o f t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ad d l i t t l e

i f a n y th in g t o t h e a rg u m e n ts

e l a b o r a t e d i n t h e C o n g re ss i n t h e h e a t o f s t r i f e . B u t t h e y p r e s e n t e d th o s e a rg u m e n ts i n o r g a n iz e d fo rm and made them a v a i l a b l e t o t h e b o o k r e a d in g p u b l i c . P o l k ’ s c r i t i c s f a r o u tn u m b e re d h i s s u p p o r t e r s d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d ; t h e y made t h e m ore im p r e s s iv e a n a l y s i s a n d t h e i r w ork h ad a m arked e f f e c t upon t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s who now u n d e rto o k t o w r i t e t h e " m id d le p e r io d " o f A m erican h i s t o r y .

CHAPTER IV VON HOLST, H. H. BANCROFT, RHODES: 1881 - 1892 The h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e l a s t tw o d e c a d e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y have b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s t h e N a t i o n a l i s t S c h o o l o f A m erican h i s t o r i a n s . S in c e t h e c o l o n i a l and r e v o l u t i o n a r y e r a seem ed t o h av e been r a t h e r th o r o u g h l y c o v e r e d m ost o f t h e s e men who grew u p i n t h e y e a r s a f t e r t h e C i v i l War t u r n e d t o t h e m id d le p e r i o d . Some o f th e m h a d b e e n t r a i n e d i n t h e German s c h o o l o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h an d e x p o s i t i o n b u t t h e i r w r i t ­ i n g s c o n t a i n a j u d i c i a l and m o ra l to n e w h ich i s o f f e n s i v e t o t h e " s c i e n ­ t i f i c ” s c h o o l. A s t u d e n t o f A m erican h i s t o r i o g r a p h y c a l l s th em " p r o s e ­ c u t i n g h i s t o r i a n s " who w o rs h ip e d t h e new d e i t y , t h e n a t i o n a l s t a t e , a n d , b e l i e v i n g s la v e h o ld in g im m o ra l, i n d i c t e d t h e S o u th on tw o c o u n ts — a s t h e a s s a i l a n t o f n a t i o n a l i t y an d a s t h e d e f e n d e r o f a d e c a d e n t c i v i l i z a t i o n . l T h is d e s c r i p t i o n d o e s n ’t f i t a l l t h e h i s t o r i a n s d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d b u t t h e m a jo r f i g u r e s , ^on H o l s t , R h o d e s, S c h o u le r a n d B u rg e s s c e r t a i n l y w ro te fro m t h e s e i m p l i c i t a s s u m p tio n s . S in c e i t was b y t h i s tim e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d t h a t t h e e v e n t s o f t h e f o r t i e s w e re t h e p r e l u d e

1 M ic h a e l K ra u s , A H i s t o r y o f A m e ric a n .H i s t o r y , 337* I n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f some " s c i e n t i f i c " h i s t o r i a n s t o a v o id m o ra l ju d g m e n ts on t h i s p e r i o d h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e i r v ie w in g s o u t h e r n s l a v e r y a s j u s t a n a n c i e n t l a b o r s y s te m a n d t h e w a r a s p ro d u c e d b y f a n a t i c s i n t h e n o r t h . They d o n ’t condemn a n y o n e , th o u g h t h e a b o l i t i o n i s t s w ere — w e l l , c u l p a b l e , t o q u o te D eV oto’ s i r o n i c a l p h r a s e . I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s e h i s t o r i a n s , A v ery C ra v e n , J . G. R a n d a ll an d A lla n N e v in s , a r e now a t t h e d e a d en d o f t h e i r r e v i s i o n i s t r o a d a n d t h e y a r e p r e s e n t l y u n d e r a t t a c k b y th o s e who t h i n k t h a t h i s t o r y s h o u ld u n d e r s ta n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a d y in g s o c i a l id e a a n d one com ing t o w o rld a c c e p ta n c e . See B e r n a r d D eV o to , "The E a sy C h a i r ," H a r p e r 1s M ag a z in e , F e b . , 1 9 4 6 , 1 2 3 -1 2 6 an d M arch 1 9 4 6 , 234-237$ a l s o , A r th u r S c h l e s i n g e r J r . , "The C au se s o f t h e C i v i l W ar," P a r t i s a n R ev iew , O c t . , 1 9 4 9 9 9 6 9 -9 8 1 .

91

t o t h e s e c t i o n a l c o n f l i c t * t h e s e a s s u m p tio n s w e re a p p l i e d t o t h e adm in­ i s t r a t i o n w h ic h i s t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s e x a m in a tio n . The s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s on P o l k ’s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o t h e s e h is to ria n s -w e re v e iy l i t t l e

au g m en ted o v e r t h o s e t o w h ic h P o l k ’ s con­

t e m p o r a r ie s h a d a c c e s s . Some p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s h a d b e e n p u b lis h e d * su c h a s th e p a p e r s o f Jam es B uchanan an d H en ry C lay* b u t P o l k ’ s r e c o r d s w ere s t i l l i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f h i s w idow an d t h e i r v e r y e x i s t e n c e un­ known t o h i s t o r i a n s # T h e se men u s e d fe w a d d i t i o n a l U. S. g o v ern m en t do­ c u m e n ts; no r e c o r d s o f t h e M exican g o v ern m en t w e re a v a i l a b l e t o th e m . Hermann Von H o ls t* t h e f i r s t o f t h i s n a t i o n a l i s t group* w as b o r a i n I 8 I4.I o f German p a r e n ta g e a t t h e e a s t e n d o f t h e B a l t i c S ea i n R u ssia # He to o k h i s P h. D. a t H e id e lb e r g i n 1865 an d came t o A m erica tw o y e a r s l a t e r . He b e g a n w r i t i n g e s s a y s and a r t i c l e s on U n ite d S t a t e s h i s t o r y w h ic h e v e n t u a l l y g re w i n t o t h e s e v e n v o lu m es e n t i t l e d The C o n s t i t u t i o n a l and P o l i t i c a l H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s # On t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h i s w ork h e o b t a i n e d a p r o f e s s o r s h i p a t S t r a s s b u r g i n 1872 a n d fro m 18?2 t o 190U he was h e a d o f t h e d e p a rtm e n t o f h i s t o r y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o . '^he v o lu m es d e a l i n g w i t h P o l k ’s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n * num bers I I and I I I * w ere p u b l i s h e d i n 1881* Of t h e s e v o lu m es some f i v e h u n d re d p a g e s i s g iv e n o v e r t o t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h is w as t h e f i r s t c a r e f u l an d e x h a u s tiv e t r e a t m e n t o f P o l k ’ s p o l i c i e s by an h i s t o r i a n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s ta n d i n g a n d th e ju d g m e n ts i n t h i s w ork p ro v e d i n f l u e n t i a l f o r s e v e r a l d ecad es.

2

2 Von H o ls t w ro te t h e w ork i n German; a f t e r t h e f i r s t volum e t h e t r a n s l a t i o n came o u t s im u lta n e o u s ly w i th t h e o r i g i n a l *

98 The n a r r a t i v e i s g e a r e d t o t h e p r o c e d in g s i n C o n g re ss a n d Von H o ls t b a s e s h i s s tu d y p r i m a r i l y on t h e o f f i c i a l r e c o r d o f t h e d e l i b e r a ­ t i o n s o f t h a t body;

th e re i s r e l a tiv e ly l i t t l e

u se o f n e w sp a p e rs o r

e a r lie r h is to rie s * Von H o ls t n a r r a t e s i n g r e a t d e t a i l t h e p r o c e s s b y w h ic h T exas w as b r o u g h t i n t o t h e U nion a n d a s s e r t s t h a t P o lk owed h i s n o m in a tio n s im p ly t o t h e f a c t t h a t h e w as an u n c o n d i t i o n a l a n n e x a t i o n i s t . 3 He co n ­ t r a s t s P o lk w ith J a c k s o n , a s s e r t i n g t h a t P o lk , l i k e Van B u re n , " d i d n o t l e t go o f J a c k s o n * s s k i r t s , no m a t t e r how o r w h ith e r J a c k s o n w e n t";^ - b u t P o lk w as no l e a d e r o f t h e m a sse s a s J a c k s o n h a d b e e n .5 Von H o ls t d raw s h i s p o r t r a i t w i t h m ore p e r c e p t i o n t h a n h a d b e e n shown b y e a r l i e r w r i t e r s . P o lk was s im p le b u t n o t w in n in g , n e i t h e r com­ m anding n o r m a g n e tic — c o l d , g r a v e , p o l i t e .

T h e re

h i s p r i v a t e l i f e b u t he d i d n o t a t t r a c t p e o p l e .

was

"n o t a s p o t"

on

"Had he b e e n m ore a t t r a c ­

t i v e a s a p e r s o n he m ig h t h av e b e e n ju d g e d more f a v o r a b l y a n d m ore c o r ­ r e c t l y a s a p o l i t i c i a n . " One o f t h e p r i n c i p a l a r t i c l e s o f h i s p o l i t i c a l c r e e d w as c e r t a i n l y " o b e d ie n c e t o p a r t y com m ands," b u t t h e p o l i t i c i a n s w e re m is ta k e n i n t h i n k i n g he w ould b e w i l l i n g t o p l a y t h e p a r t o f a m a n ik in ; The p a r t y c o u ld c o u n t on him , beyond, q u e s t i o n ; b u t h e w is h e d t o b e t h e p a r t y * s h e a d , n o t m e re ly i n name a n d b y r i g h t , b u t i n f a c t . . . • [ i f h e h ad a p ro g ra m ] i t c e r t a i n l y w as a d v i s a b l e f o r t h o s e who p re s u m a b ly w o u ld n o t l i k e i t , t o r u b t h e i r e y e s and t o k e ep t h e i r h a n d s i n r e a d i n e s s t o o b s t r u c t h i s w ay, b e f o r e i t w as to o l a t e * 6 3 Von H o l s t , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y , I I , 692*

h I b id *, I I I ,

9-

5 I b id ., I l l ,

20.

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I b id ., I l l ,

2 1 -2 .

99 Von H o ls t f i n d s a g a i n s t P o lk 1s i n t e g r i t y on t h r e e c o u n ts b e f o r e h i s te rra h a d g o t t e n w e l l s t a r t e d . The Kane l e t t e r , m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g h i s p o s i t i o n on t h e t a r i f f t o s e c u r e v o t e s i n P e n n s y lv a n ia ; t h e f o r c i n g o u t o f F ra n k P . B l a i r a n d h i s G lobe a s t h e D e m o c ra tic p a p e r i n W ash in g to n i n r e t u r n f o r t h e w ith d r a w a l o f T y l e r fro m t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l r a c e ; and h i s f a i l u r e t o c a r r y o u t h i s p ro m is e t o a n n ex T ex as by t r e a t y r a t h e r t h a n b y t h e " u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l " j o i n t - r e s o l u t i o n o f C o n g re s s , " P o lk was g u i l t y , " s a y s Von H o l s t , " n o t o n ly o f b e t r a y i n g t h e t r u s t r e p o s e d i n h im , b u t o f b r e a k in g a f o r m a l p ro m is e a s w e l l , " He r e g r e t s t h a t p a r t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s k e p t T appan and B l a i r fro m r e v e a l i n g P o l k 's d u p l i c i t y f o r m ore t h a n t h r e e y e a r s . I f t h e y h a d sp o k en a t o n ce many a n e v i l and many a shame m ig h t, p e r h a p s , h a v e b e e n s p a r e d th e c o u n tr y , f o r n u m b e rle s s p a t r i o t i c e y e s w o u ld h av e f o llo w e d w ith t h r e e f o l d w a tc h f u ln e s s a n d c a r e , e v e r y p h a s e o f t h e p o l i c y o f t h e man who h a d a d d e d t o t h e Kane l e t t e r t h i s new i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e l a x i t y o f h i s p o l i t i c a l c o n s c ie n c e .7 Von H o l s t 's ju d g m e n ts on P o l k 's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e s t a t e d i n h i s c h a p t e r t i t l e s : C h a p te r IV , POLK WEAVES THE WARP OF THE MEXICAN WAR;, C h a p te r V I, THE DOUBLE GAME AGAINST ENGLAND AND MEXICO. AGAINST ENGLAND THE STRONG, A WARLIKE POLICY WITH THE SWORD IN THE SCABBARD; C h a p te r V I I , FOR WEAK MEXICO A PEACE POLICY WITH A DRAWN SWORD; C h a p te r IX , THE WAR OF POLK, THE MENDACIOUS. Von H o ls t t h i n k s t h a t P o lk h a d no i n t e n t i o n a t a n y tim e o f f o r ­ c in g t h e O regon i s s u e s o f a r a s a w a r w i t h E n g la n d . He b a s e s t h i s on t h e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l e v id e n c e t h a t P o lk made no a tte m p t t o p r e p a r e t h e n a t i o n

7 Von H o l s t , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y , I I I , 1*-10, 6 1 -6 6 ,

100 m i l i t a r i l y t o m eet s u c h a f o e a s G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d s a y s i t i s

“u n b e l i e ­

v a b le " t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t w o u ld " t h o u g h t l e s s l y " d i r e c t t h e n a t i o n to w a rd s tw o w a rs a t o n c e * 8 He s u g g e s ts o n c e S e w a rd ’ s s u rm is e t h a t b y h i s p u b l i c b o m b ast and p r i v a t e c a u t i o n t h e P r e s i d e n t m eant t o a c c e p t a com prom ise on O regon w h ile p l a c i n g t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on t h e W h ig s ,9 an d a g a in t h a t he w a s s h a k in g a m ig h ty f i s t to w a rd s t h e e a s t so h e c o u ld f e t c h a b lo w t o t h e w e st u n o b s e r v e d * 1 0 I n h i s d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e o r i g i n s o f th e w ar w ith M exico Von H o ls t d e v o te s m ore a t t e n t i o n t o t h e a t t i t u d e s an d a c t i o n s o f t h e M exican g o v ern m en t th a n h a d b een g iv e n h i t h e r t o * G le a n in g h i s m a te r­ i a l fro m M exican p r o c la m a tio n s a n d fro m a c t s o f t h e M exican g o v e rn m e n t p u b lis h e d i n t h e E x e c u tiv e D ocum ents a n d i n N i l e s ’ W eekly R e g i s t e r , he c o n c lu d e s t h a t i f t h e M exican d e c l a r a t i o n s w e re t o b e ta k e n a t f a c e v a lu e t h e r e w as some c a u s e f o r r u s h in g t r o o p s t o T ex as t o p r o t e c t i t a g a i n s t a n i n v a s i o n . B ut he re m a rk s on t h e M exican p r i d e , n o t e s t h a t t h e y h a d made no s e r i o u s a t te m p t t o r e c o n q u e r T ex as d u r in g t h e t e n y e a r s t h a t s h e h a d s to o d a lo n e an d t h u s w ere n o t l i k e l y t o t r y t o m e asu re t h e i r s t r e n g t h 'a g a i n s t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . Q u o tin g P o l k ’ s s t a t e m e n t i n h i s mes­ sa g e o f D ecem ber 2 , 181j.5> t h a t M exico h a d made "no a g g r e s s i v e m ovem ent," Von H o ls t re m a rk s t h a t i f h e r e a l l y m ean t t o m a in ta in p e a c e , a s he s a i d he d i d , i t w as a " b la m ew o rth y b i t o f im p ru d e n c e " t o s e n d h i s t r o o p s t o

8 Von H o l s t , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y , I I I , 1 9 2 -3 , 195-7* 9 Ib id . ,

I l l , 1 9 1 -2 .

10 I b i d . , I I I , 6 0 .

101 th e b o r d e r .H Of S l i d e l l ' s m is sio n * an d t h e r e f u s a l o f t h e M exican g o v ern m en t t o a c c e p t a r e g u l a r d ip lo m a tic r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r a t h e r th a n s im p ly a com­ m is s i o n e r a u t h o r i z e d t o d i s c u s s t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a n n e x a tio n o f Texas* Von H o ls t s a y s t h e d i f f i c u l t y was c a u s e d b y an e q u a l l a c k o f s i n c e r i t y on b o th s i d e s ; on t h e p a r t o f th e M ex ican s b e c a u s e o f t h e w e ak n e ss o f t h e g o v ern m en t a n d on t h e p a r t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s b e c a u s e o f P o l k 's d e s ig n s on M exican t e r r i t o r y . B ut he d e c l a r e s t h a t c o n t r a r y t o t h e de­ c l a r a t i o n s o f Polk* B uchanan an d S l i d e l l *

i t w as no p u r e l y f o r m a l d i s ­

t i n c t i o n o r i d l e q u e s ti o n o f fo rm — i f i t w a s, why d i d n o t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s y i e l d t o M exico*s r e q u e s t ? By l i m i t i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s M exico c o u ld hope t o b a r g a i n h e r “c o n s e n t ” t o a n n e x a tio n i n r e t u r n f o r h e r i n ­ t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e b o r d e r s o f h e r o n e -tim e p ro v in c e * w h ile o th e r w is e sh e w o u ld b e g iv in g up h e r o n ly w eapon a n d w o u ld be a t a d is a d v a n ta g e i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s on t h e b o u n d a ry a n d on t h e c l a i m s . And r e s p e c t i n g t h e c la im s* t h i s h i s t o r i a n s a y s t h i s m ote i n M e x ic o 's ey e was t r a n s ­ fo rm ed i n t o a beam a n d r e f e r s t o t h e much l a r g e r d e b t s w h ich h ad b e e n d e f a u l t e d b y s i x s t a t e s o f t h e Union.12 Von H o ls t i s m ost c r i t i c a l o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk f o r f o r c i n g . t h e w a r hy s e n d in g G e n e r a l T a y lo r t o th e R io G rande* He n o t e s t h a t P o lk s e n t t h i s o r d e r a f t e r T a y lo r h a d f a i l e d t o re s p o n d t o t h e h i n t s o f t h e ad­ m i n i s t r a t i o n * on J a n u a r y 1 3 , I 8 I4.6 , b e f o r e he w as aw are t h a t S l i d e l l h ad

11 Von H o ls t* C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y * I I I * 79-82* 12

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102 b e e n f i n a l l y r e f u s e d r e c e p t i o n by M exico* He c o n c lu d e s t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n 7 /a s

b a s e d u p o n p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; t h a t P o lk h o p ed t o i n t i m i d a t e

M exico an d t h u s t o s u c c e e d i n h i s " b u rn in g d e s i r e t o w in f o r t h e U nion new a n d u n l i m i t e d d o m a in s .H13 And G i l l e s p i e ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s t o F re m o n t, w h ic h he i n t e r p r e t s a s a t l e a s t i n s t r u c t i n g t h a t arm y o f f i c e r t o e n d e a ­ v o r t o s e p a r a t e C a l i f o r n i a fro m M ex ico , w e re , h e p o i n t s o u t , p r e p a r e d lo n g b e f o r e S l i d e l l * s a tte m p t a t n e g o t i a t i o n came t o n a u g h t i n M exico C ity * lU Von H o ls t d o e s n o t f i n d T a y lo r a l t o g e t h e r g u i l t l e s s i n t h e e v e n ts on t h e R io G rande w h ich l e d t o t h e o u tb r e a k o f h o s t i l i t i e s , condem ning him e s p e c i a l l y f o r h i s a c t i o n . i n b lo c k a d in g t h e r i v e r * He s a y s o f Tay­ l o r ' s c o n fu s e d and c o n f u s in g r e p o r t s t o W a sh in g to n t h a t t h r e e f a c t s w e re c l e a r : t h a t t h e M ex ican s h a d ab an d o n e d t h e t e r r i t o r y a s f a r a s t h e R io G rande w i th o u t a s t r u g g l e ; t h a t T a y lo r h a d encam ped w ith h i s arm y d i r ­ e c t l y o p p o s i t e t h e m o st im p o r ta n t M ex ican tow n on t h e r i v e r , a n d t h a t t h e M ex ican s h a d b e e n f o r b i d d e n t o s e t f o o t on t h e l e f t b a n k , a lth o u g h T a y lo r h a d b e e n o r d e r e d n o t t o d i s t u r b t h e i r m i l i t a r y p o s t s on t h e n o r t h s id e * B ut he s a y s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e w a r r e s t s n o t on he who g ave t h e o r d e r " f i r e J " , b u t on t h e one who made i t n e c e s s a r y t o g iv e t h a t o r d e r . 15 Von H o ls t i s p e r h a p s m ost b i t t e r a g a i n s t t h e P r e s i d e n t f o r h i s

13 Von H o l s t , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y , I I I , 2 0 7 -8 , 2 1 0 , 22iu Hi Ib id ., I l l ,

22U -30.

15 I b i d . , I l l ,

23k, 238*

103 p r o c e d u r e i n s e c u r i n g t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f -war fro m C o n g re s s . Of t h e w ar m essag e he re m a rk s : I h e P r e s i d e n t u t t e r e d no d i r e c t fa ls e h o o d * b u t he p a s s e d o v e r i n s i l e n c e h a l f o f w h at i t m s e s s e n t i a l t o know i n o r d e r t o fo rm a c l e a r c o n c e p tio n o f t h e a c t u a l c o u rs e o f e v e n ts * a n d w h at he d id s a y he s a i d i n s u c h a fo rm an d in t r o d u c e d i n su c h a c o n n e c tio n t h a t a l l t h e e s s e n t i a l f a c t s a p p e a re d r e v e r s e d # 1 6 Von H o ls t c a l l s P o l k ’ s a s s e r t i o n t h a t w a r e x i s t e d b y a c t o f Mex­ i c o a p l a i n f a l s e h o o d . He i s w r i t i n g a h i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s u n ­ d e r t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d he a s s e r t s t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s c a n o n ly be a t w ar b y a c t o f C o n g re s s . T h e re h a d 'b e e n many h o s t i l e a c t s o f f o r e i g n a rm ie s an d n a v i e s w h ic h had n o t l e d t o w a r; i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e i t was n o t ev en known w h e th e r t h e M exican g o v ern m en t w o u ld s u s t a i n t h e i r gen­ e r a l on t h e f r o n t i e r . Von H o l s t w arm ly a p p ro v e s o f C alh o u n f o r r e f u s i n g t o v o te when t h e m e asu re was f o r c e d b y th e m a j o r i t y w i t h so much h a s t e ; C alh o u n w o u ld n o t wage w ar u p o n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n i n o r d e r t o make xvar u p o n M exico: I f t h e e n t i r e o p p o s i t i o n i n b o t h h o u s e s o f C o n g re ss h a d h a d t h e m o ra l c o u ra g e t o a c t l i k e C a lh o u n , t h e 1 1 th a n d 1 2 th o f May* 181+6* w o u ld n o t b e c o u n te d among t h e d a r k e s t an d m o st s i g n i f i c a n t d a y s i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l h i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . 17 F o llo w in g s u c h c o n tin u o u s d e n u n c i a ti o n o f t h e a g g r e s s i v e adm in­ i s t r a t i o n i t i s r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t a lth o u g h Von H o ls t s a y s t h e w a r w as i n c o n t e s t a b l y one o f c o n q u e st* he w ould n o t condemn i t f o r t h a t r e a s o n . H is to ry * h e s a y s , c a n n o t d e c id e su ch q u e s t i o n s by t h e code o f p r i v a t e m o ra ls ; t h e r e i s ”an e s t a b l i s h e d la w o f h i s t o r i c g ro w th

16 Von H o ls t* C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y * I I I * 17 I b i d .* I l l *

21+5, 2 5 0 .

239.

io

U

t h a t d e c a y e d o r d e c a y in g p e o p le s m u st g iv e w ay" b e f o r e p e o p le s who a r e s t i l l on t h e a s c e n d in g p a th o f " t h e i r h i s t o r i c m i s s i o n ."

He s a y s t h a t

i f t h e w ar i s t o b e d e s i g n a t e d a d a rk p a g e on t h e a n n a l s o f t h e U n io n i t m u st b e on o t h e r g ro u n d s . He fo u n d t h e g ro u n d s i n t h e " p e r v e r s i o n s " o f t h e P r e s i d e n t . The w a r w a s a p p ro v e d b y t h e m a j o r i t y o f th e p e o p le ,

m Von H o ls t a s s e r t s , b u t y e t t h e o r i g i n a t o r o f i t was b y no m eans a p opu­ l a r man. The f a c t ‘ t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p a r t y i n t h e C o n g re ss h a d d e ­ c l i n e d from an o v erw h elm in g m a j o r i t y t o a m i n o r i t y w h ile i n t h e s u c c e s s ­ f u l c o n d u c t o f t h e w a r , he f i n d s d e s e r v e s t o b e c o u n te d among " th e m o st m e r i t o r i o u s p r o o f s o f t h e s o u n d an d h o n o r a b le f e e l i n g o f t h e A m erican p e o p le ." The a c c o u n t a g a i n s t M exico w a s , w ith o u t f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n , a c c e p te d a s c o r r e c t , j u s t a s he h a d p r e s e n t e d i t , b u t th e s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d , m an ly f e e l i n g o f t h e p e o p le w as r e p e l l e d b y t h e r e t i c e n c e s , p e r v e r ­ s i o n s o f f a c t , a n d a m b i g u i t i e s , i n w h ic h t h e P r e s i d e n t h a d moved fro m t h e b e g in n in g . Von H o ls t u s e s su c h p h r a s e s a s t o r t u o u s , d i s g u i s e d an d s o r d i d i n d e s c r i b i n g P o l k 's p o l i c y an d d ip lo m a c y . He p r o f e s s e s t o b e a r e a l i s t about i t ,

s a y in g t h a t " f a ls e h o o d h a s a lw a y s b e e n o n e o f th e c h i e f i n g r e ­

d i e n t s o f p o l i t i c a l c o o k e r y ," b u t he f i n d s t h e " p io u s r o l l i n g o f e y e s " d i s g u s t i n g a n d s a y s i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o " o v e r a c t t h e p a r t so c l u m s i l y , a n d v i o l a t e good t a s t e so g r o s s l y , a s t o assum e t h e a i r o f a w e ep in g a l t a r s a i n t w h ile s t r i k i n g down a w eak n e ig h b o r i n o r d e r t o ta k e away h i s c o a t an d em pty h i s p o c k e t s . "19

18

Von H o l s t , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y , I I I ,

19 I b i d . , I l l ,

273* 2£2 n o t e .

271* 2 7 2 , 273* 3 3 6 .

105 Such i s t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t Jam es K. P o lk b y t h e f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n t o s tu d y h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ^ H i s t o r y o f M exico i n s i x v o lu m es w as p u b l i s h e d i n San F r a n c is c o i n t h e e a r l y e i g h t i e s . H u b e rt Howe B a n c r o f t h a d s p e n t h a l f a l i f e t i m e a c q u i r i n g b o o k s an d d ocum en ts on t h e h i s t o r y o f w e s te r n N o rth A m erica an d d u r in g t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w i t h t h e a s s i s ­ ta n c e o f a g ro u p o f w r i t e r s , h e p u b l i s h e d t h i r t y - n i n e v o lu m e s on t h e h i s t o r y o f t h a t a r e a . He w a s t h e f i r s t A m erican h i s t o r i a n t o d raw v e r y l a r g e l y upon M exican h i s t o r i e s an d d o c u m en ts; h e a l s o r e f e r s t o m ost o f t h e e a r l i e r b o o k s on t h i s s u b je c t* 2 0 H is p r e s e n t a t i o n i s e x h a u s tiv e a n d s u p p o r te d b y c o p io u s f o o t n o t e s b u t , l i k e Von H o l s t , h e i s v e r y f r e e w ith m o ra l ju d g m e n ts a n d v a s t c o n c l u s i o n s . B a n c r o f t ' s o p e n in g p a r a g r a p h on t h e "C au ses o f War W ith t h e U n ite d S t a t e s 11 i s a f u l l e x p r e s s io n o f b o th h i s p o i n t o f v ie w a n d h i s g e n e ra l c o n c lu s io n s : I t w as a p r e m e d i t a t e d a n d p r e d e te r m in e d a f f a i r , th e w a r o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s on M exico ; i t w as t h e r e s u l t o f a d e l i b e r a t e l y c a l ­ c u l a t e d schem e o f r o b b e r y o n t h e p a r t o f t h e s u p e r i o r p o w er. T h e re w e re a t W a sh in g to n enough u n p r i n c i p l e d men h ig h i n o f f i c e , s e n a t o r s , c o n g re ss m e n , t o s a y n o th in g a b o u t th e p r e s i d e n t an d h i s c a b i n e t , and. t h e v a s t a r r a y o f dem agogues a n d p o l i t i c i a n s . . . — t h e r e w ere enough o f t h i s c l a s s , s l a v e - h o l d e r s , s m u g g le rs , I n d i a n - k i l l e r s , a n d f o u l- m o u th e d , t o b a c c o - s p u r t i n g s w e a r e r s u p o n s a c r e d F o u r t h - o f - J u l y p r i n c i p l e s ' t o c a r r y s p r e a d - e a g l e su p re m ac y fro m t h e A t l a n t i c t o t h e P a c i f i c , who w ere w i l l i n g t o l a y a s i d e a l l n o t i o n s o f r i g h t a n d w rong i n t h e m a t t e r , a n d u n b lu s h in g ly t o t a k e w h a te v e r c o u ld be s e c u r e d s o l e l y upon t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m ig h t. M ex ico , p o o r , w e ak , s t r u g g l i n g t o s e c u r e f o r h e r s e l f a p l a c e among t h e n a t i o n s , i s now t o b e h u m i l i a t e d , k ic k e d , c u f f e d , an d b e a t e n b y t h e b u l l y on h e r n o r t h e r n b o r d e r , w hose g r e a t e s t p r i d e i s C h r i s t i a n l i b e r t y w i t h 20 He r e f e r s t o J a y 's R eview v e r y f r e q u e n t l y , re m a rk in g i n a n o t e : "W h atev er d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n t h e r e may b e a s t o t h e a u t h o r 's W a y 's i c o n c l u s i o n s , h i s f a c t s a r e i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e . " H i s t o r y o f M ex ico , V, 3 1 0 .

106 p u r i t a n a n te c e d e n ts * w hose g r e a t e s t p r i n c i p l e a t t h i s tim e f i n d s ex ­ e r c i s e i n h u n tin g a b o u t f o r p l a u s i b l e p r e t e x t s t o s t e a l fro m a w e a k e r n e ig h b o r a f i n e s l i c e o f la n d s s u i t a b l e f o r s l a v e l a b o r . 2 1 B a n c r o f t ’ s o p in io n o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk c a n e a s i l y b e d e d u c e d fro m t h i s u n r e s t r a i n e d s ta te m e n t o f o p in io n . S l i d e l l was s e n t t o M exico a s p a r t o f a d e l i b e r a t e p l o t t o p r e t e n d a d e s i r e f o r p e a c e an d t h u s s e c u r e a w id e r s u p p o r t f o r t he w ar w h ich h ad b e e n d e te r m in e d upon.22 P o lk i s a c c u s e d o f b e in g “b o th i n c o n s i s t e n t an d u n j u s t* n o t t o s a y w i l f u l l y m a n d a c io u s ” i n h i s w ar m essag e t o C o n g r e s s .23 “I t w as P r e s i d e n t P o l k ’ s a c t i o n i n o r d e r i n g t r o o p s b e y o n d t h e l i m i t s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a n d i n t o M exican t e r r i t o r y t h a t b r o u g h t on t h e w a r. I t w a s an a s s u m p tio n on h i s p a r t o f p o w ers n o t v e s t e d i n him b y la w . ” 2 U B a n c r o f t r e c o u n ts t h e a t r o c i t i e s c o m m itte d b y e a c h s i d e in t h e w a r an d c h a r g e s P o lk w i t h ’’r e c k l e s s l y ” w ag in g a d e v a s t a t i n g w ar w h ile p r e te n d in g t o b e ’’s i g h i n g f o r p e a c e . ” I n r e g a r d t o M ex ic o ’ s p a r t i n t h e o r i g i n o f t h e w ar he re m a rk s t h a t s h e a c c e p te d t h e s t r u g g l e f o r c e d u p ­ on h e r w ith " a

re m a rk a b le l a c k o f f o r e s i g h t a n d i n d i f f e r e n c e t o

T h is h i s t o r i a n i s c o n f i d e n t o f t h e a c c u r a c y

r e s u lts .”

o f h i s c o n c lu s io n s : ’’The

U n ite d S t a t e s w as i n t h e w ro n g ; a l l t h e w o rld knows i t * a l l h o n e s t Amer­ i c a n c i t i z e n s ack n o w led g e i t . ”25

21 B a n c ro ft* H i s t o r y o f M exico* V* 3 0 7 -8 . 22 I b i d . * V* 3U 0-JA . 23 I b i d .* V* 3 6 8 .

2h I b i d .* V* 5U7. 25 I b i d . * V* $1*6, 5U 2-3.

107 H u b e rt Howe B a n c r o f t 's e s t i m a t e o f P o lk f a i l e d t o m ello w w ith t h e y e a r s w h ic h p ro d u c e d new d a t a on t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t a d m i n i s tr a ti o n * I n a volum e t i t l e d R e t r o s p e c t i o n , p u b l is h e d i n 1 9 1 2 , he f o r m u la t e s a d i d a c t i c d a m n a tio n : "Jam es K* P o lk a n d h i s M exican w a r, t h e man Inhum ane an d v o id o f i n t e g r i t y , t h e m e asu re an i n j u s t i c e p r a c t i s e d u p o n a w eak er n e ig h b o r .

"26

B a n c r o f t 's w ork was th o r o u g h ly d o cu m en ted an d e x h a u s ti v e i n r e ­ s e a rc h b u t h i s e v a lu a tio n s had l i t t l e

e f f e c t i n h i s tim e ; M s w r i t i n g

was to o v o lu m in o u s f o r t h e lay m an a n d th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s d is c o u n t e d h i s h i s t o r y b e c a u s e o f h i s " f a c t o r y " m eth o d o f c o m p o s itio n , t h e m i s - s t a t e ­ m en ts o f f a c t w h ic h w e re d is c o v e r e d i n th e v a s t a r r a y o f w o rd s — an d p e r h a p s a l s o b e c a u s e i t h a d b e e n w r i t t e n an d p u b l i s h e d i n t h e h i n t e r ­ l a n d , f a r away fro m t h e c e n t e r o f A m erican c u l t u r e . I n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t h e u s u a l t r e n d B a n c r o f t 's v o lu m es a r e r e c e i v i n g i n c r e a s e d r e s p e c t a s t h e r e s u l t o f m ore th o r o u g h r e s e a r c h i n " h i s " f i e l d b u t h i s sa v a g e a t ­ t a c k on P o lk h a s p r o b a b ly h a d l i t t l e

o r no e f f d c t on t h a t P r e s i d e n t 's

h i s t o r i c a l r e p u t a t i o n . 27 A b io g r a p h y o f H enry C la y b y C a r l S c h u rz , p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 7 7 , u n ­ d o u b te d ly h a d a g r e a t e r c o n te m p o ra ry e f f e c t . S c h u rz was a German who came t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a f t e r t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e a b o r t i v e u p r i s i n g s o f 181*8. He was an a g g r e s s i v e , l i b e r a l f i g h t e r an d so o n made h i m s e lf known i n I l l i n o i s , c am p a ig n in g f o r L in c o ln ; he w as l a / t e r a d ip lo m a t, an

26 H. H. B a n c r o f t , R e t r o s p e c t i o n , 2 1 1 ., 27 F o r t h e r e c e n t r e v a l u a t i o n o f B § n c r o f t 's w ork s e e B e rn a rd D eV o to , The Y ear o f D e c is io n , 511*

108 o f f i c e r i n t h e U nion arm y, a s e n a t o r fro m M is s o u r i an d a S e c r e t a r y o f t h e I n t e r i o r . T h is r a d i c a l R e p u b lic a n s e e s P o l k ’ s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a s t h e v e h ic le o f th e a g g re s s iv e s la v o e ra c y . I n t h i s b io g r a p h y o f H enry C la y t h e a u t h o r d o e s n o t f a i l t o p o i n t o u t t h e r e l a t i v e s t a t u r e o f t h e tw o c o n t e s t a n t s f o r t h e P r e s id e n c y : P o lk , a lth o u g h he h a d b e e n s p e a k e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l House o f R e p re ­ s e n t a t i v e s , w as c o m p a r a ti v e ly s o o b s c u r e a man, t h a t a c o n t e s t f o r t h e h i g h e s t h o n o rs o f t h e r e p u b l i c b e tw ee n him a n d t h e g r e a t H enry C la y a p p e a re d a lm o s t grotesque.28 B ut th e s l a v e h o l d e r ’ s man won th r o u g h t h e ’’a u d a c io u s p o l i t i c a l f r a u d ” b y w h ic h P e n n s y lv a n ia w as p e r s u a d e d t o v o te f o r ”P o lk , D a l l a s , and t h e t a r i f f o f I81j.2," and b e c a u s e C la y was " u n tr u e t o h i m s e l f ” i n a tt e m p t i n g t o w in t h e v o te s o f s o u th e r n a n n e x a t i o n i s t s . 2 9 I n h i s n a r r a t i o n o f t h e e v e n t s o f t h e n e x t f o u r y e a r s S c h u rz g e n ­ e r a l l y p i c t u r e s P o lk a s t h e a g e n t o f s o u th e r n f o r c e s — m e re ly t h e t i t u l a r h e a d j h e s p e a k s o f t h e " a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ^ ” o r t h e " P o lk D e m o c r a ts .” B ut in re m a rk in g on t h e " s t r a n g e " f a c t t h a t t h e D em o crats l o s t c o n t r o l o f t h e ^ o u s e w h ile c o n d u c tin g a v i c t o r i o u s w ar he d i r e c t s some c r i t i c i s m a t th e p e rso n o f th e P re s id e n t: A lth o u g h t h e b u l l e t i n s fro m t h e t h e a t r e o f o p e r a t i o n s r e p o r t e d v i c ­ t o r y a f t e r v i c t o r y , t h e p o p u la r c o n s c ie n c e , a t l e a s t i n t h e N o r th , w as u n e a s y , a n d t h e s h o u ts o f triu m p h c o u ld n o t s i l e n c e i t s v o i c e , w h ic h s a i d t h a t t h e w a r was u n j u s t i n i t s o r i g i n , a n d t h a t s l a v e r y w as i t s o b j e c t . M o re o v e r, t h e s h u f f l i n g c h a r a c t e r o f P o l k ’ s d i p l o ­ m acy, an d h i s a p p a r e n t c o n s c io u s n e s s o f g u i l t , u r g in g him i n c e s s a n t l y i n h i s p u b l i c u t t e r a n c e s t o d e f e n d t h e g o v ern m en t a s t o t h e c a u s e s

28 S c h u rz , H en ry C la y , I I ,

29 I b i d . , I I , 25>8-66.

2£6.

109 o f t h e w a r, r e p e l l e d t h e p o p u la r h e a r t ; an d t h u s a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n v i c t o r i o u s i n t h e f i e l d w as d e f e a t e d a t t h e b a l l o t - b o x . 30 I n 1892 Jam es F o rd R hodes p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t o f h i s v o lu m e s on t h e H i s to r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s fro m t h e Com prom ise o f 1 8 9 0 . The f i r s t c h a p t e r i s a b r i e f summary o f e v e n ts fro m th e fo u n d in g o f t h e R e p u b lic a n d some f i f t e e n p a g e s a r e d e v o te d t o P o l k ’s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . A lth o u g h R hodes w as a n o n -a c a d e m ic h i s t o r i a n , h a v in g t u r n e d t o w r i t i n g a f t e r m aking a f o r t u n e i n i r o n an d c o a l , t h i s w ork i s p e r h a p s m ore " p r o f e s ­ s i o n a l 11 th a n a n y t h u s f a r s u rv e y e d i n t h i s s tu d y . B ut in h i s p r e l i m i n ­ a r y s u r v e y d e a li n g w ith P o l k r s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , he b a s e s h i s s ta t e m e n ts upon o t h e r " a u t h o r i t i e s " i n an in a d e q u a te t r e a t m e n t . R h o d e s 1 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o Von H o l s t ’ s an d B a n c r o f t ’s , t o b o th o f w hose w o rk s he r e f e r s , b u t h i s o p in io n s a r e s t a t e d som ew hat l e s s d o g m a tic a ll y . P o lk h i m s e l f r e c e i v e s v e r y l i t t l e

a t t e n t i o n fro m

R h o d es; o f h i s n o m in a tio n h e re m a rk s — "Had a b i l i t y c o n s t i t u t e d t h e t e s t , P o lk w o u ld n o t h a v e b e en s e l e c t e d , " a n d t h e r e a f t e r t h e a c t i n g arm o f t h e go v ern m en t i s a lw a y s t h e " P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " ; t h e P r e s i d e n t seem s t o h a v e g iv e n o n ly h i s name t o t h e e x e c u t iv e d e p a r tm e n t. 31 R hodes d e n o te s t h e d ip lo m a c y o f t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " t o r t u o u s " an d a s s e r t s t h a t t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e s o u th w e s te r n t e r r i t o r y i s " n o t a f a i r p a g e " i n o u r h i s t o r y . The P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was " d e s e r v e d ly u n p o p u la r" b e c a u s e o f " a d e e p - s e a t e d c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e w ar h a d b e e n u n j u s t l y b e g u n , an d t h a t t h e p a ra m o u n t o b j e c t o f P o lk a n d h i s a d v i s o r s was t o a d d more

30 S c h u rz , H enry C la y , I I , 2 9 8 , 2 8 1 , 2 8 9 . 31 R h o d e s, H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , I , 8 3 .

no s l a v e t e r r i t o r y t o t h e U n io n ,"32 R h o d e s ’ p r e s e n t a t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk * a s was n o te d a b o v e , w as n o t b a s e d upon p e r s o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s a n d h i s e x p o s i t i o n i s h u r r i e d an d s k e tc h y . I t s to o d a t t h e b e g in n in g o f a w ork t h a t a t t a i n e d g e n e r a l a c c e p ta n c e , h o w e v er, an d i t c a r r i e d Von H o l s t ’ s e v a l u a t i o n t o a w id e r p u b lic * Thus Von H o l s t ’ s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P o l k ’s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was v i r t u a l l y u n c o n te s te d d u r in g t h e s e y e a r s ; t h e h i s ­ t o r i c a l p r o f e s s i o n w as i n c l o s e a g re e m e n t i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e p r e - C i v i l War p e r i o d . B ut w i t h i n a d e c a d e new m a t e r i a l w as t o a p p e a r on t h e e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t — a n d a n o ld -n e w f e v e r w as t o p e rv a d e t h e s o c i e t y — a n d t h e h i s t o r i a n s w ere t o d i v i d e s h a r p l y i n t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f Jam es K. P o lk . The r e v ie w o f t h a t r e - v a l u a t i o n an d d iv e r g e n c e i s t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e f o ll o w i n g c h a p t e r . A b o o k b y a fam ous a m a te u r i n h i s t o r y b u t a p r o ­ f e s s i o n a l i n t h e c r e a t i n g o f h i s t o r y — a man who i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e new s p i r i t o f e x p a n s io n is m w h ic h h a d b e e n s lo w ly r i s i n g fro m t h e e x h a u s tio n o f f r a t r i c i d a l b l o o d - l e t t i n g — w as p u b lis h e d i n

1886

and i t

p r o v id e s a p r o p h e t i c b r i d g e t o t h e new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h eo d o re R o o s e v e l t 's b io g r a p h y o f Thomas H a r t B en to n h a s some p r e t e n s i o n s t o s c h o l a r s h i p b u t i t i s m e re ly t h e s t a g e d r e s s i n g f o r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f R o o s e v e l t ’ s p h ilo s o p h y o f A m erican h i s t o r y * The p o l i ­ t i c i a n b e l a b o r s P o lk a s h e a r t i l y a s a n y o f t h e " p r o s e c u t in g h i s t o r i a n s " who p r e c e d e d h im . I n a c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d "The A b o l i t i o n i s t s D ance t o t h e

32 R h o d es, H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , I ,

86

,

8

£ , 8 9 , 91*

I ll S la v e B a r o n s 1 P i p i n g , ” R o o s e v e lt a p p l i e s h i s s t a n d a r d s t o t h e p o l i t i c a l cam p a ig n o f 181U;. A s s e r t i n g t h a t t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e s b e tw e e n r i g h t an d w rong n e a r l y c o in c i d e d w ith t h o s e b e tw e e n t h e p a r t i e s i n t h a t c o n t e s t - he s a y s : "A lm ost e v e r y good e le m e n t i n t h e c o u n tr y s to o d b e h in d C la y * " P o lk was b a c k e d t y " s l a v e r y e x t e n s i o n i s t s " ; t h e " f o r e i g n v o te " — u n f i t f o r A m erican c i t i z e n s h i p ; t h e c r i m i n a l c l a s s e s i n t h e g r e a t c i t i e s ; c o r ­ ru p t p o l i t i c i a n s ; — and th e p o l i t i c a l a b o l i t i o n i s t s ; t h e l a t t e r i n d i r e c t ­ ly * o f c o u r s e , b y t a k i n g v o t e s fro m C la y i n New T o rk . I d e n t i f y i n g t h e s e g ro u p s i n t h e p e r s o n s o f C a lh o u n , B im e y a n d I s a i a h R y n d e rs , h e s a y s t h a t t h e s e men may b e ta k e n a s ty p e s o f th e c l a s s e s t h a t w ere c h i e f l y i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t h e e l e c t i o n o f P o lk , a n d t h a t m u s t, t h e r e f o r e , b e a r th e r e s p o n ­ s i b i l i t y f o r a l l t h e e v i l s a t t e n d a n t t h e r e o n , i n c l u d i n g among them t h e b lo o d y and u n r i g h t e o u s w a r w ith M ex ico , , , • t h e A b o l i t i o n i s t s j o i n e d h a n d s w i t h N o r th e r n ro u g h s and S o u th e rn s l a v e o c r a t s t o e l e c t t h e man who w a s, e x c e p tin g T y l e r , t h e v e r y s m a l l e s t o f t h e l i n e o f s m a ll p r e s i d e n t s who came i n b e tw e e n J a c k s o n a n d L i n c o l n . 33 A t t h i s p o i n t , h o w e v e r, R o o s e v e lt d iv e r g e s fro m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d e n u n c ia tio n o f P o l k 's w a r. To be s u r e , t h e s l a v o c r a c y f o r c e d a n un­ r i g h t e o u s w ar upon M exico b u t i t a p p e a r s t h a t g r e a t g o o d so m etim es com es fro m e v i l means* He f i n d s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h a t w ar " g r e a t l y t o t h e b e n e ­ f i t o f t h e c o n q u e re d p e o p le s a n d o f e v e r y one e l s e , " s u r e l y a s u f f i ­ c i e n t l y e x p a n s iv e b l e s s i n g t o s a n c t i f y i t s o r i g i n . I n d e e d , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e g r e a t c o n c e rn o v e r t h e j u s t i c e o f t h e c a s e i s i r r e v e l a n t ; i n t h e s e m a t t e r s r i g h t m ust g iv e way t o t h e "la w o f t h e l o n g e s t sw o rd . n3k

33 R o o s e v e lt, Thomas H a rt B e n to n , 2p7-9*

3h I b i d . , 231*

112 I t becom es a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e f u e l f o r h i s w ra th a g a i n s t P o lk d e ­ r i v e s n o t fro m t h e M exican a f f a i r b u t fro m t h e f a i l u r e o f h i s O regon p o l i c y . He c a n n o t f o r g i v e P o lk f o r n o t t a k i n g a l l o f O regon; h e sa y s p u g n a c io u s ly t h a t we s h o u ld have g iv e n o u r s e l v e s t h e b e n e f i t o f evei*y d o u b t i n a l l t e r r i t o r i a l q u e s ­ t i o n s , a n d h av e shown o u r s e l v e s r e a d y to - make p ro m p t a p p e a l t o t h e sw ord w h e n ev e r i t becam e n e c e s s a r y a s a l a s t r e s o r t . 35 R o o s e v e lt d is p o s e s o f t h e e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t w ith s c o r n an d c o n d e s c e n s io n : ’’P o lk a s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w as n e i t h e r c a p a b le n o r w a r l i k e , ho w ev er w e l l - d i s p o s e d t o b l u s t e r . "36 I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t t h e man who was t o p la c e a " b ig s t i c k " i n t h e d ip lo m a tic h a n d o f t h e R e p u b lic i n t h e h e a d y glow o f a ren ew ed man­ i f e s t d e s t i n y s h o u ld b l a z e t h e way f o r h i s t o r i c a l a p p r o v a l o f t h e m uchm a lig n e d e x p a n s io n a t t h e e x p e n se o f t h e s o u t h e r n n e ig h b o r . I t i s a p p a r ­ e n t t h a t i f P o lk h a d b e e n -m o re e n e r g e t i c an d c a p a b le i n p u r s u i t o f t h e n a t i o n ’s d e s tin y , and i f he had n o t been t o i l i n g in th e i n t e r e s t s o f s l a v o c r a t s and d i s u n i o n i s t s , R o o s e v e lt w o u ld h a v e g iv e n him h i s h e a r t y a p p r o v a l. W ith in R o o s e v e l t ’ s l i f e t i m e p r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s , more sq u e a m ish a b o u t s u b s t i t u t i n g a " lo n g sw ord" f o r " r i g h t " b u t ' more s k i l l e d i n t h e u s e o f h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l s , w ere t o c l e a r t h e r e c o r d a g a i n s t P o lk o f b o th c o u n ts an d r e s c u e t h e " o b s c u re s o u th e m e r " 3 7 — an d h i s c o u n t r y ’s r e p u t a t i o n .

35 R o o s e v e lt, Thomas' H a rt B e n to n , 23 8 . 36 I b i d . , 25U. 37 I b i d . , 2 8 5 .

CHAPTER V POLK’S DIARX BECOMES AVAILABLE TO HISTORIANS UNITED STATES DESTINY AGAIN BECOMES MANIFEST:.

lQ9k - 1918

The d e c a d e o f e x p a n s io n w h ic h p re c e d e d t h e C i v i l War h a d by t h i s tim e b e e n s u b j e c t e d t o c a r e f u l s c r u t i n y b y s e v e r a l c o m p e te n t h i s t o r i a n s an d b y s e v e r a l more h i s t o r i c a l a m a te u r s , b u t P r e s i d e n t P o lk i n A m erican h is to ry in

1890

w as e s s e n t i a l l y t h e f i g u r e draw n b y h i s c o n te m p o ra ry

p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n ts : a man o v ersh ad o w ed b y h i s a d v i s e r s , a s e r v a n t o f an a g g r e s s i v e s l a v o c r a c y a n d w i t h a l u n s c r u p u lo u s , n a rro w , p a r t i s a n an d m endacious* B ut a new s o u r c e on t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was t o make i t s a p ­ p e a r a n c e a n d become t h e p r im a r y b a s i s f o r s u b s e q u e n t w ork on P o l k ’ s p r e s i d e n t i a l te r m . I t was t o e n g e n d e r an im m e d ia te r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e le v e n th P r e s id e n t. I n 1887 G eorge B a n c r o f t , t h e n e i g h t y - s e v e n y e a r s o l d , s u d d e n ly d e te r m in e d t o w r i t e t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n w h ic h h e h a d s e r v e d a s S e c r e t a r y o f t h e Navy a n d M i n i s t e r t o B r i t a i n . He v i s i t e d P o l k ’ s widow i n T e n n e ss e e an d made t y p e w r i t t e n c o p i e s o f t h e P o lk p a p e r s w h ic h h ad l a i n u n d i s t u r b e d t h e t h i r t y - e i g h t y e a r s f o ll o w i n g t h e P r e s i ­ d e n t ’s d e a t h . By f a r t h e m o st im p o r ta n t o f t h e s e p a p e r s w as t h e h an d ­ w r i t t e n d i a r y w h ic h P o lk b e g a n on A u g u st 2 6 , 18U5 a n d , w ith re m a rk a b le p e r s e r v e r a n c e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p r e s s u r e 'o f d u t i e s an d h i s f r e q u e n t i l l ­ n e s s e s , m a in ta in e d w i t h f u l l d a i l y a c c o u n ts th r o u g h J u n e 2 , 18U9* T h is r e c o r d was com posed o f t w e n t y - f i v e c l o s e l y w r i t t e n v o lu m e s , e a c h c o n -

lilt t a i n i n g from one h u n d re d t o tw o h u n d re d and f i f t y p a g e s . 1 G eorge B a n c r o f t d i d n o t l i v e t o com pose h i s h i s t o r y b u t h e l e f t some comments i n s p i r e d b y t h i s re v ie w o f t h o s e y e a r s i n w h ic h h e h a d p la y e d an im p o r ta n t r o l e .

nP o l k !s c h a r a c t e r s h in e s o u t i n t h e s e p a p e r s , ”

he w r o te , " j u s t e x a c t l y a s t h e man w a s, — p r u d e n t , f a r s i g h t e d , b o l d , e x c e e d in g an y D em ocrat o f h i s d ay i n h i s u n d e v i a t i n g l y c o r r e c t e x p o s i­ t i o n o f D e m o c ra tic p r i n c i p l e s . ”2 And i n -w ritin g t o t h e e d i t o r o f A p p e lt o n fs C y c lo p a e d ia on M arch 8 , 1888 he a g a in e m p h a siz e d P o lk a s c o n s i s ­ t e n c y i n p a r t y p r i n c i p l e s an d th e n made a n e s t i m a t e t h a t h a s b e e n much q u o te d b y l a t e r h i s t o r i a n s s H is a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , v ie w e d fro m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f r e s u l t s , w as p e r ­ h a p s t h e g r e a t e s t i n o u r n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y , c e r t a i n l y one o f th e g r e a t e s t . He s u c c e e d e d b e c a u s e he i n s i s t e d on b e in g i t s c e n t e r , a n d i n o v e r - r u l i n g an d g u id in g a l l h i s s e c r e t a r i e s t o a c t so a s t o p r o ­ d u c e u n i t y an d harm ony. T hose who s tu d y h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i l l a c k ­ n o w led g e how s i n c e r e an d s u c c e s s f u l w e re h i s e f f o r t s , a s d i d t h o s e who w ere c o n te m p o ra ry w i t h h im . 3 Upon B a n c r o f t ’ s d e a th i n 1891 h i s t y p e - w r i t t e n c o p y o f th e d i a r y p a s s e d w ith h i s o t h e r p a p e r s t o th e L enox L i b r a r y o f New Y ork w h ere Jam es S c h o u le r w as one o f th e f i r s t t o u s e th e m . I n 1901 t h e P o lk fam ­ i l y s o l d t h e o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r ip ts t o t h e C h ic ag o H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y an d d u r in g t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c o p ie s o f t h e d i a r y w ere u s e d by su c h s c h o l a r s a s G eorge P . G a r r i s o n , Jo h n Bach M cM asters

1 Jam es S c h o u le r , " P o lk ’ s D i a r y , ” The A t l a n t i c M o n th ly , 7 6 :2 3 5 U3, A u g u s t, 1895* S ee a l s o M. M. Q u a i f e ’ s p r e f a c e t o volum e I , The D ia r y o f Jam es K. P o lk , 1911* 2 S c h o u le r , " P o lk ’ s D i a r y , ” The A t l a n t i c M o n th ly , 7 6 ;2 3 5 j A u g u st,

1895. 3 A p p e lto n ’ s C y c lo p a e d ia , V, 55*

115 a n d J e s s e R eeves* I n 1910 t h e d i a r y becam e a v a i l a b l e t o a l l s t u d e n t s when i t was p u b lis h e d i n f o u r v o lu m e s u n d e r t h e e d i t o r s h i p o f M ilo M il­ t o n Q u a ife .l* In th e q u a r te r o f a c e n tu ry — I

8 9 I4.

t o 1919 — s i x im p o r ta n t

s t u d i e s w e re made o f t h e PoUc a d m i n i s t r a t i o n * some m o n o g rap h ic i n v e s t i ­ g a t i o n s an d o t h e r s d e t a i l e d s u r v e y s . L i s t e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y t h e h i s t o r ­ i a n s a r e : Jam es S c h o u le r* G eorge P. G a rris o n * J e s s e R eeves* J o h n B* McM aste r* G eorge L o c k h a rt R iv e s a n d C. C. Kohl* I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e g en ­ e r a l h i s t o r i e s w h ic h c o v e r t h i s p e r i o d b y J . ¥ . B u rg ess* E . B. Andrews* Woodrow W ilso n and o t h e r s a n d some d i p lo m a tic h i s t o r i e s w h ic h m u st b e I n c lu d e d . And i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o g la n c e a t tw o " p o p u l a r ” h i s t o r i e s o f t h e M exican war* b y C y ru s T . B ra d y a n d b y C h a r le s H* Owen — t h e fo r m e r dam ning P o lk I n t h e f a s h i o n o f Jay* t h e l a t t e r dam ning P o lk * s d e fa m e r s . Jam es S c h o u le r* a la w y e r t u r n e d h i s t o r i a n * i n t h e l a t e e i g h t i e s an d e a r l y n i n e t i e s w ro te a s i x volum e H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s u n d e r t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n * 1783 t o 1 8 6 5 * The e d i t i o n o f 189U shows b u t s l i g h t u s e o f t h e d i a r y and i t i s a p p a r e n t a t s e v e r a l p o i n t s i n h i s n a r r a t i v e t h a t he bad n o t a t t h i s tim e r e a d much o f t h a t m a n u s c r i p t .5 B u t h e h a d c o n -

I4. A lla n K e v in s e d i t e d a one volum e e d i t i o n i n 1 9 2 9 9 r e p r e s e n t i n g somewhat m ore th a n a q u a r t e r o f t h e m a n u s c r ip t: P o lk * The D ia r y o f a P r e s i d e n t : 181}.9-1814-9* $ I n t h i s e d i t i o n o f t h e H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s S c h o u le r m akes d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e P o lk p a p e r s t w i c e : IV , £00 a n d V* 127* a n d once s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e d i a r y — IV* $2k? e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e f a c t t h a t S l i d e l l ^ i n s t r u c t i o n s i n c lu d e d a n e f f o r t t o o b t a i n C a l i f o r n i a .

116 f e r r e d w ith G eorge B a n c r o f t and h i s p o r t r a i t shows a r e s p e c t , new i n P o l k ’s h i s t o r i a n s , f o r t h e P r e s i d e n t ’ s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a b i l i t y a n d f i r m ­ n e s s . He w as ’’one o f t h e b e s t o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s • . . t h e m a s te r o f h i s own c a b i n e t , an d n o t r u l e d b y t h e a b l e s t o f h i s a d v is e r s * ”6

N e v e rth e le ss t h a t p o r t r a i t was n o t an a t t r a c t i v e one and P olk was l e f t f a r s h o r t o f g r e a tn e s s : P o lk , in t r u t h , was n o t a man o f s o f t a n d s m ir k in g , o r ev en im­ p a r t i a l p h r a s e s , b u t s t e r n a n d r e s o l u t e . . . . H is m in d was i n c a ­ p a b le o f t a k i n g i n th e b r o a d e r r e l a t i o n o f t h i n g s , l h a t he w e n t f o r h e f e t c h e d ; • • • • C o n sta n c y t o , t h e s t a r o f J a c k s o n ’ s f o r t u n e s b r o u g h t him s u r e r e w a r d . . . . He c o u ld p u l l a n d sw e a t i n t h e p a r t y t r a c e s ; a n d th o u g h no o r i g i n a t o r o f m e a s u re s , he d e fe n d e d th e m .a b ly an d w as u n w e a rie d i n t h e d e s p a tc h o f r o u t i n e b u s i n e s s . . . . One t r a i t . . • w as h i s pow er o f s e c r e c y . . . . I n p r i v a t e l i f e h e was p u r e a n d u p r i g h t , h o n e s t a s t h e d a y ( f o r m en w i l l b e t h u s s c r u p u lo u s who a r e r e a d y t o t a k e a d v a n ta g e i n t h e i r o f f i c i a l r e l a t i o n s ) . . . .7

T h is , says S c h o u ler, was th e ’’scourge o f G od,” fo re o rd a in e d to f u l f i l th e ends o f th e new American s p i r i t o f t e r r i t o r i a l m a n ife s t des­ t i n y . Of th e com bination c ry , ”re -o c c u p a tio n o f Oregon” and ’’re -a n n ex ­ a tio n o f T exas” he rem arks t h a t n o th in g co u ld have been more a b su rd th a n to r i s k two fo re ig n w ars a t one tim e f o r c o n tin e n ta l em pire; i t shows how ’’rav e n o u s” th e n a tio n a l a p p e tite had grown f o r new a c q u is i­ t i o n s o f t e r r i t o r y — Democracy sh o u tin g ’’Make way f o r l i b e r t y J ” and ru sh in g sim u lta n e o u sly upon B r i t i s h domains and upon Mexico. 8 S ch o u ler lik e n s th e R epublic to th e w o lf and e x c o r ia te s P olk i n

6 S c h o u le r , H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , IV , 1+97• 7 I b i d . , IV , 1+96-8. 8 I b i d . , IV , 1+98, 5 0 5 .

117 a v ig o r o u s p a s s a g e f o r t h e d ip lo m a tic an d m i l i t a r y m a n eu v e rs w h ich u s h e r e d i n t h e w a r: To p ro v o k e t h i s f e e b l e s i s t e r r e p u b l i c t o h o s t i l i t i e s , a t t h e same tim e p u t t i n g on h e r t h e o f f e n c e o f s h e d d in g t h e f i r s t b l o o d , was t h e s t e p p r e d e te r m in e d i f s h e w o u ld n o t s i g n away h e r d o m ain s f o r g o ld .

T his was th e program : to l e t lo o s e th e demon o f w ar, and under th e smoke o f defending th e fo u rth p a r t of'M exico we had j u s t sn atch ed from h e r t o d e s p o il h e r o f a n o th e r. The programme succeeded a f t e r a s tr u g g le , b u t th e d a rk c a ta s tro p h e lo ck ed up in o ur bloody acq u i­ s i t i o n was hid d en f o r many y e a r s , 9 A s s e r t i n g t h a t t h e o u tb r e a k o f h o s t i l i t i e s was c a u s e d t y T a y l o r 's a d v an c e t o t h e R io G rande an d h i s b lo c k a d e o f t h a t r i v e r , S c h o u le r c a l l s P o l k 's w a r m e ssa g e " f e r o c i o u s , " w ith a "h o w lin g c a ta lo g u e o f g r i e v a n c e s . " R em arking on t h e d i s a f f e c t i o n o f some D e m o crats an d t h e Whig s u c c e s s i n t h e e l e c t i o n s o f 18U6 S c h o u le r s a y s t h a t " r e p r o a c h b e g an t o d a rk e n an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w hose m eth o d s a n d m o tiv e s w ere d e t e s t a b l e e n o u g h ."10 He a c c u s e s P o lk o f p e r v e r t i n g t h e f a c t s i n h i s m e ssa g e s t o C o n g re s s , c a l l ­ in g h i s a rg u m e n ts a "web o f s o p h i s t r y an d m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , " a n d q u o te s C o llo m e r o f V e rm o n t's b i t t e r re m a rk : "B lo o d on h i s h a n d s a n d S c r i p t u r e on h i s l i p s . " H I n summing up P o l k 's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n S c h o u le r r e f e r s a g a in t o B a n c r o f t 's te s t im o n y an d t o some r e s p e c t f u l re m a rk s fo u n d i n B u c h a n a n 's p a p e r s , a g r e e s t h a t i t was an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f s t r o n g a c h ie v e m e n t an d d i s m is s e s a l l d o u b ts a s ' t o t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e man a t t h e h e a d o f i t ,

9 S c h o u le r , H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , IV , 519* 5 2 5 -6 . 10 I b i d . , IV , 5 2 7 ,* 5 3 9 « n

I b i d . , V, 7 ^ - 5 , 1 1 5 .

118 b u t he y e t v ie w s t h e P r e s i d e n t v e r y c r i t i c a l l y : P o lk , i n f i n e , h a d l i m i t a t i o n s a s a s ta te s m a n an d g r e a t e r o n e s a s a p o l i t i c a l m a n ag e r; b u t e x p e r ie n c e h a d g iv e n him c o n f id e n c e i n a f f a i r s . He h a d n e v e r s h i r k e d h a r d w o rk , a n d i n h i s own w ay he f a i t h f u l l y s e r v e d t h e p e o p le . He w as n o t f a s t i d i o u s ; h e w a s n o t t h o u g h t f u l o f t h e r i g h t s 'o f o t h e r p e o p l e s , o t h e r r a c e s , o t h e r p o l i ­ t i c a l p a r t i e s th a n h i s own. He saw w h at h e w a n te d , and h e t o i l e d w i t h u n w e a rie d z e a l t o f e t c h i t . H is m o tto f o r A m e ric an s an d w h ite men 'was t o k e e p w h at t h e y h a d an d c a t c h w h a t th e y c o u ld ; and upon t h a t t h e o r y o f p u b l i c a c h ie v e m e n t h e b r o u g h t t h i n g s t o p a s s . I d e a l i t y an d t h e h i g h e s t s e n s e o f h o n o r w e re w a n tin g t o s u c h a p o l i c y ; an d w h ile o u r p e o p le a c c e p te d h i s b e n e f i t s t h e y h a d to o much good f e e l ­ in g t o commend h i s c r a f t o r re w a rd him w i t h t h e i r g r a t i t u d e . 12 I n t h e f a l l o f 1895* a f t e r m aking a th o ro u g h s tu d y o f t h e ty p e ­ w r i t t e n c o p y o f t h e d i a r y , S c h o u le r p r e s e n t e d a som ew hat r e v i s e d e s t i ­ m a te . W h ate v e r m ig h t b e th o u g h t o f P o l k ’s c o u r s e i n " d e s p o i l i n g ” M ex ico , t h e e v id e n c e i n t h e P r e s i d e n t ’ s d i a r y m u st r e s u l t i n a n i n c r e a s e d r e s p e c t f o r some t r a i t s o f h i s c h a r a c t e r , h i s *" i n f l e x i b l e h o n e s t y , ” ’’s a g a c i t y , ” an d " p e r t i n a c i o u s z e a l . ”13 S t i l l , t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e m o r a l i t y o f h i s p ro g ra m w as u n re d e em e d . S c h o u le r assum ed t h a t P o lk h a d m eant t o v i n d i c a t e h i s M ex ican p o l i c y b y h i s p r i v a t e p a p e r s ; i f s o , h e d e c id e d , t h e P r e s i d e n t m u st h av e e x p e c te d t h e p u b l i c g r a t i t u d e f o r h i s f i r m an d s u c c e s s f u l l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e e x ­ p a n s i o n i s t p ro g ra m t o e x d u se o r o v e r lo o k h i s c l e a r l y p r e s e n t e d m ean s. The "war m e ss a g e , S c h o u l e r ‘p o i n t e d o u t , showed more' d i s s i m u l a t i o n th a n h a d b e e n s u p p o s e d ; i t h a d n o t p r e v i o u s l y b e en known t h a t P o lk h a d de­ c id e d on w a r b e f o r e h e r e c e i v e d news o f t h e s k ir m is h on t h e R io G ra n d e .

12 S c h o u le r , H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , V, 1 2 6 . 13 S c h o u le r , ”P o l k f s D i a r y , ” A t l a n t i c M o n th ly , 7 6 :2 3 6 , A u g ., 1895* i l l I b i d . , 375* S e p te m b e r, l89f?«

119 S c h o u le r a r r i v e d a t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t P o lk w a s im bued w i t h a r e l i g i o u s f e r v o r , w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t h e 3 ed G od’ s c h o se n p e o p le . Thus h i s c o n d u c t was j u s t i f i e d i n a d v a n c e an d he w as r e a d y t o " f e t c h , " w it h little

s c r u p l e f o r t h e o w n e rs h ip o f o t h e r s , w h a te v e r h i s f e l l o w - c o u n t r y ­

men m ig h t a p p e a r t o c o v e t . 15 S c h o u le r w ro te in t h e t r a d i t i o n o f Von H o l s t , th o u g h i n h i s c a s e i t w as a " s t e r n S c o tc h m o r a l i t y 11 w h ic h p e rv a d e d h i s w ritin g .'* When b e ­ g in n in g h i s w ork on t h e p e r i o d o f s e c t i o n a l c o n f l i c t h e s a i d t h a t he w o u ld d e a l " i m p a r t i a l l y w ith men a n d e v e n ts " b u t " i t i s n o t i n my n a ­ t u r e t o b e i m p a r t i a l a s b e tw e e n r i g h t and w ro n g , h o n o ra b le a n d d i s ­ h o n o r a b le p u b l i c c o n d u c t. "3-6 He a p p a r e n t l y fo u n d i t e a s y t o d i v i d e t h e s h e e p fro m t h e g o a t s . A n o th er.m em b er o f t h i s n a t i o n a l i s t s c h o o l o f h i s t o r i a n s a l s o d e­ te r m in e d t h a t itw a s tim e t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e m id d le p e r i o d s h o u ld b e u n d e r ta k e n " in a th o r o u g h ly i m p a r t i a l s p i r i t " j t h e c o n tin u e d m isu n ­ d e r s t a n d i n g b e tw e e n t h e N o rth a n d t h e S o u th was a m enace t o th e n a t i o n . Jo h n W. B u rg e ss h a d s t u d i e d u n d e r Von R anke a n d h i s d i s c i p l e s i n Germany an d w as f o r a lo n g p e r i o d p r o f e s s o r o f h i s t o r y a t C o lu m b ia . H is , The M id d le P e r io d — 1817 - 1 8 5 8 , w as p u b lis h e d i n 1897* B u rg e s s s a y s h e i s w r i t i n g t h i s " i m p a r t i a l " h i s t o r y fro m t h e " n o r t h e r n " p o i n t o f v ie w , b e ­ cause i t i s

" in t h e m ain" t h e c o r r e c t v ie w , b u t h e b a la n c e s h i s c r i t i ­

c ism o f t h e S o u th f o r a tte m p te d s e c e s s i o n w ith c o n d e m n a tio n o f t h e N o rth

15 S c h o u le r , " P o l k 's D i a r y , " A t l a n t i c M o n th ly , 76:21*1, A u g ., 1895* 16 K ra u s , H isfaory o f A m e ric an H i s t o r y , 357* 351* 353-

120 f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p o l i c y . W ith o u t 'a tt e m p ti n g t o d e te r m in e h i s mo­ t i v e s i t i s r e a s o n a b le t o i n f e r t h a t h e f o u n d t h i s a p p ro a c h t h e e a s i e r f o r h a v in g p ic k e d u p , w h ile i n G erm any, t h e A ry a n , T e u to n ic co m p lex ; t h e s e p e o p l e s , o f w h ic h he w as f o r t u n a t e t o b e a member, "m ust assum e t h e l e a d e r s h i p 11 n o t o n ly o v e r b a r b a r i c p e o p le s b u t o v e r an y p e o p le po­ l i t i c a l l y in c o m p e te n t.1 7 H is r e l i g i o n may b e fo u n d t o be n o t i r r e l e v a n t t o h i s e v a l u a t i o n o f P o l k ’ s M exican p o l i c y . He d e s c r i b e s t h e e v e n t s o f P o l k ’ s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w ith v e r y l i t t l e

comment on th e P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f

b u t h i s w ork i s im p o r ta n t a s t h e f i r s t a tte m p t o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l h i s ­ t o r i a n t o j u s t i f y P o lk i n h i s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . B u rg e ss h a d been w e l l t r a i n e d i n h i s c r a f t a n d d o u b t l e s s w ro te fro m s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s b u t h i s d o c u m e n ta tio n i n t h e volum e u n d e r c o n s i d ­ e r a t i o n i s in a d e q u a te f o r a c r i t i c a l e x a m in a tio n o f h i s t h e s i s . He p r e ­ f a c e s h i s s tu d y b y s a y in g t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h i s p e r i o d p r e s e n t s t h e m ost s e r i o u s a n d " d e l i c a t e ” t a s k i n l i t e r a t u r e an d m o r a ls . He a s s e r t s t h a t he h a s b e e n " r e p e l l e d " b y t h e d e l i g h t t a k e n b y f o r e i g n c r i t i c s o f o f t h i s p e rio d o f o ur h is to r y , in re p re s e n tin g th e p ro f e s s io n s o f th e " F re e R e p u b lic " t o b e c a n t i n g

hypocrisy.18

T r a c in g t h e s h i f t i n g s o c i a l p h ilo s o p h y i n t h e S o u th , fro m a p o s i t i o n o f d e p lo r in g s l a v e r y an d p r o f e s s i n g a d e s i r e f o r i t s

g ra d u a l

e l i m i n a t i o n i n J e f f e r s o n ’ s d a y t o t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n on t h e h i g h e s t m o ra l g ro u n d s i n t h e l a t e f o r t i e s , a n d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f

17 K ra u s, H i s t o r y o f A m erican H i s t o r y , 35>9, 3 3 8 . 18 B u r g e s s , The M id d le P e r i o d , v i i , i x .

121 t h i s a g g re s s iv e defense in th e lav/s and v a lu e s o f th e so c ie ty * B urgess a s s e r t s t h a t th e Mexican War* th e f i l i b u s t e r i n g e x p e d itio n s and th e C i v il War were a l l th e ’'n a tio n a l consequences” o f t h i s s o c ia l d evelo p ­ ment in th e S outh, B urgess f in d s i t im p o ssib le to u n d e rsta n d how th e movement to annex Texas and se c u re so u th w estern t e r r i t o r y could be c a l le d a " s e c r e t in tr ig u e " o f th e s la v e h o ld e rs . Calhoun and o th e r s openly avovired t h i s t o be t h e i r p o lic y fo r th e s tre n g th e n in g o f th e South in th e Union. But he c h a r a c te r iz e s Mexico a ”h a l f - c i v i l i z e d s t a t e ” and makes an unqual­ i f i e d a s s e r tio r j t h a t th e purpose o f t h a t government in c o lle c tin g tro o p s a t Matamoras in l8lj.5> was "w ithout q u e s tio n ” an e x p e d itio n n o r th o f th e Rio Grande. When Mexico re fu s e d to re c e iv e S l i d e l l " P re s id e n t P olk f e l t i t to be h is d u ty to defend th e l i n e o f th e Rio G ran d e.” The P re s id e n t t h e r e f o r e se n t T ay lo r t o t h a t r i v e r ; G eneral T ay lo r began to f o r t i f y h is p o s itio n ; th e Mexican g e n e ra l o rd e re d him back a c ro s s th e Nueces w ith in tw e n ty -fo u r h o u rs; T ay lo r d is re g a rd e d th e demand and was n o t i f i e d by th e Mexican t h a t " h o s t i l i t i e s were opened”; on th e same day T h o rn to n ’s men were a tta c k e d and many k i l l e d by Mexican tro o p s who had c ro s se d th e r i v e r above them . 20 B urgess says t h a t th e o p p o s itio n to th e war in Congress was b ased upon th e assum ption t h a t th e t e r r i t o r y between th e Nueces and th e Rio Grande was e i t h e r Mexican o r n e u t r a l ground and im p lie s t h a t Congress*

19 Burgess* The M iddle P e rio d * 277* 2 ° I b i d .* 296* 299, 328* 3 2 9 .

122 b y a n n e x in g T exas an d e x te n d in g t h e re v e n u e la w s o v e r t h i s d i s t r i c t , h a d made i t U n ite d S t a t e s t e r r i t o r y . The f a c t i s , i t was a d e f e n s i v e w a r a t t h e o u t s e t , an d i f t h e Mex­ i c a n s w e re e x c i t e d t o t h e i r move a c r o s s , t h e R io G rande by t h e a p p e a r ­ a n c e o f U n ite d S t a t e s t r o o p s on t h e n o r t h e r n b a n k , t h e y h ad o n l y t o th a n k th e m s e lv e s f o r b r i n g i n g them t h e r e b y p r e v i o u s l y m a ssin g t h e i r oYm t r o o p s on t h e s o u th b a n k .21 As f o r t h e

o c c u p a tio n o f C a l i f o r n i a , t h a t was a

m a tte r o f th e

u tm o s t im p o rta n c e t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s : I t i s t h e way t o A s ia . I t s g o v ern m en t b y M exico w as a f a r c e . I t w o uld h a v e b e e n p u r c h a s e d o r s e i z e d b y G re a t B r i t a i n , o r some o t h e r c o m m e rc ia l P o w er, i f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s h a d n o t ta k e n p o s s e s s io n o f i t . N o th in g was known o f i t s v a s t m in e r a l w e a l t h a t t h e t im e . Mere g r e e d , t h e r e f o r e , d i d rio t p ro m p t t h e m ovem ent. I t w as a g r e a t an d c o r r e c t s t r o k e o f p u b l i c p o l i c y , s u p p o r te d b y g e o g r a p h i c a l , commer­ c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l reasons.22 O b se rv in g t h a t t h e A b o l i t i o n i s t s , r,o f c o u r s e ” c o u ld s e e n o t h in g in th e m a tte r b u t

a w ic k e d schem e f o r th e e x te n s io n o f s l a v e r y , B u rg e ss

s a y s t h a t t h a t a t t i t u d e w as ”t o o n a rro w an d b i g o t e d

t o w in much a t t e n ­

t i o n . ”23 I t i s p r o p e r t o n o te h e r e t h a t t h i s a c c o u n t f a i l s t o p r e s e n t some p e r t i n e n t f a c t s i n t h e c a s e w h ic h c o u ld n o t , o r s h o u ld n o t , have b e e n unknown t o t h e w r i t e r . F o r t h e m o st o b v io u s i n s t a n c e , n o h i s t o r i a n a f t e r 1895 w as a t l i b e r t y t o a t t a c k r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e w ar t o th e m i l i t a r y m a n e u v e rin g on t h e R io G ra n d e , e i t h e r on t h e p a r t o f M exico o r o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , w i t h o u t m aking i t c l e a r t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t h a d i n a n y c a s e p r e v i o u s l y d e te r m in e d t o p r e s e n t C o n g re ss w i t h a r e q u e s t

21 B u rg e s s , The M id d le P e r i o d , 331* 22 I b i d . „ 332. 23 I b i d . , 3 3 1 .

123 f o r a d e c l a r a t i o n o f w ar — a n d t h a t t h a t r e q u e s t w o u ld h av e gone t o t h e C o n g re ss o n ly a d a y l a t e r th a n i t d i d i f t h e r e h ad b e e n no arm ed M exican n o r t h o f G u ad alu p e H id a lg o . I t i s a l s o c u r i o u s t h a t B u rg e ss s a y s n o th in g o f T a y l o r f s b lo c k a d e o f t h e R io G ra n d e. The i n c l u s i o n o f t h e s e f a c t s , h o w e v e r, w o u ld o n ly h av e made m ore c o n f u s in g , an a l r e a d y h i g h l y c o n f u s e d an d s e l f - c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a r r a t i v e . The M exican War was a c o n se q u e n c e o f t h e ”s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n t” o f t h e S o u th ; b u t — i t w as a d e f e n s i v e w a r a t t h e o u t s e t . I t w as an o p e n p l o t b y t h e s l a v e h o l d e r s ; b u t t h a t i d e a , when p r e s e n t e d b y t h e A b o l i t i o n i s t s , w as to o n a rro w and b i g o t e d t o w in a t t e n t i o n . The M ex ican s w ere ’’w ith o u t q u e s t i o n ” p u r p o s in g t o in v a d e T e x a s ; b u t i f t h e y w ere ’’e x c i t e d ” t o move a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s tr o o p s i t was t h e i r own f a u l t . The h i s t o r y o f t h i s p e r i o d d i d p r e s e n t , a s B u rg e s s h a d s a i d , a d e l i c a t e ta s k . A H i s t o r y o f t h e P r e s id e n c y b y Edw ard Stanw ood was p u b lis h e d i n 1 8 9 8 . The m any s h o r t c h a p t e r s on t h e v a r i o u s c h i e f e x e c u tiv e s a r e m ain ­ l y c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e d e t a i l s o f n o m in a tio n an d e l e c t i o n , a n d i t i s s t i l l a u s e f u l r e f e r e n c e f o r e l e c t i o n r e t u r n s , b u t Stanw ood g i v e s a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f e a c h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . He s a y s s im p ly , ”Mr. P o lk w as n o t a g r e a t m a n ,” a n d re m a rk s t h a t t h e ’’S o u th e rn men who c o n t r o l l e d t h e p a r t y ” h a d n o c a u s e o f c o m p la in t a g a i n s t him ; h e a c c e p te d t h e i r v ie w s a n d a c t e d upon th e m . ’’The M exican W ar, w h ic h e v e r y one knew t o b e a n i n e v i t a b l e c o n se q u e n c e o f th e I n t r i g u e t o a n n e x T e x a s, w as e n t e r e d upon w ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n . ”2ii

2h Stanwood, H is to ry o f th e P re sid e n c y , I , 227«

121* A n o th e r m in o r r e f e r e n c e - t o P o lk a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y i s p r o ­ b a b ly m ore i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e c u r r e n t o f o p in io n . S e n a to r M ario n B u t l e r w ro te a f o u r p ag e e s s a y on t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r volum e f o u r o f R ic h a rd s o n * s M essages a n d P a p e rs o f t h e P r e s i d e n t s w h ic h w as p u b lis h e d i n 1 9 0 1 . H e * .l i k e T h e o d o re R o o s e v e lt, fo u n d P o lk open t o c e n s u r e n o t so much f o r ,ft h e w a r h e made a g a i n s t M e x ic o ,H a s f o r t h e w a r t h a t he d i d not fig h t: i t i s h a rd t o t e l l w h e th e r o r n o t f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s w i l l f u l l y j u s t i f y Mr. P o lk a s a man who d i d t h e t r u e , w i s e , an d g r e a t t h i n g i n p e r p e t r a t i n g t h e w ar w i t h M exico a n d a f t e r w a r d p u s h e d [ s ic l i t t o a w ar o f c o n q u e s t. A t «the same tim e i t seem s c l e a r t h a t f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s w i l l blam e Mr. P o lk m ore a n d more f o r h i s n e e d l e s s s u r r e n d e d Csic] o f t h e O regon t e r r i t o r y b etw ee n t h e f o r t y - n i n t h d e g re e an d f i f t y f o u r - f o r t y . 25 I n t h e f i r s t few y e a r s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y t h r e e g e n e r a l U n ite d S t a t e s h i s t o r i e s w ere p u b l i s h e d b y l e a d i n g A m erican h i s t o r i a n s an d i t w i l l be w e l l t o t a k e b r i e f n o t i c e o f th em a s p e r h a p s t y p i c a l d i s ­ t i l l a t i o n s o f t h e s p e c i a l s t u d i e s on P o l k f s p e r i o d . Woodrow W ils o n , l i k e R o o s e v e lt l a t e r t o b e P r e s i d e n t , b u t u n l i k e him a p r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n , p u b l i s h e d a v o lu m e , D iv is io n a n d R e u n io n , 1829-1889* i n 1893* a n d a f i v e volum e h i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s i n 1 9 0 3 . I n h i s b r i e f t r e a t m e n t o f P o lk i n t h e s e w orks h e t a k e s a m o d e ra te p o s i t i o n o f c r i t i c i s m to w a rd s t h e M exican p o l i c y . C o n t r a s t i n g t h e d i ­ p lo m acy w i t h E n g la n d a s a g a i n s t t h a t w ith M exico he r e m a rk s : ’’W ith Eng­ l a n d , w h ic h was s t r o n g , we w e re r e a d y t o compound d i f f e r e n c e s ^ fro m Mex­ ic o * w h ich was w eak , we w e re d is p o s e d t o s n a tc h e v e r y t h i n g , c o n c e d in g

25 R ich ard so n , M essages, IV, fo u r pages s e t in betw een pages 370 and 371 .

125 n o t h i n g . "26 P o lk w as " i n no s e n s e a man o f b r i l l i a n t p a r t s , " b u t th o r o u g h l y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f h is c l a s s , "a s tu r d y , u p r ig h t,

s tra ig h tfo rw a rd p a rty

m a n .n As t o t h e o r i g i n o f h o s t i l i t i e s , W ilso n s a y s t h a t C o n g re ss a c c e p te d t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t M exico h a d b e g u n t h e w a r, " a s c o n v e n ie n t, w h e th e r t r u e o r n o t . "27 W ilso n l a t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e w ar a s o n e o f " In e x ­ c u s a b le a g g r e s s io n a n d f i n e f i g h t i n g . "28 E l i s h a B enjam in A ndrew s, o n e tim e P r e s i d e n t o f Brown U n i v e r s i t y w here he a r o u s e d a , s to rm o f c o n t r o v e r s y b y d e f y in g t h e B o ard o f T r u s t e e s i n a f i g h t f o r f r e e s p e e c h , w ro te a s i x volum e h i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , volum e t h r e e o f w h ic h c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d o f l 8 l i | t o 1861 an d w as c o p y r ig h te d i n I 8 p lu He draw s no p o r t r a i t o f P o lk a n d h a n d le s t h e p r e l i m i n a r y m an eu v ers i n summary f a s h i o n . A f t e r s t a t i n g t h e c a s e a g a i n s t M exico — sh e w a s d i l a t o r y i n s e t t l i n g v a l i d c l a i m s , s h e t h r e a t e n e d t o make w a r, s h e r e ­ f u s e d t o e n g ag e i n d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s a n d s h e s h e d t h e f i r s t b lo o d — y e t , s a y s A ndrew s: w a r m ig h t h a v e b e e n a v e r t e d , an d o u r G o v ern m en t, n o t M e x ic o ’ s , was t o blam e f o r t h e c o n t r a r y r e s u l t . S l i d e l l p la y e d t h e b u l l y , t h e n a v y t h r e a t e n e d t h e c o a s t , o u r -w holly d e f i c i e n t t i t l e , th r o u g h T e x a s, t o t h e N u e c e s-R io G rande t r a c t was assu m ed w ith o u t t h e s l i g h t e s t ado t o b e g o o d , an d when G e n e ra l A r i s t a , h a v in g c r o s s e d t h e r i v e r i n T a y l o r ’ s v i c i n i t y , r e p e l l e d t h e l a t t e r ’s a t t a c k upon h im , t h e P r e s i -

26 W ils o n , D i v i s i o n an d R e u n io n , ll* 9 . 27 I b i d . , 11*6, 1 5 0 . 28 W ils o n , H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , IV , 12 2 .

126 d e n t , fo llo w e d b y C o n g re s s , f a l s e l y a l l e g e d w ar t o e x i s t "b y a c t o f t h e R e p u b lic o f M ex ic o . n%9 And i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e O regon q u e s ti o n A ndrew s r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e th e r P o lk h a d a ud e e p - l a i d p o l i c y . . .

t o t o l e Mex­

i c o t o w ar i n hope o f E n g l a n d 's a i d , t h e n s u d d e n ly p a c i f y i n g E n g la n d , t o d e v o u r M exico a t h i s l e i s u r e . ”30 In th e f i r s t y e a r s o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y a s e r i e s t i t l e d a H i s t o r y o f N o rth A m erica w as p u b lis h e d u n d e r t h e e d i t o r s h i p o f Guy C a r le t o n L ee o f J o h n s H o p k in s U n i v e r s i t y . I n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e w ork Lee r e f e r r e d t o a s t a t e m e n t by A l b e r t B u s h n e ll H a r t a n d Edw ard C h a n n in g , made i n 1 8 9 6 , t h a t t h e r e th e n e x i s t e d no c o m p re h e n s iv e h i s ­ t o r y o f A m erica; t h i s s e r i e s was c o n c e iv e d t o f u l f i l t h a t e n d . Volume t h i r t e e n , The Grow th o f The N a ti o n , 1837 t o i 8 6 0 , was t h e w ork o f E noch W a lte r S ik e s a n d W illia m M orse K e e n e r. The r e a d e r o f t h i s c o m p re h e n s iv e h i s t o r y i s t o l d t h a t t h e e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t w as a man o f h ig h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e q u a l i t i e s , t h e r u l e r o f h i s c a b i n e t ; he was s e c r e t i v e b y n a t u r e b u t he h a d a c l e a r p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s c o u r s e a s he l a i d i t o u t . I n h i s d e a l i n g s w it h M exico h e showed a s a n g u in a r y s e n ti m e n t; h e a p p e a r s t o h ave b e en m o tiv a te d b y a d e s i r e t o a c q u i r e s l a v e t e r r i t o r y . The w ar w ith M exico w as t h e r e s u l t o f t h e an ­ n e x a t i o n o f T e x a s , a lth o u g h t h e im m e d ia te c a u s e , t h e movement o f th e

29 A ndrew s, H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , I I I , 1 8 3 . A n d re w 's c h a rg e t h a t T a y l o r 's men a t t a c k e d t h e M ex ican s n o r t h o f t h e r i v e r , r a ­ t h e r t h a n v i c e - v e r s a , w as made a t t h e tim e b y P o l k 's o p p o n e n ts , b u t t h i s d o e s n o t seem t o h av e b e e n p ro v e n . Andrews c i t e s no s o u r c e f o r t h e s t a t e ­ m e n t. 30 I b i d . , I l l , 1 9 7 .

127 U n ite d S t a t e s arm y fro m C orpus C h r i s t i t o t h e R io G ra n d e , "was an i n ­ v a s i o n o f M exican t e r r i t o r y — an u n j u s t i f i e d a c t of w a r, c o n t r a r y t o e v e r y t e n e t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l h o n o r ," a n d was n o t c a l l e d f o r b y m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y b u t b y p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . 31 T h is a c c o u n t i s t h e p r e v a i l i n g one o f t h e p r e v io u s f i f t y y e a r s b u t w ith t h e new r e s p e c t f o r P o l k ’ s e x e c u tiv e a b i l i t y p r o b a b ly d e r i v e d fro m B a n c r o f t ’ s te s t im o n y . T h e re i s no r e f e r e n c e t o s o u r c e s b u t th e i n ­ t e r n a l e v id e n c e show s c o n c l u s i v e l y t h a t t h e a u th o r s h a d n o t s e e n P o l k 's d i a r y — n o r , i t w o u ld a p p e a r , S c h o u l e r 's r e v ie w o f t h a t d o cu m en t. The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s g iv e n a v e r y c o n d e n s e d t r e a t m e n t ; i n a volum e o f b $9 p a g e s c o v e r in g t h e y e a r s fro m 1837 t o i8 6 0 o n ly f o r t y - o n e p a g e s a r e d e ­ v o te d t o t h e e v e n t s o f P o l k 's te r m . A p o p u la r h i s t o r y s i m i l a r t o t h e e a r l y o n e s o f t h e w ar by J a y e t . a l . , b u t l e s s a r g u m e n ta tiv e , i s C y ru s T. B r a d y 's C o n q u est o f t h e S o u th w e s t, 1905* B rady was a n E p i s c o p a l i a n c le rg y m a n , e v a l g e l i s t an d n o v e l i s t who m anaged t o p ro d u c e s e v e n ty v o lu m es d u r in g h i s l i f e t i m e , a t tim e s d i c t a t i n g i n t o a p h o n o g ra p h ; he i s i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e D i c t i o n a r y o f A m erican B io g ra p h y a s a " p u rv e y o r o f c h e a p f i c t i o n , " w i t h "no l i t e r ­ a r y m e r i t . "32 B rad y d e n o u n c e s t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e f a m i l i a r f a s h i o n fo r i t s

a g g r e s s i o n ; t h e one new e le m e n t w h ic h B rad y i n t r o d u c e s i s an

31 S ik e s an d K e e n e r, G row th o f t h e N a t io n , llj.1, 1 5 9 -6 1 , 155* 1 5 8 , 157* 32 D i c t i o n a r y o f A m erican B io g ra p h y , I I , 5 8 3 -lu

128 e m p h a sis upon t h e " g r o s s m is c o n d u c t" o f M exico; b u t t h a t , he a s s e r t e d i n t h i s w ork d e s ig n e d f o r a l a r g e r e a d in g p u b l i c , w as no e x c u s e f o r P o lk ’s a c tio n s : The w hole p r o c e e d in g may be d e s c r i b e d a s th e s t o r y o f t h e g r e a t s p o l i a t i o n o f a w e a k e r pow er b y a s t r o n g e r , a n d i s t h e one s e r i o u s b l o t upon o u r n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y . The c o n d u c t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s was w h o lly i n d e f e n s i b l e i n a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s a b o u t t o be d i s c u s s e d , and n o t r u l y p a t r i o t i c c i t i z e n c a n t h i n k o f i t w i t h . o u t an a b id in g s e n s e o f sham e. N or c an o u r m o r t i f i c a t i o n b e d im in ­ i s h e d b y o u r r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e f a c t t h a t i n many p a r t i c u l a r s t h e c o n d u c t o f M exico d u r in g t h e p e r i o d was an a f f r o n t t o c i v i l i z a t i o n . 33 T h ree y e a r s l a t e r C h a r le s H. Owen, M.A. ( Y a l e ) , LL.B . ( H a r v a r d ) , " F o rm e rly on S t a f f F o u r th D i v i s i o n , S econd C o rp s , Army o f P o to m a c ," e n ­ t e r e d a v ig o r o u s d i s s e n t an d p l e a o f n o t g u i l t y i n a w ork t i t l e d , The J u s t i c e o f t h e M exican W ar, A R ev iew o f t h e C au ses an d R e s u l t s o f t h e W ar, W ith a V iew t o D i s t i n g u i s h i n g E v id e n c e From O p in io n an d I n f e r e n c e . In t h i s

" la w y e r ’ s b r i e f " Owen s e t o u t t o c o r r e c t

t h e m is a p p r e h e n s io n s o f h i s t o r i a n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e in v o lv e d an d co n ­ t r a d i c t o r y m ovem ents o f t h e p e r i o d o f t h e M exican W ar, t o v i n d i c a t e t h e j u s t i c e o f t h a t w a r; t o a c q u i t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , a s a n a t i o n , o f t h e m ost s e r i o u s , i f n o t t h e o n ly , c h a rg e e v e r l a i d a g a i n s t h e r h o n o r; an d t o rem ove t h e c lo u d fro m h e r j u s t t i t l e t o h e r l a r g e s t p o s s e s s i o n . 3h Owen re m a rk s i n t h e b e g in n in g on t h e " u n ifo rm " d e n u n c ia tio n s o f t h e M exican Yfar e x p r e s s e d b y h i s t o r i a n s an d a d m its t h a t t h e i r " c o n fu ­ t a t i o n " i s d i f f i c u l t b u t h e p r o c la im s t h e h ig h p u rp o s e o f n o t o n ly c o r ­ r e c t i n g m is a p p r e h e n s io n s i n r e g a r d t o t h i s o n e p e r i o d , b u t o f c o r r e c t -

33 B ra d y , C o n q u est o f t h e S o u th w e s t, 3-U«

3k Owen, J u s t i c e o f t h e M exican W ar, i i i .

129

in g p oor h i s t o r i c a l m ethods. At th e c o n c lu sio n o f th e volume he says t h a t h is work w i l l have f a i l e d o f i t s purpose i f i t has n o t b o th prom pted "th e q u e stio n in g o f some h o n e st American boys" w hether th e tre a tm e n t o f th e Mexican people by th e U n ited S ta te s has n o t been e x c e p tio n a l in th e re c o rd o f n a tio n s f o r f r i e n d l i n e s s and fo rb e a ra n c e , and serv ed a warn­ ing upon d is tin g u is h e d w r i t e r s " e s p e c ia lly such a u th o rs as th e la b o r o f p r o f e s s o rs h ip s hamper in th e la b o r o f .independent h i s t o r i c a l i n v e s t i ­ g a tio n " n o t to be b lin d e d by "th e o p in io n s o f g re a t and n o b le men, and n o t t o fo llo w th e m u ltitu d e in to th e e r r o r o f c o n s tru in g f a c t s in to con­ fo rm ity w ith somebody’s p rec o n ce iv ed t h e o r y , "35 Owen n o te s in th e p re fa c e t h a t i t i s im p o ssib le f o r even th e b e s t - t r a i n e d h i s t o r ia n n o t t o r e f l e c t som ething o f h is " p e rs o n a l equa­ t i o n , " and p roceeds to show th e b ia s o f h is opponents, S c h o u le r, Rhodes and o th e r s who had chosen to c a s t i g a t e th e U n ited S t a te s . Then, reco g ­ n iz in g t h a t i t i s a m a tte r o f "good f a i t h " to show w hatever m ight c o lo r h is own "medium," Owen d is p la y s h is l i f e and a c t i v i t i e s and f in d s n o th ­ in g t h a t c o u ld have b ia se d him f o r t h i s work ex ce p t perhaps a s tro n g im p ressio n made by G eneral Hawley’s re p e a te d e x p re s s io n : "Uncle Sam i s a g e n tlem an ," a d d in g : P e rh ap s, though, it" i s o nly j u s t to add t h a t nobody who has n o t been a p e n sio n e r o f th e U n ited S ta te s and, w ith h is own wounds c a re d f o r by h i s c o u n try , seen v e te ra n s o f W ellington by N e lso n ’s Monument o r s u rv iv o rs o f A u s te r l it z by th e H o te l des In v a lid e s h o ld in g o u t b ra id e d caps f o r alm s, can f u l l y f e e l how grand a gentlem an i s Uncle Sam, o r u n d e rsta n d what sh o u ld be th e glow o f in d ig n a tio n w ith w hich .

35 Owen, J u s t i c e o f t h e M ex ican W ar, 3 , i i i ,

2?6,

130 an A m erican c o u ld h e a r him m alig n ed * O nly when a n y th in g s a i d a g a i n s t him i s p ro v e d can i t b e r e c e i v e d i n s i l e n c e — a n d w i t h s a d n e s s . 36 Owen’ s d e te r m in e d a tte m p t t o r e a l i z e t h e " v e r y d e a r w is h o f t h e h i s t o r i a n t o make a p p a r e n t . . .

t h e r i g h t o f t h e A m erican c i t i z e n t o

s a y t o h i s b o y ; "Y our c o u n tr y n e v e r f o u g h t an u n j u s t nor* an. i n g l o r i o u s w a r* " n e e d n o t be exam in ed i n d e t a i l i n t h i s s u r v e y . I t i s i n to o many r e s p e c t s a " la w y e r ’ s b r i e f " a s he c a l l s i t . A t y p i c a l i n s t a n c e i s h i s a s s e r t i o n t h a t " n o t a n arm ed M exican h a d b een a llo w e d t o re m a in e a s t o f th e R io G rande f o r n i n e y e a r s , e x c e p t f o r th e b r i e f p e r i o d r e q u i r e d t o h u n t him o u t . "

He f o o t n o t e s t h i s b y c i t i n g S e c r e t a r y o f War M arcy ’ s

o r d e r t o G e n e r a l T a y lo r r e q u e s t i n g him t o le a v e u n d i s t u r b e d " p o s t s i n a c t u a l p o s s e s s i o n o f M exican f o r c e s , " b u t re m a rk s t h a t h e , Owen, h ad s e e n n o a c c o u n t o f T a y lo r h a v in g fo u n d a n y . 37 He a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t f i n d T a y l o r ’ s r e p o r t c h a r g in g t h e M ex ican s w i t h an a c t o f w a r when t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t r o o p s a p p ro a c h e d t h e l e f t b an k — t h a t i s , o f b u rn in g t h e i r tow n o f P o in t I s a b e l an d f l e e i n g a c r o s s t h e r i v e r . 38 Such p r e s e n t a t i o n s b y q u a s i - h i s t o r i a n s o f t e n h av e a g r e a t e r I n ­ f l u e n c e on a c o n t e s t e d s u b j e c t , p a r t l y i n d i r e c t l y b y t h e i r w id e r p u b l i c , th a n c a r e f u l l y docu m en ted aca d e m ic s t u d i e s . Owens h a d acad em ic c o n n ec ­ t i o n s ; i n t h e p r e f a c e t o h i s b ook he e x p r e s s e d g r a t i t u d e t o P r o f e s s o r G eorge P i e r c e G a r r is o n o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s , t h e " l e a d i n g a u t h o r -

36 Owens, J u s t i c e o f t h e M ex ican War, 1 9 . 37 I b i d . , 8 - 9 , 2^5* 38 Von H o l s t , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y , I I I , 2 3 2 , n o te ( E x e c . D o c ., 3 0 th C o n g ., 1 s t S e s s . , V o l. V I I , No. 6 0 , p.- 1 3 0 ) .

131 o r i t y " on T e x a s , f o r h i s '‘g e n e r o u s e n c o u ra g e m e n t '1 and f o r r e a d in g t h e m a n u s c r ip t a n d p o i n t i n g o u t " e r r o r s i n r e l a t i v e l y u n im p o r ta n t d e t a i l s . "39 I n 1906 P r o f e s s o r G a r r is o n h ad p u b l i s h e d a v o lu m e t i t l e d W estw ard Ex­ p a n s io n , l81fL -

1850

, a n d h e c o u ld a t t h i s tim e p r o b a b ly h a v e b e e n c a l l e d

t h e " l e a d i n g a u t h o r i t y " n o t o n ly on t h e h i s t o r y o f T ex as b u t on t h e a d ­ m i n i s t r a t i o n o f Jam es K. P o lk a s w e ll* G a r r i s o n ’ s volum e was one o f a s e r i e s , The A m erican N a tio n , e d i t e d b y A l b e r t B u s h n e ll H a r t , p r o f e s s o r o f h i s t o r y a t H arv ard * N o tin g t h a t t h e l8l±0s w as " r e p l e t e w i t h p r o b le m s ," s u c h a s t h e S l i d e l l M is s io n , an d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e M exican W ar, e d i t o r H a r t sa y s, t h a t G a r r is o n " b r i n g s t o b e a r t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e m ost r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p , " e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n t h e a r c h i v e s o f T ex as an d M ex ico , o f w h ic h G ar­ r i s o n w as one* H a r t t h i n k s . t h a t w h ile t h e c o n c lu s i o n s r e a c h e d i n t h i s volum e d i f f e r i n many ways fro m t h e c o n v e n ti o n a l v ie w o f t h e p e r i o d , th e y a r e " l i k e l y t o be a c c e p te d b y f u t u r e h i s t o r i a n s a s r e a s o n a b ly e x ­ p l a i n i n g b o th t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T ex as a n d t h e M exican W ar. "UO . G a r r is o n m akes e x t e n s i v e u s e o f a t y p e - w r i t t e n co p y o f P o l k ’ s d i a r y w h ic h h ad b e e n f u r n i s h e d h im b y t h e C h ic a g o H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e ty ; h e r e f e r s t o i t a s " t h a t m ost e s s e n t i a l docum ent f o r t h e s tu d y " o f t h i s p e r i o d ,U l t h u s b e i n g t h e f i r s t t o i n c o r p o r a t e i t s d a t a i n t o a d e t a i l e d s tu d y o f P o l k ’ s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The o t h e r o r i g i n a l s o u r c e s a r e a lm o s t e n t i r e l y th o s e e x e c u t i v e d o cu m en ts w h ic h h a d b e e n a v a i l a b l e t o , a n d u s e d

39 Owens, J u s t i c e o f . t h e M ex ican W ar, v i* I4O G a r r i s o n , W estw ard E x p a n s io n , x i , x i i * ip. I b i d * , x i v . .

132 b y a l l e a r l i e r h i s t o r i a n s . T h e re i s v e r y s l i g h t e v id e n c e o f new m a t e r i a l fro m t h e M exican a r c h i v e s . G a r r i s o n 's s tu d y shows t h e in f l u e n c e w h ic h T u r n e r 's " f r o n t i e r t h e o r y , " a p a p e r r e a d i n 1895 b e f o r e t h e A m erican H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c ia ­ t i o n , was b e g in n in g t o h a v e on t h e p r o f e s s i o n . G a r r is o n d e c r i e s t h e te n d e n c y o f e a r l i e r h i s t o r i a n s t o o b s c u re t h e w e stw a rd movement b y t r e a t ­ in g i t ' i n te r m s o f p a r t y s t r u g g l e s o r t h e c o n d u c t o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . The e x p a n s io n is m i s t o b e u n d e r s to o d a s a fo r w a rd movement o f a g g r e s s i v e an d a d v e n tu r o u s p e o p le s who moved w ith o u t much a t t e n t i o n a s t o w h e th e r th e y w e re p r e c e d in g o r f o ll o w i n g t h e i r f l a g .

"To s u p p o s e ," s a y s G a r r i s o n ,

" t h a t t h i s e x p a n s io n was du e s im p ly t o a d e s i r e f o r t e r r i t o r i a l a g g ra n ­ d iz e m e n t . . .

i s t o . m i s i n t e r p r e t a l l A m erican h i s t o r y . **U2

T h e re w a s, h o w e v er, some r e s i s t a n c e t o be e x p e c te d fro m t h e n a t i o n s w hose t e r r i t o r y was o v e r - r u n i n t h i s n o n -g o v e rn m e n ta l a g g r e s s io n an d G a r r is o n p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e r e s i s t a n c e v a r i e d w id e ly i n t h e s o u th ­ w e s t a n d i n th e n o r t h w e s t . E x p a n s io n in t h e f o rm er d i r e c t i o n e n c o u n te r e d "weak and d i s t r a c t e d M e x ic o ," s c a r c e l y a n a t i o n a t a l l , so t h a t t h e tro u b le s o m e q u e s t i o n w as w h ere t o f i x t h e " l i m i t o f f o r b e a r a n c e . " I n t h e n o r t h w e s t , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , s t r o n g , c o n s o l i d a t e d G re a t B r i t a i n w as t h e a n t a g o n i s t . The n o t i o n t h a t P o lk w as c a r r y i n g on a sham b a t t l e a g a i n s t t h i s pow er a s a c o v e r f o r h i s p la n n e d a t t a c k on M exico G a r r is o n d e n o te s a " s a d m is ta k e " ; t h e P r e s i d e n t , h e s a y s , w as a lm o s t to o a g g r e s ­ s i v e t o b e w a ry a n d t h e u l t i m a t e d e c i s i o n was n o t r e c o r d e d i n b lo o d b e -

k2 G a r r i s o n , W estw ard E x p a n s io n , 3-^u

133

cause G reat B r ita in was c o n c i li a to r y and p a c i f ic f a r beyond h e r w ont. But G a rriso n surm ises t h a t th e s iz e o f th e t e r r i t o r i e s a c q u ire d in th e n o rth w e st and i n th e southw est r e f l e c t s in some degree th e d if f e r e n c e i n th e r e s i s t a n c e en co u n tered in th e r e s p e c tiv e q u a r te r s . 1*3

G a rriso n g iv e s some two hundred pages to an in v e s tig a tio n o f th e "Mexican q u e s tio n ," th u s p ro v id in g th e most d e ta il e d a n a ly s is o f t h a t m ajor f e a tu r e o f P o lk Ts a d m in is tr a tio n which had y e t ap p eared . In r e ­ f e r r i n g to e a r l i e r h i s t o r ie s - o f th e w ar, th o se o f Ja y , Von H o ls t, and S c h o u ler, G a rriso n says th e y a re v a lu a b le , b u t in th e e t h i c a l r a t h e r th a n th e " tru e h i s t o r i c a l " v e in , and th e y a l l o v e re stim a te th e impor­ ta n c e o f th e s la v e i n t e r e s t in t h i s p e rio d . He a s s e r t s t h a t th e ten d en cy to a c c e p t th e Mexican p o in t o f view , which has "n o t been uncommon among American p u b l i c i s t s and h i s t o r i a n s , " i s due to th e co n n ec tio n o f s la v e r y w ith Texas a n n ex atio n r a t h e r th an to any c a r e f u l a p p lic a tio n o f i n t e r ­ n a ti o n a l law . UU G a rris o n p r e s e n ts th e c au se s f o r f r i c t i o n betw een th e U n ited S ta te s and Mexico i n f o u r p o i n t s u c la im s o f U n ited S ta te s c i t i z e n s on th e government o f Mexico;, a s s is ta n c e g iv en th e Texans by th e p eople o f th e U n ited S ta te s ;, v i o la t io n o f Mexican t e r r i t o r y ty U n ite d :S ta te s tro o p s 5 and th e an n ex atio n o f Texas. 1*5 On th e c la im s he says t h a t th e U n i t e d 'S t a t e s ‘had a good c ase

1*3 G a rris o n , Westward E xpansion, 21 , 122- 3 * 1*1* I b i d *, 31*1 - 2 , 33k9 11*9- 50 . 1*5 I b i d . , 188.

13k

a g a i n s t M exico; a s t o U n ite d S t a t e s n e u t r a l i t y d u r in g t h e T ex as r e v o ­ l u t i o n * t h e a u t h o r i t i e s a t W ash in g to n w e re c a r e f u l t o o b s e r v e s u c h ob­ l i g a t i o n s b u t l o c a l o f f i c i a l s w e re n o t ; o f G e n e r a l G a in e s in v a s i o n o f M exico i n 1836* w h ile i t w as n o t t e c h n i c a l l y i n a c c o rd a n c e w i th i n t e r ­ n a t i o n a l law* " i t a p p e a r s t o h ave b e e n d i c t a t e d b y h u m a n ity an d j u s t i ­ f i e d b y t h e em ergency*1; and M exico c o u ld h a v e no l e g i t i m a t e g ro u n d f o r c o m p la in t b e c a u s e o f t h e a n n e x a tio n o f Texas.^4-6 Of M e x ic o ’ s r e f u s a l t o r e c e i v e S l i d e l l * G a r r is o n s a y s he **ought t o have b e en r e c e i v e d * ” a n d t h e r e a s o n s g iv e n b y M exico f o r t h a t r e f u s a l ”w e re n o t g o o d . *’U7 And on t h e s o u th e r n b o u n d a ry o f T exas* G a r r i s o n ’s p o s i t i o n i s i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e i t d e m o n s tr a te s t h a t h e h ad s h i f t e d g ro u n d s u b s t a n t i a l l y b e tw e e n 1903 a n d 1 906. I n t h e f o r m e r y e a r he h a d p u b lis h e d a h i s t o r y o f T exas i n w h ic h he a s s e r t s t h a t P o lk was ’’m is­ t a k e n ” i n c r y i n g t h a t t h e b lo o d o f A m erican c i t i z e n s h a d b e e n s h e d "on o u r own s o i l . ” T ex as u n d e r M exico was. b o u n d ed

a t t h e N u e c e s; t h e t r e a t y

w ith c a p t i v e S a n ta Anna w h ich v a g u e ly i n d i c a t e d a b o u n d a ry a t t h e R io G rande was r e p u d i a t e d by t h e M exican g o v e rn m e n t; a n d T ex as h a d f a i l e d t o e s t a b l i s h j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e s e t t l e m e n t s a lo n g t h e R io G ra n d e. T h is i n 1 9 0 3 . I n 1906 G a r r is o n r e s t a t e s t h e s i t u a t i o n i n su ch a way a s t o rem ove a l l f o r c e fro m t h a t c o n c lu s io n an d a p p e a r s t o b e on t h e way t o r e g a r d in g h i s t h r e e y e a r o l d v ie w s a s o f a p i e c e w i t h o t h e r m is ta k e n h i s t o r i a n s ,

1*6 G a rris o n * W estw ard E x p a n s io n * 19U-5* 89*

88

* llj.9 -5 0 .

k l I b i d . * 2 2 5 -6 .

i*8 G arrison* Texas - A C o n te st in C iv iliz a tio n s * 263-U*

135 " I t h a s been t h e commonly

a c c e p te d v ie w o f A m erican h i s t o r i a n s , ”

he s a y s , " t h a t T ex as d i d n o t e x te n d w e s t o f th e N ueces a n d t h a t t h e a d ­ v a n c e o f T a y lo r t o t h e R io G rande b y t h e o r d e r o f P o lk was r e a l l y a n i n v a s i o n o f M e x ic o .” B ut i f t h e t r e a t y w i t h S a n ta Anna c e d in g t h i s t e r r i t o r y was i n c o n c l u s i v e i t was n o t b e c a u s e o f i t s i n v a l i d i t y b u t b e ­ c a u s e o f i t s i n d e f i n i t e t e r m s . A m erican h i s t o r i a n s , G a r r is o n s a y s , h a v e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d t h e M exican arg u m e n t t h a t t h e t r e a t y

w as n o t b in d ­

in g b e c a u s e i t w as made u n d e r d u r e s s , a n d h a v e e i t h e r n e g l e c t e d i t e n ­ t i r e l y o r d is m is s e d i t l i g h t l y a s o f s m a ll im p o r ta n c e . "B ut t h e r e i s much t o b e s a i d i n f a v o r o f i t s v a l i d i t y , a n d h e n ce o f t h e Texan c la im t o t h e R io G rande s u b s e q u e n t t o 1 8 3 6 . f1k9 W hile i t i s c l e a r t h a t a t t h i s tim e- G a r r is o n d o e s n o t h o l d t o " th e commonly a c c e p te d v i e w , ” he f i n d s i t n e c e s s a r y t o q u a l i f y h i s e n ­ d o rse m e n t o f P o l k ’ s a rg u m e n t b y i n d i r e c t i o n : T h a t P o lk h i m s e l f r e a l l y c o n s id e r e d t h e a d v an c e o f T a y lo r t o t h e R io G rande a s an' in v a s i o n o f M exico i s n o t t o b e b e l i e v e d . The s t a ­ t u s o f S a n te Fe i s t h e p r i n c i p a l d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e way o f P o l k ’ s a t t i t u d e on t h e b o u n d a ry . P o lk s e e m s, in d e e d , t o h a v e h a d t h a t c a s t o f m ind i n w h ic h p o l i ­ t i c a l dogma f i n d s to o e a s y lo d g m e n t, an d fro m w h ic h i t r e c e i v e s t h e f i e r c e s t and m ost •uncom prom ising s u p p o r t ; b u t t h e r e c an b e n o d o u b t o f h i s s i n c e r e f a i t h i n t h e r i g h t e o u s n e s s o f h i s own p u rp o s e s a n d o f t h e m eans h e u s e d t o a t t a i n th e m . The s t e m i n t e g r i t y an d s t r e n g t h o f h i s c h a r a c t e r , a s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p a g e s o f h i s d i a r y , t a k e away a l l f o r c e a n d p o i n t fro m t h e e p ig ra m m a tic c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n b y S te p h e n s — " P o lk t h e m e n d a c io u s" — c a u g h t up an d made p ro m in e n t b y Von H o l s t . Such men a s he r a r e l y c a t c h an h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o r s e e

b9 G a r r i s o n , W estw ard E x t e n s io n , 205>, 1 0 6 . He d o e s n o t a m p lif y t h i s c r y p t i c re m a rk and t h i s i s a s e r i o u s f a u l t . H is a u t h o r i t y was n o t and i s n o t so e l e v a t e d t h a t h i s c a s u a l r e f l e c t i o n s c a n u p s e t e s t a b l i s h e d c o n c l u s i o n s . H is a tte m p t t o c l a s s i f y t h e o p in io n he i s o p p o s in g w i t h a n a t i o n a l i t y i s u n w o rth y an h i s t o r i a n ; i t w o u ld be on th e same l e v e l t o s a y t h a t t h i s T ex as p r o f e s s o r w as p r e s e n t i n g "Texan a r g u m e n ts ."

136 t h e w h o le t r u t h t h a t l i e s i n an y g ro u p o f f a c t s ; an d t h e y a r e o f t e n in v o lv e d i n p a i n f u l s t r u g g l e s by t h e i r own u n c o n s c io u s i n c o n s i s ­ t e n c i e s . Ho p a r a l y z i n g s c r u p u l o s i t y o r f o r e c a s t o f p o s s i b l e d a n g e r h o ld s them b a c k ; an d woe t o t h e l a n d i f t h e y be m is g u id e d , f o r th e y do t h i n g s . B ut t h e r e a r e few i n t h i s d a y , ev en o f t h o s e who condemn th e m eth o d s o f P o lk , t h a t w o u ld b e w i l l i n g t o s e e h i s w o rk u n d o n e . 50 The U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s p r o f e s s o r 's a p p e a l i n e x t r e m is t o j u s t i ­ f i c a t i o n b y r e s u l t s i s one o f t h e f i r s t i n w h a t h a s come t o b e s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e w ith a g ro u p o f A m erican h i s t o r i a n s when d e fe n d in g P o l k 's M exican d ip lo m a c y , a s w i l l a p p e a r l a t e r i n t h i s s u r v e y . B e fo re l e a v i n g G a r r i s o n 's s tu d y , w h ic h s t i l l r a n k s a s one o f t h e h a l f - d o z e n m ost im p o r ta n t i n t h e f i e l d , some a t t e n t i o n s h o u ld b e p a i d t o some o m is s io n s i n t h e n a r r a t i v e w h ic h h av e a b e a r i n g on t h e e v a lu a ­ t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk . G a r r is o n a s s e r t s t h a t t h e w ar w as p o p u la r i n M exico an d t h a t b e ­ f o r e t h e w ar th e M ex ican s show ed a r e a d i n e s s t o t a k e u p arm s a g a i n s t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , e v e n a g a i n s t t h e w is h e s o f t h e i r own g o v e rn m e n t. Hav­ in g t h u s " e s t a b l i s h e d ” t h i s im p o r ta n t p o i n t , t h a t a m a jo r f a c t o r i n t h e o r i g i n o f t h e w a r w as t h e d e s i r e f o r i t i n M exico among t h e w hole p o p u ­ l a t i o n , G a r r is o n o b l i g a t e s h i m s e l f t o p r o v id e some c a u s e s , how ever b r i e f l y s t a t e d , f o r t h i s f i e r c e w i l l t o s l a u g h t e r g r i n g o s . Of P o i n s e t t ' s e f f o r t s t o p u r c h a s e T ex as an d o f h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n M exican p o l i t i c s h e m a k e s o n ly a one s e n te n c e comment; t h e r e i s no m e n tio n o f m i n i s t e r B u t l e r 's c o n tin u e d a tte m p ts o v e r s i x y e a r s t o b r i b e M exican o f f i c i a l s ; o f Commodore J o n e s ' b r i e f o c c u p a tio n o f M o n terey i n 18U2 he m e r e ly r e ­ p e a t s t h e l a c o n i c a n sw e r o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s g o v ern m en t t o th e M exican

50 G a r r iso n , Westward E x te n s io n , 2 0 6 -7 .

137 p r o t e s t — J o n e s " in te n d e d no i n d i g n i t y t o t h e g o v e rn m e n t o f M ex ico , n o r a n y th in g u n la w f u l to w a rd s h e r c i t i z e n s . "51 I n p r e s e n t i n g t h e im m e d ia te c a u s e s o f t h e w ar he d o e s n o t re m a rk on T a y lo r * s c h o o s in g a s p o t d i r e c t l y o p p o s it e M atam oros an d m o u n tin g can n o n b e a r i n g on t h a t c i t y ; n o r i s t h e r e m e n tio n o f t h a t g e n e r a l ’ s b lo c k a d e o f t h e R io G rande b e f o r e t h e c a v a l r y ” c l a s h . A g a in , i n h a n d lin g t h e U n ite d S t a t e s d e c l a r a t i o n o f w a r h e g iv e s o n l y one s e n te n c e t o t h e s t a r t l i n g f a c t u n c o v e re d i n P o l k ’ s d i a r y t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t was p r e p a r ­ in g a w a r m e ssa g e b e f o r e new s o f t h e s k ir m is h on t h e R io G rande r e a c h e d t h e c a p i t a l . 52 The t o t a l o m is s io n o r in a d e q u a te t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s in t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t m ust s t a n d a s s e r i o u s d e f e c t s i n a s tu d y w h ic h p ro p o s e d t o b e , and i n many r e s p e c t s w a s, a th o r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th o s e e v e n t s . The same y e a r t h a t G a r r is o n p ro d u c e d h i s volum e i n t h e A m erican N a tio n s e r i e s , J e s s e S . R e e v e s, p r o f e s s o r o f p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e a t D a r t­ m outh, 53 p ro d u c e d a s tu d y o f A m erican D ip lo m acy u n d e r T y l e r a n d P o lk a s one o f t h e A l b e r t Shaw L e c tu r e s on D ip lo m a tic H i s t o r y a t J o h n s Hop­ k i n s U n i v e r s i t y . R ee v e s o b s e r v e d i n t a k i n g u p t h e d ip lo m a c y o f t h e P o lk

51 G a r r i s o n , W estw ard E x t e n s io n , 2 0 1 -2 , 225* 8 6 , 1 9 7 -8 . • 52 I b i d . , 2 0 lu $3 I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t J u s t i n H« S m ith , f i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r t o p u b l i s h t h e " d e f i n i t i v e " h i s t o r y o f t h e M exican War (a n d t o a r r i v e a t f a r d i f f e r e n t c o n c l u s i o n s ) , was a n o th e r member o f t h e f a c u l t y a t D a rtm o u th a t t h i s tim e .

138 a d m in is tr a tio n , t h a t th e "most im p o rtan t source o f in fo rm a tio n ” f o r t h a t purpose was s t i l l i n m an u scrip t, i n C hicago, w ith th e one copy in New York; t h a t th e L ib ra ry o f C ongress had r e c e n tly a c q u ire d o ver ten th o u san d l e t t e r s o f Polk c o rresp o n d en ce; t h a t o n ly frag m en ts o f th e o f­ f i c i a l correspondence had been p r in te d in e x e c u tiv e docum ents, and t h a t th o se were d i f f i c u l t to o b ta in ; t h a t so f a r as was known no one had e v er examined a l l th e re c o rd s o f th e war and navy dep artm en ts f o r th e y e a rs 1815 to 181|9 ; t h a t l i t t l e was known about th e Mexican a rc h iv e s ; and t h a t a l i f e o f Polk and a h i s t o r y o f h is a d m in is tra tio n s t i l l rem ained to be w r i t t e n .$k Reeves say s t h a t P o lk ’s a d m in is tra tio n has had no a p o lo g is ts b u t many vehement c r i t i c s and he p ro ceed s to add one to th e l a t t e r , though he ta k e s c a re to g iv e th e P r e s id e n t c r e d i t f o r s tr o n g a d m in is tr a tiv e le a d e r s h ip . " ’Who i s P o lk ? 1 had been th e sn e e r o f h is p o l i t i c a l ad v er­ s a r i e s o f I 8I4.I1.* The q u e stio n was s u f f i c i e n t l y answered when he l e f t o ffic e . But R eev es’ e x p o s itio n does n o t in c re a s e P o lk ’s s t a t u r e as a d ip lo m at n o r a s a commendable agent o f h is c o u n try ’ s honor. Even in th e Oregon diplom acy, w here, a f t e r Polk ”had looked John B u ll f ir m ly in th e e y e , ” John B u ll had proposed what he had so o fte n re f u s e d , Reeves d o esn ’t g iv e P o lk ’s firm n e s s c r e d i t f o r th e p e a c e fu l and " f a i r ” s e ttle m e n t. Had P alm erston been in A berdeen’s p la c e , he c o n je c tu r e s , Oregon m ight have

£1}. R eeves, Diplomacy Under T y le r and P o lk , 265-6. 55 I b i d . , 2 6 6 , 267.

139 been l o s t .

"T h a t t h e O regon q u e s t i o n was s e t t l e d i n t h e m anner i t w as

i s one o f t h e g l o r i e s o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f S i r R o b e r t P e e l.

. . .

T h a t A b e rd ee n was " b l u f f e d " b y P o lk i s a b s u r d . "56 R eev es f i n d s " i l l - a d v i s e d , P o l k ' s a t t e m p t s t o " c o n q u e r a p e a c e " i n M exico b y m aking o v e r t u r e s t o t h e M exican g o v e rn m e n t f o ll o w i n g e v e r y m i l i t a r y e n g ag e m e n t. He a s s e r t s t h a t T r i s t ! s a c t i v i t i e s d i d i n d e e d t e n d t o p r o lo n g t h e s t r u g g l e b u t t h e f a u l t l a y w i t h t h e o r i g i n a t o r o f t h e p o l i c y a n d n o t w ith i t s i n s t r u m e n t . 57 The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e w ar R eev es p l a c e s s q u a r e l y u p o n P r e s i ­ d e n t P o lk : I t i s commonly s a i d t h a t t h e M ex ican War was t h e r e s u l t o f t h e an ­ n e x a t i o n o f T e x a s , b u t t h e tw o w e re s e p a r a t e e p is o d e s w h ic h h a d no n e c e s s a r y c o n n e c tio n . I f P o lk h a d h a d no u l t e r i o r d e s ig n s upon Mex­ i c o , t h e M exican War w o u ld n o t h a v e ta k e n p l a c e , Had t h e U n ite d S t a t e s o n ly t h e m a t t e r o f T ex as t o s e t t l e w i t h M exico t h e r e w o u ld h a v e b e e n no d i f f i c u l t y . B u t.P o lk h a d g r e a t e r a m b itio n s . . . . he c o v e te d C a l i f o r n i a fro m h i s e n tr a n c e i n t o o f f i c e . T y l e r 's name i s p r o p e r l y c o n n e c te d w ith T e x a s; w i t h P o lk b e lo n g s t h e g l o r y , i f g l o r y i t b e , o f t h e M exican War a n d o f t h e c o n q u e s t o f C a l i f o r n i a . 58 In r e f e r r i n g t o S l i d e l l ' s e x a s p e r a t e d a d m o n itio n t o B uchanan o f M arch 15* 18U6, t o " c h a s t i s e " t h e s e p e o p l e , R eev es s a y s P o lk h a d lo n g s i n c e made up h i s m ind t o c h a s t i s e M exico b u t t h a t t h e O regon n e g o t i a ­ t i o n s d e la y e d h i s h a n d .59 And, i n s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n t o t h e n a r r a t i v e o f G a r r i s o n , R eev es p l a c e s g r e a t e m p h a sis upon t h e d i s c l o s u r e o f P o l k 's

56 R e e v e s , D ip lo m acy U nder ’T y l e r and P o lk , 2 6 3 . 57 I b i d . , 32 2 . 58 I b i d . , 189. 59 I b i d . , 281*.

lUo 11p r e - m a t u r e ,f d e c i s i o n f o r w a r. He g iv e s a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c a b i ­ n e t m e e tin g o f May 9 i n w h ic h P o lk s a i d he h ad no new a d v ic e s b u t t h a t we h a d am ple c a u s e f o r w a r, t h a t h e c o u ld n o t re m a in s i l e n t much l o n g e r , t h a t h e w ould s e n d a c o m m u n ic atio n t o C o n g re ss t h e f o llo w in g T u e sd ay a n d , r e c e i v i n g t h e a s s e n t o f a l l b u t B a n c r o f t, p r e p a r e d t o a s k C o n g re ss t o d e c l a r e w a r on M ex ico . By one o f th o s e s t r a n g e h a p p e n in g s t h a t r e s u l t i n t h e c o n c e a lm e n t o f m an’ s r e a l m o tiv e s , on t h e v e r y n i g h t f o ll o w i n g t h e m e e tin g o f t h e c a b i n e t a t w h ic h P o lk h a d named a d a te f o r t h e s e n d in g o f h i s w ar m essag e came t h e new s o f t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e R io G rande b y t h e M ex ican s an d t h e k i l l i n g o f T a y l o r ’ s t r o o p s . The n e x t d a y P o lk s p e n t I n p r e p a r i n g h i s m e s s a g e . C irc u m s ta n c e s now p e r m i t t e d t h i s t o be d r a f t e d i n a c c o rd a n c e w i th t h e w is h e s t h a t B a n c r o f t h a d e x p r e s s e d . •

•

•

«

"War e x i s t s b y a c t o f M ex ic o ,'! P o lk t o l d C o n g re ss May 1 1 , 181|6. Had t h e news fro m T a y lo r n o t b e e n r e c e i v e d when i t w a s, C o n g re ss m ig h t h a v e b e en in fo rm e d t h a t on a c c o u n t o f t h e r e f u s a l o f P a r e d e s t o r e c e i v e S l i d e l l , who h a d gone t o make s e t t l e m e n t o f th e c la im s o f A m erican c i t i z e n s , t h e p a t i e n c e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w as ex ­ h a u s te d ; a n d t h a t t h e h o n o r a n d s e l f - r e s p e c t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s c o u ld no l o n g e r p e r m it M exico t o d e l a y paym ent o f r i g h t e o u s and lo n g - d e la y e d c la i m s . W h eth e r C o n g re ss . . . w o u ld h av e s u s t a i n e d t h e P r e s i d e n t i n a w ar t h a t fro m t h e o u t s e t w o u ld a d m i t t e d l y h a v e b e e n one o f a g g r e s s i o n , i t i s im p o s s ib le t o s t a t e . T a y l o r 's s k i r ­ m ish w i t h t h e M ex ic a n s w as a n o c c u r r e n c e t h a t s a v e d P o lk fro m a d a n g e ro u s s i t u a t i o n . 60 Jo h n Bach M cM aster’s H i s t o r y o f t h e P e o p le o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s came fro m t h e p r e s s i n t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , v o l ­ ume s e v e n , t r e a t i n g t h e y e a r s 18Ij.1 -1 8 5 0 , b e in g p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 0 . T h is h i s t o r y o f t h e p e o p le draw s v e r y l a r g e l y upon n e w sp a p e r s o u r c e s f o r p u b l i c o p in io n an d t h e common man a p p ro a c h , th o u g h M cM aster a l s o u s e s t h e g o v e rn m e n ta l m a t e r i a l s an d P o l k ’ s d i a r y f o r t h e p e r i o d o f t h i s s tu d y .

60 R e e v e s, D ip lo m acy U n d er T y l e r a n d P o lk , 2 9 6 -8 .

ila M cM aster’s i s a n a r r a t i v e a c c o u n t a n d d e s c r i p t i v e s t o r y r a t h e r th a n a c r i t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d h e g iv e s a w e ll- r o u n d e d a c c o u n t o f t h e e v e n ts o f P o l k 's te r m . He n o w h ere p a s s e s a f l a t ju d g m e n t on t h e a d ­ m i n i s t r a t i o n b u t h i s e v a l u a t i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y a p p a r e n t . F o r e x a m p le , o f A lm o n te ’ s a d v ic e t o P o lk t o u s e f o r c e o r t h e t h r e a t o f f o r c e t o s e c u r e M exican s u b m is s io n , M cM aster s a y s t h e ’’a d v ic e f e l l on w i l l i n g e a r s . ”61 O b se rv in g t h a t ”i t h a s lo n g b e e n t h e f a s h i o n t o a s s e r t t h a t t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T ex as w as t h e c a u s e o f t h e M exican W a r,” M cM aster a s s e r t s t h a t ”no su c h d e l u s i o n was h e ld ' b y t h e p e o p le i n 181RS. ” He q u o te s fro m t h e p r e s s t o show t h a t t h e w a r w as a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e ’’a g g r a v a te d and m u l t i p l i e d w ro n g s ” w h ic h t h a t g o v ern m en t h a d i n f l i c t e d on t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . S t a t i n g t h a t T a y lo r b lo c k a d e d t h e R io G rande when h e h e a r d t h a t tw o M exican s h i p s w ere, a t t h e m outh o f t h a t ' r i v e r w i t h s u p p l i e s , M cM aster e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e ’’M ex ican s m ust now be s t a r v e d o u t o r f i g h t . T hey c h o se t o f i g h t . ” And he m akes e x p l i c i t P o l k ’s u s e o f t h a t c h o ic e i n s u p p o r t o f h i s a lr e a d y - d e te r m i n e d - u p o n w a r. 62 The w e ig h t o f McMas­ t e r ’ s p r e s e n t a t i o n r e - e n f o r c e d t h e c r i t i c a l t r e a t m e n t s o f R e e v e s, S c h o u le r an d Von H o l s t . I n 1 9 1 0 , a s w as i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , P o l k ’ s d i a r y w as p u b l i s h e d i n f o u r v o lu m e s , b e in g e d i t e d b y M ilo M ilto n Q u a if e . I n a b i o g r a p h i c a l s k e t c h p r e f a c i n g t h e f i r s t volum e Q u a ife re v ie w s t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v a l ­ u a t i o n s o f Jam es K. P o lk ;

61 M cM aster, H i s t o r y o f t h e P e o p le , V I I , 14-38* 62 I b i d . , V I I , 1 0 ^ - 6 , iU a , UU3.

1U2 The t r e a t m e n t t h u s f a r a c c o rd e d Jam es K. P o lk b y h i s c o u n try m e n h a s b een c u r i o u s . I n t h e m ain h e h a s b e e n rem em bered o n ly t o be r e v i l e d , a n d one may s a f e l y a s s e r t t h a t t h e f i n a l ju d g m e n t o f h i s t o r y upon h i s c a r e e r h a s n o t y e t b e e n p a s t . . . . He c o n d u c te d h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w ith f o r c e an d a b i l i t y , . . . . He d i r e c t e d a s u c c e s s f u l f o r e i g n w a r, a s a r e s u l t o f w h ic h o u r w e s te r n b o u n d a ry was c a r r i e d from th e R o c k ie s t o t h e P a c i f i c . Y et t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f few o f o u r P r e s i ­ d e n t s h a s e v o k ed s u c h a s to rm o f h o s t i l e c r i t i c i s m a s d i d h i s ♦ . . • He h a s fo u n d no a d e q u a te b i o g r a p h e r a n d b u t few f r i e n d l y c r i t i c s , s u c h a t t e n t i o n a s he -has r e c e i v e d h a v in g b e e n , i n t h e m a in , fro m w r i t e r s im bued w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t t h e M exican War was one o f u n j u s t a g g r e s s i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , i n s p i r e d b y P o l k ’ s m a n ev o len c e a n d w aged i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s l a v e - h o l d i n g S o u th . T h a t t h i s ju d g m e n t w i l l b e m a t e r i a l l y m o d if ie d b y s c h o l a r s , now t h a t t h e p a s s i o n s o f tw o g e n e r a t i o n s ago h a v e s u b s id e d , may w e l l b e b e ­ l i e v e d . 63 T h a t c o n j e c t u r e w as t o be r e a l i z e d i n l i t t l e

m ore t h a n a d e ca d e

i n a h i s t o r y o f t h e w ar an d i n a b io g r a p h y o f t h e P r e s i d e n t b u t i n t h e i n t e r i m P o lk was t o b e s u b j e c t e d t o more r e v i l i n g . Even i n a re v ie w o f Q u a if e f s p u b l i c a t i o n i n The N a tio n i n November o f t h a t y e a r P o lk d o e s n ’t e s c a p e c e n s u r e . A lth o u g h re m a rk in g t h a t t h e r e w as no " l a r g e r man a t t h e h e a d o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t" i n t h e p e r i o d b e tw ee n J a c k s o n a n d L in c o ln th a n t h i s " p r e s i d e n t by a c c i d e n t , " t h e r e v ie w e r s a y s :

" A lto g e th e r, th e s i t ­

u a t i o n was to o com plex f o r a man o f P o l k ’ s a b i l i t y . H is " D ia ry " i s a w i t n e s s t o h i s p e r p l e x i t y . " The r e v ie w e r a c c e p ts t h e t e s t im o n y o f t h e d i a r y t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t P o lk w as n o t an a r d e n t p r o - s l a v e r y man, b u t he s t i l l f i n d s him t o b e an " e x p a n s i o n i s t an d n a t i o n a l i s t , " a n d l i k e o t h e r e x p a n s i o n i s t s , n o t s c r u p u lo u s i n h i s

m e th o d s*

6^

The H i s t o r y o f t h e M ex ican War w r i t t e n b y R. S . R i p le y so o n a f ­ t e r t h e e v e n t h a d s to o d f o r o v e r h a l f a c e n t u r y a s t h e f u l l e s t a c c o u n t

63 Q u a if e , D ia r y o f P o lk , I , x x i , x x i i . 61; Anonymous, The N a tio n , " P o lk ’ s D i a r y , " Nov. 1 0 , iilj.2-3*

Ul3 o f t h a t c o n f l i c t i n i t s m i l i t a r y p h a s e s ; t h e v o lu m e s by Ladd an d W ilc o x w o u ld seem t o h ave b e e n t h e o n ly r i v a l s i n t h e f i e l d and., t h e y w e re i n ­ a d e q u a te i n many r e s p e c t s . I n 1913 t h e s e w o rk s w ere a l t o g e t h e r s u p e r ­ s e d e d b y a two volum e h i s t o r y , The U n ite d S t a t e s an d M ex ico , 1821-181|8, b y G eorge L o c k h a rt R iv e s . H ere f o r t h e f i r s t tim e i n a th o ro u g h s tu d y o f t h e s e e v e n t s , t h e r e a p p e a r s f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o M exican s o u rc e m a t e r i a l an d M exican h i s t o r i c a l w o rk ; a n d i n a d d i t i o n t o a l l t h e m a te r ­ i a l p r e v i o u s l y u s e d , d ocum en ts i n t h e B r i t i s h f o r e i g n o f f i c e a s w e l l a s a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l from t h e U n ite d S t a t e s D e p a rtm e n t o f S t a t e a r e b ro u g h t t o b e a r on t h e n a r r a t i v e . A bout h a l f o f t h i s s tu d y i s d e v o te d t o a s u r v e y o f t h e d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e tw o n a t i o n s i n t h e s c o r e o f y e a r s p r e c e d in g th e w a r. B e g in n in g a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l b a s e o f t h e d i s p u t e a s t o t h e s o u th e r n b o u n d a ry o f T e x a s , R iv e s s a y s t h a t a n y p r e t e n s i o n s w h ic h P r a n c e , a n d s u b s e q u e n tly t h e U n ite d S t a t e s b y t h e L o u is ia n a P u r c h a s e , h a d t o t h e R io G rande b o u n d a ry , w ere r i d i c u l o u s an d u n w a r r a n te d . 65 F o llo w in g t h e i s s u e th r o u g h t h e T ex as r e v o l u t i o n o f 1 8 3 6 , he s t a t e s t h a t th e c o n t r o ­ v e r s y r e a l l y r e s o l v e d i t s e l f i n t o t h e q u e s t i o n ”o f f a c t ” a s t o w h a t was t h e e x t e n t o f t h e T exan c o n q u e s ts . He f i n d s t h e e v id e n c e r e a s o n a b l y c l e a r t h a t n e i t h e r T exas n o r M exico h a d e x e r c i s e d j u r i s d i c t i o n th r o u g h ­ o u t m ost o f t h e a r e a b e tw e e n t h e tw o r i v e r s b u t t h a t e a c h h a d s e t t l e ­ m en ts w i t h i n t h a t t e r r i t o r y a lo n g t h e r e s p e c t i v e w a te r

65 R iv e s , U n ite d s t a t e s a n d , M exico, I , 1 8 . 66

I b i d . , I I , 136.

c o u r s e s . 66

ll& R iv e s d i s c o v e r s " a r e g r e t t a b l e am ount o f t r u t h ” i n t h e c h a r g e s a g a i n s t Mr. P o i n s e t t * t h e f i r s t A m erican m i n i s t e r t o Mexico* t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t h e h a d b e en e n g a g e d i n t r y i n g t o p ro m o te t h e s u c c e s s o f a f a c t i o n o f M exican p o l i t i c i a n s * t h e Y o rk in o s . J a c k s o n * s m i n i s t e r , An­ th o n y B u tle r* r e c e i v e s a m ore s e v e r e c o n d e m n a tio n . R iv e s s a y s t h a t B u t l e r h a d u s e d s u c h m eans i n h i s a tte m p t t o s e c u r e T ex as f o r t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a s t o r e f l e c t d i s c r e d i t upon t h e J a c k s o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n *

!,w i t h

t h e r e s u l t o f i n c r e a s i n g m a t e r i a l l y M ex ican d i s t r u s t o f t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e A m erican g o v ern m en t a n d o f a d d in g t o t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f p r e s e r v i n g a m ic a b le r e l a t i o n s i n t h e f u t u r e . ”67 The l a s t A m erican m i n i s t e r t o M exico* Shannon* p u t a c lim a x t o t h i s c o n tin u o u s s e r i e s o f d ip lo m a ti c b lu n d e rin g * a c c o r d in g t o R iv e s* when* i n p r o t e s t i n g M e x ic o 1s avow ed i n t e n t i o n t o r e c o n q u e r Texas* he a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h a t t e r r i t o r y b y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s h a d b e e n s t e a d i l y p u r s u e d b y ”a l l p a r t i e s . . . a n d t h e s u b j e c t o f n e ­ g o t i a t i o n b y a lm o s t e v e r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , f o r t h e l a s t tw e n ty y e a r s . ” R iv e s o b s e r v e s t h a t R ejon* th e M ex ican m i n i s t e r o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s * made much o f ”t h e u n lu c k y p h r a s e . ” And R iv e s p l a c e s upo n t h e T ex ans t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s m o ld e rin g w a r b e tw ee n M exico an d h e r f o rm er p ro v in c e * s a y in g t h a t t h e re n e w a l o f h o s t i l i t i e s on a . s m a l l s c a le * b u t w ith l a r g e c o n se q u e n c e s* can b e tr a c e d *

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i n h i s t o r y * t o t h e p r e p o s t e r o u s a tte m p t o f t h e T ex an s t o in v a d e New M ex ic o .

”6 8

67 R iv e s* U n ite d S t a t e s a n d M exico* I* 161* 261. 68 I b i d . * I* 667* 5 2 3 .

lW On t h e o t h e r h a n d , R iv e s f i n d s M exico g u i l t y o f ’’w i l f u l d e l a y s ” i n a l l m a t t e r s c o n c e r n in g t h e p aym ent o f t h e c la im s a g a i n s t h e r , an d a s s e r t s t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s h a d a good c a s e a g a i n s t h e r on t h i s c h a r g e * 69 Of G e n e r a l G a in e s ’ i n c u r s i o n i n t o M exican t e r r i t o r y d u r in g t h e Texan r e v o l u t i o n and t h e S t a t e D e p a rtm e n t’ s d e f e n s e o f t h a t a c t on t h e g ro u n d t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s h ad t o p r o t e c t h e r s e l f a g a i n s t n e ig h b o r ­ in g I n d i a n s , R iv e s p r o t e s t s t h a t a s a t h e o r y t h i s w as no d o u b t a l l v e r y w e l l , b u t t h e d i f f i c u l t y was t h a t t h e f a c t s d i d n o t f i t t h e t h e o r y . The f e a r s o f an I n d ia n i n ­ v a s io n . * . w ere c h i m e r i c a l , and when t h e t r u t h was a s c e r t a i n e d an a p o lo g y s h o u ld h av e b e en o f f e r e d t o M exico f o r th e u n w a r r a n te d a c t i o n o f G e n e ra l G a i n e s .70 R iv e s p r e s e n t s t h e c h a r g e s o f Anson J o n e s , P r e s i d e n t o f th e Texan R e p u b lic i n 181^5, t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t Commodore S to c k to n o f t h e U n ite d f S t a t e s N avy h a d i n s t r u c t i o n s fro m W ash in g to n t o ’’m a n u f a c tu r e ” a w ar b e ­ tw e en T ex as an d M exico b e f o r e T ex as was a n n e x e d . B ut a lth o u g h R iv e s s a y s r

t h a t S to c k to n d i d ’’seem ” t o h av e t r i e d t o p e r s u a d e t h e T ex an s t o s e i z e M atam oros, o f f e r i n g t o h e lp w i t h h i s s h i p s , t h e n o tio n t h a t t h e A m erican gov ern m en t w as th e n t r y i n g t o ’’m a n u fa c tu re a w a r" i s a b s u r d . "What t h e y w a n te d was t o b u y o f f M exico . ”71 On t h e e v e n ts le a d i n g up t o t h e o u tb r e a k o f h o s t i l i t i e s an d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h a t r e s u l t , R iv e s t a k e s a m id d le p o s i t i o n . He 'c o n -

69 R iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s a n d M ex ico , I , k2h» 70 I b i d . , I , 380. 71 I b i d . , I , ^ 7 - 8 .

Iit6 e lu d e s t h a t t h e r e w o uld u n d o u b te d ly h a v e b e e n no w a r h a d P o lk n o t f o r c e d m a t t e r s , b u t t h e r e w ere o u t s t a n d i n g g r ie v a n c e s a g a i n s t t h a t "u n happy" r e p u b l i c w h ic h d i d n o t a p p e a r t o b e s o l u b l e i n an y o t h e r m a n n er. F o r t h e A m erican g o v e rn m e n t . . . t h e q u e s t i o n o f T ex as w as s e t ­ t l e d and done w ith fro m t h e s p r i n g o f 181±5. T h e re w as no f e a r o f s e r i o u s M exican a g g r e s s i o n ; a n d i f t h e q u e s t i o n o f T ex as h a d s to o d a l o n e , a f f a i r s w i t h M exico m ig h t, v e r y w e l l h av e b e e n l e f t t o s e t t l e th e m s e lv e s . B ut t h e T exan q u e s t i o n b y no m eans s to o d a l o n e . The u n ­ p a i d c la im s o f A m erican c i t i z e n s a g a i n s t M exico c o n s t i t u t e d a v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l an d v e r y r e a l g r ie v a n c e w h ic h re m a in e d t o be d i s p o s e d o f , a lo n g w i t h t h e a d ju s t m e n t o f t h e new b o u n d a ry . H e re , i t was h o p e d , w as a l e v e r w h ich m ig h t s e r v e t o move t h e M ex ican g o v ern m en t t o make t e r r i t o r i a l c o n c e s s i& n s , p r e c i s e l y a s S p a in h a d b e e n moved tw e n ty -s ix y e a rs b e fo re to y ie ld th e F l o r i a a s . 7 2 T a y lo r* s move i n t o and th r o u g h t h e a r e a s o u th o f t h e N u eces w as o r d e r e d b y t h e " a u t h o r i t i e s a t Y fa sh in g to n , " a n d " w h a te v e r blam e t h e r e may be f o r p u s h in g fo r w a r d i n t o a r e g i o n . . .

t o w h ic h

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h av e g iv e n no c l e a r t i t l e , " m u st r e s t w ith t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; b u t Tay­ l o r ’ s a c t i n b lo c k a d in g t h e R io G rande w as one "w hich w ar a lo n e w o u ld j u s t i f y . ”73 R iv e s makes i t c l e a r t h a t t h e p o l i c y o f t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e b o u n d a ry d i s p u t e was by th e show o f f o r c e t o in d u c e t h e M ex ic a n s t o n e g o t i a t e a n d , i t w as h o p e d , t r a d e t h e c la i m s f o r t e r r i t o r y w h ic h t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o v e te d an d f o r w h ic h i t w as w i l l i n g t o p a y a su b ­ s t a n t i a l sum i n a d d i t i o n t o th o s e c la i m s : T h a t t h i s d i s p l a y o f f o r c e p ro v o k e d t h e M e x ic a n s, a n d in d u c e d them t o f i g h t r a t h e r th a n t o b a r g a i n , p ro v e s n o th in g a s t o t h e i n ­ t e n t i o n s o f t h e A m e ric an c a b i n e t . I t show s, p e r h a p s , n o t h i n g more t h a n t h e i r ig n o r a n c e o f M ex ican n a t u r e . Jo h n B u ll m ig h t be lo o k e d

72 R iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s an d M ex ico , I , 7 l8 -9 « 73 I b i d . , I I , 1 3 8 , ll ;0 .

H*7 s t r a i g h t i n t h e e y e , an d sp o k en t o f i r m l y a n d b o l d l y , t o some ad ­ v a n ta g e ; b u t John B u l l h a d a good d e a l t o l o s e , w h ile M exico h ad n o th in g e x c e p t h e r d i g n i t y . 7U B ut sh e v a lu e d d i g n i t y ab o v e money o r la n d . "The M e x ic a n ," s a i d H enry A d d in g to n , who was U n d e r-S e c r e t a r y o f t h e B r i t i s h F o r e ig n O f f i c e , a n d knew t h e S p a n is h c h a r ­ a c t e r w e l l , " th e M exican i s l i k e a m ule — i f y o u s p u r h im to o much he w i l l b a c k o f f t h e p r e c i p i c e ,w ith y o u " ; a n d P o lk an d h i s a d v i s e r s h a d y e t a good d e a l t o l e a r n b o th o f m u le s an d men.7$ P r e s i d e n t P o lk , s a y s R iv e s , w h ile " l i k e many o t h e r U l s t e r S c o ts " w ith o u t im a g in a tio n o r a s e n s e o f hum or, was y e t an e x c e l l e n t a d m in is ­ t r a t o r a n d t h e m a s te r o f h i s c a b i n e t , h a d p r e c i s e l y t h e s h o rtc o m in g s w h ic h w e re m ost l i k e l y t o p ro d u c e a c o n f l i c t i n t h e e v e n t o f h i s h a v in g t o d e a l w ith t h e s e p e o p le t o t h e s o u th : The P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f w as a man w i th o u t w id e c u l t u r e o r know­ l e d g e , w h o lly d e v o id o f im a g i n a t i o n , u n t r a v e l l e d , u n - a c q u a in te d w i th e i t h e r t h e S p a n is h o r t h e M exican c h a r a c t e r , an d w ith l i t t l e e x p e r­ ie n c e i n t h e c o n d u c t o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s . To a s t r o n g i n t e l l i g e n c e he a d d ed a dog g ed s t r e n g t h o f w i l l , s u c h a s few o f h i s c o n te m p o r­ a r i e s p o s s e s s e d ; a n d w i th a l l t h e o b s t i n a c y an d p e r s i s t e n c e o f h i s n a t u r e he d e s i r e d t o a c q u i r e C a l i f o r n i a . B ut he th e n h o p e d , a n d p r o ­ b a b ly b e l i e v e d , t h a t C a l i f o r n i a m ig h t be g o t b y n e g o t i a t i o n . 76 I n h i s p r e f a c e t o t h e s tu d y R iv e s re m a rk e d t h a t t h e e v e n ts w h ich l e d up t o t h e w a r b e tw e e n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and M exico "h av e b e e n v e r y g e n e r a l l y m is a p p r e h e n d e d ," b e in g t r e a t e d on t h e A m erican s i d e a s a m ere e p is o d e i n t h e s t r u g g l e o v e r s l a v e r y , an d b y t h e M ex ican s a s t h e " u n e s c a p a b le " r e s u l t o f A m erican a g g r e s s io n i n T e x a s . E ach o f t h e s e v ie w s , he s a y s , e m b o d ie s a " s o r t o f h a l f - t r u t h , " an d i t i s

" b o th d i f f i c u l t an d

7h E ls e w h e re R iv e s commends P o lk f o r h i s h a n d lin g o f t h e O regon n e g o t i a t i o n s . " . . . t h e r e s u l t w as a g r e a t p e r s o n a l triu m p h f o r P o l k Ts s k i l l i n n e g o t i a t i o n . He had a c c u r a t e l y ju d g e d t h e te m p e r o f t h e B r i ­ t i s h g o v e rn m e n t an d t h e te m p e r o f t h e A m erican G o n g re s s ." I I , 1 2 6 -7 . 75 R iv e s , U n ite d S t a t e s a n d M ex ico , I I , 133-1*.

76 I b id ., I , 6?5* I I , 130,

11*8 i m p o r ta n t t o d i s e n t a n g l e t h e w h o le t r u t h . "77 I n c o n c lu d in g t h i s w ork t h e a u t h o r o b s e r v e s t h a t w h ile " i t h a s n o t b e e n th e p u rp o s e o f t h i s w o rk t o p a s s m o ra l ju d g m e n ts upon t h e c o n ­ d u c t o f th o s e -whose a c t i o n s h a v e b e en d e s c r i b e d , " b u t t o s t a t e t h e r e l ­ e v a n t f a c t s and l e t them s p e a k f o r th e m s e lv e s , i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e a s s e r t i o n s , " p e r s i s t e n t l y r e i t e r a t e d , " t h a t T ex as was s e t ­ t l e d an d a n n e x e d by s la v e i n t e r e s t s c o n s c i o u s l y w o rk in g f o r s l a v e r y e x ­ t e n s i o n , an d t h a t t h e w a r w as f o r c e d upon M exico t o g e t m ore s l a v e t e r ­ rito ry ,

"h av e v e r y l i t t l e

f o u n d a t io n i n f a c t . "

I n a s e n s e t h e w a r may in d e e d be r e g a r d e d a s a virar o f c o n q u e s t; f o r a lth o u g h t h e e x e c u tiv e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s s t e a d i l y d e n i e d t h i s a c c u s a t i o n , a n d a s s e r t e d t h a t i t was p r o s e c u t e d s o l e l y in o r d e r t o o b t a i n paym ent f o r d e b ts d u e t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d f o r i n j u r i e s done t o i t s c i t i z e n s , t h e f a c t re m a in s t h a t i t h a d a lw a y s b e e n t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o o b t a i n s u c h paym ent b y a c e s s i o n o f t e r r i t o r y b e lo n g in g t o t h e M exican r e p u b l i c . B ut t h a t t e r r i t o r y w as n o t T e x a s . I t w as New M exico an d C a l i f o r n i a — e s p e c i a l l y t h e la tte r. . . . * vThatever may b e th o u g h t o f t h e a b s t r a c t m o r a l i t y o f a w ar begun f o r t h e p u rp o s e -o f a c q u irin g t e r r i t o r y , i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t th e p ra c ­ t i c e o f c i v i l i z e d n a t i o n s p r i o r t o t h e m id d le o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n ­ t u r y w as n o t o p p o se d t o i t ; an d t h e r e w e re many c ir c u m s ta n c e s w h ic h re n d e re d th e c o n q u est o f C a lif o r n ia r e l a t i v e l y j u s t i f i a b l e . I t s o w n ers an d i n h a b i t a n t s h ad u t t e r l y ' f a i l e d t o d e v e lo p t h e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s o f t h e c o u n t r y , and e v e r y j u s t i f i c a t i o n w h ic h c o u ld a t t e n d t h e s e t t l e m e n t b y E u ro p ea n n a t i o n s o f c o u n t r i e s i n h a b i t e d b y u n ­ c i v i l i z e d r a c e s , o r w h ic h c o u ld b e o f f e r e d t o e x c u s e t h e e x p a n s io n o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s o v e r I n d i a n t e r r i t o r y , w o u ld i n p r i n c i p l e a p p ly t o t h e c o n q u e s t o f C a l i f o r n i a b y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . • . . [M exicol r e f u s e d t o y i e l d t o f o r c e s w h ic h e v e r y o n e e l s e saw w e re i r r e s i s t i b l e , a n d sh e p e r s i s t e d i n a h o p e le s s an d d i s a s t r o u s e f f o r t t o r e t a i n t e r r i t o r i e s w h ic h sh e w a s .w h o lly u n a b le e i t h e r t o d e v e lo p o r t o p r o t e c t . 78

77 R iv d s , U n ite d S t a t e s an d M ex ico , I , v . 78 I b i d . , I I , 6 ^ 6 -6 5 9 .

1h9 T h i s , i t w i l l b e o b s e r v e d , i s p r e c i s e l y t h e c l i n c h i n g a rg u m en t w h ic h was u s e d b y P r o f e s s o r G a r r i s o n , b u t w i t h t h e u n d e r l y i n g b a s e s made m ore e x p l i c i t th a n i n t h e e a r l i e r j u s t i f i c a t i o n . A m onograph b y C. C. K ohl e n t i t l e d C la im s a s a C ause o f t h e Mex­ i c a n War, lp lij., b e a r s d i r e c t l y u pon a m a jo r p o i n t i n P o l k 's M exican d ip lo m a c y a n d i s t h e d e f i n i t i v e w ork on t h i s s p e c i f i c i s s u e . K ohl f i n d s t h e c la im s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a g a i n s t M exico f o r i n j u r i e s done t o h e r c i t i z e n s an d p r o p e r t y e s s e n t i a l l y v a l i d . O b se rv in g t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n a g r e a t d e a l o f c r i t i c i s m an d r i d i c u l e h e ap e d upon t h e c l a i m s , "no d o u b t much o f i t j u s t , ” he c o n t in u e s Y et i t m u st b e c o n c e d e d t h a t t h e i r v a l i d i t y w as s u b m itte d t o t h e b e s t known t e s t , a r b i t r a t i o n , w h ic h r e s u l t e d i n a v e r d i c t t h a t t h e y w e re n o t w h o lly b a d . . . . N e a r l y , one t h i r d o f t h e am ount c la im e d w as . . . c o n s id e r e d v a l i d ; a n d , a s c la im s u s u a l l y g o , t h i s w as n o t a b a d s h o w in g .79 B ut K ohl d o e s n o t t h i n k t h a t t h e w a r was t h e r e s u l t o f t h e d i s ­ p u te o v e r t h e c l a i m s , how ev er i n t r a n s i g e n t M exico p ro v e d on t h e s u b j e c t . He i n v e s t i g a t e s o t h e r p o s s i b l e c a u s e s , a c c e p ts t h e c o n c lu s io n o f G a r r is o n r e f u t i n g t h e e a r l i e r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e s l a v o c r a c y h ad e n g in e e r e d i t , and i n t h e e n d a r r i v e s a t w h a t he c o n s i d e r s an u n a s s a i l a b l e c o n c lu s io n . " T h e re c a n ," s a y s K o h l, "b e no p o s s i b l e d o u b t a s t o t h e c h i e f m o tiv e t h a t l a y b a c k o f t h e M exican W a r." The c la im s w ere m e re ly p r e ­ t e x t s t o i n f l u e n c e p u b l i c s e n ti m e n t , a s w as a l s o t h e " t h r e a t e n e d " ' i n - v a s i o n o f T e x a s . The P r e s i d e n t i s g iv e n c r e d i t f o r t h e w hole c o u r s e o f a f f a i r s w i t h M exico w h ic h l e d t o w a r:

79 K o h l, C la im s a s a C ause o f t h e M exican W ar, 1*2.

150 P o lk p la y e d h i s p a r t i n t h e M ex ican War w i t h a s t e a d y h a n d . He d i d a l l o f h i s own t h i n k i n g ; an d w hat w as s t i l l m ore v a l u a b l e t o h im , he k e p t i t t o h i m s e l f . He i n i t i a t e d th e w a r a n d th e n j u s t i f i e d i t on t h e g ro u n d s o f i n v a s i o n o f T exas a n d in d e m n ity f o r c la i m s . The f i r s t g ro u n d c o n s t i t u t e d good a rg u m e n t f o r e x c i t i n g p u b l i c f e e l i n g in h i s fa v o r; and th e second fu r n is h e d an e x c e lle n t p r e te x t f o r s e ­ c u r i n g t e r r i t o r y i n t h e way o f In d e m n ity — one w h ic h h i s o p p o n e n ts m ig h t a t t a c k , b u t c o u ld n o t o v e rth ro w . B ut b e h in d a l l h i s c o n d u c t an d p u b l i c u t t e r a n c e s l a y t h e s e c r e t an d p o w e rfu l m o tiv e o f e x p an ­ s i o n . He w a rd e d o f f t h e s l a v e r y s t r u g g l e a n d d e f e a t e d h i s e n e m ie s s im p ly b e c a u s e t h e r e was i n t h e C o n g re ss a n d t h e c o u n tr y a d e s i r e f o r l a n d s tr o n g enough t o s u p p r e s s a l l o t h e r c o n f l i c t i n g m o tiv e s* The g r e a t c a u s e f o r t h e w ar w as e x p a n s io n ; th e g r e a t p r e t e x t u n d e r w h ic h i t w orked was th e c l a i m s . 8 0 S e v e r a l h i s t o r i e s o f U n ite d S t a t e s d ip lo m a c y w ere p u b l i s h e d d u r ­ in g t h e f i r s t tw o d e c a d e s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a n d th e y o f c o u r s e g iv e some s p a c e t o t h e f o r e i g n p o l i c y o f t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . C a r l R u s s e l F i s h , p r o f e s s o r o f h i s t o r y In t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W is c o n s in , pub­ l i s h e d a volum e on A m erican D ip lo m acy i n 1 9 1 5 , i n w h ic h he d i d n o t p r o ­ p o s e t o ,umake a new c o n t r i b u t i o n t o k n o w le d g e, b u t t o make an a tt e m p t at

in te r p r e ta tio n .

"81 I n h i s b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f P o l k 's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

he s a y s : P o lk came i n t o o f f i c e w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f s e c u r in g T e x a s , O re­ g o n , an d C a l i f o r n i a . To th e a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f t h i s f o r m id a b le t a s k he b r o u g h t, n o t g r e a t i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y , b u t an i r o n w i l l , a d i r e c t n e s s o f p u r p o s e , and a c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e m o r a l i t y o f h i s i n ­ t e n t i o n s i n h e r i t e d fro m h i s S c o t c h - P r e s b y t e r i a n a n c e s t r y , — j u s t t h e e q u ip m e n t f o r th e man o f a c t i o n a f t e r d i s c u s s i o n h a s c l e a r e d an d d e f i n e d th e i s s u e . 8 2 A d e c a d e l a t e r F i s h s h a r p e n e d one o f t h e s e p o i n t s b y t h e re m a rk t h a t " n o t o n ly d i d t h e new P r e s i d e n t , P o lk , b e l i e v e i n M a n if e s t D e s t i n y ,

80 K o h l, C laim s a s a C ause o f t h e M ex ican W ar, 73* 77* 81 F i s h , A m erican D ip lo m a c y , v i i . 82 I b i d . , 267.

151 b u t h e b e l i e v e d i t w as t h e f i n g e r o f God t h a t p o i n t e d i t o u t , "83 I n t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h a t d e s t i n y P o l k ’ s " b l u s t e r 11 s u f f i c e d f o r G re a t B r i t a i n b u t a w a r w i t h M ex ico , d e te r m in e d upon a f t e r i t becam e a p p a r e n t t h a t t h a t c o u n tr y w o u ld n o t s e l l h e r p r o p e r t y , w as r e q u i r e d f o r e x p a n ­ s io n th r o u g h t h e s o u t h w e s t , 8 U A l b e r t B u s h n e ll H a r t, t h e H a rv a rd h i s t o r i a n who h a d , s e v e r a l l y , p u b lis h e d a. volum e on d ip lo m a c y i n

1901

c o n ta in in g se v e re c r i t i c i s m o f

P o l k ’s d ip lo m a c y and i n 1 9 0 6 , a s e d i t o r o f t h e A m e ric an N a tio n s e r i e s , recom m ended G a r r i s o n ’ s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i n 1916 p ro d u c e d a volum e on The M onroe D o c t r i n e , An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , I n t h i s w ork he h a s fu ls o m e p r a i s e f o r P o l k ’ s a b i l i t y ,

s a y in g t h a t h e was " su c h

a m a s t e r f u l P r e s i d e n t , so r e s o l u t e an d so s u c c e s s f u l , t h a t he q u i t e o v e rsh ad o w e d h i s S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , B u c h a n a n ."85 B ut h e s t a t e s a s t r o n g c a s e a g a i n s t P o lk f o r h i s p e r v e r s i o n o f t h e M onroe D o c tr in e : The i n a u g u r a t i o n o f Jam es K, P o lk , , • m arks a g r e a t ch an g e i n p u b l i c s e n tim e n t to w a rd L a t i n A m e ric a . The e x t e n t o f h i s d e s ig n s on o t h e r p e o p le ’ s t e r r i t o r y w as n o t t h e n known, b u t h e h ad b e e n e l e c t e d a s t h e cham pion o f t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s . • • • I n s t e a d o f t h e p e a c e f u l d o c t r i n e t h a t A m erica o u g h t t o re m a in a s i t w a s , t h e U n ite d S t a t e s now b e g a n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o r e a r r a n g e t h e map o f N o r th A m erica a t t h e e x p e n s e o f h e r n e ig h b o r s an d t o m a in t a in w i t h a l l h e r m ig h t t h a t t h e r e was a m y s te r io u s t h i n g c a l l e d t h e Monroe D o c tr in e w h ic h p r e v e n te d a n y one fro m i n t e r f e r i n g w it h t h e L a t i n A m e ric a n s , — e x c e p t o u r s e l v e s • • • * w h a t m ig h t b e . c a l l e d t h e "M onrovoid D o c tr in e " . . . .8 6

83 F i s h , The R is e o f t h e Common Man, 3 02. 8U

F i s h , A m erican D ip lo m acy , 2 7 1 , 275*

85 H a r t, The M onroe D o c t r i n e , 1 1 6 . 86

I b i d . , 112.

152

H a rt l a t e r c a l l s t h i s t h e nP o lk D o c t r i n e , " a d o c t r i n e o f " s e l f i n t e r e s t ; i t w as t h e a rg u m e n t o f t h e s t r o n g t o t h e w e a k ," a n d he en­ t i t l e s h i s c h a p t e r on P o l k ’ s a c t i v i t i e s ,

"The U n ite d S t a t e s O ut o f H er

S p h e r e ."87 I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e s p e c i a l i s t s d u r in g t h e f i r s t tw o d e c a d e s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t 'was s t i l l f a r fro m co m p lete* G a rris o n ^ i n a v a l u a b l e s tu d y m ark ed b y a g r e a t s e n s i t i v i t y to w a rd s t h e " h o t b r i c k s " o f P o l k ’s e x p a n s i o n i s t a c t i v i t i e s , a n d R iv e s , i n a more v a l u a b l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c o u ra g e o u s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o p u l l a l l t h e b o n e s o u t o f t h e c l o s e t an d s e e w h at c o u ld b e done w i t h t h e s k e l e t o n once i t w as a s s e m b le d , h a d s u c c e e d e d i n d e m o lis h in g t h e once s t u r d y f i g u r e o f a s l a v o c r a t ’ s t o o l a n d c r e a t i n g i n i t s

s te a d as

f o r c e f u l a p r e s i d e n t a s h ad e v e r o c c u p ie d t h a t o f f i c e * B ut i f r e s p e c t w ere t o b e p r e f i x e d t o a b i l i t y an d s tig m a -re m o v e d fro m P r e s i d e n t and n a t i o n , a n o th e r e f f o r t w o u ld h av e t o b e m ade. The in s tr u m e n t f o r t h a t g r e a t t a s k w as e n g a g e d on t h e p r o j e c t and t h e f i n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n w as a t h a n d .

87 H a r t , Monroe D o c t r i n e , 1 2 0 , 112-127*

CHAPTER VI THE WAR JUSTIFIED — THE PRESIDENT ACHIEVES RESPECTABILITY JUSTIN H. SMITH AND EUGENE I . MCCORMAC J u s t i n H a rv ey Sm ith* b o r n in 1 8 ^ 7 3 h a d b een a s e r i o u s s t u d e n t a t D artm outh* h a d t r a v e l l e d w id e ly o v e r t h e w o r ld an d h a d th e n gone t o w ork f o r S c r i b n e r ’s p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e . He l a t e r t r a n s f e r r e d t o G inn a n d Com­ pany* a c q u ir e d a p a r t I n t e r e s t i n t h a t f i r m an d b y

1898

was w e a lth y

enough t o r e t i r e fro m b u s i n e s s . He h a d m a in ta in e d an d d e v e lo p e d an i n ­ t e r e s t in A m erican h i s t o r y * h a v in g w r i t t e n some m onographs on e a r l y Amer­ i c a n h i s t o r y * a n d he a c c e p te d a p r o f e s s o r s h i p o f m odem h i s t o r y a t D a r t­ mouth* t e a c h i n g t h e r e u n t i l

1909

* when h e r e s i g n e d t o d e v o te f u l l tim e

t o r e s e a r c h an d w r i t i n g . I n 1913 h e p u b l i s h e d The A n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s * t h e m ost c o m p le te w ork t o d a t e on t h a t s u b j e c t* a n d i n a n a t u r a l p r o ­ g r e s s i o n p lu n g e d i n t o an e x h a u s t iv e s tu d y o f t h e w ar w i t h M ex ico . T h is stu d y * w h ic h t u r n e d o u t t o b e a tw o volum e work* w as p u b l i s h e d i n

1919

a n d w as a w a rd e d t h e P u l i t z e r p r i z e f o r A m erican h is t o r y * T h is s tu d y i s t o d a t e t h e s t a n d a r d a u t h o r i t y on t h a t w a r. S m ith ’ s a m b itio n w as t o p ro d u c e an u n a s s a i l a b l e w o rk an d a f t e r t e n y e a r s o f r e s e a r c h h e w as s a t i s f i e d t h a t h e h a d s u c c e e d e d . He re m a rk s i n t h e b e g in n in g t h a t no s a t i s f a c t o r y s tu d y o f t h e a f f a i r w as i n e x i s ­ te n c e * p r o b a b ly b e c a u s e o f t h e more im p o r ta n t 'w ars f o ll o w i n g i t * b u t a l ­ so b e c a u s e o f i t s

’’u n p o p u l a r i t y ” - b u t f o r t h e l a t t e r *

he say s* i t w o u ld

no d o u b t h a v e b e en th o r o u g h l y s tu d ie d * By s p e c i a l a u t h o r i z a t i o n o f t h e P r e s i d e n t s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico he w as e n a b le d t o exam ine

151 *

" e v e r y p e r t i n e n t docum ent b e lo n g in g t o t h e tw o g o v e rn m e n ts ." The s e a r c h e x te n d e d t o t h e a r c h i v e s o f G re a t B r i t a i n * F ra n c e * S p a in * Cuba* C olom bia and Peru* th o s e o f t h e A m erican a n d M exican s t a t e s * a n d th o s e o f M exican c i t i e s . The p r i n c i p a l l i b r a r i e s h e re * i n Mex­ i c o an d i n E u ro p e . . . . I t may s a f e l y b e e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e a u th o r ex am in ed p e r s o n a l l y more t h a n 1 0 0 * 0 0 0 m a n u s c r ip ts b e a r i n g u p o n t h e s u b je c t* more th a n 1 2 0 0 b o o k s a n d p h a m p le ts* an d a l s o m ore t h a n 2 0 0 p e r i o d i c a l s * t h e m ost im p o r ta n t o f w h ic h w ere s tu d ie d * i s s u e b y is s u e * f o r t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d . A lm o st e x c l u s i v e l y t h e b o o k i s b a s e d upon f i r s t - h a n d s o u rc e s * p r i n t e d m a t t e r h a v in g b e e n fo u n d o f l i t t l e u s e .l S m ith s a y s he " n a t u r a l l y " h a d l i t t l e

o c c a s io n t o u s e p r e v io u s

. h i s t o r i e s o f t h e war* " in d e e d h e to o k c a r e n o t - t o c o n s u l t th em w h ile w r i t i n g t h i s w o r k ." W hile* h e re m a rk s* he h a s made no th o r o u g h a tte m p t t o p o i n t o u t t h e i r e r r o r s "an d no w is h i s f e l t t o c r i t i c i s e them I n g en ­ e r a l * " h e h a s " f r e q u e n t l y ta k e n p a i n s t o w r i t e in s u c h a way a s t o c o r ­ r e c t e r r o r s w i th o u t m e n tio n in g th e m ." R ip le y an d W ilc o x w ere n o t c r i t i ­ c a l h i s t o r i a n s ; Roa B arcena* "sp o k e a s a M exican*" an d w h ile R iv e s w ork c o n t a i n s "much t h a t i s so u n d a s w e l l a s d i g n i f i e d * " h i s " i n v e s ­ t i g a t i o n s came f a r s h o r t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s .

"2

As h e s a id * he g e n e r a l l y t r i e d t o c o r r e c t e r r o r s w i th o u t men­ t i o n i n g th e m b u t h e m akes an e x c e p tio n i n th e c a s e o f R iv e s* f e e l i n g p e r h a p s t h a t he* a lo n e o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s * h a d a s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l e s ­ t a b l i s h e d a u t h o r i t y t o r e q u i r e s p e c i f i c a t t a c k . He d i s p o s e s o f him w i t h a few s h a r p s ta te m e n ts * i n a p a s s a g e w h ic h i s t y p i c a l o f h i s s t y l e an d a p p ro a c h . Q u o tin g R iv e ’ s re m a rk t h a t p e r h a p s t h e m o r a l i t y o f th e w a r

1 Sm ith* War W ith M exico* I* v i i * v i i i * n o te * 1*03. 2 I b i d . * I* n o te * k0b-5»

i£ 5 w as q u e s t i o n a b l e b e c a u s e i t was “begun f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f a c q u i r i n g t e r r i t o r y ” i n paym ent o f o u r c l a i m s , S m ith r e b u t s : B ut (1 ) t h e t e r r i t o r y w as w an ted i n paym ent o f w h a t w as j u s t l y due u s , and t h e r e f o r e we c o u ld r i g h t f u l l y c o l l e c t , a n d t h a t M exico c o u ld p a y u s o n ly i n la n d w as n o t o u r f a u l t ; ( 2 ) t h e w ar w as n o t en­ t e r e d i n t o by u s f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f o b t a i n i n g t e r r i t o r y ; an d ( 3 ) i t was n o t “b e g u n ” b y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . 3 One o f t h e r e a s o n s , a s he a s s e r t s , t h a t h e w as u n a b le t o d e r i v e an y b e n e f i t fro m p r e v io u s w o rk on t h e w a r was d u e t o t h e p a r t i s a n , p e r ­ s o n a l o r n a t i o n a l b i a s o f t h e w r i t e r s . H is own a p p ro a c h , a s he b r i e f l y o b s e r v e s i n t h e p r e f a c e , was i n f l u e n c e d by no s u c h p r e j u d i c e s , a f a c t w h ic h he t h i n k s i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t o u t b e c a u s e o f t h e r e s u l t s o f h i s s tu d y : As a p a r t i c u l a r c o n se q u e n c e o f t h i s f u l l i n q u i r y , an e p is o d e t h a t h a s b een r e g a r d e d b o th i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d a b r o a d a s d i s c r e d ­ i t a b l e t o u s , a p p e a r s now t o w e a r q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t c o m p le x io n . Such a r e s u l t , i t may b e p re su m e d , w i l l g r a t i f y p a t r i o t i c A m e ric a n s , b u t t h e a u th o r m u st c a n d i d l y a d m it t h a t h e b e g an w i t h no p u rp o s e o r even th o u g h t o f r e a c h in g i t . h H is own v ie w o f t h e w a r when he to o k up t h e s tu d y “c o in c i d e d su b ­ s t a n t i a l l y ” w ith t h e p r e v a i l i n g v ie w , an d he e n g ag e d u pon t h e w ork o n ly b e c a u s e h e f e l t c o n v in c e d t h a t i t h a d n o t b e e n s t u d i e d th o r o u g h l y . He t h e r e f o r e t r u s t s t h a t “new o p i n i o n s , r e s t i n g upon f a c t s , w i l l b e a c c e p t ­ a b le now i n p l a c e o f o p in io n s r e s t i n g l a r g e l y upon t r a d i t i o n a l p r e j u d i c e s and m is in f o r m a ti o n . B ut t h a t S m ith w as h i m s e l f one o f th o s e who w ere “ g r a t i f i e d ” b y

3 S m ith , War W ith M exico, I I , n o t e , $lb* 1* I b i d . , I I , n o te I4 OI4.; I , i x .

156 h i s c o n c l u s i o n s , w i l l a p p e a r n o t o n ly i n h i s d e f t h a n d lin g o f t h e co n ­ t r o v e r s i a l p o i n t s o f i n c i p i e n t c o n f l i c t , b u t even i n f r a n k an d op en s t a t e m e n t . At tim e s he t a k e s a to n e and a p o i n t o f v ie w w id e ly v a r i a n t from h i s p r o f e s s e d h i s t o r i c a l d e ta c h m e n t — f o r exam ple i n d e fe n d in g t h e b e h a v io u r o f A m erican t r o o p s i n M exico: C o n q u e rin g s o l d i e r s in a f o r e i g n l a n d , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e enemy i s deem ed c o w a rd ly , t r e a c h e r o u s an d c r u e l , a r e n o t l i k e l y t o b e a n g e l s 5 and we may c o u n t upon m e e tin g h e r e w i t h d i s a g r e e a b l e a s w e l l a s com­ p l i m e n t a r y f a c t s . B ut we m ust f a c e t h e s e a s b ra v e an d h o n e s t men who lo v e th e t r u t h , b e l i e v e i n o u r c o u n t r y , an d a r e n o t f o o l i s h en ough t o e x p e c t p e r f e c t i o n o f human n a t u r e . . . . no n a t i o n , i f w e l l a c ­ q u a in te d w ith i t s h i s t o r y , w i l l th in k o f p o in tin g th e f in g e r a t u s . 5 And a f t e r d e t a i l i n g some o f t h e o u tr a g e s o f t h e A m erican s o l d i e r s upon t h e i n h a b i t a n t s he c o n c lu d e s t h a t "much was d e p l o r a b l e , " b u t " a g r a i n o r tw o o f la w le s s n e s s i s a f t e r a l l a n o rm a l a n d u s e f u l i n g r e d i e n t i n human n a t u r e # " 6 E a r l i e r d i s s e n t e r s fro m t h e p r e v a i l i n g v ie w o f t h e M exican w ar h a d c o m p la in e d t h a t t h e h i s t o r i e s o f t h a t a f f a i r h a d b e e n w r i t t e n w i t h ­ o u t a p r o p e r a tte m p t t o d e s c r i b e t h e p e o p le w i t h whom t h e U n ite d S t a t e s had t o d e a l . S m ith " a t t a c h e s n o t a l i t t l e

im p o r ta n c e " t o h i s M ex ican

d a ta ] h e l i v e d i n M exico f o r more th a n a y e a r w h ere h e e n d e a v o re d , th r o u g h c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h M ex ican s o f a l l g r a d e s a n d b y t h e a i d o f f o r e i g n e r s lo n g r e s i d e n t i n t h e c o u n t r y , t o becom e w e l l a c q u a i n te d w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d p s y c h o lo g y o f t h e p e o p l e . 7

5 S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I I , 6

Ib id . ,

II,

231.

7 I b id ., I , v i i i .

210.

He f i n d s t h a t t h e y a r e , o r w e re , a " d i f f i c u l t " p e o p le . He s a y s th a t l i t t l e

i n t h e m a t e r i a l , m e n ta l o r m o ra l s p h e r e s was r e a l l y so u n d

i n M exico i n 181*5 • The lo w e r o r d e r s o f t h e p e o p le l a y d eep i n ig n o r a n c e , l a z i n e s s a n d v i c e and t h e u p p e r c l a s s , w ith some e x c e p t i o n s , w ere s o f t , s u p e r f i c i a l , i n d o l e n t an d l a x ; u r b h n e , p l a u s i b l e an d e l o q u e n t , a m ia b le an d k in d th o u g h c r u e l when e x c i t e d , g e n e ro u s b u t u n t r u s t w o r t h y , w a s t e f u l and a t h i r s t f o r g a i n , s u s p i c i o u s a n d s u b t l e b u t n o t s a g a c i o u s , p e r s o n ­ a l l y i n c l i n e d t o be pom pous, n a t i o n a l l y a f f l i c t e d w i th a p r o v i n c i a l v a n i t y a n d g r e a t l y w a n tin g i n s i m p le , s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d , s o b e r an d s o l i d common s e n s e . S m ith f i n d s t h e e v id e n c e " c o n c lu s iv e " t h a t e v en t h e h ig h ­ e s t a u t h o r i t i e s w e re " g e n e r a l l y u n b u s i n e s s lik e > o f t e n u n j u s t a n d t r i c k y , and on to o many o c c a s io n s p o s i t i v e l y d is h o n o r a b le i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h f o r e i g n e r s . "8 I t seem s t o S m ith t h a t s u c h a p e o p le m ust i n e v i t a b l y come i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e i r n e i g h b o r s . The I n d i a n s he fo u n d " l i t t l e m ore human i n a p p e a ra n c e t h a n t h e d o n k e y s th e y d r i v e , " an d he p o u rs h e a v y s a rc a s m upon "a H a rv a rd p r o f e s s o r * s l a b e l l i n g o f " d e m o n ia c a l" o u r w a r upo n " t h e s e p o o r i n n o c e n t s ," a s i f , he s a y s , " th e y h a d n o t b e e n s h o o tin g one a n o th e r p r e t t y c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d a l s o a c h in g t o s h o o t u s . "9 They w ere so r e d u c e d b y t h e i r e x h i b i t i o n o f i n c a p a b i l i t y t h a t "many p r a y e d f o r some r e s p e c t a b l e d e s p o t; many f o r a f o r e i g n p r i n c e ; an d some o f t h e more t h o u g h t f u l s u g g e s te d c a u t i o u s l y an A m erican p r o t e c t o r a t e .

8 S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I I , 3 1 1 ; I , 2 8 , £ 8 . 9 Ib id l ,

I , 18 ; I I , 2 7 3 .

10 I b i d . , I , 5 6 .

158 B ut t h e s u g g e s tio n s o f t h e "more t h o u g h t f u l " w e re n o t a c te d upo n an d t h e w ar came t o p a s s " a s l o g i c a l l y a s a t h u n d e r s t o r m ." A t t h e b e g in n in g o f h e r in d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e o u r p e o p le f e l t e a r n ­ e s t l y a n d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y a n x io u s t o m a in ta in c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s w ith o u r s i s t e r r e p u b l i c , an d many c r o s s e d t h e l i n e o f a b s u r d s e n ­ t i m e n t a l i t y i n t h a t c a u s e . F r i c t i o n w as i n e v i t a b l e , h o w e v er. The A m erican s w ere d i r e c t , p o s i t i v e , b ru s q u e , a n g u la r an d p u s h in g ; an d t h e y c o u ld n o t u n d e r s ta n d t h e i r n e ig h b o r s o n t h e s o u th . The M ex ican s w e re e q u a l l y u n a b le t o fa th o m o u r g o o d - w ill , s i n c e r i t y , p a t r i o t i s m , r e s o l u t e n e s s and c o u ra g e ; a n d c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r an d n a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n made i t f a r fro m e a s y t o g e t on w i t h th e m . 11 Even p e o p le s o f s u c h d i v e r s e c h a r a c t e r m u st m eet i n o f f i c i a l r e ­ l a t i o n s when t h e y h av e a common b o r d e r a n d S m ith r e l a t e s t h e " l o g i c a l " c h a in o f e v e n ts w h ic h l e d t o w a r. The f i r s t U n ite d S t a t e s M i n i s t e r t o M ex ico , P o i n s e t t , h a d b e e n c r i t i c i s e d b y e a r l i e r h i s t o r i a n s f o r m e d d lin g i n t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f M exico b u t S m ith s a y s t h a t h i s " o n ly f e a s i b l e c o u r s e " w as t o a f f i l ­ i a t e h i m s e l f w i t h men o f t h e F e d e r a l i s t p a r t y , who th r o u g h h i s a d v ic e g a in e d t h e a s c e n d a n c y and l a t e r f e l l i n t o e x c e s s e s w h ic h th e y c h a r g e d t o t h e P r o t e s t a n t f o r e i g n e r . I n t h e e n d h e came t o be " a lm o s t u n i v e r ­ s a l l y d e n o u n ce d b y th e M ex ican s a s a d i a b o l i c a l a g e n t o f a j e a l o u s , h y p o c r i t i c a l , d e s ig n i n g g o v e rn m e n t." B u t, s a y s S m ith , "a b e t t e r man f o r t h e o f f i c e c o u ld n o t have b e e n c h o s e n , o r ev en

c r e a t e d . "12

T h is i s i n ­

d e e d fu ls o m e p r a i s e . B ut S m ith c r i t i c i s e s B u t l e r , J a c k s o n ’ s m i n i s t e r t o M ex ico , s e v e r e ­ l y . He w as a " n a t i o n a l d i s g r a c e , " a n d in l i s t i n g h i s v i c e s S m ith g iv e s

11 S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I I , 310* 12 I b i d . , I , 5>8-9*

1 59

some r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h e im p r e s s io n w h ic h w o u ld o th e r w is e b e g a in e d fro m h i s book t h a t t h e M ex ican s h a d a m onopoly on s u c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . He h a d b e e n th r o u g h b a n k r u p tc y m ore th a n o n c e , w as a b u l l y a n d a sw ash­ b u c k l e r , w h o lly u n p r i n c i p l e d a s t o m eth o d s an d o p e n ly s c a n d u lo u s i n h i s c o n d u c t .13 B ut t h e c a u s e s f o r t h e T exan r e b e l l i o n w ere p r o v id e d b y M exico h e r s e l f and t h a t e v e n t c r o s s e d t h e w is h e s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , who d e ­ s i r e d t o b u y t h e p r o v in c e . Some "A m erican s i n g ro u p s " d i d , i t i s t r u e , c o n t r i b u t e m a t e r i a l l y t o t h e c a u s e o f T exas b u t , w h ere u n la w f u l , i t c o u ld n o t b e p r e v e n te d ; m o re o v e r t h e s e t r e s p a s s e s a g a i n s t t h e la w o f n e u t r a l i t y w ere " j u s t r e t r i b u t i o n " f o r t h e " ty r a n n y , m isg o v e m m e n t an d a t r o c i t i e s o f M e x ic o ."1^ F o r th e c l a i m s , p e r h a p s t h e m o st im p o r ta n t g r i e v a n c e , S m ith f i n d s f u l l j u s t i f i c a t i o n . They w e re s u b s t a n t i a l i n am ount; th o u g h e x a g g e r a te d , th e y w ere b a s i c a l l y t r u e , a s p ro v e d b y t h e i m p a r t i a l co m m issio n ; t h e y w e re n o t u r g e d a g g r e s s i v e l y , a s A m erican an d M exican w r i t e r s h a d m ain­ ta in e d .

" F o r h e r (J/Iexicof s3 c o u r s e i n t h i s m a t t e r , " s a y s S m ith , " t h e r e

seem t o b e o n ly tw o c o n c e iv a b le e x c u s e s ; h e r e m b a r ra s s e d c o n d i t i o n an d h e r i r r i t a t i o n o v e r t h e T ex as a f f a i r . " B ut h e r c o n d i t i o n "was i t s e l f i n e x c u s a b l e ," and e v en so d i d n o t i n c a p a c i t a t e h e r f o r m e e tin g o u r d e­ m ands; a n d h e r i r r i t a t i o n w as u n fo u n d e d a n d i n a n y c a s e d i d n o t j u s t i f y h e r " d is h o n o r a b le m e th o d s" o f e v a s io n . I n h i s v o lu m in o u s n o t e s , th o u g h

13 S m ith , War W ith M exico, I , 6 2 .

Jh I b i d . , I , 6 3 .

160 n o t i n t h e t e x t , S m ith d e p a r t s fro m t h e arg u m e n t o f t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a ­ t i o n t o a s s e r t t h a t M exico w as a b le t o p a y t h e c l a i m s , c i t i n g

na s a s i n g l e

i l l u s t r a t i o n , " t h e f a c t t h a t S a n ta Anna a n d t h e L i z a r d i b a n k in g h o u se ro b b e d t h e t r e a s u r y o f a b o u t $ 1 ,2 0 0 ,0 0 0 . B ut i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e t r e a t y he s a y s t h a t i t w as n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e t e r r i t o r y , b e c a u s e M exico w o u ld n o t have b e e n " m o r a lly a b l e , ” e v e n i f t h e o r e t i c a l l y s o , t o p a y a money in d e m n ity # 15 I t i s r e l e v a n t t o n o t e t h a t i n c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e d is h o n o r a b le f i n a n c i a l e v a s io n s o f M exico S m ith d o e s n o t m e n tio n t h e a c t i o n o f many s t a t e s o f t h e A m e ric an u n io n i n r e p u d i a t i n g t h e i r d e b t s h e l d b y f o r e i g n c r e d i t o r s — t h e " c o n c e iv a b le e x c u s e " i n t h i s c a s e b e in g s im p ly t h e i r " e m b a rra s s e d c o n d i t i o n . " S m ith w as w e l l aw are o f t h e s e e v e n ts h o w ev er; in t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f h i s se c o n d v o lu m e , i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e f i n a n c i n g o f t h e w a r, he l i s t s t h e s t a t e s w h ic h w e re i n d e f a u l t i n t h e am ount o f n e a r l y $ 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 , p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h i s h a d r u i n e d t h e c r e d i t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s i n E u ro p e ; e v e n " o u r s i x p e r c e n t n a t i o n a l bo n d s w o u ld n o t s e l l i n E u ro p e , th o u g h money commanded l e s s t h a n h a l f a s l a r g e a r e t u r n t h e r e # "16 S m ith th e n t a k e s u p t h e " d e c i s i v e d i f f i c u l t y " w it h M exico; t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s . T h a t s t e p w a s, on l e g a l , m o ra l a n d p o l i t i c a l

15 S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I , 7U -81; n o t e , h 2$, 1+32; I I , n o t e , 1*69. " A sid e fro m t h e q u e s t i o n o f r i g h t , t o o , t h e A m erican p e o p le w o u ld h a v e b e e n p r o f o u n d ly d i s s a t i s f i e d t o s e e o u r a rm ie s r e t u r n e m p ty -h a n d e d , an d t h i s f e e l i n g w o uld p r o b a b ly h av e m eant m ore t o M exico t h a n t h e l o s s o f h e r n o m in a l t e r r i t o r y . " I I , 1*69. 16 I b i d . , I I ,

256.

161 g ro u n d s e n t i r e l y l e g i t i m a t e a n d th o u g h i t vras n a t u r a l t h a t M exico s h o u ld ta k e o f f e n c e a t t h e seem in g a g g r e s s i o n , t h e U n ite d S t a t e s h a d " la b o r e d t o e x p l a i n t h e a f f a i r t o M ex ic o , a n d w as n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h e r b l i n d ­ n e s s . " And when t h e U n ite d S t a t e s d e s i r e d t o o f f e r M exico "a s u b s ta n ­ t i a l p r e s e n t " t o e a s e h e r f e e l i n g s t h e M ex ican s t w i s t e d i t t o lo o k l i k e an a d m is s io n o f g u i l t a n d a n a tte m p t t o b r i b e t h e o f f i c e r s o f t h a t g overnm ent* 17 S m ith g iv e s a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n t o S l i d e l l ’ s m is s io n an d d i s m i s s e s M e x ic o ’ s c o m p la in t r e g a r d in g t h a t m i n i s t e r ’s a c c r e d i t a t i o n an d t h e i r a tte m p t t o r e s t r i c t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n t o t h e s im p le q u e s t i o n o f T exan a n ­ n e x a t i o n . He f i n d s t h e w ord c o m is io n a d a , u s e d b y P e n a , c a n mean e i t h e r c o m m is sio n e r o r m i n i s t e r and s a y s t h a t n o th in g l e s s t h a n a d ip lo m a tic a g e n t o f t h e u s u a l k i n d , r e s i d i n g n e a r t h a t g o v e rn m e n t, ’’c o u ld have a n sw e re d o u r p u r p o s e ” and h a n d le d t h e e x i s t i n g p ro b le m s . Of P o l k ’ s a t ­ te m p t t o g e t t h e M exican g o v e rn m e n t t o n e g o t i a t e S m ith s a y s t h a t i t was h a r d f o r P o lk " to be d e n o u n ce d i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s f o r t r y i n g t o f o r c e w a r u pon M exico, when t h e M ex ic a n s d e n o u n ce d him f o r t r y i n g t o f o r c e p e a c e u p o n th e m ."18 "H ere s ta n d s an A m e ric an m i n i s t e r , " s a i d S l i d e l l ,

" c lo th e d w ith

f u l l pow er t o s e t t l e a l l t h e q u e s t i o n s i n d i s p u t e b e tw e e n t h e tw o n a ­ t i o n s . " B egone, s a i d M exico o n ce m o re .19

17 S m ith , War W ith M exico, I , 18 I b i d . , I , 9k , 9 1 , 9 8 .

19 I b i d . , I , 1 0 1 .

8 2 -3 , 8£.

162 I n tw o c h a p t e r s on t h e M ex ican a n d on t h e A m erican " A t t i t u d e on t h e Eve o f W a r," S m ith sums up t h e w a r - f e e l i n g i n t h e tw o c o u n t r i e s . M exico was p r e j u d i c e d , ev en in fla m e d a g a i n s t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s ; s h e th o u g h t t h e m ilita r y * c o n t e s t w o u ld b e b y no m eans u n e q u a l, e s p e c i a l l y a s sh e m ig h t g e t B r i t i s h a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n a i d : i n s h o r t ,

" th e i d e a o f

p e a c e w as n o t p o p u la r " ; M exico d e s i r e d t h e w a r . 20 I n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t h e r e w as a s t r o n g f e e l i n g a g a i n s t t h e dom­ i n a n t e le m e n ts i n M exico. The a t r o c i o u s m a s s a c r e s o f t h e T ex an s d u r in g t h e i r r e v o l u t i o n s t i l l r a n k l e d , a n d t h e lo n g s e r i e s o f g r i e v a n c e s i n ­ f l i c t e d b y M exico, t h e f l a g i n s u l t e d , c o n s u ls m a l t r e a t e d , p r o p e r t y co n ­ f i s c a t e d and t h e g o v e rn m e n t o f f i c i a l l y m a lig n e d , s e r v e d t o p e r s u a d e t h e p e o p le t h a t f o r b e a r a n c e h ad b e e n a m is ta k e . T h ese b r o a d v ie w s w ere s t r o n g l y s u p p o r te d b y " l e s s j u s t i f i a b l e o n e s . " "A w is h t o e x te n d t h e U nion w as u n d o u b te d ly a f a c t o r . 11 "B e h in d o u r v o r a c i t y a n d l a r g e l y r e ­ s p o n s i b l e f o r i t w ere r e s t l e s s n e s s a n d a d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n r e s u l t i n g fro m e n e r g i e s t h a t fo u n d no a d e q u a te o u t l e t . " And S m ith d raw s fro m co n tem ­ p o r a r y n e w sp a p e rs t o show t h a t " a n i n t o x i c a t i o n o f a n im a l v i t a l i t y d e ­ m anded a f i g h t . "21 One i n f e r s t h a t S m ith r e g a r d e d i t a s one o f t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l a c c i d e n t s o f h i s t o r y t h a t t h e r e w as c o n v e n i e n t l y a t han d a n e ig h b o r w hose a t r o c i o u s b e h a v io u r p r o v id e d a j u s t i f i a b l e m eans o f w o rk in g o f f t h a t " a n im a l v i t a l i t y . " T u rn in g t o th e a t t i t u & e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s g o v e rn m e n t, S m ith

20 S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I , 102-6* 21 I b i d . . , I , 122-1+.

163 r e p e a ts an d d is p r o v e s th e c h a rg e s a g a in s t P o lk : t h a t he d e l i b e r a t e l y i n ­ t e n d e d t o a t t a c k M e x ic o — f o r p e r s o n a l g l o r y * f o r t h e r e t r e a t i n O re g o n o r t o S m ith r e m a r k s , t h e r e

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P o lk c o u ld e a s i l y have b r o u g h t on a w a r i n t h e summer o f l81j.5, h a d h e s o d e s i r e d a n d uno o n e c o u ld t h i n k o f a n y r a t i o n a l m eth o d t o co n ­ c i l i a t e M exico t h a t he d i d n o t p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n . " F o r e ig n m e d ia tio n c o u ld n o t b e in v o k e d , " f o r a l l t h e A m erican s t a t e s w ere n a t u r a l l y s u p p o se d t o be p r e j u d i c e d , an d i t was c o n t r a r y t o o u r i n t e r e s t a n d avow ed p o l i c y t o a llo w E u ro p e a n i n t e r v e n t i o n , i n t h e a f f a i r s o f t h i s c o n t i n e n t . " I t t h e r e f o r e r e s t e d w i t h t h e P r e s i d e n t t o a p p ly a rem edy a n d S m ith t a k e s n o t e o f t h e e v id e n c e i n t h e d i a r y t h a t P o lk h a d d e te r m in e d on " e n e r g e t i c m e a s u r e s ." B u t, " s t r a n g e l y •en o u g h , t h e w ar a c t u a l l y came a b o u t i n a t o ­ t a l l y d i f f e r e n t w a y ."23 T he d i f f e r e n t w a y , o f c o u r s e , w a s b y t h e a t t a c k o f t h e M e x ic a n s o n T a y l o r * s m e n , a n d S m it h u n d e r t a k e s a d e f e n c e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p o s itio n

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th e re g io n

s o u t h o f t h e N u e c e s , h e a s s e r t s t h a t t h i s w a s n o t t h e w h o le s t o r y f o r th e U n ite d S ta te s .

C a l l i n g t h e r o l l o f t h o s e A m e r ic a n s t a t e s m e n w ho h a d

22 S m ith , War W ith M exico, I , 1 2 7 -8 23 I b i d . , I , 13U -8..

161; a s s e r t e d t h a t T e x a s , a s a p a r t o f L o u i s i a n a , h a d e x te n d e d t o t h e R io G rande — J e f f e r s o n , M a d iso n , M onroe, Jo h n Q u in cy Adams — h e s a y s : By t h e t r e a t y o f 1819 we d i d n o t w ith d ra w fro m o u r p o s i t i o n , b u t m e re ly a r r a n g e d t o " c e d e " w h a te v e r p o s s e s s i o n s we h ad w e s t o f t h e S a b in e f o r c e r t a i n v a l u a b l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . From 1819 t o 18145* T exas . . . a p p e a re d t o b o r d e r on t h e R io G rande n o t l e s s t r u l y t h a n b e f o r e . . • • P o lk , a s t h e h e a d o f o u r g o v e rn m e n t, c o u ld n o t w e l l r e p u d i a t e , s im p ly on h i s own a u t h o r i t y , t h e so le m n d e c l a r a ­ t i o n s of- P r e s i d e n t s and o t h e r h ig h o f f i c i a l s , i n w h ic h th r o u g h a te r m o f y e a r s t h e n a t i o n h a d a c q u ie s c e d . . . . a n d P o lk was f u r t h e r bound . . . b y th e p le d g e he h a d g iv e n t o T e x a s . . . t h a t he w o u ld m a in ta in t h e c la im a s P r e s i d e n t . T h e se w ere g r i p s o f s t e e l * 21; T h is i n t h e t e x t . I n a n o t e , w h ic h , i n S m i t h 's v o lu m e s , a r e i n s m a l l e r ty p e a t t h e b a c k o f t h e v o lu m es an d com pose a p p r o x im a te ly o n e t h i r d o f t h e w o rk , t h e a u th o r s a y s : The a im i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h i s t o b r i n g o u t t h e e s s e n t i a l ( f o r t h e p r e s e n t p u rp o s e ) p o i n t s o f a m a t t e r t h a t i t w o u ld r e q u i r e a lo n g a r t i c l e t o d i s c u s s f u l l y , an d many t h i n g s h av e t o b e l e f t u n s a i d . P e r s o n a l l y t h e a u t h o r r e g a r d s t h e A m erican c la im an d a l l c o n c lu ­ s io n s b a s e d upon i t a s u n so u n d . H is aim i s t o show how t h e m a t t e r a p p e a r e d t o P o l k . 25 B ut w i t h no i n d i c a t i o n i n t h e n a r r a t i v e t h a t t h e A m erican c la im w as n o t sound o r t h a t he was p r e s e n t i n g n o t h i s own b u t P o l k 's v ie w , S m ith p ro c e e d s t o d e f e n d t h e P r e s i d e n t 's p o l i c y o f " s t a t i o n i n g t r o o p s p e a c e a b ly i n t h e " i n t e r m e d i a t e r e g io n " b e tw e e n t h e N u eces a n d t h e R io G ra n d e ." We o n ly , s a y s S m ith , " p la c e d o u r s e l v e s on an e q u a l i t y w ith M e x ic o ." a s we o r d e r e d T a y lo r t o l e a v e h e r p o s t s u n d i s t u r b e d , we show ed a f r ie n d ly re c o g n itio n o f th e p r in c ip le o f p a c if ic jo in t- o c c u p a tio n d u r in g n e g o t i a t i o n s . Our f o r c e s , t o b e s u r e , o u tn u m b e re d h e r s , b u t

2h S m ith , War W ith M exico, I , 139 25 I b i d . , I , n o t e , kb9»

165 h e r a t t i t u d e made i t u n s a f e t o d e s p a tc h a s m a l l e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . U n lik e ’u s , M exico h a d no o c c a s io n t o s e n d a n arm y i n t o t h a t r e g io n f o r d e f e n s iv e p u r p o s e s . The U n ite d S t a t e s h a d shown, e v e r y s i g n o f d e s i r i n g p e a c e an d n o n e o f d e s i r i n g w ar . . . . Such an arm y [th e M exican one a t M atam orosJ c o u ld n o t h av e p r e v e n te d u s fro m e n t e r i n g t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e r e g i o n , f o r a t C orpus C h r i s t i T a y lo r was a l r e a d y t h e r e ; an d i t c o u ld n o t h a v e s a v e d t h e M ex ican p o s t s a n d c i t i z e n s , f o r t h e y w ere n o t m e n a c e d . 26 As T a y lo r b e g a n h i s " s h a r in g " o f t h e d i s p u t e d t e r r i t o r y he r a n i n t o a M exican arm y d e ta c h m e n t a t t h e A rro y o C o lo ra d o , a few m ile s fro m t h e R io G ra n d e. H ere G e n e ra l M e jia , s a y s S m ith , i n te n d e d t o w in "a s h e a f o f l a u r e l s , M b u t o r d e r s fro m h i s g o v ern m en t — " n o t q u i t e r e a d y f o r a c t i o n " — a r r i v e d t o c u rb t h i s a m b itio n . The M ex ican c a v a l r y f l e d s o u th a n d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t r o o p s , s a y s S m ith , " th o u g h c h e a te d

t? f a f ig h t]

f e l t e n c o u r a g e d ."27 S m ith a p p e a r s t o ack n o w led g e t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t r o o p s h a d n o t b e e n in fo r m e d a b o u t t h e p e a c e f u l n a t u r e o f " s h a r i n g . " S m ith d o e s n o t r e c o r d t h e a c t s o f t h e M ex ican s e t t l e r s n o r t h o f t h e r i v e r i n d e s e r t i n g t h e i r homes b e f o r e t h e a p p ro a c h o f t h e arm y, n o r o f t h e c i t i z e n s o f P o in t I s a b e l f i r i n g t h e i r b u i l d i n g s b e f o r e f l e e i n g a c r o s s t h e R io G ra n d e . T a y lo r o c c u p ie d t h a t s e t t l e m e n t an d e s t a b l i s h e d a f o r t o p p o s ite M atam oros a n d w hen Ampudia o r d e r e d him t o decamp a t once f o r t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e N u eces an d c o m p e lle d a l l A m erican c i t i ­ z e n s t o l e a v e M atam oros w i t h i n t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s , T a y lo r " r e t a l i a t e d by r e q u e s t i n g o u r n a v a l commander o f f t h e R io G rande t o s t o p t h e u s e o f

26 S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I , ll;5» Had t h e M ex ican g o v ern m en t h a d a c c e s s t o P o l k ’ s d i a r y , a s d i d J u s t i n H. S m ith , t h e y w o u ld h ave h a d more th a n s u s p i c i o n u pon w h ic h t o b a s e t h e i r f e e l i n g o f b e in g m enaced. 27 I b i d . , I , 1U7.

166 t h a t s t r e a m . 1’ As t h e M exican a t t i t u d e made i t im p o s s ib le f o r u s t o h a v e t h e j o i n t n a v i g a t i o n im p lie d b y o u r c la im , t h i s a p p e a re d r e a s o n a b l e ; b u t e s s e n ­ t i a l l y t h e m e a su re w as d e f e n s i v e , s i n c e w ith o u t s u p p l i e s com ing b y w a te r a l a r g e f o r c e c o u ld n o t re m a in lo n g a t M a ta m o ro s.28 A mpudia was " th o r o u g h ly M ex ic a n 11 i n h i s p r o t e s t a g a i n s t w h a t h e c a l l e d T a y l o r ’ s b lo c k a d e , w h ic h , s a y s S m ith , i t d i d n o t p r e t e n d t o b e , an d when A r i s t a , ’’b e a r i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s d a te d A p r i l k t o a t t a c k th e A m e r ic a n s ,” r e a c h e d t h e s c e n e he o r d e r e d h i s c a v a l r y u n d e r T o r r e jo n t o r e c o n n o i t r e ; a c l a s h o c c u r r e d a n d h o s t i l i t i e s h a d cpm m enced.29 ” I t was a t r a g i c and m o st r e g r e t t a h L e d e n o u e m e n t.” B ut i t i s n o t e a s y t o c e n s u r e P o lk ; he h a d n o t w is h e d f o r w ar — h a d b e e n h o n e s t i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s . He d i d n o t s e n d T a y lo r i n t o t h e d i s p u t e d a r e a t o i n i t i a t e a w a r. r’A p r o p r i e t o r i s n o t d e b a r r e d fro m g o in g w h ere a s q u a t ­ t e r h a s b u i l t a c a b i n , " an d S m ith r e t u r n s a g a i n an d a g a in t o t h e a s s e r ­ t i o n t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w as o n ly " s h a r i n g ” i n t h e o c c u p a tio n o f t h e d is p u te d t e r r i t o r y . an e q u a l i t y w ith h e r

I t w a s, h e s a y s , " o n ly f a i r t o p l a c e o u r s e l v e s on (Mexicq) . ”30

I n s h o r t , P o lk t o l d o n ly t h e t r u t h when h e - s a i d t h e c o n f l i c t was f o r c e d upon u s . M exico w a n te d i t ; M exico t h r e a t e n e d i t ; M exico i s ­ su e d o r d e r s t o wage i t ; a n d on A p r i l 18 h e r P r e s i d e n t , n o d o u b t i n v ie w o f h i s p o l i t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , i n s i s t e d upo n t h o s e o r d e r s . ”I t i s I n d i s p e n s a b l e , ” h e w ro te u r g e n t l y t o A r i s t a , " t h a t h o s t i l i t i e s b e g in , y o u r s e l f t a k i n g t h e i n i t i a t i v e . ”31

28 S m i t h , W ar W ith M e x ic o , I , lii9* I t m i g h t a p p e a r t h a t t h e w o r d d e fe n s iv e i s a m is - p r in t; b u t i t i s a p p a re n t t h a t o f f e n s iv e , in t h i s c o n n e c i i o n , w o u ld b e a s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h S m i t h ’ s a r g u m e n t a s d e f e n s i v e i s in c o n g r o u s w hen a p p l i e d t o T a y l o r ’ s a c t i o n . 29 I b i d . , I , n o t e , 30

Ib id . ,

I , H *9-50 .

I , ISO , 1 5 1 , 1U5, 1 3 2 , 1 8 5 , n o t e s , U$9, U71-2

31 I b i d . , I , 1 5 5 .

167 S in c e S m ith ’s d e f e n s e o f P o l k ’ s M exican p o l i c y was t o b e o f t h e g r e a te s t in flu e n c e in su b seq u en t h i s t o r i c a l e v a lu a tio n o f t h a t P r e s i­ d e n t i t w i l l b e w e l l t o sum up h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n h i s own w o rd s: We w e re , t h e n , u n d e r a rm s; b u t , a f t e r a l l , why? What was t h e c a u s e o f t h e w ar? I t was n o t . . . an u n h o ly d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o ob­ t a i n C a l i f o r n i a a t t h e c o s t , i f n e c e s s a r y , o f f i f t y th o u s a n d l i v e s . I t c a n n o t h av e b e e n a d i f f i c u l t y a s t o t h e b o u n d a ry o f T e x a s , f o r two n a t i o n s do n o t f i g h t o v e r an i s s u e t h a t e x i s t s f o r o n ly one o f them — a n d t h a t one n o t t h e a g g r e s s o r . . . . N or was i t a schem e t o e x te n d t h e f i e l d o f n e g ro s e r v i t u d e . • . • On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e e v id e n c e t h a t t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T ex as was e s s e n t i a l l y t h e c a u s e o f t h e w a r i s im p r e s s iv e b o th i n q u a n t i t y an d in q u a lity . . . . The m ere a n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s c a n n o t , h o w ev er, be r e g a r d e d a s t h e s o l e c a u s e o f t h e w a r. . . . The g e n e r a l c a u s e o f h o s t i l i t i e s w a s, t h e r e f o r e , t h e s e r i e s o f u n p l e a s a n t i n c i d e n t s o c c u r r in g i n t h e m u tu a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h e tw o c o u n t r i e s fro m t h e s c a n d a lo u s t r e a t m e n t o f P o i n s e t t down t o kt h e s c a n d a lo u s t r e a t m e n t o f S l i d e l l , fro m t h e f i r s t m u t t e r i n g s o f d i s ­ c o n te n t i n T e x a s down t o t h e s e t t i n g o f h e r. one f a i r s t a r i n t h e b ro a d s e a o f t h e A m erican U n io n ; a n d i n t h i s lo n g s e r i e s t h e a n n ex ­ a t i o n o f T e x a s w as t h e c h i e f e v e n t. B ut one c a n s p e a k much m ore d e f i n i t e l y . F o r a te r m o f y e a r s , m a in ly i n c o n se q u e n c e o f t h e u s e made o f t h e s e a f f a i r s b y s e l f - s e e k ­ in g p o l i t i c i a n s , t h e p e o p le o f M exico h a d f e d on t h e i d e a s o f d e s p i s ­ i n g , f e a r i n g , h a t i n g an d f i g h t i n g t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . . . . t o b e a t t h e s m a l l a n d a p p a r e n t l y d e m o r a liz e d A m erican arm y, l e d b y a b a c k ­ w oods g e n e r a l , seem ed q u i t e f e a s i b l e ; i t a p p e a re d l i k e l y t h a t a v i c t o r y w o u ld c o n firm t h e d i c t a t o r ’ s p o w e r, w h i le a f a i l u r e t o s t r i k e w o u ld e n s u r e h i s doom; a n d h e n c e a n a t t a c k u p o n o u r arm y was o r d e r e d . T h is was t h e p r e c i s e c a u s e o f t h e w a r . 32 The w a r o n ce commenced, S m ith d e v o te s m ost o f h i s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s , th o u g h h e g i v e s a c o n d e n s e d a c c o u n t o f r e l e v a n t p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s . H is p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e C o n g r e s s io n a l d e b a te s on th e w ar i s in a d e q u a te an d d i s t o r t e d . H is one s e n te n c e d i s p o s a l o f L i n c o l n ’s a rg u m e n t in an a tte m p t t o d i s c o u n t t h e p r e s t i g e w h ic h a H o f L i n c o l n ’ s

32 S m ith , War W ith M exico, I , 1 8 7 -1 9 0 .

168 w r i t i n g 's c a r r y f o r h i s c o u n try m e n , i s t y p i c a l o f h i s m eth o d : Abraham L i n c o ln , w is h in g t o d i s t i n g u i s h h i m s e lf b e f o r e t h e home f o l k s , d i d t h i s f e a t i n t h e House b y r e v e a l i n g , i n a m anner s u i t e d t o h i s y e a r s , t h a t s i n c e M exico h a d e x e r c i s e d j u r i s d i c t i o n on t h e n o r t h e r n b a n k o f t h e R io G ra n d e, t h e f i r s t A m erican b lo o d m ust h ave b e en s h e d on M e x ic a n ,' n o t A m erican s o i l ; b u t u n h a p p ily t h e f a c t r e ­ m a in e d t h a t C o n n e c tic u t h ad f o r some tim e e x e r c i s e d e f f e c t i v e j u r i s ­ d i c t i o n o v e r n o r t h e a s t e r n P e n n s y lv a n ia , y e t d i d n o t own t h e t e r r i ­ t o r y . 33 The b e h a v io u r o f t h e C o n g re s s , in d e e d , so an n o y s S m ith t h a t h e a lm o s t e q u a te s them w i t h t h e M e x ic a n s, h i s s t r o n g e s t d a m n a tio n : W h ile t h e C o n g re ss o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s d i d n o t a p p ro a c h t h a t o f M exico i n b a d n e s s , t h e r e w as to o much re s e m b la n c e . One s h o u ld a lw a y s rem em ber t h a t among t h e p e o p le who r e a l l y make up t h e w o r ld an d k e e p i t g o in g p e r f e c t i o n i s , and i s l i k e l y t o b e , s omewhat r a r e ; b u t f o r an e l e c t b ody o u r C o n g re ss f e l l b e lo w a l l r e a s o n a b le e x p e c t a t i o n s . . ♦ . p r e j u d i c e s , p a s s i o n s a n d i n t e r e s t s p r e v e n te d many fro m hon­ e s t l y s u p p o r tin g a n a t i o n a l w a r, an d t u r n e d n o t a few i n t o v i r t u a l en em ies o f t h e i r c o u n t r y . 3k S m ith r e t u r n s a g a in t o t h e g r e v io u s i n i q u i t i e s o f M exico i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t r e a t y , i n w h ic h , h e a s s e r t s , t h a t c o u n tr y d i d n o t " r e a l l y ” c e d e a n y t e r r i t o r y ; t h e " o n ly c e s s i o n was t h a t made b y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s i n s u r r e n d e r i n g d i s t r i c t s th e n in o u r h a n d s . ”35 N ot u n t i l , i n th e c l o s i n g p a g e s , he i s su m m a riz in g t h e c a u s e s an d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e w a r d o e s t h e a u t h o r a d m it b y i m p l i c a t i o n a w e ak n e ss i n h i s arm o r b y r e s t i n g h i s c a s e , a t l a s t , upon j u s t i f i c a t i o n b y r e s u l t s . S m ith a d m its t h a t i n t h e p o p u la r v ie w " C o n q u e s t” i s i n t r u t h a n o d io u s w o rd , f o r i t h a s commonly b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o d io u s d e e d s ; a g g r e s s i o n an d c r u e l ty r a n n y ; b u t " c ir c u m s ta n c e s a l t e r c a s e s , ” an d when t h e f a c t s a r e u n o b j e c t i o n a b l e

33 S m ith , War W ith M exico, I I , 277

3k I b i d . , I I , 313-U*

169 so i s t h e te r m . . . . F o r c i b l e a c q u i s i t i o n may in d e e d be com m endable. . . . The w e l­ f a r e o f h u m a n ity i s t h e t r u e p r i n c i p l e . L i f e h a s t h e r i g h t o f way o v e r d e a th ; . . . . P o s s e s s i o n m eans u s e . . . . Of a l l c o n q u e r o r s we w e re p e rh a p s t h e m o st e x c u s a b le , t h e m o st r e a s o n a b l e , t h e m ost b e n e f i c i e n t . The M ex ican s h a d come f a r s h o r t o f t h e i r d u ty t o t h e w o r ld . B ein g w h a t t h e y w e re , th e y had f o r f e i t e d a la rg e sh are o f t h e i r n a tio n a l r ig h ts . . . . B e s id e s , w h ile o u r s c o u ld p e r h a p s b e c a l l e d a w ar o f c o n q u e s t, i t w as n o t a w a r f o r c o n q u e s t -— t h e r e a l l y v i t a l p o i n t . We fo u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o r e q u i r e t e r r i t o r y , f o r o th e r w is e o u r c la im s a n d indem ­ n i t y c o u ld n o t b e p a i d . The c o n f l i c t was f o r c e d u p o n U s; y e t we r e ­ f u s e d t o t a k e a d v a n ta g e o f o u r o p p o r t u n i t y . 3 6 So t h e a c c o u n t w as f a i r l y a d j u s t e d an d a s u n e x p e c te d b y - p r o d u c ts o f o u r e f f o r t , M exico h e r s e l f was e n o rm o u s ly b e n e f i t e d ; h e r r e a s o n was e l e v a t e d above t h e " b a s t a r d i n t e r e s t s o f p o l i t i c a l p a s s i o n , " a n d she h a d " c o r d i a l " f e e l i n g s to w a rd s t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . I n a d d i t i o n , o u r t r i ­ umphs t a u g h t E u ro p e t h a t t h e " w ise " p o l i c y o f a l l n a t i o n s i s p e a c e w i th t h e s e U n ite d S t a t e s . .And f e e l i n g t h a t h e h a s c o n c l u s i v e l y d e m o lis h e d t h e " p r e v a i l i n g " o p in io n q u e s t i o n i n g t h e r i g h t e o u s n e s s o f t h a t w a r, S m ith c l o s e s w i t h a f l o u r i s h fro m an im p a s s io n e d u t t e r a n c e i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a te : We h a v e c a u s e t o b e p ro u d o f t h e r e c o r d t h i s w a r w i l l l e a v e b e h in d it . . . . t h e e v e n ts o f t h i s w ar w i l l l i v e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f o u r c o u n t r y , an d o u r r a c e , a f f o r d i n g i n a l l a g e s t o come, p r o o f o f t h e h ig h s t a t e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n am ongst t h e p e o p le who c o n d u c te d i t . 37 T h is j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e w a r was t o b e o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y im p o r­ ta n c e i n t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk ; i t was t o p r o v id e t h e b a s i s f o r h i s e l e v a t i o n i n t o g r e a t n e s s . O d d ly en o u g h , h o w e v er, i n h i s

36

S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I I , 3 22-3«

37 I b i d . , I I , 323-U . The c o p y r ig h t t o t h e s e v o lu m e s i s p r e s e n t l y h e l d , a p p r o p r i a t e l y en o u g h , b y t h e A m erican M is s io n a r y S o c i e t y . C f. A. H. B i l l , R e h e a r s a l F o r C o n f l i c t , x i .

170 d i r e c t e v a l u a t i o n o f P o l k ’ s p r e s i d e n t i a l q u a l i t i e s S m ith g i v e s him a lo w r a t i n g . He d e s c r i b e s t h e P r e s i d e n t a s a c o l d , n a r r o w , m e th o d ic a l, d o g g e d , p lo d d in g , o b s t i n a t e p a r t i s a n , d e e p ly c o n v in c e d o f h i s im p o r ta n c e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , v e r y w a n tin g i n hum or, v e r y w a n tin g i n i d e a l i t y , v e r y w a n tin g i n s o u l f u l n e s s , i n ­ c l i n e d t o b e s l y , an d q u i t e i n c a p a b le o f s e e in g t h i n g s i n a g r e a t w ay. A l l know t h e t y p e . I t i s t h e le a d i n g c i t i z e n an d sch em er o f t h e s m a ll to w n , who m a rc h es u p t h e c e n t r e a i s l e on p u b l i c o c c a s io n s w i th c r e a k i n g s h o e s and a w ooden s m i le , an d t a k e s h i s s e a t w ith a b a c k ­ w a rd , a ll- e m b r a c i n g g la n c e . . . . Such a p e rs o n . . . m akes no a p p e a l t o o u r s y m p a t h ie s , a n d f o r t h a t r e a s o n i s a lm o s t s u r e t o be ju d g e d u n f a i r l y . F o r e x a m p le , P o lk h a s b e e n c a l l e d t h e "M en d a cio u s” ; b u t t h a t i s u n j u s t . Many t h i n g s a r e done i n good s o c i e t y w h ic h , i f th ro w n upon a s c r e e n b e f o r e tw o th o u s a n d p e o p le w o u ld b e r e c o g n iz e d i n s t a n t l y a s m ean; a n d t h e same i s t r u e i n t h e w o rld o f a f f a i r s . As a la w y e r and p o l i t i c i a n o f N ash­ v i l l e , P o lk no d o u b t r e s o r t e d t o d e v ic e s o f t h i s k i n d , an d he w a s n o t t h e man t o r e a l i z e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a p r o v i n c i a l tow n a n d a n a t i o n , an d a d a p t h i m s e l f t o h i s new p o s i t i o n . C o m p e lled t o a c t , he a c t e d a s he c o u ld ; u s e d t h e t a c t i c s w it h w h ic h h e w as f a m i l i a r . I n t h i s m anner he d e c e iv e d men o r p e r m i t t e d men t o d e c e iv e them ­ s e l v e s , and th o s e a c c u sto m e d t o b r o a d e r and l a r g e r an d n o b l e r m eth o d s th o u g h t he l i e d . I n r e a l i t y h e was n o t P o lk t h e M e n d a c io u s, b u t sim ­ p l y P o lk t h e M e d io c re . Y et h e was m e d io c re o n ly a s com pared w i t h g r e a t s t a n d a r d s . He c o u ld b y no m eans be c a l l e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t . . , . H is w ill- p o w e r was a m p le , and h i s o u tp u t o f m e n ta l e n e r g y l a r g e . In s e r i o u s n e s s , in d u s ­ t r y an d f i d e l i t y he l e f t n o th in g t o b e d e s i r e d . . . . He c e r t a i n l y w as r e l i g i o u s , an d no d o u b t — th o u g h b l i n d t o t h e b e a u ty o f u p ­ r i g h t n e s s and u n r e s p o n s iv e t o t h e d e l i c a c y o f h o n o r — h e f u l l y b e ­ l i e v e d t h a t he w as c o n s c i e n t i o u s . 38 B ut a s a P r e s i d e n t ,

s a y s S m ith , he w as no l e a d e r ; h e was b o t h

u n i n s p i r e d and u n i n s p i r i n g ; h e h a d no g r e a t i d e a s , no i m a g in a tio n , no m oving e lo q u e n c e . He w a s, o r came t o b e , a p a r t i s a n w i t h o u t a p a r t y . S m ith r e f e r s a p p r o v in g ly t o J . K. P a u l d i n g ’s re m a rk t h a t h e " p o s s e s s e d no h o n e s ty o f p u r p o s e , no f r a n k n e s s o f h e a r t , " a n d s a y s t h a t " t o s s i n g o u t a plum p' l i e now and th e n w o u ld have g iv e n l e s s o f f e n c e t h a n c o n t i n -

38 S m ith , War W ith M ex ico , I , 1 2 8 -9 .

171 u a l s e c r e t i v e n e s s and e v a s io n c a u s e d , ,T And he f i n d s B l a i r ! s e p i t h e t - - nt h e l i t t l e

m o le ” — a p ro p o s* 3 9

S m ith r e a l l y p r e s e n t s tw o e v a l u a t i o n s o f P o lk : i n t h e d ip lo m a c y w i t h M exico t h e P r e s i d e n t w as u n if o r m ly c o r r e c t i n h i s ju d g m e n ts an d e f f e c t i v e in h i s p o l i c i e s ; i n h i s c o n d u c t o f t h e w a r, and e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h G e n e ra l S c o t t , he was m ean, c o n n iv in g an d g e n e r a l l y u n a t t r a c t i v e . S m ith f i n d s S c o t t a " s u p e r b ” g e n e r a l an d a g r e a t man^-0 a n d h a s t h e m ost b i t t e r c o n te m p t f o r G e n e ra l P i l l o w , a lo n g tim e p o l i t i ­ c a l a s s o c i a t e o f t h e P r e s i d e n t . W ith o b v io u s p o i n t e d n e s s S m ith r e l a t e s t h a t Tvhen t h e P r e s i d e n t s b r o t h e r h a d s h o t down a man i n t h e s t r e e t a t N a s h v i l l e P i l l o w g o t him o f f — a n d w as t h e n g iv e n a g e n e r a l s h i p i n t h e w a r. ”To p l a n t su c h a p e r s o n , ” s a y s S m ith , " a t o p e n , b i g - h e a r t e d S c o t t ! s r i g h t h a n d , t o w in h i s c o n f id e n c e , t o spy u p o n , c r i t i c i s e a n d u n d e rm in e h im , an d i n e v i t a b l y t o schem e f o r h i s p l a c e , w as i n d e c e n t ; b u t P o lk d i d i t . ” R e p e a tin g P o lk * s re m a rk t h a t t h e c u n n in g P i l l o w w as ”one o f t h e s h re w d e s t men y o u e v e r k n e w ,” S m ith s a y s — "T h a t g ave P o l k ! s m e a s u re ." U l S m ith ex p en d s some e x u b e r a n t, m ocking i r o n y upon T r i s t f o r t h a t a g e n t ! s g r a n d io s e s t y l e a n d m a n n er, b u t he t h i n k s t h a t i f t h e t r e a t y h a d m e r it enough t o b e a c c e p te d , i t s m aker h a d m e r i t enough t o b e r e ­ c o g n iz e d . B ut t h e P r e s i d e n t was o n ly ”P o lk t h e M e d io c re ” a f t e r a l l . H is plum age was r u f f l e d ; he d i d n ft ev en p a y T r i s t f o r h i s tim e s p e n t i n

39 S m ith ,

WarW ith M exico, I I ,

iiO I b i d . ,

I I , 318.

lq I b id .,

I I , 1 8 6 , 270.

270*

172 n e g o tia tio n s .

ltTo t h i n k t h a t a P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s c o u ld b e

so s m a llJ nh2 S m ith a t one p o i n t g o e s so f a r a s t o s a y t h a t " i n a lm o s t e v e r y c a s e t h a t r e q u i r e d a th o r o u g h c o m p re h e n sio n o f t h e M exican problem * he fpolkj, b l u n d e r e d . "1*3 B ut i n summing up P o l k 's q u a l i t i e s S m ith g iv e s him t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e d o u b t — f o r P o l k 's c r i t i c s h a d been* a n d w ere* th o s e o p p o n e n ts o f t h e war* " v i r t u a l e n e m ie s o f t h e i r c o u n t r y " : The P r e s i d e n t showed h i m s e l f a s m a ll man b u t . . . t h e ^ s i t u a t i o n i n w h ic h Polk* e s s e n t i a l l y a l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n fro m T e n n e sse e* fo u n d h i m s e l f . . . was e x tr e m e ly d i f f i c u l t ; b u t he s t e e r e d h i s c o u r s e f i r m l y t o t h e end* s e t an exam ple o f h o n e s t* f a i t h f u l a d m i n i s t r a ­ t i o n . . . an d o b ta in e d fro m o u r enemy t h e p e a c e an d t e r r i t o r y h e d e s ire d . . . . He becam e t h e dog w i t h t h e b a d name* f o r w h ic h a n y s t i c k o r s to n e w as good enough. O th e r men i n p u b l i c l i f e c o u ld m i s r e p r e s e n t t h e f a c t s . • . b u t i f P o lk . . • a llo w e d men t o d raw i n f e r e n c e s fro m t h e i r w is h e s . . . he w as p ro m p tly d e n o u n ced a s a v i l l a i n . And when he h ad s u p p o r te d h i s tre m e n d o u s b u rd e n l o y a l l y * i f n o t w i t h e c l a t ; . . • t h e b i t t e r to n g u e o f a p a r t i s a n s p i t o u t on t h e f l o o r o f o u r n a t i o n a l House t h e fam ous nicknam e* " P o lk t h e Menda­ c io u s * " t h e P r e s i d e n t l e f t o f f i c e u n d e r a le a d e n c lo u d o f d i s p a r a g e ­ m ent an d co n tem p t* and l a t e r a u t h o r s d e l i g h t e d t o d ip t h e i r p e n s i n t h e g a l l o f h i s e n e m ie s . T ru ly * h o w ev er l i t t l e we f e e l i n c l i n e d t o go i n t o r a p t u r e s o v e r P olk* we c a n a d m ire h i s t r a d u c e r s ev en le s s .llU T h e re i s a c e r t a i n i r o n y i n t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e t h a t P o l k 's e l e v a ­ t i o n in A m erican h i s t o r y w as t o r e s u l t l a r g e l y fro m a s tu d y w hich* in i t s d i r e c t e v a lu a tio n * damned him w i t h s u c h f a i n t p r a i s e . T h a t J u s t i n S m i t h 's w ork w as a b le t o f i l l t h i s m is s io n w as p a r t ­ l y due t o a b io g r a p h y o f Polk* p u b l i s h e d t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r * w h ic h com-

1*2 Sm ith* War W ith M ex ico * I I , 21*8-9. 1*3 I b i d . * I* 2 6 7 .

1*1* I b id .* II* 3 1 4 -5 .

173 p le m e n te d i t _n i c e l y . E ugene I r v i n g McCormac' s " p o l i t i c a l b io g r a p h y 11 o f Jam es K. P o lk w as a t once much more c r i t i c a l o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ’ s po­ s i t i o n i n t h e M exican m an eu v ers a n d f a r m ore c o m p lim e n ta ry to w a rd s P o lk p e r s o n a l l y a n d a s an e x e c u t i v e . I n h i s p r e f a c e McCormac r e f e r s t o S m ith ’s ’’v a l u a b l e ” w o rk , w h ic h , he s a i d , a lth o u g h i t a p p e a re d to o l a t e t o be u s e d i n h i s m a n u s c r ip t, h a d , he w as g r a t i f i e d t o n o t e , a r r i v e d a t s u b ­ s t a n t i a l l y t h e sam e c o n c lu s io n s a s h i s own on m o st p o i n t s . 1*5 McCormac, a p r o f e s s o r o f A m erican h i s t o r y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , b e g a n h i s f r i e n d l y b io g r a p h y b y o b s e r v in g t h a t Jam es K. P o lk d i d n o t a p p e a r i n e i t h e r t h e A m erican S ta te s m e n S e r i e s o r t h e A m erican C r i s i s B io g r a p h ie s a n d a s s e r t e d t h a t ’’t h e c h a r a c t e r an d s u c ­ c e s s o f P o l k ’ s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r e n t i t l e d him t o a p l a c e i n e i t h e r s e r i e s . ” I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e f o llo w in g p a g e s w i l l show M r. P o lk t o h a v e b e e n ' ' 1 1 s s e s s e d o f v i s i o n , so u n d Somewhat more th a n a t h i r d o f th e b io g r a p h y i s d e v o te d t o P o lk ’ s c a r e e r b e f o r e 181*1* a n d i s n o t o f p r im a r y c o n c e rn i n t h i s s tu d y . B u t i t i s r e l e v a n t t o n o t e t h a t he shows P o lk t o h av e b een an a b l e c a m p a ig n e r and l e g i s l a t o r ; t h a t a s S p e a k e r o f t h e House d u r i n g t h e h e a t e d c o n t r o ­ v e r s y o v e r t h e r i g h t o f p e t i t i o n h e showed a th o r o u g h kno w led g e o f p a r ­ li a m e n t a r y p ro c e d u re a n d d e m o n s tr a te d an i m p a r t i a l s p i r i t i n h i s r u l i n g s ; an d t h a t w h ile P o lk was u n d e n ia b ly a p a r t y man an d an a d m ir e r o f G e n e ra l Ja e k so n p h i s o p in io n s w ere h i s own.^-7

1*5 McCormac, Jam es K. P o lk , v i i . 1*6 I b i d . , v . 1*7 I b i d . , 110, 19, 91.

17U McCormac b a s e s h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l p o l i c i e s v e r y h e a v i l y upon P o l k ’ s d i a r y ; i n r e l a t i n g t h e p e r i o d d u r in g w h ic h P o lk k e p t t h a t d a i l y r e c o r d McCormac m akes a lm o s t a s many r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e d i a r y a s t o a l l o t h e r s o u r c e s com bined*U 8 The s t u d y i s a d e s c r i p t i v e b io g r a p h y a n d n e i t h e r so a r g u m e n ta tiv e n o r so d o g m a tic a s S m ith ’s h i s ­ t o r y b u t i t w as c a l c u l a t e d t o r e b u i l d t h e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e P r e ­ s i d e n t : P o lk i s p r e s e n t e d a s c a p a b l e , h a rd w o rk in g , g e n e ro u s and i n c o r ­ ru p tib le * I n c o n c lu d in g h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t a l e n t s w h ic h P o lk b ro u g h t t o h i s o f f i c e a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w h ic h h e e n c o u n te r e d a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y su rm o u n te d McCormac s a y s t h a t " i f we e x c e p t t h e c o e r c io n o f M ex ico , upon w h ich t h e r e i s s t i l l a d i f f e r e n c e o f o p in io n , i t i s t h e v e r d i c t t h a t h i s p o l i c i e s vrere b o th p r a is e w o r t h y a n d s o u n d . nh9 McCormac’s own a c c o u n t o f t h e nP r e lu d e t o t h e M exican Wra r " le a v e s a s t r o n g i n f e r e n c e In f a v o r o f t h e " p r e v a i l i n g o p i n i o n ” t h a t P o lk was more a g g r e s s i v e th a n s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d i n h i s d ip lo m a c y w ith M exico, He c h a l l e n g e s su c h w r i t e r s a s Von H o ls t5 0 a n d R e e v e s 5 l on s p e ­ c i f i c p o i n t s b u t he d o e s n o t a tte m p t t o o v e rth ro w t h e i r g e n e r a l c o n ­ c lu s io n s . "W hether th e l a n d on th e e a s t b a n k o f t h e R io G rande w as l e g a l l y a p a r t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s

i s o p en t o . * . s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n , "

says

McCormac, a q u e s ti o n w h ic h " th e w r i t e r w i l l n o t a tte m p t t o d e t e r m i n e . "

Jj,8 A c o u n t r e v e a l s t h a t d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d t h e r e a r e 285 d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e d i a r y an d 3 5 9 r e f e r e n c e s t o o t h e r s o u r c e s ; r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e d i a r y t h u s r e p r e s e n t kk%o f t h e t o t a l *

k9 McCormac, P o lk , 35* 5° I b i d * , 3 6 5 -6 . 51 I b i d . , 39 1 .

175 B ut a f t e r d is c o u n te n a n c in g a l l t h e b a s e s f o r t h a t c la i m , an d q u o tin g L in c o ln i n s u p p o r tin g c r i t i c i s m , h e s a y s t h a t p e rh a p s P o lk w as n o t f r e e t o d i s r e g a r d h i s p ro m is e t o T ex as a n d a p p a r e n t l y P o lk " a t t a c h e d more im p o rta n c e t o t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s th a n t o an a n a l y s i s o f h i s c o n s t i ­ t u t i o n a l p o w e rs.

"52

McCormac m akes i t c l e a r t h a t " P o lk d e c id e d t o wage w a r b e c a u s e M exico h a d f a i l e d t o s a t i s f y t h e A m erican c l a i m s , " a n d s i n c e M exico was i n s u c h d i r e f i n a n c i a l s t r a i t s t h a t s h e c o u ld n o t p a y t h e c la im s ex ­ c e p t b y a c e s s i o n o f t e r r i t o r y , " th e P r e s i d e n t w as r e a d y t o wage w a r t o p r o c u r e a t e r r i t o r i a l c o m p e n s a tio n f o r c la im s a g a i n s t M e x ic o . "53 I n r e f e r e n c e t o T a y l o r ’ s a d v a n c e t o t h e R io G rande McCormac q u o te s M e ji a ’ s p r o t e s t t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h i s t a k i n g " f o r c i b l e p o s s e s ­ s io n " o f t h e t e r r i t o r y i n d i s p u t e c o u ld n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s " p a c i f i c " a s T a y lo r i n s i s t e d . McCormac re m a rk s t h a t h a d s u c h a c o m m u n ic atio n b e e n a d d r e s s e d t o P r e s i d e n t P o lk "he m ig h t h a v e h a d d i f f i c u l t y I n e x p l a i n i n g t h e p e a c e f u l n a t u r e o f t h e ad v an c e o f t h e A m erican arm y."5U And h e s a y s o f G e n e ra l T a y l o r ’s a s s e r t i o n t h a t h i s b lo c k a d e w as " a s im p le d e f e n s iv e m e a s u r e ," t h a t " A lth o u g h t h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f a b lo c k a d e may h a v e r e l i e v e d t h e c o n s c ie n c e o f t h e man who made i t ,

s u c h a b o t t l i n g - u p o f t h e oppo­

n e n t i s u s u a l l y r e g a r d e d a s a n a c t o f w a r. "55

52 McCormac, P o lk , 3 8 1 -2 . 53 I b i d . , 3 9 1 , U06.

5k I b i d . , 1*11. 55 I b i d . , 1*12.

176 As he b eg an t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f th e movement o f T a y lo r 's army Mccorm ac f o r m u la te d t h e q u e s t i o n : B ut w h ic h n a t i o n was t h e a g g r e s s o r ? "Which c o m m itte d th e f i r s t o v e r t a c t o f w a r; a n d t o w hat e x t e n t , i f a n y , was th e A m erican o c c u p a tio n o f t h a t s t r i p o f t e r r i t o r y l y i n g b e tw ee n t h e N u e ce s a n d t h e R io G rande t h e r e a l c a u s e o f th e w ar?5 6 He c o n c lu d e d h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h a t movement w i t h an i n d i r e c t a d m is s io n : P o lk may o r may n o t h a v e a c t e d w i t h i n h i s r i g h t s i n a ssu m in g t h e b o u n d a ry c la im e d b y T e x a s, b u t a t l e a s t t h e r e was some j u s t i f i c a ­ t i o n i n t h e c o n t e n t i o n o f th e W higs t h a t he p r e c i p i t a t e d t h e war by o r d e r i n g T a y lo r t o t h e R io G ra n d e .57 I n c o n c lu d in g h i s b io g r a p h y McCormac o b s e r v e s t h a t P o l k ’ s t a r i f f p o l i c y l e d t o p r o s p e r i t y ; h i s " c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t r e a s u r y " p ro v e d t o b e s u c c e s s f u l ; h i s " P o lk D o c tr in e " h a s b e en a p p ro v e d an d e x te n d e d ; and h i s e x p a n s io n p o l i c y a d d e d o v e r f i v e h u n d re d th o u s a n d s q u a r e m ile s o f t e r r i ­ t o r y and gave t h e U n ite d S t a t e s f r e e a c c e s s t o th e P a c i f i c . Why, t h e n , h a s t h i s m an’ s name b e en e n v e lo p e d i n c o m p a ra tiv e o b s c u r ­ i t y ? Why h a s he n o t r e c e i v e d f u l l c r e d i t f o r h i s a c h ie v e m e n t? Un­ d o u b te d ly one r e a s o n i s t h a t he p o s s e s s e d l i t t l e p e r s o n a l m a g n etism , w h ile h i s u n c o m p ro m isin g in d e p e n d e n c e d i s s a t i s f i e d a l l f a c t i o n s * 5 8 B ut a m ore p o t e n t c a u s e , he s a y s , i s t h e s e c t i o n a l s t r u g g l e w h ic h d o m in a te d t h e c o u n tr y so o n a f t e r P o lk l e f t o f f i c e . The o p p o n e n ts o f s l a v e r y c o n c e iv e d P o l k ’ s e x p a n s io n t o b e a c o n s p i r a c y t o e x te n d t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n ; t h e i r v ie w s , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k in g , em erg ed p re d o m in a n t fo llo w -

56 McCormac, P o lk , U08. 57 I b i d *, UlU* 58 I b i d . , 72 3 .

177 in g t h e C i v i l W ar, M oreover., t h e e a r l i e r w r i t e r s h a d d e r i v e d t h e i r i n ­ f o r m a tio n m a in ly fro m Whig s o u r c e s an d " d i s t o r t e d a c c o u n ts w r i t t e n b y d i s s a t i s f i e d D e m o crats l i k e S e n a to r B e n t o n ," More r e c e n t l y , h o w e v er, much v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l h a s b e e n made a v a i l ­ a b l e , a n d i n v e s t i g a t o r s h ave a p p ro a c h e d th e s u b j e c t w ith m inds u n ­ p r e j u d i c e d by t h e o b s e l e t e s e c t i o n a l c o n tr o v e r s y . They h a v e fo u n d — a n d i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p r e c e d in g p a g e s h a v e shown — t h a t P o lk was n e i t h e r a c o n s p i r a t o r n o r a w e a k lin g , b u t t h a t he w as a c o n s t r u c t i v e s ta te s m a n , an u n u s u a l l y a b le e x e c u t i v e , a n d a so u n d p a t r i o t . No o t h e r P r e s i d e n t to o k h i s t a s k more s e r i o u s l y n o r s p e n t h i s e n e r g i e s more f r e e l y f o r h i s c o u n tr y ; an d fe w , in d e e d , h av e done more t o i n c r e a s e t h e p o w e r an d p r e s t i g e o f t h e n a t i o n . 59 The im p o rta n c e o f t h i s b io g r a p h y u p o n t h e p o s i t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk i n U n ite d S t a t e s h i s t o r y i s t h a t i t summed up t h e e v id e n c e , c h i e f l y t h a t o f P o l k 's d i a r y , t h a t P o lk was a b l e a n d e f f e c t i v e , an d t h e r e a l , a s w e l l a s t h e n o m in a l l e a d e r o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ^ and t h a t h e-w as n o t t h e a g e n t o f an a g g r e s s i v e s l a v o c r a c y . T h is h ad b e e n known t o th o s e h i s t o r i a n s who made a c a r e f u l s tu d y o f th e p e r i o d s i n c e t h e l a s t d e c a d e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b u t i t h a d n o t y e t in fo rm e d g e n e r a l h i s t o r y w r i t i n g . And M cC orm ac's w a s, o f c o u r s e , a " f r i e n d l y " b io g r a p h y , em­ p h a s i z i n g a l l th o s e e v e n ts i n P o l k 's c a r e e r i n w h ic h he h a d a p p e a r e d t o good a d v a n ta g e . H e n c e f o r th , no h i s t o r i a n w o u ld w r i t e o f t h e e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t w ith o u t r e f e r r i n g t o McCormac*s b io g r a p h y a n d i t w a s u n d o u b te d ly im­ p o r t a n t i n P o l k 's "upw ard r e v i s i o n . " B u t McCormac c h o se n o t t o s e r i o u s l y c o n t e s t t h e p r e v a i l i n g o p in io n o f P o lk a s an u n s c r u p u lo u s a g g r e s s o r a g a i n s t M exico a n d t h i s d e f a u l t on t h e c h a r g e w h ich h a d b e e n m ost dam-

59 McCormac, P o lk , 72U-5*

178 a g in g t o P o l k ’ s e v a l u a t i o n w o u ld , i t a p p e a r s c e r t a i n , h a v e b e e n f a t a l t o h i s e l e v a t i o n h a d n o t S m ith ’ s v o lu m e s , b a s e d on t h e m o st e x h a u s tiv e s tu d y o f t h a t a f f a i r , b e en t h e r e t o le n d P o lk s t r e n g t h w h ere i t w as m ost n e e d e d . I n t h e w ork o f t h e n e x t t h i r t y y e a r s i t w i l l b e s e e n hoYf t h e j u d i c i o u s b le n d in g o f t h e s e two s t u d i e s was t o r e s u l t i n one o f t h e m ost s t r i k i n g r e - e v a l u a t i o n s i n A m erican h i s t o r y .

CHAPTER V II THE SMITH-DIPLOMAT MD THE MCCQRMAC-EXECUTIVE Thus f a r i n t h i s e x a m in a tio n o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v a l u a t i o n s o f Jam es K. P o lk i t h a s a p p e a re d n e c e s s a r y t o a d h e r e v e r y c l o s e l y t o a c h r o n o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n . I n t h e w o rk in g o f t h e new f i e l d t h e h i s t o r i a n s w e re t u r n i n g . u p new m a t e r i a l s w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e i r p r o d u c ti o n s c o u ld b e f a i r l y ju d g e d o n ly b y a n a ly z in g th em i n t h e t i m e - s e t t i n g i n w h ich t h e y w ere c r e a t e d . N or w o u ld many o f t h e s t u d i e s w h ic h we h av e r e ­ v ie w e d h a v e a n y p l a c e i n t h i s e x a m in a tio n e x c e p t f o r t h e i r c h a r a c t e r a s e x p r e s s i o n s o f a p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e in t h e d e v e lo p in g h i s t o r i o g r a p h y on th e s u b je c t. T h ese f a c t o r s , h o w ev er, a r e n o t v a l i d f o r t h e f i n a l t h r e e de­ c a d e s o f t h i s s tu d y . The w ork o f S m ith an d McCormac m arked t h e c u lm in a ­ t i o n o f a h a l f - c e n t u r y o f r e s e a r c h on t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n an d t h e o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h em bodied i n th o s e w o rk s a lo n g w i t h t h e a s s e m b ly o f t h e p r e v io u s f i n d i n g s , h av e s to o d f o r t h i r t y y e a r s , an d seem l i k e l y t o s t a n d i n d e f i n i t e l y , a s t h e d e f i n i t i v e w ork i n t h e f i e l d . T h is d o e s n o t m ean, o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e c o n c lu s i o n s e x p r e s s e d i n th o s e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n u n a n im o u s ly a c c e p te d b y t h e p r o f e s s i o n ; t h e r e h av e b e e n many d i s s e n t e r s . B ut g e n e r a l l y s p e a k in g , t h o s e who h av e d i s s e n t e d h av e r e s t e d t h e i r ju d g m e n ts upon t h e d a t a w h ic h S m ith , McCormac, R i v e s , R ee v e s an d G a r r is o n h a d p r e s e n t e d . A lth o u g h some r e c e n t w o rk h a s b e e n done in t h e s o u r c e ma­ t e r i a l s t h e f i n d i n g s h av e n o t b e e n o f s u c h a n a t u r e a s t o p r o v id e i n i t ­ s e l f a b a s i s f o r o r i g i n a l ju d g m e n ts . The w ork s u b s e q u e n t t o 1920 w i l l ,

180 t h e r e f o r e , b e g ro u p e d n o t c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y b u t a c c o r d in g t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n . The w ork o f S m ith an d McCormac h a s s to o d a s s u c h im­ p o r t a n t a n d im p o sin g la n d m a rk s i n t h e f i e l d t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a r r a n g e t h e s u b s e q u e n t h i s t o r i e s i n te rm s o f t h e i r a d ju s tm e n t t o t h e c o n c lu s io n s o f th o s e i n v e s t i a g t i o n s j t h e y c o u ld n o t be i g n o r e d , ev en b y th o s e who w ere i n s h a r p d is a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e i r f i n d i n g s . 1 The f o llo w in g f o u r c h a p t e r s w i l l t h e r e f o r e exam ine t h e r e c e n t w ork b y t r e a t i n g i t a c c o r d in g t o s u c h a s u b j e c t g r o u p in g . T h is c h a p t e r w i l l r e v ie w t h e w ork o f th o s e h i s t o r i a n s who hav e b e en " i n f l u e n c e d " by S m ith i n t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f P o l k ’ s d e a l i n g s w ith M exico a n d , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k in g , b y McCormac i n t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e P r e s i d e n t 's p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r an d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a t u r e . C h a p te r e i g h t w i l l p r e s e n t th o s e h i s t o r i e s w h ic h a c c e p t McCormac1s p i c t u r e o f t h e e x e c u tiv e b u t , w h ile sho w in g a m ark ed r e s p e c t f o r S m i t h 's w o rk , do n o t a d o p t h i s c o n c l u s i o n s . Many i n t h i s g ro u p d e m o n s tr a te an a b i l i t y t o a v o id a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m o st c o n t e n t i o u s p o i n t s . C h a p te r n in e c o n s i s t s o f t h e w ork o f h i s t o r i a n s who f o r t h e m ost p a r t a c c e p t M cC orm ac's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P o l k 's e x e c u tiv e c a p a c i t y b u t r e j e c t S m i th 's j u s t i f i c a t o r y e n d e a v o rs . They a r e n o t i n c l i n e d , h o w ev er, t o make t h e e t h i c s o f P o l k 's d ip lo m a c y o f p r im a r y im p o rta n c e i n h i s

1 B ut i t w as n o t im p o s s ib le f o r a p o p u la r h i s t o r i a n t o ig n o r e th em — an d a l l o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l w ork s i n c e B e n to n . Jam es M organ, i n Our P r e s i d e n t s , s a i d i n 1921*: "H is p e r s o n a l b io g r a p h y b e in g h a r d l y more th a n a c a ta lo g u e o f t h e o f f i c e s th r o u g h w h ic h h e p a s s e d w i th o u t l e a v i n g a m ark b e h in d him , t h i s m ust b e m o s tly a s t o r y o f t h e re m a rk a b le c i r ­ c u m sta n c e s w hose c r e a t u r e h e w a s ." 9 6 #

181 e v a l u a t i o n ; t h e e n d s have j u s t i f i e d t h e m ean s. The l a s t g ro u p i s t h o s e who h av e r e s i s t e d t h e r e v i s i o n i s t s c h o o l. A c c e p tin g t h e d a t a w h ich h a s b e en a v a i l a b l e s in c e

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n o t p r e v i o u s l y s u s p e c t e d , t h e y h av e y e t b e e n e x c e e d in g ly c r i t i c a l o f t h e man an d h i s m e th o d s. I t s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t i t h a s n o t b e e n e i t h e r p o s s i b l e , n e c e s s a r y o r d e s i r a b l e t o exam ine a l l t h e r e c e n t h i s t o r i c a l w ork w h ich d e a l s w i t h P o l k ’ s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . P r e v io u s t o t h i s p e r i o d , a n a tte m p t h a s b e e n made t o i n c lu d e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e h i s t o r i c a l w ork i n t h i s f i e l d . When t h e s t u d i e s w e re r e l a t i v e l y fe w t h e y h a d a n i n d i v i d u a l im p o r ta n c e , b o th a s e x p r e s s io n s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l o p in io n o f t h e tim e an d a s i n f l u e n c e s u pon s u b s e q u e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n s w h ic h t h e f l o o d o f m a t e r i a l o f r e c e n t y e a r s d o e s n o t p o s s e s s . I t i s hoped t h a t a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s e l e c t i o n h a s b e e n made o f s t a n d a r d U n ite d S t a t e s h i s t o r i e s a s w e l l a s o f m ore r e ­ s t r i c t i v e s tu d ie s in P o lk !s p e rio d . I n b e g in n in g t h i s r e v ie w o f t h e p o s t- S m i th a n d McCormac p e r i o d o f P o lk h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o o b s e r v e t h e e f f e c t w h ich th o s e s t u d i e s h a d u pon t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f a n e a r l i e r s t u d e n t o f t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I n 1907 J e s s e R ee v e s h a d b e e n e x tr e m e ly c r i t i c a l o f P o l k 's d ip lo m a c y . The w a r a g a i n s t M exico, he a s s e r t e d , w as c a u s e d s o l e l y b y P o l k 's d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o s i e z e

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2 Supra, 137-lUO

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182 " i t w i l l t a k e some c o u ra g e t o a s s a i l t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e tw o w orks [ S m i t h 's a n d M cC orm ac's] b a s e d a s th e y a r e upon c l o s e s tu d y o f t h e e — norm ous body o f c o n te m p o ra ry s o u r c e - m a t e r i a l * " an d he l i m i t s h i s d i s ­ s e n t t o a few q u e r u lo u s re m a rk s . R e f e r r i n g t o P o l k 's c o m m u n ic a tio n s w i th S a n ta Anna R eev es s a y s t h a t "one c a n n o t f e e l t h a t h i s m o r a l p la n e was v e r y h i g h . " &nd, a s i f c o e r c e d a g a i n s t h i s w i l l * he w o n d e rs a lo u d why* i f McCormac an d S m ith a r e r i g h t , P o l k 's c o n te m p o r a r ie s e r r e d so g r e a t l y i n ju d g m e n t? T h a t judgm ent* a f t e r a l l , w as s h a r e d ty men o f r e s p e c t a b l e i n t e l l e c t u a l po w ers o f v e r y d i v e r s e p a r t y an d p a r t i s a n v ie w s : W e b s te r, L i n c o ln , B enton* C a lh o u n . " P o lk th e M e n d a c io u s," h e r e c a l l s * w as c o in e d b y A le x a n d e r H. S te p h e n s* n o t Von H o l s t . 3 R eev es d i d n o t* how ever* p r o ­ c e e d bey o n d t h e s e te n u o u s q u e r i e s ; h e a c c e p te d t h e new w ork a s h a v in g b a s i c a l l y o u t - d a t e d a l l p r e v io u s e f f o r t s . I n 1921 Edw ard C hanning b r o u g h t o u t th e f i f t h volum e o f h i s H is ­ t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s * c o v e rin g t h e y e a r s I8 l£ -l8 1 j.8 . I n h i s c h a p t e r s on C a l i f o r n i a * T exas and t h e M exican War C h an n in g , a s K rau s sa y s* " p la c e d g r e a t r e l i a n c e upon J u s t i n H. S m i t h 's The War W ith M exico."U I n a b i b l i o ­ g r a p h ic n o te a t th e end o f t h e volum e C hanning s t a t e s h i s d e p e n d e n c e :, F o r g u id a n c e in t h e w r i t i n g o f t h e p r e c e d in g t h r e e c h a p t e r s * * I h a v e r e l i e d on J u s t i n H. S m i t h 's re m a rk a b le h i s t o r y . . . . S m i t h 's r e s e a r c h w as so p ro f o u n d an d h i s ju d g m en t g e n e r a l l y so j u s t t h a t one c a n p l a c e p e c u l i a r r e l i a n c e on h i s s t a t e m e n t s . A t th e same tim e , l i k e a l l h i s t o r i c a l s tu d e n t s * he h a s h i s p r e j u d i c e s . 5

3 J e s s e S . R eeves* "R eview o f Jam es K. P o lk * b y E. I . M cCorm ac," The A m erican H i s t o r i c a l R eview * J a n u a r y , 1 9 2 3 , 332-3* J4. K ra u s , A H i s t o r y o f A m erican H i s t o r y * Hli9*

$ Channing* H istory o f the U nited S ta te s * V* 6 l£ .

183 C hanning d o e s n ’t e l u c i d a t e on S m i t h 's p r e j u d i c e s ; c e r t a i n l y , he d id n o t f i n d t h a t S m i t h 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e w a r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y r e ­ q u ir e d an y a d ju s tm e n t* H is a c c o u n t o f th e p r e - w a r m a n u ev e rs f o llo w s S m ith w ith p e c u l i a r r e l i a n c e . The a n n e x a tio n o f T ex as was p e r f e c t l y j u s t i f i a b l e an d i f M exico made w ar upon t h e U n ite d S t a t e s on t h i s a c c o u n t th e n t h e s e i z u r e o f C a l i f o r n i a a n d New M exico a s " in d e m n ity " w o u ld be r i g h t an d p r o p e r . And t h i s w as p r e c i s e l y w hat h a p p e n e d . As soon a s T a y lo r c r o s s e d t h e S a b in e M exico d e te r m in e d t o a t t a c k . S l i d e l l and th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n e x h i b i t e d a " g r e a t d e a l o f p a t i e n c e , " b u t w i th o u t re w a r d , f o r t h e M exican re g im e " r e f u s e d t o r e c e i v e any d ip l o m a ti c r e p r e s e n t a t i v e fro m th e U n ite d S t a t e s , no m a t t e r w h a t he w as c a l l e d .

"6

I n C h a n n in g 's a c c o u n t T a y lo r b lo c k a d e d t h e R io G rande b e c a u s e th e M exican commander r e f u s e d him f a c i l i t i e s t o g a t h e r s u p p l i e s . A f t e r t h a t t h e r e was " a c u r i o u s h e s i t a t i o n " on b o th s i d e s , b u t G e n e ra l A r i s t a was " s p u r r e d t o a c t i o n " b y th e g o v ern m en t a t M exico C i t y , an o f f i c e r o f t h e A m erican arm y w as m u rd e re d and r e c o n n o i t e r i n g p a r t i e s w ere a t t a c k e d . The r e p o r t o f t h e l a t t e r e v e n t r e a c h e d Y fash in g to n on May 9 and two d a y s l a t e r P o lk in fo rm e d C o n g re ss t h a t "w ar e x i s t s , " A m erican b lo o d h a v in g b e e n s h e d upon A m erican s o i l . 7 C h an n in g f i n d s i t u n n e c e s s a r y t o m e n tio n t h a t P o lk h a d p r e v i o u s l y d e te r m in e d t o a sk C o n g re s s t o d e c l a r e w ar a g a i n s t M exico.

6

G h a n n in g , H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , V, 550-4;.

7 I b i d . , 55 7 .

181;, I n a p a r a g r a p h e v a l u a t i n g P o lk a s P r e s i d e n t he a s s e r t s t h a t h e " h a s s u f f e r e d s e v e r e l y a t th e h an d s o f c o n te m p o r a r ie s an d h i s t o r i a n s , " P o lk w as n o t " o f g r e a t m e n ta l c a l i b r e n o r o f much e d u c a tio n ; b u t he p o s s e s s e d a s t r o n g w i l l a n d an i n f l e x i b l e d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o do t h e r i g h t t h i n g a s he saw i t , " P o lk was t h e " m a s te r s p i r i t " o f h i s a d m in is tr a tio n ;* " i t w as h i s h a n d t h a t g u id e d e v e n t s . "8 T h is a c c o u n t b y C hanning m ark ed t h e f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e , i n a r a n k ­ in g h i s t o r y o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , o f P o lk a s th e " m a s te r s p i r i t " g u id in g t h e n a t i o n t o t h e w h o lly j u s t i f i a b l e a c c e s s i o n s w h ich w ere t o m ark t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l r e p u b l i c . P o l k ’ s d i a r y a s p u b lis h e d b y Q u a ife in f o u r v o lu m es h a d n o t re a c h e d a l a r g e r e a d in g p u b l i c and A lla n ^ e v in s was a tte m p tin g t o s e ­ c u r e a w id e r u s a g e when he b r o u g h t o u t a one volum e e d i t i o n i n 1 9 2 9 , c o n s i s t i n g o f s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e d i a r y w ith a n n o t a t i o n s . N e v in s in t r o d u c e d t h e e d i t i o n w ith a n e s s a y on P o lk in w h ic h he p r e s e n t s t h e . e a r l i e r e v a l u a t i o n o f th e P r e s i d e n t and s t a t e s h i s e s s e n t i a l a c c e p ta n c e o f th e r e v i s i o n i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; F o r d e c a d e s a f t e r he l e f t t h e P r e s id e n c y P o lk was m is u n d e rs to o d and b e l i t t l e d b y t h o s e who a c c e p te d t h e Whig and a n t i - s l a v e r y i n ­ t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e M exican W ar. . . . The a c c u s a t i o n a g a i n s t h im was t h a t he had l e d C o n g re ss t o d e c l a r e w ar a g a i n s t M exico b y a t i s s u e o f p e r v e r s i o n s , a m b i g u i t i e s , and s u p p r e s s i o n s o f f a c t , an d t h a t h i s w h o le p o l i c y i n f o r e i g n a f f a i r s w as " t o r t u o u s a n d s o r d i d . " ♦

*

♦

♦

A f a i r e r p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e d e c a y o f o l d s e c t i o n a l and p a r t y p r e ­ j u d i c e s - and a f u l l e r r e s e a r c h , have e n a b le d u s t o c o r r e c t t h e i n ­ j u s t i c e o f t h e s e v ie w s . P o l k ’ s c a r e e r was fro m f i r s t t o l a s t t h a t

8 Channing, H istory o f the U nited S ta te s , V, 5b7*

185 o f an h o n e s t , c o n s c i e n t i o u s , an d l i m i t e d m an, who was in c a p a b le p e r ­ h a p s o f t h e h i g h e s t m o ra l e l e v a t i o n , b u t w as c e r t a i n l y a l s o i n c a ­ p a b le o f d e c e i t an d d o u b l e - d e a l i n g , 9

In h i s a n n o t a t i o n s on th e d i a r y N e v in s shows an a g re e m e n t w i th S m ith ’ s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e w a r. A f t e r n o tin g t h e a c t o f t h e M exican C o n g re ss in 5 6 0 . 10 I b i d . , 563. 11 I b i d . , 5U0.

198 S m ith h a d been* P o lk h o n e s t l y h o p ed t o a v o id w ar* s a y s E l l i o t t , b u t h e w as n o t d e f l e c t e d f o r an i n s t a n t fro m h i s g o a l s . A f t e r S l i d e l l l e f t M exico t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h a t go v ern m en t becam e i n c r e a s i n g l y m en acin g ; th e d u l l e s t o b s e r v e r c o u ld s e e t h a t t h e tw o n a t i o n s w e re d r i f t i n g i n t o w a r, so " P o lk b e g a n t o d is p o s e o f t h e arm y i n s u c h w is e a s t o m eet t h e e x p e c te d c o n tin g e n c y . "12 T hen, " f o r e s e e i n g " t h a t t h e M ex ican s w o u ld so o n o v e r ­ ru n t h e r e g io n b e tw e e n t h e N u e c e s an d t h e R io G ra n d e, P o lk o r d e r e d Tay­ l o r t o o c cu p y th e a r e a . 13 E l l i o t t s e e s t h e P r e s i d e n t th r o u g h th e e y e s o f G e n e r a l S c o t t ; P o lk was a lw a y s c o l d l y h o s t i l e * 3 i i

A p lo d d e r w ith o u t i n s p i r a t i o n o r a n y b ro a d s e n s e o f hum or, b u t d o g g e d ly t e n a c i o u s o f p u r p o s e , he was a c a r e f u l a d m i n i s t r a t o r , e n ­ e r g e t i c , p r u d e n t , w i l l i n g t o s e e k a d v ic e b u t a lw a y s c a p a b le o f a r r i v i n g a t h i s own d e c is io n s * Such a man c o u ld n o t p e r c e i v e any­ t h i n g am using o r t o l e r a b l e i n e i t h e r t h e f o i b l e s o r t h e e x p a n s iv e p e r s o n a l i t y o f a s u b o r d in a te l i k e S c o t t , o r b e o t h e r t h a n d e e p ly s u s p i c i o u s o f th e m o tiv e s w h ic h a c t u a t e d a p o s s i b l e c o n te n d e r f o r h i s p l a c e . T h e re was l i t t l e o f t h e n o b le o r g e n e ro u s a b o u t P o l k . 15 Sam uel F la g g Bemis o f Y a le U n i v e r s i t y h a s p ro d u c e d many s t u d i e s o f A m erican d ip lo m a c y an d i n t h e s e he h a s l e n t h i s i n f l u e n c e t o t h e u p ­ w a rd r e v i s i o n o f t h e e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t . He f i n d s t h a t P o lk won "a ma­ j o r d ip lo m a tic v i c t o r y w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t pow er i n t h e w o r ld " i n th e O regon d i s p u t e . l o I n f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h a t s e t t l e m e n t Bem is s a y s

12 E l l i o t t , W in f ie ld S c o t t : The S o l d i e r an d th e Man, i t l 8 * 13 I b i d . , 1HL8-9. lit I b i d . , ix . 15 I b i d . , ltl7 * 16 B em is, D ip lo m a tic H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s (1 9 lt3 )j 2 8 0 .

199 t h a t "no f a ir m in d e d s t u d e n t " o f th e c o n t r o v e r s y " c a n m a in ta in t h a t t h e A m erican c la im t o t h e r e g io n n o r t h o f t h e C olum bia R iv e r was a s s tr o n g a s t h a t o f G re a t B r i t a i n " ; b u t i t c o u ld b e b a la n c e d a g a i n s t th e M aine b o u n d a ry s e t t l e m e n t i n w hich t h e U n ite d S t a t e s g ave up a c la i m t o t e r r i ­ t o r y w h ich l a t e r e v id e n c e p ro v e d t o b e c l e a r l y v a l i d * 3*7 I n r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s O regon v i c t o r y Bemis a s s e r t s t h a t t h e r e " i s no g a in s a y in g t h e c o u ra g e and s u c c e s s * n o t t o m e n tio n th e n e rv e a n d good f o r tu n e * " w i t h w h ic h Jam es K. P o lk " g u id e d A m e ric an d ip lo m a c y d u r­ in g t h e g r e a t e s t y e a r s o f t e r r i t o r i a l e x p a n s io n ," I S Bem is f i n d s th e U n ite d S t a t e s a t f a u l t i n much o f th e d ip lo m a c y w ith M exico in t h e y e a r s b e f o r e t h e w a r. J a c k s o n 's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was g u i l t y o f a v i o l a t i o n o f n e u t r a l i t y d u rin g t h e w a r f o r T exan in d e p e n ­ dence* he say s* a n d c i t e s t h e e f f e c t i v e s t e p s w h ic h th e U n ite d S p a te s to o k on o t h e r o c c a s io n s t o e n f o r c e n e u t r a l i t y , 19 Bem is a s s e r t s t h a t M exico was t e c h n i c a l l y c o r r e c t i n i t s r e f u s a l t o r e c e i v e S l i d e l l on t h e b a s is o f h is a c c re d ita tio n *

c i t i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e U n ite d

S t a t e s an d S o v ie t R u s s ia i n 1933 a s a " p e r f e c t " a n a lo g y . B ut* h e say s* P o lk p r o b a b ly d i d n o t g r a s p t h e t e c h n i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n a r e g u l a r m i n i s t e r a n d a s p e c i a l c o m m is sio n e r a d h o c . 20 M exico* how ever* w ould h av e b e e n b e t t e r a d v is e d t o h av e r e c e i v e d S l i d e l l * w a iv in g t h e t e c h n i -

17 Bemis* D ip lo m a tic H i s t o r y * 283*

18 I b i d « ■> 280- 1 . 19 I b i d .* 222-3* 20 I b i d . * 237;. 2 3 5 .

200 c a litie s *

By r e f u s i n g t o do s o , s a y s B em is, t h e y p la y e d i n t o P o l k 's

h a n d — " j u s t a s N a p o le o n I I I s e r v e d B is m a r c k 's p u rp o s e s i n 1 8 7 0 * " 2 1 Bem is e v en m akes th e c h a r g e t h a t P o lk s e n t a g e n ts i n t o T ex as b e f o r e a n n e x a tio n t o u r g e t h a t g o v e rn m e n t t o s e n d t r o o p s i n t o t h e d i s ­ p u te d t e r r i t o r y so t h a t T exas c o u ld b e a n n ex e d w h ile i n a c t i v e w a r f a r e w ith M exico; t h e P r e s i d e n t w o u ld th e n be i n a p o s i t i o n t o d i c t a t e th e f i n a l p e a c e and b o u n d a ry . Anson JO n e s, h o w e v er, " d id n o t l e n d h im s e l f to t h i s s tra ta g e m .

"22

S t i l l , Bemis f i n d s t h a t P o lk "was w i l l i n g t o be r e a s o n a b l e w i t h M ex ico . " He w elcom ed a w a r an d t h e c o n q u e s t o f c o v e te d t e r r i t o r y , an d he w as d e te r m in e d t o h av e C a l i f o r n i a ,

" b u t he c e r t a i n l y gave M exico

e v e r y c h a n c e f o r a p e a c e f u l s e t t l e m e n t . " He made " a f a i r o f f e r . " 2 3 The o f f e r r e j e c t e d , P o lk s e n t T a y lo r " w e l l i n t o " t h e d i s p u t e d a r e a b etw ee n t h e N u eces a n d t h e R io G ra n d e . 2h The P r e s i d e n t m ig h t h av e a v o id e d a c l a s h w i t h M exican t r o o p s i f he h a d k e p t T a y lo r o u t o f t h e d i s p u t e d a r e a ; b u t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o condemn h i s move u n d e r th e c ir c u m s t a n c e s : h e h a d t r i e d t o a d j u s t t h e b o u n d a ry b y p e a c e f u l n e g o t i a t i o n * 25 Bem is seem s t o f i n d t h e w ar u n n e c e s s a r y b u t j u s t : P o lk c o u ld h a v e a v o id e d w a r w ith Mex i c o , an d t h a t w ith o u t i n j u r y t o t h e v i t a l i n t e r e s t s o r t h e n a t i o n a l h o n o r o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , i f h e h a d k e p t T a y lo r o u t o f t h e d i s p u t e d t e r r i t o r y im m e d ia te ly n o r t h

21 B em is, D ip lo m a tic H i s t o r y , 237; a l s o , B em is, L a tin - A m e ric a n P o l i c y , 9 0 -1 . 22 B em is, D ip lo m a tic H i s t o r y , 2 3b* 23 I b i d *, 2 3 5 -6 .

2h B em is, The L a t i n A m erican P o l i c y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , 9 0 - 1 . 25 B em is, D ip lo m a tic H i s t o r y , 239*

201 o f t h e R io G rande an d h a d p u r s u e d a p o l i c y o f p a t i e n c e an d wat c h f u l w a i t i n g , a s Woodrow W ilso n d i d to w a rd M exico i n 1 9 13-1917 • Jam es K. P o lk a llo w e d M exico t o b e g in t h e w a r, a n d t h i s , t o o , w ith o u t a n y d is h o n o r a b le a c t i o n on h i s p a r t t o p r e c i p i t a t e i t * 2 6 As he c o n te m p la te s t h e e x p a n s io n is t, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t Bemis p ro d u c e s some r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e r o l e o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s i n t h e 'w e s te rn h e m is p h e re i n a to n e w h ic h i s t y p i c a l o f P o l k ’ s u n e a s y d e fe n d e rs * The Monroe D o c t r i n e , Bemis e x p l a i n s , was n o t a s e l f - d e n i a l o r d i n ­ a n c e . The s t a t e s m e n who f o r m u la t e d i t h a d i n m ind f u t u r e e x p a n s io n o f t h e U n io n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t o t h e S p a n is h d o m in io n s t o t h e w e s t an d t h e i s l a n d o f Cuba* B ut t h e r e was no th o u g h t o f o t h e r t h a n p e a c e f u l expan­ s i o n . Bem is c o m p la in s o f th o s e " h i s t o r i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s ” who d e p r e c a te t h e M a n if e s t D e s tin y o f “a n a g r a r i a n c o n t i n e n t a l e x p a n s io n e q u a l l y w ith a l a t e r more s p u r io u s M a n if e s t D e s tin y o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y im p e r ia lis m and who p i t i l e s s l y p i c k t o p i e c e s i t s c a tc h w o rd s an d s l o g a n s . ” T h ese same p h i l o s o p h e r s , he p o i n t s o u t , a s k t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t o ta k e t h e l e a d i n p ro m o tin g h u m a n ita r ia n i d e a l s i n t h e w o r ld and t h e n a t i o n i s a b le t o p e rfo rm t h a t m is s io n o n ly b e c a u s e o f i t s p o s i t i o n a s ”a C o n t i n e n t a l Re­ p u b lic . ” The M a n if e s t D e s tin y o f c o n t i n e n t a l e x p a n s io n h a s b e e n t h e s t r o n g e s t and m ost e n d u r in g e x p r e s s io n o f A m erican n a t i o n a l i s m , an d n a t i o n a l i s m i s s t i l l t h e s t r o n g e s t h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e i n t h e m odern w o rld * 27

26 B em is, D ip lo m a tic H i s t o r y , 2U3-1-U 27 B em is, L a t i n A m erican P o l i c y , 73-k* The “h i s t o r i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r ” r e f e r r e d t o h e r e i s p r o b a b ly A lb e r t K. W e in b e rg , w hose M a n if e s t D e s ti n y d id n o t t e n d t o g r a t i f y a l l “p a t r i o t i c A m e r ic a n s .”

202 V iew ed i n s u c h a s e t t i n g , th r o u g h s u c h a p h ilo s o p h y , th e d e ­ t a i l s o f d ip lo m a c y an d m i l i t a r y m a n e u v e rin g i n I81i5 and I 8 I4.6 a r e r a t h e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t . The means o f e x p a n s io n become r e l a t i v e l y u n im p o r ta n t. Even s o , i t i s fo u n d t h a t t h e m eth o d s u s e d a r e d e f e n s i b l e ? The C o n t i n e n t a l R e p u b lic to o k s h a p e i n th e em pty s p a c e s o f N o rth .America w ith o u t w i l l f u l a g g r e s s io n a g a i n s t a n y c i v i l i z e d n a t i o n o r p e o p le , a n d t h i s i s s a i d v fith due c o g n iz a n c e o f t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f t h e War w ith M exico o f 18U6-18U8, b e f o r e w h ic h P r e s i d e n t P o lk made h o n o ra b le i f n o t a n x io u s a t t e m p t s f o r p e a c e w i t h M exico on th e l i n e o f t h e R io G rande R i v e r . 28 The r e c o r d o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s i s p e r f e c t l y c l e a n an d P o lk i s t o be commended f o r h i s p a r t I n c o n t i n e n t a l e x p a n s io n . But M e x ic o f s c o - o p e r a t i o n w as p r o v i d e n t i a l f o r " s o b e r r e f l e c t i o n s . . * s u g g e s t t h a t p o l i t i c a l a n a r c h y and f o l l y on th e p a r t o f M exico v/as a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o n f l i c t " a s th e u r g e o f e x p a n s io n on t h e p a r t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s *29 ’■'i

W r itin g a m id s t " th e h ig h d a n g e r o f th e S eco n d W orld W a r," Bemis a s s e r t s t h a t we c a n r e a l i z e t h a t Any P r e s i d e n t who h a d f r u s t r a t e d t h e M a n if e s t D e s tin y o f c o n t i n e n t a l e x p a n s io n • . • w o uld n o t h av e d e s e r v e d w e l l o f h i s c o u n t r y , in d e e d w o u ld n o t have d e s e r v e d w e l l o f t h e New W o rld , o r o f h u m a n ity to d a y . 30 In any case: C e r t a i n i t i s t h a t no c o u n try m a n o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk to d a y w o u ld d e s i r e t o undo e i t h e r t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T exas o r t h e M exican p u r c h a s e s o f I 8 I4 8 an d 1 8 5 3 .3 1 28 B em is, L a t i n A m erican P o l i c y , 3 8 5 -6 . Bem is a d d s t h a t th o s e who a c c e p t t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m ig h t s t i l l " r e v o l t " a t t h e I m p e r ia lis m w h ic h t h e U n ite d S t a t e s d is p la y e d i n t h e f i r s t d e ca d e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . B u t, s a y s B em is, t h a t was " a n im p e r ia l is m a g a i n s t im p e r i a li s m . I t d i d n o t l a s t lo n g a n d i t was n o t r e a l l y b a d ." 29

I b id . , 92.

30

I b i d . , 2 8 7 -8 .

31 I b i d . , 9 2 .

203 As a f i n a l exam ple o f th o s e h i s t o r i a n s who com bine a r a t h e r c a r e l e s s d e f e n s e o f P o l k ’s M exican d ip lo m a c y w i t h a r e s p e c t f o r h i s e x e c u tiv e a b i l i t y w h ich b r o u g h t a b o u t a s e l f - j u s t i f y i n g I n c r e a s e i n th e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e Union* i t w i l l be w o r th w h ile t o exam ine some p r e s e n ­ t a t i o n s b y A r th u r S c h le s i n g e r J r . I n h i s P u l i t i z e r P r iz e - w in n in g Age o f J a c k s o n * 19U5* S c h l e s i n g e r Jr.

s a i d t h a t t h e p i c t u r e o f P o lk a s a m e d io c re p o l i t i c i a n " h a s o n ly

r e c e n t l y b e e n e r a s e d from t h e h i s t o r i e s * " an d th e " r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f P o lk s t i l l a p p a r e n t l y h as f a r t o go b e f o r e i t r e a c h e s t h e g e n e r a l pub­ lic ."

In s u b s t a n t i a t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r re m a rk he n o t e s t h a t Jam es T h u rb er*

t h e h u m o rist* " a h i g h l y i n t e l l i g e n t la y m a n * " i n

1937

s a id th a t "o f a l l

o u r a r r a y o f P r e s i d e n t s t h e r e w as none l e s s m em orable th a n Jam es K. P o l k . "32 On t h e c o n tra ry * s a y s S c h l e s i n g e r J r . : W hile n o t a s ta te s m a n o f t h e f i r s t ran k * l a c k i n g th e c r e a t i v e p o l i t i c a l c a p a c i t i e s o f a J e f f e r s o n o r Jac k so n * P o lk h a s b e e n e x c e l l ­ e d b y few P r e s i d e n t s in h i s a b i l i t y t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e e n e r g i e s o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n to v ra rd t h e a t ta in m e n t o f g iv e n e n d s . 33 C itin g B a n c ro f t’s

rem em brance o f P o l k ’s e x p r e s s e d o b j e c t i v e s

S c h l e s i n g e r s a y s he " s e t

o u t t o r e a l i z e t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s w ith calm*

im p la c a b le fo r c e * m oving w it h s t e a d y d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o c l e a r away a l l o b s ta c le s ."

He was s e c r e t i v e a n d s u s p i c i o u s and d ro v e h im s e l f r e le n t-*

l e s s l y * h i s i n a b i l i t y t o d e l e g a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e in g " a m a jo r f a u l t . "

32 S c h l e s i n g e r J r . * 33 I b i d . * UUl.

The A^e o f J a c k s o n * Ij.ij.0-1^ n o te * i-ji+l-

201; "He knew w h a t he w a n te d , an d g o t i t , b u t i t k i l l e d him . "3U " P o lk ’s g r e a t d e f e c t , " s a y s S c h l e s i n g e r J r . ,

"was an i n a b i l i t y

t o r e c o g n iz e t h e h o n e s ty o f o p p o s i t i o n . I t w as a lw ay s s e l f i s h a n d f a c ­ t i o u s , b a s e d on a m b itio n o r j e a l o u s y o r d is a p p o in tm e n t o v e r p a t r o n a g e ." And t h i s " d ry a s s u m p tio n o f i n f a l l i b i l i t y " g av e h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b o th a " p e c u l i a r s t r e n g t h " and a " p e c u l i a r w e a k n e s s ." I t h ad d e c i s i o n a n d a c h ie v e m e n t b u t an u n d e r - e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e m o ra l f o r c e h e w as o v e r - r i d ­ in g . 35 The Age o f J a c k s o n i s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e J a c k s o n ia n move­ m ent i n te rm s o f t h e econom ic c l a s s s t r u g g l e — "The House o f Have an d The House o f W ant" — and P o lk g e t s m ore a t t e n t i o n , an d c r e d i t , f o r h i s f i n a n c i a l p o l i c i e s th a n m o s t, ev en o f t h e r e v i s i o n i s t s , g iv e him . P o lk to o k t h e " r a d i c a l p o s i t i o n " on su c h J a c k s o n ia n is s u e s .3 & I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f P o l k ’ s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h i s volume S c h le s ­ in g e r J r .

i s m e re ly s k e tc h in g o u t t h e re m n a n ts o f th e d o m in a n t i s s u e s o f

t h e J a c k s o n ia n p e r i o d w h ic h w ere soon t o b e _sw a llo w e d up b y t h e s e c t i o n a l c o n f l i c t . He t h e r e f o r e g iv e s o n ly p a s s i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e ’M exican t r o u b l e s * I n J a n u a r y , I 8 I4.6 , P o lk o r d e r e d A m erican t r o o p s 't o a d v a n c e th r o u g h t e r r i t o r y c la im e d b y Mexico-. " M a n ife s t D e s tin y was com ing t o a b o i l . " G e n e r a l T a y lo r w a ite d w h ile P o lk t r i e d v a i n l y t o b u y th e n o r t h e r n p r o v in c e s o f M exico. Then M exican a n d A m erican f o r c e s c l a s h e d . "The new s

3k S c h l e s i n g e r J r . , The Age o f J a c k s o n , kk2. 35 I b i d . , I;52. 36

I b i d . , kk3, hh$.

205 a r r i v e d i n W a sh in g to n j u s t i n tim e t o d e s t r o y a l l o p p o s i t i o n t o P o l k 's p la n o f g a in in g b y w a r w h a t he c o u ld n o t g a i n b y n e g o t i a t i o n . "37 I n a r e c e n t e s s a y S c h l e s i n g e r m akes a f a i r l y c o m p le te p r e s e n t a ­ tio n , o f t h i s

" r e a l i s t " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The

them e i s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e t i t l e — "A

S e n se o f N e c e s s i t y . " S c h l e s i n g e r

co m p ares T ru m a n 'to P o lk a n d s a y s o f them t h a t t h e y made te r m s w i t h h i s ­ t o r y w h ich th e y d i d 'n o t c r e a t e .

" U n s p e c ta c u la r* u n im p r e s s iv e * u n d e r ­

r a t e d Jam es K. P o lk " d i d n o t c r e a t e h i s t o r y * b u t he h a d t h e c o u ra g e t o accept i t .

H is t o r y m ig h t h ave b ro k e n him b u t i n s t e a d i t f o r c e d him i n t o

t h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f " g r e a t a n d n e c e s s a r y t h i n g s . " H is a c h ie v e m e n ts i n t h e re a lm o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y w e re r e m a r k a b le ; re m a rk a b le b e c a u s e t h i s man w i th o u t b ro a d c o m p re h en sio n * w i th o u t s o a r in g im a g in a tio n * u n d e r s to o d t h e c h a l l e n g e o f h i s t o r y an d a c t e d w ith d r y p r e c i s i o n t o m eet i t . The U n ite d S t a t e s was "-being p r o j e c t e d i n t o t h e a f f a i r s o f a con­ t i n e n t * " an d P o lk m et t h e s i t u a t i o n w i t h a h ig h s e n s e o f " p r a c t i c a l i t y . "38 True* h i s "m ethods w e re n o t a lw ay s e d i f y i n g . " H is p ro n o u n c e m en ts on t h e O regon c o n tr o v e r s y w ere n o t c a n d id . And O regon h a v in g b e e n s e c u re d * h e t u r n e d h i s s h a r p g a z e to w a rd th e s o u th w e s t and l a i d t h e p l a n s f o r u n r o l l i n g h is c o u n t r y l i k e a c a r ­ p e t a c r o s s th e c o n t i n e n t . • . . F i r s t he t r i e d t o b u y New M exico a n d C a l i f o r n i a fro m M exico. T h is f a i l i n g * h e o r d e r e d t r o o p s i n t o a r e a s w h ere h o s t i l i t i e s w e re s u r e t o r e s u l t * t h e n s n a tc h e d t h e f i r s t p r e t e x t t o tr a n s f o r m a b o r d e r s k ir m is h i n t o a w a r .39

37 S c h l e s i n g e r J r . * Age o f J a c k s o n * U50. 38 S c h l e s i n g e r J r . * 2 7 9 A p r i l 2 6 , 19^9* 39 I b i d . * 2 7 .

"A S en se o f N e c e s s ity * " The R e p o r t e r * ls 2 6 *

206 B ut i n th e b r o a d p e r s p e c t i v e o f h i s t o r y — an d s i n c e t h e e v a l ­ u a t i o n i s b e in g made b y th e r e c i p i e n t s o f th e P r e s i d e n t 's m e a s u re s — t h e m e th o d s p a l e i n t o i n s i g n i f i c a n c e . The c o n t i n e n t a l n a t i o n was c o m p le te . M o r a l i s t s o f P o l k 's tim e a n d s i n c e h av e o b j e c t e d t o h i s m e th o d s, a s w e l l t h e y m ig h t. B ut n o n e , so f a r a s I know, h a s s u g g e s te d t h a t O reg o n b e r e t u r n e d t o B r i t a i n o r C a l i f o r n i a t o M exico — o r t h a t t h e s e t e r r i t o r i e s w o u ld have b e e n b e t t e r o f f h a d t h e y re m a in e d u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l o w n e rs. 2*0 S c h l e s i n g e r J r . t h e n c i t e s B a n c r o f t 's a s s e r t i o n t h a t P o l k 's ad­ m i n i s t r a t i o n , " ju d g e d b y r e s u l t s , " w as one o f th e g r e a t e s t i n A m erican h i s t o r y , and n o te s t h a t " H i s t o r i a n s i n g e n e r a l h av e come t o a g r e e ; t h e r e v a l u a t i o n o f P o lk h a s b e e n a s t r i k i n g ex am p le o f r e c e n t r e v i s i o n i n h i s t o r i c a l ju d g m e n t. "U l I n th e f o lloY ring c h a p t e r an e x a m in a tio n w i l l b e made o f some r e c e n t h i s t o r i a n s who h ave u t i l i z e d a w id e r c r i t e r i a t h a n s im p ly " th e r e s u l t s . " B ut b e f o r e t u r n i n g t o t h i s g ro u p i t w i l l p e rh a p s be a s f i t t i n g t o m e n tio n h e r e a s e ls e w h e re t h e w ork o f a p ro m in e n t A m erican h i s t o r i a n w hose p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e e v e n ts o f th e " d e c a d e o f e x p a n s io n " d o e s n o t f i t th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r . C h a r le s A. B e a r d 's b le n d in g o f e c o n ­ omic m o tiv a tio n w i t h an i n e x o r a b le d e te r m in is m p ro d u c e s no c l e a r e s t i ­ m ate o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk . The k e y t o B e a r d 's t h i n k i n g on P o l k 's p o l i c y w ould p r o b a b ly b e fo u n d i n t h e p h r a s e — ""While e v e n ts w ere b r i n g i n g C a l i f o r n i a i n t o t h e

2*0 S c h l e s i n g e r J r . , A p r i l 2 6 , 1 9h9* 2*1 I b i d . , 2 7 .

"A S e n se o f N e c e s s i t y , " The R e p o r t e r , 1 : 27*

207 A m erican s p h e r e , d ip lo m a c y -was s e a r c h i n g f o r s a n c tio n ," U 2 P o lk w ould seem t o h a v e b e e n r e a l l y

p a c i f i c 11 i n te m p e r, b u t b e n t on a d d in g C a l i f ­

o r n i a t o T e x a s; h e t o l d th e c o n s u l i n C a l i f o r n i a t h a t he w o u ld b e su p ­ p o r t e d i f he s t i r r e d up a l o c a l r e v o l u t i o n ,

UAS i f t o e x p e d i t e m a t t e r s ,

an arg u m en t a r o s e w ith M exico o v e r a b o u n d a ry q u e s t i o n . fT P o lk f e l t c o n ­ s t r a i n e d t o a c c e p t th e T exan v ie w a n d , n o t u n n a t u r a l l y , o r d e r e d T a y lo r fo r w a rd i n t o t h e d i s p u t e d z o n e . Soon t h e s a n d s o f T ex as w ere s t a i n e d r e d w i t h b l o o d ,^3 The a c t o r s i n t h e p a g e a n t a p p e a r t o b e r e l a t i v e l y u n im p o r ta n t an d t h e i r e l a b o r a t e f o r m u l a t i o n s o f j u s t i c e an d p o l i c y m e re ly f r o t h on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r u s h in g s tr e a m o f h i s t o r y .

h2 B e a rd , The R is e o f A m erican C i v i l i z a t i o n , I ( 1 9 2 7 ) , 6 0 2 , I b i d . , 6 0 ^ -6 .

CHAPTER IX

RESORT TO WAR BY A WILFUL PRESIDENT One o f t h e f i r s t A m erican h i s t o r i a n s t o u s e S m i t h 's p r iz e - w in n in g s tu d y o f t h e M exican War i n a s u r v e y c o v e r in g t h a t p e r i o d o f A m erican h is t o r y ., c o n te m p la te d t h a t l a b o r i o u s l y d o cu m en ted w ork w i t h so m eth in g l e s s th a n e n th u s ia s m . N a t h a n i e l W rig h t S te p h e n s o n w ro te t h e volum e on T exas an d t h e M exican War i n th e Y a le , C h r o n ic le s o f A m e ric a , s e r i e s , an d i n a b i b l i o g r a p h i c n o te a t th e en d o f h i s volum e he d e l i v e r s a h e a v y c r i t i c i s m i n a n acad em ic m an n er: B oth t h e s t u d e n t and t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r w i l l t a k e k e e n i n t e r e s t In J u s t i n H. S m ith , The War W ith M ex ico , 2 v o l s . (1 9 2 0 )* A im ing t o r i d t h e s t o r y o f t h e p a r t i s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f a s t e n e d upon i t by t h e Whig s c h o o l o f A m erican h i s t o r i a n s , Mr. S m ith i s a s a r t f u l i n h i s s i l e n c e s a s he i s e f f e c t i v e i n h i s u t t e r a n c e s . I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e g r a p h ic n a r r a t i v e and i t s v o lu m in o u s n o t e s a r e tw o s p e c i a l p l e a s — f o r P o lk in t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f th e w a r, a n d f o r S c o t t i n i t s c o n ­ d u c t. 1 S te p h e n s o n 's own a c c o u n t o f P o l k 's h a n d lin g o f t h e M exican p r o b ­ lem i s r e s t r a i n e d and n o n -c o m m itta l on th e m ost c o n t e n t i o u s p o i n t s b u t one g a t h e r s a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f th e P r e s i d e n t fro m h i s n a r r a t i v e . The k e y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n S te p h e n s o n 's p o r t r a i t a r e o s t e n t a ­ t i o u s n e s s and s e c r e t i v e n e s s and he f i n d s P o l k 's d e a l i n g s w it h h i s s o u th e r n n e ig h b o r m ark ed b y ig n o r a n c e an d a t o t a l l a c k o f

im a g in a t io n .2

He un ­

d o u b te d ly d i d n 't w a i t w a r, w r i t e s S te p h e n s o n , b u t he d i d n 't u n d e r s ta n d

1 S te p h e n s o n , T ex as a n d t h e M exican W ar, 2 6 l . 2 I b i d . , 168, 181, 178, 226.

209 t h e M exican p e o p le an d he h a d an u l t e r i o r p u r p o s e ; he was n o t o n ly t r y ­ in g t o r e c t i f y a f r o n t i e r ; he h a d d e te r m in e d on a v a s t e x p a n s io n . YJhen S l i d e l l l s m is s io n f a i l e d P o lk w as p la c e d i n a q u a n d a ry . I t was p l a i n now t h a t C a l i f o r n i a c o u ld n o t b e o b ta i n e d w ith o u t w ar — an d he w as a f r a i d o f C o n g re ss.. H ow ever, a lth o u g h P o lk h a d b e e n h o p e f u l o f a p e a c e f u l so ­ l u t i o n h e h a d ’’k e p t a h a n d b e h in d h i s b a c k , an d i n i t he h e l d w e a p o n s .” He now d e c id e d t o p ro c e e d t o e x t r e m i t i e s . 3 P o lk u r g e d a w a r p o l i c y on h i s C a b in e t on A p r i l 9 an d o n ly . Ban­ c r o f t d i s s e n t e d — he w o u ld ’’f e e l b e t t e r s a t i s f i e d ” i f M exico s h o u ld com m it a n y a c t o f h o s t i l i t y .

I t w o u ld seem , s a y s S te p h e n s o n , t h a t t h i s

a p p e a l t o th e G oddess o f D is c o r d w as n o t i n v a i n . Word was r e c e i v e d o f t h e c l a s h on t h e R io G ra n d e. As i f b y m agic P o l k ’s h o r iz o n c l e a r e d . F $ te h a d t h u s s u d d e n ly and u n e x p e c te d ly f i l l e d h i s h an d w it h tru m p s . He s p e n t S u n d ay , th e 1 0 th o f May, on h i s c e l e b r a t e d w ar m e ss a g e , a n d t h e f a c t s , a d r o i t l y s t a ­ t e d t o s u i t h i s p l a n s , w ere l a i d b e f o r e C o n g re ss t h e n e x t da y . k The m essag e p ro v e d t o b e a b o m b s h e ll w h ic h b le w t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o b i t s a n d t h e P r e s i d e n t , ’’’n o t i n th e l e a s t d e g re e b l o o d t h i r s t y , ” d e ­ c id e d t o t r y t o a c h ie v e h i s e n d s a t once w i t h o u t a r e a l c am p a ig n . Of t h e i n t r i g u e w ith S a n ta Anna S te p h e n s o n s a y s t h a t t h a t a d v e n t u r e r a c t e d w i th ’’b a r e f a c e d c y n i c i s m ,” an d ”no u n s c r u p u lo u s f o r e i g n g o v e rn m e n t e v e r f e l l i n t o a p r e t e n d e r ’s t r a p more e a s i l y . ”5 S te p h e n s o n c a l l s P o l k ’ s s u b s e -

3 S te p h e n s o n , T exas an d th e M ex ican War, 1 7 8 , 1 8 1 , I 8 I4.- 6 *

h I b i d . , 1 8 6 -7 . 5

I b id .,

188

-

9 1

, 22 7 .

210 «|uent p e a c e d ip lo m a c y " m i s t a k e n ,” a n d a c c u s e s P o lk a n d e v e ry o n e e l s e in v o lv e d i n t h e w a r o f p l a y i n g p a r t y p o l i t i c s * 6 ^ H i s t o r y o f th e F o r e ig n P o l i c y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1 9 2 £ , b y R an d o lp h G. A^ams, t r a c e s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s b e tw e e n th e U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico w i t h u n u s u a l o b j e c t i v i t y . H is c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e p r e ­ w a r d ip lo m a c y shows h i s a p p ro a c h a n d t o n e . D is c u s s i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s on th e c la im s he s a y s : Then f o llo w e d t h e u s u a l s t o r y o f d e l a y , tim e - ¥ /a s tin g , i n s i n c e r e t y , and w r e tc h e d a r t i f i c e on M e x ic o f s p a r t , w i t h a l t e r n a t e p e r io d s o f p a t i e n c e and v e r y o f f e n s i v e b u l l y i n g on th e p a r t o f t h e U n ite d S ta te s .7 H is a c c o u n t o f th e o r i g i n o f th e w ar i s e q u a l l y b a la n c e d . When P o lk to o k o f f i c e he fo u n d a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n b u t t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T exas d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c a u s e th e M ex ican W a r.8 P o l k ’ s c o n v in c in g w ar m essage w as, i n a s e n s e , c o r r e c t i n a s s e r t i n g t h a t w ar e x i s t e d b y a c t o f M exico, b u t h i s a c t i o n i n o r d e r i n g T a y lo r i n t o t h e d i s p u t e d a r e a w as enough t o

" i n s u r e " an a t t a c k b y th e M exican t r o o p s . 9 T h is i s one o f t h e

few b o o k s b y A m erican s on t h e i r d ip lo m a tic h i s t o r y w h ic h d o e s n o t le a v e t h e im p r e s s io n t h a t i t i s a n a p o l o g i a . I n an im p o r ta n t v o lu m e , P o l i t i c a l an d S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1 9 3 0 , A r th u r M eir S c h l e s i n g e r a s s e r t s t h a t Jam es K. P o lk w as n o t t h e n o n e n t i t y t h a t h i s t o r y o f t e n p i c t u r e s him . L a c k in g i n

6 S te p h e n s o n , T ex as an d t h e M exican b a r , 2^5>* 7 Adams, F o r e ig n P o l i c y , 189* 8 I b i d . , 1 6 3 , 192* 9 I b i d . , 1 6 3 , 193*

211 p e r s o n a l m a g n etism and d r a m a tic f l o u r i s h e s * he was a s e r io u s * ♦ m e th o d ic a l man o f i n f l e x i b l e p u rp o s e a n d g r e a t e x e c u tiv e c a p a c i t y . 10 S c h le s i n g e r * s e m p h a s is i s upon s o c i e t y r a t h e r t h a n g o v ern m en t an d h i s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e d ip lo m a c y o f P o lk i s v e r y b r i e f .

I n n a r r a t i n g th e

e v e n ts o f p r e - w a r n e g o t i a t i o n s he d o e s n o t f a i l t o p r e s e n t th e c a s e o f A m erican c i t i z e n s a g a i n s t th e M exican governm ent.; an d he r e f e r s t o t h e w ork o f " r e c e n t s t u d e n t s " i n re m a rk in g t h a t M exico p r o b a b ly w elcom ed t h e w ar w ith t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . H T a k in g a c a lm v ie w o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e war* S c h l e s i n g e r c o n c lu d e s : T h a t P o lk h a d no w a n to n d e s i r e t o wage w ar w i t h M exico i s c le a r * b u t he w as p o s s e s s e d w ith t h e n o t i o n o f a c q u ir in g h e r n o r th - w e s t p r o ­ v in c e s * and t h i s a m b itio n w as h a r d l y c o n s o n a n t w ith t h e c o n tin u a n c e o f p e a c e f u l r e l a t i o n s . 12 Ju d g e d b y th e re c o rd * s a y s S c h le s in g e r * P o lk was t h e " g r e a t e s t e x p a n s i o n i s t " who e v e r o c c u p ie d , h i s h ig h o f f i c e . A t a "war*- c o s t r Of tw e lv e th o u s a n d l i v e s and n e a r l y one h u n d re d m i l l i o n d o l l a r s * " t h e U n ite d S t a t e s g a in e d a dom ain n e a r l y tw o an d one h a l f tim e s a s g r e a t a s F ran c e * a n d d e p r iv e d t h e R e p u b lic o f M exico o f tw o f i f t h s o f h e r t e r r i ­ t o r y . I n t h i s c o n n e c tio n * i t may be n o te d t h a t a lth o u g h t h e L a t in -A m e ric a n r e p u b l i c s h a d b e e n a s s u r e d by t h e U n ite d S t a t e s o f p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t E u ro p e a n im p e r ia l is m o n ly t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s b e fo re * th o s e c o u n t r i e s now l e a r n e d t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s d id n o t r e g a r d t h e Monroe D o c tr in e a s a s e l f - d e n y i n g o r d i n a n c e . 13

10 S c h le s in g e r * P o l i t i c a l an d S o c i a l H i s t o r y * 1 0 0 . H

I b i d . , 1 0 l;-5 .

12 I b i d * ■> 1 ° 5 *

13 I b i d . * 100* 1 0 9 .

212 B ut " P o lk ’ s c r a v in g f o r t e r r i t o r y was n o t y e t a p p e a s e d ." Two m onths a f t e r T r i s t s ig n e d t h e t r e a t y a t G u ad alu p e H id a lg o P o lk h i n t e d a t t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a n n e x in g Y ucatan* and a m onth a n d a h a l f l a t e r he t r i e d t o b u y Cuba fro m S p a in . lU I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f b i b l i o g r a p h y S c h l e s i n g e r s a y s t h a t M cC orm ac's b io g ra p h y " s h e d s much l i g h t " on a l l a s p e c t s o f P o l k ’ s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . He recommends M cM aster’ s an d R i v e s ’ t r e a t m e n t s o f th e M ex ican War* s a y in g o f J u s t i n S m ith ’s w ork t h a t th o u g h i t i s it is

"an e x h a u s t iv e t r e a t m e n t . . •

somewhat m a rre d b y t h e a u t h o r ’ s c o n t r o v e r s i a l t o n e . "1$ A s t a n d a r d t e x t i n c o l l e g e c o u r s e s on A m erican h i s t o r y i s th e

tw o volum e e d i t i o n o f The G row th o f t h e A m eric an R e p u b lic b y Sam uel E l i o t M o riso n an d H enry S t e e l e Commager. I n t r o d u c t o r y t o t h e i r p r e s e n ­ t a t i o n o f P o l k ’ s M exican d ip lo m a c y t h e y c a u t i o n : We m ust t r e a d , w a r i l y h e re * f o r a m a jo r c o n t r o v e r s y o f A m erican h i s t o r y r a g e s rougtd T ex as and t h e M exican W ar. One t h e o r y . . • h o ld s th e w a r t o be t h e f r u i t o f a g i g a n t i c c o n s p ir a c y o f S o u th e rn p o l i t i c i a n s t o g e t ’b i g g e r p e n s to cram w ith s l a v e s . 1 The o t h e r t h e o r y r e g a r d s th e w hole movement a s a m ore o r l e s s c o n s c io u s and e n t i r e l y j u s t i f i a b l e e f f o r t o f h ig h -s o u le d p io n e e rs to advance c i v i l ­ i z a t i o n and d em o cracy i n a r e g io n f e e b l y h e l d b y a d e c a d e n t s o c i e t y . P r o b a b ly we s h a l l f i n d t h e t r u t h som ew here b e tw e e n th e two e x tr e m e s .16 I n t h e a n n o ta t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y s e c t i o n M o riso n an d Commager a p p ro v e S te p h e n s o n ’ s volum e a s a " b r ie f * w e l l - w r i t t e n * a n d j u d i c i o u s summary*" and recommend M cC orm ac's b io g r a p h y a s u n p r e ju d ic e d and c o m p re h e n s iv e . S m ith ’ s w ork on T exas a n d t h e M exican w ar t h e y f i n d t h e m ost co m p reh en -

l l ; S c h le s in g e r * P o l i t i c a l and S o c i a l H i s t o r y * 109* l g I b i d .* l l g . 16 M o rris o n and Commager* G row th o f t h e A m erican R e p u b lic * I* I4.7 6 .

213 s iv e , but

1

t h e y m ust b e u s e d w ith c a u t i o n . The a u t h o r i s d e d u c tiv e i n h i s r e a s o n i n g , a n d , t o q u o te N. W. S te p h e n s o n , ’ a s a r t f u l i n h i s s i l e n c e s a s he i s e f f e c t i v e i n h i s u t t e r a n c e s . *17 M o riso n and Commager g iv e m ore e m p h a sis t o t h e z e i t g i e s t , th e p e r v a s i v e f e v e r o f ’’M a n if e s t D e s t i n y ” th a n m ost o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s who h a v e w r i t t e n on t h i s p e r i o d . C i t i n g t h e a r r o g a n t l y a g g r e s s i v e s lo g a n s o f t h e c am p a ig n , t h e y a s s e r t t h a t o t h e r f a c t o r s w e re subm erged by t h e ✓

”w ar-w hoops o f s t r u t t i n g d e m o c ra c y .”18 T h e ir p o r t r a i t o f P o lk i s c l e a r and c o n c is e : He w as a s t i f f , a n g u la r p e r s o n , lw ith s h a r p g r a y e y e s i n a s a d , l e a n f a c e , an d g r i z z l e d h a i r o v e r la p p in g a b l a c k c o a t - c o l l a r . He h a d m a jo re d i n m a th e m a tic s a n d t h e c l a s s i c s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth C a r o lin a t o t r a i n h i s m in d , an d t h e e v e n t p ro v e d t h a t h e s u c c e e d e d . H is w o rk in g d a y in t h e W h ite d o u se '■was n e a r e r e i g h t e e n th a n e i g h t *^ h o u r s . . . • H is w i l l c o n t r o l l e d a c a b i n e t o f e x p e r ie n c e d an d d i s ­ t i n g u i s h e d men. 19 D e te rm in e d an d t e n a c i o u s , seld o m s m ilin g a n d n e v e r r e l a x i n g , P o lk r e c a l l s 'i n much b u t i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t o t h e r p r e s i d e n t i a l d i a r i s t , J . Q. Adams. T h e ir d o m e s tic p o l i c i e s w e re a s w id e a s t h e p o l e s , b u t P o lk a d o p te d t h e same f o r e i g n p o l i c y a s Adams, an d he h a d a way o f g e t t i n g t h i n g s done.20 I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e m i l i t a r y m a n u e v e rin g s i n t h e d i s p u t e d a r e a b e ­ tw e en M exico an d T exas M o riso n an d Commager s a y t h a t ’’P o l k ’s a p o l o g i s t s make much o f t h e s o p h i s t r y t h a t a s so o n a s T a y lo r c r o s s e d th e S a b in e ” h e was in v a d in g M exico, fro m t h e i r p o i n t o f v ie w , an d t h a t h e n c e w ar

17 M o riso n an d Commager,. G row th o f t h e A m erican R e p u b lic , I , 669• 18 I b i d - >

^ 83.

19 The s t a t u r e o f P o l k ’s a d v i s o r s h a s b e e n v a r i o u s l y ju d g e d . S t e ­ p h e n so n c r i t i c i s e d t h e c a b i n e t a s ’’one o f t h e l e a s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h e a n n a ls o f A m erican p o l i t i c s . ” T ex as & t h e M exican War, 2 2 8 . 20 M o riso n and Commager, o p . c i t . , 1*83*

21 h w as i n e v i t a b l e . T h is argum ent* s a y t h e s e a u t h o r s , m akes no a llo w a n c e f o r t h e L a t i n d i s i n c l i n a t i o n t o ack n o w led g e a d i s a g r e e a b l e f a i t a c c o m p li. I f P o lk had b e e n c o n te n t w i th T e x a s , a n d so m e th in g b e s i d e s , t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o h ave i n i t i a t e d h o s t i l i t i e s ; a lth o u g h s h e a ck n o w le d g in g t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T ex^s t o

h ad n o t reach ed o u t f o r suppose- t h a t M exico w o u ld m ig h t lo n g h ave d e la y e d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , 21

P o lk , h o w e v er, w as s i m u lta n e o u s ly " p rim in g r e v o l t i n C a l i f o r n i a ,f and a tte m p tin g t o make a " b u s in e s s d e a l w i th a g o v ern m en t t h a t la c k e d a l l b u s i n e s s s e n s e . " "L ik e m ost n a t i o n s a t m ost t i m e s , " t h e U n ite d S t a t e s h a d c la im s on M exico: A f t e r t h r e e i n s t a l m e n t s M exico su sp e n d e d p ay m en t — a s s e v e r a l s t a t e s o f t h e U nion h a d done on t h e i r b o n d s — b u t d i d n o t r e p u ­ d i a t e t h e d e b t , l i k e M ic h ig a n , M i s s i s s i p p i , a n d o u r a s s o c i a t e s i n t h e W orld W ar. T orn b y c i v i l d i s s e n s i o n a n d v i r t u a l l y b a n k r u p t, M exico c o u ld n o t p a y a t t h a t tim e , a s P r e s i d e n t P o lk knev/ a n d a d ­ m itte d .^ M o riso n a n d Commager do n o t t h i n k t h a t P o lk was i n s i n c e r e i n s e n d in g a " m i n i s t e r 11 i n s t e a d o f a " c o m m is s io n e r" ; he w as s im p ly "contem p­ tu o u s o f d ip lo m a tic p r o c e d u r e , a n d i g n o r a n t o f t h e M exican c h a r a c t e r . "23 A f t e r t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e P a r e d e s r e v o l u t i o n o f D ecem ber, 18UE>> t h e g overnm ent w as " i n t h e h an d s o f a m i l i t a r y f a c t i o n t h a t w as s p o i l i n g f o r a f i g h t w i t h t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . " And P o lk d i d n ’t

" g iv e th em lo n g t o

w a i t . " He s e n t T a y lo r t o o ccu p y t h e l e f t bank o f t h e R io G ra n d e: T h e re b y t h e P r e s i d e n t a tte m p te d t o f o r c e t h e s o l u t i o n o f a boun­ d a r y c o n t r o v e r s y . T h a t i s t h e im p o r ta n t t h i n g . I t a l s o h a p p e n s t h a t h i s v ie w o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y w as w ro n g . 23

21 M o riso n a n d Commager, G row th o f th e A m erican R e p u b lic , I , lj.8i|.-f>* 22 I b i d . , I , l+8£. 23 I b i d . , I , U86.

215

T a y lo r m ounted h i s g u n s a g a i n s t M atam oros a n d b lo c k a d e d t h e r i v e r t o c u t o f f fo o d s u p p l i e s fro m t h a t town* Up t o t h i s tim e t h e P a r e d e s go v ern m en t had made no m i l i t a r y d i s p o s i t i o n t h r e a t e n i n g T e x a s; t h e " r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f o f f i c e w ere m aking t h e new g o v ern m en t m ore c a u t i o u s i n a c t i o n th a n i n sp e e c h ; b u t more th a n M exican c a u t i o n was now n e e d e d t o s to p P o l k , "21* M o riso n a n d Commager r e l a t e t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e c a b i n e t m e e tin g o f t h e m o rn in g o f May 9 an d o f t h e news o f t h e s k i r m is h r e a c h in g them t h a t e v e n in g and s a t i s f y i n g t h e s c r u p l e s o f B a n c r o f t a n d B u ch an an , Of t h e w h o le e p is o d e t h e a u th o r s say^ "The r e a l t r o u b l e was t h a t P o lk w a n te d much more th a n t h e R io G rande b o u n d a ry . H is e y e s w e re f i x e d on t h e P a c i f i c . "25 The s e m i - p r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n B e rn a rd DeVoto i n 1 9k3 b r o u g h t o u t an e m in e n tly r e a d a b l e a c c o u n t o f The Y ear o f D e c i s io n : 1811.6,, d e a l i n g p r i m a r i l y w ith t h e m ovements o f A m erican p e o p le i n t h a t y e a r b u t w ith i n c i s i v e p o r t r a i t s o f t h e men who w ere s h a p in g h i s t o r y on t h e g o v e rn ­ m e n ta l l e v e l . DeVoto s e t o u t t o w r i t e a l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y a n d h ad n o t e x p e c te d t o f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o go t o t h e s o u rc e m a t e r i a l b u t i n d e a l ­ in g w i t h t h e M exican War h e f o u n d t h e e x i s t i n g " a u t h o r i t i e s 11 in a d e q u a te . In a s ta te m e n t on b i b l i o g r a p h y DeVoto s t a t e s h i s o p in io n o f S m ith ! s w o rk : Any a g re e m e n t I n ju d g m e n t b e tw ee n w h at I s a y h e r e i n a n d w h a t J u s t i n S m ith s a y s in The War W ith M exico e i t h e r m eans a ju d g m e n t to o w e l l s u p p o r te d f o r anyone t o d o u b t o r e l s e i s c o i n c i d e n t a l . The

2l* M o riso n an d Commager, G row th o f t h e A m erican R e p u b lic , I , 1*87* 25 I b i d . , I , 1*87-8.

216 r e s e a r c h b e h in d P r o f e s s o r S m ith 1s book i s c e r t a i n l y one o f t h e m ost e x h a u s tiv e e v e r made b y an A m erican h i s t o r i a n , a n d i f i t came t o an i s s u e o f f a c t I s h o u ld p e r f o r c e have t o d i s r e g a r d my own f i n d i n g s an d a c c e p t h i s , B ut i t i s f r e q u e n t l y — v e r y f r e q u e n t l y — a l t o g e t h e r im p o s s ib le t o u n d e r s ta n d how S m i th 's c o n c l u s io n s c o u ld e x i s t i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f f a c t s w h ic h he h im s e lf p r e s e n t s . I f t h e r e i s a m o re co n ­ s i s t e n t l y w ro n g h e ad e d book i n o u r h i s t o r y , o r one w h ic h so f r e e l y c i t e s f a c t s i n s u p p o r t o f ju d g m e n ts w h ic h t h o s e f a c t s c o n t r o v e r t , I h a v e n o t e n c o u n te r e d i t . 26 DeVoto i s n o ta b ly - In d e p e n d e n t i n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d i n h i s p o r t r a y a l o f t h e p a g e a n t o f l8 i|6 h e owes l i t t l e

to e a r l i e r tre a tm e n ts .

I n a n sw e rin g t h e " d e r i s i o n ” — "Who i s Jam es K. P o lk ? " , DeVoto d raw s h is p ic tu r e o f th e P re s id e n t:: P o lk h ad come up t h e l a d d e r , he w a s an o r th o d o x p a r t y D e m o c ra t. . • . B ut so m etim es t h e b e l t l i n e s h a p e s an i n s t r u m e n t o f p r e c i s i o n . P o l k ’ s m ind was r i g i d , n a rro w , o b s t i n a t e , f a r fro m f i r s t - r a t e . He s i n c e r e l y b e l i e v e d t h a t o n ly D em o crats we.re t r u l y A m e ric a n , W higs b e in g e i t h e r t h e d upes o r p e n s i o n e r s o f E n g la n d — . . . . He was pom pous, s u s p i c i o u s , an d s e c r e t i v e ; he h ad no hum or; he c o u ld be v i n d i c t i v e ; and he saw sp o o k s an d v i l l a i n s . . . . B ut i f h i s m ind w as n a rro w i t w as a l s o p o w e r f u l an d he h a d g u t s . I f he was o r th o d o x , h i s i n t e g r i t y was a b s o l u t e a n d h e c o u ld n o t b e s c a r e d , m a n ip u la te d , o r b r o u g h t t o h e e l . No one b l u f f e d him , no one moved him w i t h d i r e c t o r o b liq u e p r e s s u r e . F u r th e r m o r e , h e knew how t o g e t t h i n g s d o n e , w h ich i s th e f i r s t n e c e s s i t y o f g o v e rn m e n t, an d he knew w h at he w a n te d d o n e , w h ic h i s t h e s e c o n d . He came i n t o o f ­ f i c e w ith c l e a r id e a s a n d a f i x e d d e te r m i n a t i o n . . . . He was t o f i x t h e m old o f th e f u t u r e i n A m erica down t o i8 6 0 , a n d t h e r e f o r e f o r a lo n g tim e a f t e r w a r d . T h a t i s who Jam es K. P o lk w a s .27 E lse w h e re DeVoto ‘ i n d i c a t e s t h a t P o lk was n o t so much t h e "m o u ld er" o f t h e f u t u r e a s t h e i n s tr u m e n t by w h ic h t h e d o m in a n t e x p a n s i o n i s t f o r c e s o f t h e " R o a rin g F o r t i e s " a c h ie v e d t h e i r realization. 28 i n d e t a i l i n g t h e s t e p s by w h ic h P o lk a c h ie v e d t h a t e x p a n s io n DeVoto e x p r e s s e s l i t t l e

26 D eV oto, Y ear o f D e c is i o n , $10. 27 I b i d . , 7 - 8 . 28 I b i d . , 2 0 .

ad-

217 m ira tio n . I n o r d e r in g T a y lo r t o t h e d i s p u t e d a r e a P o lk ’ s i n t e n t i o n was c le a r:

nt h i s w as a show o f f o r c e in te n d e d t o g iv e t h e M ex ic a n s a s e n s e

o f r e a l i t y i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f v a r i o u s m a t t e r s h e n ow I n te n d e d t o ta k e u p , among them t h e p u rc h a s e o f C a l i f o r n i a . ”29 I t w a s, i n P o l k ’ s m in d , a V

show o f f o r c e , a p r o t e c t i v e o c c u p a tio n , b u t n o t an i n v a s i o n . He d i d n o t t h i n k o f a p r o t e c t i v e o c c u p a tio n a s w a r. "He t h o u g h t c l e a r l y a b o u t many t h i n g s b u t n e v e r a b o u t w a r . 1130 P o l k ’ s b a s i c d r i v e , s a y s D eV oto, w as t o a c q u ir e C a l i f o r n i a : P o l k ’ s a t t i t u d e s an d m o tiv e s a r e c l e a r . H is p o l i c y , th o u g h n o t f a r s i g h t e d n o r i n t e l l i g e n t l y s t a t e s m a n l i k e , i s e q u a l l y c l e a r . He w a n te d C a l i f o r n i a . He w o u ld go t o w a r f o r i t i f n e c e s s a r y b u t , i n O c to b e r , ’U5, b e l i e v e d t h a t he w ould n o t h av e t o . He t h o u g h t he c o u ld buy i t ; i f he c o u ld n o t b u y i t , he w ould g e t i t b y i n f l u e n c e — b y fo m e n tin g a r e v o l u t i o n i n a p r o v in c e known t o be r i p e f o r r e ­ v o l u t i o n , and th e n a t t a c h i n g i t b y t h e le v e r a g e o f common i n t e r e s t s . 31 When t h e show o f f o r c e f a i l e d t o p ro d u c e a d i s p o s i t i o n t o n e g o ­ t i a t e , P o lk c a l l e d h i s c a b i n e t an d p e r s u a d e d them t h a t i t was tim e t o d e c l a r e w ar a g a i n s t M exico. "He c o u l d t a l k a b o u t th e u n p a id A m erican c l a i m s , t h e f a i l u r e o f M exico t o ack n o w led g e t h e t r u e b o u n d a r ie s o f T e x a s , i t s r e f u s a l t o r e c e i v e Mr. S l i d e l l . "

" I t w o u ld h ave n e e d e d a

s tr o n g b e llo w s t o b lo w t h a t up t o w a r s i z e " b u t P o lk seem ed t o b e co n ­ f i d e n t o f h i s s u c c e s s w i t h C o n g re s s . He was n o t , h o w ev er, p u t t o t h e t e s t ; news came o f th e s k ir m is h on t h e R io G ra n d e : "So he w o u ld n o t c o m p le te

29 fifeVoto, Y e ar o f . D e c is io n , llw 30 I b i d . , 1 5 . 31 I b i d . ,

218 t h e s u b te r f u g e s o f h i s m e s s a g e .”32 DeVoto i s m ore c r i t i c a l o f P o lk f o r h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e g o v ern m en t d u r in g th e w a r. nThe i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s o f a n a rro w i n t e l l i ­ g e n c e , how ever f i r m , an d t h e h a n d ic a p o f h a b i t u a l s u s p i c i o n , how ever p a t r i o t i c , now made th e m s e lv e s f e l t on t h e d e s t i n i e s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t and. t h e n a t i o n . ” N e i t h e r t h e P r e s i d e n t n o r t h e n a t i o n w as up t o a w a r, sa y s D eV oto, an d h a d i t b e e n w aged a g a i n s t a pow er o f i n d u s t r i a l , m i l i ­ t a r y o r f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s e v e n r e m o te ly c o m p a ra b le t o o u r s i t w o u ld i n f a l l i b l y have b e e n l o s t . 33 " P o lk c o u ld n o t m easu re up t o th e n e e d s o f p u b l i c l e a d e r s h i p i n w a r - tim e . . . .

Udce w ar cam e, h i s m ind b u rn e d f i e r c e l y — w ith t h e f i r e

o f a s m a ll backw oods p a r t i s a n , ” P o lk th o u g h t w i t h a d m ira b le r e a l i s m a b o u t t a r i f f s , t h e t r e a s u r y an d t h e r o u t i n e o f d o m e s tic p o l i c y . He th o u g h t w it h a s t o n i s h i n g shrew d­ n e s s a b o u t th e n e c e s s a r y p o l i t i c a l m an eu v ers o f g o v e rn m e n t. B ut he th o u g h t b a d ly a b o u t w a r. He w as w i l l i n g t o make w a r on e i t h e r Eng­ la n d o r M exico, i f he s h o u l d h av e t o i n o r d e r to a c c o m p lis h h i s p u r ­ p o s e . . . . D e l i b e r a t e l y c a r r y i n g tw in t o r c h e s th r o u g h a pow der mag­ a z in e fro m M arch 1*, 181*5 t o May 13* 181*6, h e made no p r e p a r a t i o n f o r e i t h e r w a r. He h a d no u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w a r, i t s n e e d s , i t s p a t ­ t e r n s , o r i t s r e s u l t s . The t r u t h i s t h a t h e d i d n o t u n d e r s ta n d an y r e s u l t s e x c e p t im m e d ia te o n e s.3 U W in f ie ld S c o t t won t h e w a r , s a y s D eV oto, th o u g h " h a l f - b e t r a y e d ” b y t h e c o m m a n d e r- in -c h ie f.

"Jam es K. P o lk w a s, b y a w id e m a r g in , t h e

b i g g e s t man who h e ld t h e P r e s id e n c y b e tw e e n J a c k s o n a n d L in c o ln . . .

32 D eV oto, Y e ar o f D e c i s i o n , 185* 33 I b i d i , 1 9 7 , 1 9 9 .

3k I b i d . , 20 1 .

21 9 but

he w as n o t b ig eno u g h t o c o n d u c t a w a r . M35 P o lk w as a l s o u n a b le t o u n d e r s ta n d t h e g ro w in g i r r e p r e s s i b i l i t y

o f s la v e r y * and DeVoto f i n d s i n t h i s Mth e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h i s t i g h t * shrew d m in d . u As t h e new i s s u e b e g a n t o o v e r - r i d e a l l o th e r s *

nJam es K.

Polk* t h e l a s t man o f Y e ste rd a y * b e g a n t o f a d e i n t o t h e shadow o f a b an ­ doned u n r e a l i t i e s w here* a good* s m a ll man* h e h a s e x i s t e d e v e r s i n c e . 1136 I n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e s e h i s t o r i a n s t h e Smith-M cCormac i n ­ f lu e n c e i s n o t v e r y p o t e n t . I n a f i n a l g ro u p o f e v a l u a t i o n s o f r e c e n t . h i s t o r i a n s t h e r e i s v i r t u a l l y no t r a c e o f th o s e p r e s e n t a t i o n s by w h ich t h e w a r h a d b e e n j u s t i f i e d a n d t h e P r e s i d e n t made r e s p e c t a b l e .

35 DeVoto* Y e ar o f D e c is i o n * 1+67 36 I b i d .*

291* 1+78.

CHAPTER, X THE UNSCRUPULOUS INSTRUMENT OF MANIFEST DESTINY I n t h e q u a r t e r c e n t u r y s i n c e McCormac p u b lis h e d h i s b io g r a p h y v e ry l i t t l e

work on P o lk h a s b e e n p ro d u c e d w h ic h r e p r e s e n t s f r e s h i n ­

v e s t i g a t i o n s i n th e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l , R ic h a r d R , S te n b e r g , a p r o f e s s o r o f h i s t o r y i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A rk a n s a s , i n l$ 3 k a n d 1935 made a s tu d y o f P o lk an d t h e M exican q u e s t i o n w h ic h r e s t s i n p a r t on new m a t e r i a l an d i n p a r t on a c l o s e r e - e x a m in a t i o n o f w e ll-k n o w n d o c u m e n ts. I n a n e s s a y , " P r e s i d e n t P o lk an d th e A n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s ," S t e n b e rg r e - o p e n e d t h e " lo n g c o n t r o v e r t e d q u e s t i o n " c o n c e r n in g P o l k ’ s a l ­ le g e d p le d g e t o o f f e r a n n e x a tio n t o T ex as b y n e g o t i a t i o n i n l i e u o f th e more im m e d ia te m ethod o f t h e j o i n t - r e s d l u t i o n . S te n b e r g re m a rk s t h a t r e ­ c e n t w r i t e r s " w ith o u t e x c e p tio n h a v e a b s o lv e d P o lk o f s u c h com m itm ent . . . but

t h e y o v e r lo o k a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t o f t h e e v id e n c e — a p a r t

so u n f a v o r a b le t o t h e i r c o n c lu s io n a s t o i n v i t e r e v i e w . "1 S te n b e r g p r e s e n t s t h e te s t i m o n y o f t h o s e who a s s e r t e d t h a t P o lk h a d p e r s o n a l l y g iv e n th em a s s u r a n c e s o f h i s i n t e n t i o n t o a c t a c c o r d in g t o t h e B en to n am endm ent, e x a m in e s P o l k ’s p r o t e s t a t i o n s an d p e c u l i a r r e ­ f u s a l t o make a p u b l i c d e n i a l o f th e c h a r g e s , a n d c o n c lu d e s t h a t i t i s t h e w o rd o f B l a i r , T appan a n d B en to n a g a i n s t t h a t o f P o lk . I t b e in g th e n a q u e s t i o n o f i n t e g r i t y , S te n b e r g f i n d s i t q u e e r t o assum e P o l k 's h o n e s ty o v e r th e s e v e r a l a c c u s e r s , s i n c e t h e - P r e s i d e n t 1s h o n e s ty " h a s b e e n much

1 S te n b e r g , S o u th w e s te r n S o c i a l S c ie n c e Q u a r t e r l y , l i t : 3 3 3 , M arch,

1931*.

q u e s ti o n e d a n d i s

s u s p e c t , t o s a y t h e l e a s t * "2 He q u o t e 's P o l k ’s a s s e r ­

t i o n t h a t i f T exas w e re n o t a c q u ir e d im m e d ia te ly sh e w o u ld be l o s t t o t h e U n io n , a n d c o n c lu d e s t h a t P o lk , h a b i t u a l l y s e c r e t i v e and " d i s h o n e s t , " d e l i b e r a t e l y m is le a d t h e B en to n g ro u p . I n 1935 th e P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l R eview p u b l is h e d an a r t i c l e b y S te n b e rg t i t l e d

"The F a i l u r e o f P o l k ’ s War I n t r i g u e o f 181±5." S te n b e rg

i n t r o d u c e s h i s a rg u m e n t b y re m a rk in g t h a t h i s t o r y h a d lo n g a c c e p te d t h e t h e s i s t h a t P o lk v e r y d e l i b e r a t e l y made w a r on M exico i n a c a l c u l a t e d move to s e i z e t h e b o r d e r la n d s s o u th an d w e s t t o t h e P a c i f i c * L a t e l y , he s a y s , G. L . R iv e s and J . H. S m ith , " a d d in g no s a l i e n t f a c t s t o th o s e a l r e a d y k n o w n ,” h av e p r e s e n t e d " p e a c e a b le P o l k . ” M any r e f u s e t o a c c e p t t h i s r e v i s i o n , S te n b e r g a s s e r t s , a n d t h o s e who do h av e n o t e x am in ed P o l k ’s a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e e a r l y h a l f o f 18U5 w ith s u f f i c i e n t c a r e . T h is n e g l e c t o f t h e e a r l y h a l f o f 181;5 seem s an o v e r s i g h t o f some moment, w ith o u t w hich i t w o u ld h a v e b e e n im p o s s ib le t o v ie w P o lk a s s c u r p u lo u s and p e a c e a b l e . 3 The t h e s i s o f S t e n b e r g 1s p a p e r i s t h a t P o lk t r i e d t o p e r s u a d e t h e gov ern m en t o f T exas t o " m a n u fa c tu re " a w a r w i th M exico so t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w ould b e s a v e d fro m th e . o nus o f p r o v o k in g a c o n f l i c t t y w h ic h i t c o u ld ex p an d a t t h e e x p e n s e o f i t s n e ig h b o r . The m ain b o d y o f o f e v id e n c e f o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r e s t s upon Anson J o n e s , t h e P r e s i d e n t o f th e R e p u b lic o f T exas d u r in g t h i s y e a r . I n h i s M emoranda, p u b li s h e d

.

19311

2 S te n b e r g , S o u th w e s te r n S o c i a l S c ie n c e Q u a r t e r l y , lU :3 3 8 , M arch,

;

3 S te n b e r g , P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l R ev iew , k:hO> J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 5 *

222 i n 1 8 5 5 , J o n e s made t h i s c h a r g e d i r e c t l y . B ut J o n e s h a d a tte m p te d t o m a in ta in T ex as a s in in d e p e n d e n t r e p u b l i c , h a d l o s t p u b l i c f a v o r d u rin g t h e l a s t m onths o f h i s incu m b en cy an d h ad s u f f e r e d f i n a n c i a l r e v e r s e s im m e d ia te ly t h e r e a f t e r a n d h i s t o r i a n s h a d n o t p l a c e d much c o n f id e n c e i n h i s te s tim o n y . S te n b e r g u n d e r ta k e s t o e s t a b l i s h th e c o r r e c t n e s s o f J o n e s 1 c h a r g e s an d t o v i n d i c a t e h i s h o n e s ty . I n h i s o p in io n J o n e s vras a c o n s c i e n t i o u s and h o n e s t man: " T h is i s t h e im p r e s s io n o f T ex as h i s t o r i a n s g e n e r a l l y . ” P o l k ’ s a p o l o g i s t s , he p o i n t s o u t , h av e h a d t o assum e g r o s s d is h o n e s t y i n J o n e s t o a v o id a c c e p t i n g h i s a s s e r t i o n s . S te n b e r g a s s e r t s t h a t t h e y have done so s im p ly on t h e g ro u n d s t h a t J o n e s ’ v e r s i o n o f P o l k ’ s a c t i ­ v i t i e s in 18U5 I s i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith P o l k ’ s " p e a c e a b le ” S l i d e l l m is s i o n . I t i s th u s an a s s u m p tio n u t t e r l y w ith o u t p r o o f an d r e s t s e n t i r e l y on a s s u m p tiv e r e a s o n i n g .^ S te n b e rg s a y s t h a t P o l e ’s aim s w ere s u c h t h a t o n ly w ar c o u ld f u l f i l them ; " f o r i t w as im p o s s ib le t o su p p o se t h a t M exico w o u ld w i l l i n g ­ l y dism em ber i t s e l f . ” P o lk n e i t h e r I n te n d e d n o r e x p e c te d t h e S l i d e l l m is s io n t o b e s u c c e s s f u l^ i t w as a m aneuver t o j u s t i f y a d e c l a r a t i o n o f w ar a g a i n s t M exico*5 S te n b e rg th e n p r e s e n t s J o n e s ’ a c c o u n t o f t h e i n t r i g u e o f May, 18U5* G e n e ra l Sherm an o f t h e Tgxas m i l i t i a an d D r. W rig h t, s u rg e o n o f t h e P r in c e to n an d s e c r e t a r y t o Commodore S to c k to n , commander o f t h a t

1* S te n b e r g , P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l R ev iew , 5 I b i d . , U2, k3>.

J a n u a r y , 1935*

223 U n ite d S t a t e s w a r s h ip , v i s i t e d t h e P r e s i d e n t o f T ex as an d t r i e d t o s e ­ c u r e h i s c o - o p e r a t i o n i n a n - a t t a c k upon M atam oros* They c o n f id e d t h a t t h e y w e re a c t i n g u n d e r i n d i r e c t o r d e r s by t h e P r e s i d e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . J o n e s , i n r e l a t i n g t h e a f f a i r , s a y s t h a t h e knew fro m T exan a g e n ts in W ash in g to n t h a t P o lk w as d e te r m in e d t o h a v e a w ar w i th M exico. 6 I n s u p p o r t o f J o n e s 1 te s t im o n y S te n b e r g c i t e s t h e d e s p a tc h o f Ju n e 1 5 , B uchanan t o D o n e lso n , t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a g e n t i n T e x a s : I s h a l l p ro c e e d t o p r e s e n t t o y o u th e v ie w s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t upon t h e s u b j e c t . T h ere a r e many r e a s o n s why i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t h a t T exas h e r s e l f s h o u ld d r i v e t h e i n t r u d e r s fro m h e r t e r r i t o r y . . . . The e x p e n s e s o f su c h an e x p e d i t i o n m ust e v e n t u a l l y be b o rn e b y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . And S te n b e rg s a y s , i n mock w o n d e r: " I t i s s t r a n g e t h a t P o lk ’ s a p o l o g i s t s s h o u ld have o v e r lo o k e d t h i s e x p r e s s i o n o f P o l k ’ s w is h e s , w h ich i s so e x p l i c i t . "7 S te n b e rg th e n , n a r r a t e s t h e s u b s e q u e n t e v e n ts i n P o l k ’ s h a n d lin g o f t h e M exican p ro b le m t o show t h a t t h e a c c e p ta n c e o f J o n e s ’ a s s e r t i o n s i s n o t r u l e d o u t b y i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . He q u o te s fro m t h e W ash in g to n U n io n , P o l k ’s o r g a n , Ju n e 2 , l81j.5, a n e d i t o r i a l a s s e r t i o n t h a t Gen­ e r a l A r i s t a i s ta k in g p o s s e s s i o n o f a l a r g e a r e a e a s t o f t h e R io G rande an d w a rn in g t h a t m ere o c c u p a n c y o f t h i s a r e a b y t h e M ex ican s w i l l h av e no w e ig h t i n d e te r m in in g th e b o u n d a ry . T h is an d a b u n d a n t o t h e r e v id e n c e shows b ey o n d d o u b t t h a t P o lk was q u i t e aw are, t h a t t h e M ex ican s m e re ly p la n n e d t o m a in ta in t h e i r c la im t o t h e " d is p u te d " t e r r i t o r y t o w h ic h t h e y h ad e v e r y r i g h t —

6 S t e n b e r g , P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l R e v ie w , 7 I b id ., 58.

Ja n u ary ,

1935-

221+

t h a t t h e r e was no i n t e n t i o n t o in v a d e T ex as p r o p e r . T h e re i s a n e v i d e n t h y p o c r is y i n P o l k 's a t t i t u d e to w a rd t h e b o u n d a ry q u e s t i o n w h ich P o l k 's a p o l o g i s t s have t r i e d i n v a in t o .ig n o re o r r e a d aw ay, and w h ich c a n n o t e a s i l y be r e c o n c i l e d w i t h h i s assu m ed p e a c e a b le ­ n e s s to w a rd s Mexico.8 ■A f t e r f a i l i n g w i t h J o n e s , a c c o r d in g t o S te n b e r g , P o lk c o n tin u e d t o t r y t o p ro v o k e h o s t i l i t i e s w it h M ex ico , now e n d e a v o rin g t o make Gen­ e r a l T a y lo r t h e s c a p e - g o a t . A l l th r o u g h t h e summer an d autum n o f 181+5 T a y lo r was s u b t l y e n ­ c o u ra g e d , b u t n o t e x p l i c i t l y o r d e r e d , t o m arch t o th e R io G rande an d o c cu p y " th e w hole o f T e x a s ." The i n s t r u c t i o n s s e n t him b y S ec­ r e t a r y o f War M arcy w e re m a s t e r p i e c e s o f t h a t c u n n in g , d e v io u s ­ n e s s and u n d e rh a n d e d n e s s w h ich c h a r a c t e r i z e d P o lk , w hose p o l i c y i t was n e v e r t o assum e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r u n s c r u p u lo u s o r i n v i d i o u s a c t s he w a n te d done i f he c o u ld s h i f t i t t o some c a ts - p a w .9 I n s u p p o r t o f t h i s c h a r g e S te n b e rg q u o te s th e d i s p a t c h o f M arcy t o T a y lo r , J u l y 3 0 , 181+5: The R io G rande i s c la im e d t o b e th e b o u n d a ry . . . a n d up t o t h i s you a r e t o e x te n d y o u r p o s i t i o n , o n ly e x c e p t in g a n y p o s t s on t h e e a s t e r n s i d e t h e r e o f , w h ic h a r e in t h e a c t u a l o c c u p a n c y o f M exican f o r c e s . . . . I t i s e x p e c te d t h a t you w i l l a p p ro a c h a s n e a r t h e b o u n d a ry l i n e — t h e R io G rande — a s p ru d e n c e w i l l d i c t a t e . . . • The P r e s i d e n t d e s i r e s t h a t y o u r p o s i t i o n • . • s h o u ld be n e a r t h e r i v e r N u e c e s *10 T h u s, s a y s S te n b e r g , T a y lo r a p p e a r s t o be o r d e r e d t o move t o t h e R io G ra n d e . B ut t h e s a v in g w o rd s a t t h e e n d , " w h o lly i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith w hat p r e c e d e d ," a r e m eant t o c o v e r P o lk a n d l a y t h e blam e f o r t h e e x ­ p e c te d h o s t i l i t i e s upon G e n e ra l T a y lo r . " P o l k 's a p o l o g i s t s , " s a y s S £ e n b e r g , "have b e e n l o a t h t o p e r c e i v e in T a y l o r 's i n s t r u c t i o n s t h i s i n s i d -

8 S te n b e r g , P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l R eview , 1+:3>Q-1, J a n u a r y , 1935* 9 I b i d . , 65* 10 I b i d . , 6 6 .

225 uous c h a r a c t e r w h ic h i s n e v e r t h e l e s s u n m i s t a k a b l e . 11H S te n b e r g f i n d s e v id e n c e i n t h e d i a r y t h a t P o lk f u l l y in t e n d e d an d e x p e c te d T a y l o r ’s a d v a n c e t o r e s u l t i n w a r. B e fo re th e i s s u a n c e o f t h e w a r m essag e i n May o f I 8 I1.6 , P o lk m ore th a n once re m a rk s i n h i s D i a r y , w ith e v id e n t a n x i e t y an d c h a g r i n , t h a t h e h a s n o t h e a r d from t h e " f r o n t i e r , " w here he a n t i ­ c i p a t e s , u s in g , h i s own w o rd s , " a c o l l i s i o n b e tw e e n t h e A m erican an d M exican f o r c e s ” — i f c o u ld o n ly h e a r o f w h ic h , he s a y s , he w o u ld h e s i t a t e no l o n g e r , a n d s e n d a w ar m essa g e t o C o n g re s s 112 S te n b e r g t h e n sums up t h e e v id e n c e f o r h i s v ie w o f t h e P r e s i d e n t : Even b y m a g n ify in g t h e p r i v a t e c la im s — w h ic h c o u ld n o t be ta k e n s e r i o u s l y a s a c a u s e f o r a l a r g e an d c o s t l y w ar — t h e a p o l o g i s t s h a v e n o t b e e n a b le to make a v e r y p l a u s i b l e c a s e f o r " p e a c e a b le P o l k , ” f o r v a in i s t h e i r e n d e a v o r t o ig n o r e o r r e a d away P o l k ’s a g g r e s s i v e v ie w an d b e l l i g e r e n t h a n d lin g o f t h e T ex as b o u n d a ry q u e s t i o n , a m a t t e r i n w h ic h h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s p e r c e i v e d th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t k e y t o t h e M exican War an d i t s i n s t r u m e n t a l c a u s e . 13 The e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t a s draw n b y S te n b e r g i s a man so f e v e r i s h l y p o s s e s s e d b y t h e a g g r e s s i v e s p i r i t o f h i s c o u n try m e n a s t o b e u t t e r l y u n s c r u p u lo u s i n h i s m e th o d s. He was s e c r e t i v e , c u n n in g , d e v io u s , u n d e r­ h a n d e d , d i s h o n e s t an d i m p e r i a l i s t i c . Some o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s o f r e c e n t y e a r s h av e a l s o p i c t u r e d a P o lk v e ry l i t t l e

d i f f e r e n t in c h a r a c t e r fro m t h e o b j e c t o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ’ s

o p p o n e n ts d u r in g h i s te r m . D e x te r P e r k i n s , i n h i s s tu d y o f A m erican f o r e i g n p o l i c y , i s v e r y c r i t i c a l o f P o lk b u t , more th a n m ost h i s t o r i a n s

11 S te n b e r g , P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l R eview , 1±:66, J a n u a r y , 1935* 12 l b 1 **'a

13 I b i d . , 6 8 . S te n b e rg s t a t e s h i s i n t e n t i o n o f t r e a t i n g t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in more d e t a i l in a s tu d y w h ic h he "h as i n p r e p a r a t i o n : The R is e o f A m erican I m p e r ia lis m , 1787 — 1 8 5 0 ." n o t e , U3* I t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t h a t t h i s w ork h a s b e e n p u b li s h e d t o d a t e .

226 w hose w ork we h av e re v ie w e d i n t h i s s u r v e y , he p l a c e s t h e man i n h i s e n v id rn m e n t: T h e re c a n b e l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e p e r i o d o f t h e f o r t i e s was in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a p e r i o d o f r i s i n g n a t i o n a l i s m . To w h a t c a u s e s t h i s r a t h e r j i n g o i s t i c mood i s t o b e t r a c e d w o u ld b e an i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n . . . . I t m ig h t be t r a c e d t o econom ic f a c t o r s . . . . I t m ig h t be r e g a r d e d a s a n a t u r a l e x p r e s s io n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f a c t i o n an d r e a c t i o n i n t h e p s y c h o lo g y o f p e o p l e s .......................I t m ig h t be th o u g h t o f i n c o n n e c tio n w i t h t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s who p r e s i d e d o v e r A m erican f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n t h e e p o c h , t h e m i l i t a n t U p sh u r, t h e s t i l l m ore m i l i t a n t C a lh o u n , th e h a r d an d n a rro w P o lk h i m s e l f . I n In s p e a k in g o f P o l k ’ s s u s p i c i o n s o f G re a t B r i t a i n ’s d e s ig n s on C a l i f o r n i a P e r k in s s a y s i n s i m i l a r v e i n : The a c q u i s i t i v e i n s t i n c t o f t h e A m erican s o f t h e f o r t i e s seem s f r e ­ q u e n t l y t o have e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f i n d is m a l f o r e b o d in g s a n d d a r k im a g in in g s a s t o t h e w ic k e d n e s s o f o t h e r p o w e rs .3-5 P e r k i n s p i c t u r e s P o lk a s p e r f e c t l y r e f l e c t i n g th e m i l i t a n t te m p e r o f th e tim e ; he w as h a r d ,.n a r r o w a n d h u m o rle s s b u t p a t r i o t i c a n d co n ­ v in c e d o f t h e g r e a t n e s s o f A m erican I n s t i t u t i o n s an d o f A m e r ic a 's f u ­ t u r e . He was c e r t a i n l y n o t a g r e a t man, b u t he w as a s tr o n g man w ith d e f i n i t e v ie w s an d g r e a t t e n a c i t y i n c a r r y i n g th e m o u t . l 6 T h is n a rro w , p in c h e d , u n c o m m u n ic a tiv e , ’’h a r d ” a n d r e s o l u t e man d e te r m in e d " to w a r d s ” w a r. 17 P e r k i n s o b s e r v e s t h a t P o lk seem ed t o b e w i l l i n g t o come t o a s e t t l e m e n t w i t h M exico t h a t " m ig h t h a v e s a v e d t h a t c o u n tr y — a t l e a s t f o r th e tim e b e in g — fro m t h e l o s s e s t h a t i t t h e n i n c u r r e d . " B ut t h e o r d e r t o T a y lo r t o o c c u p y d i s p u t e d t e r r i t o r y was a

ll* P e r k i n s , The Monroe D o c tr in e (1 9 3 3 ) > 63*

1$ I b i d . , 7 7 -8 . 16 I b i d . , 81;-5, 8 7. 17 P e r k i n s , Hands O f f , A H is to r y o f t h e M onroe D o c tr in e ( 1 9 l ; l ) j 78; P e r k i n s , The E v o lu tio n o f A m erican F o r e ig n P o l i c y ( 1 9 h 8 ), 33*

227 " p r o v o c a tiv e a c t " j and T a y l o r ’ s c o n d u c t was i n t h e same s p i r i t . I n h i s " e x c e s s o f z e a l" t h e g e n e r a l e s t a b l i s h e d a r i v e r b lo c k a d e . Y/hen t h e M ex ican s c r o s s e d t h e r i v e r an d a s k ir m is h o c c u r r e d , P o lk " q u i t e i n a c c u r a t e l y " d e c l a r e d t h a t A m e ric an b lo o d h ad b e e n s h e d upon A m erican s o i l . 18 The w ork o f tw o s e m i - p r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s f a l l s i n t o t h i s g ro u p o f P o l k 's c r i t i c s . W. E. W oodward, in h i s New A m erican H i s t o r y , 1937y h as v e ry l i t t l e

t o s a y a b o u t P o lk b u t e x t e n s i v e r e f l e c t i o n s upon

h i s p o l i c i e s . Yfoodward h a s no u s e f o r t h e d e l i c a t e an d com plex argum en­ t a t i o n b y w h ic h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e M exican War h a d b e e n r e v i s e d . "The M exican W ar," s a y s Woodward, "was i n s t i g a t e d b y t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , and th e k e y t o t h e s i t u a t i o n w as n o t T ex as b u t C a l i f o r n i a . "19 The c h a u v i n i s t s a n d spokesm en f o r M a n if e s t D e s t i n y , i n C o n g re ss an d o u t o f C o n g re s s , c o n s id e r e d t h e a t t i t u d e o f th e M ex ican s u n re a s o n ­ a b le i n v ie w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y m ig h t h av e s e t t l e d t h e d i s p u t e r e a d i l y enough by g iv in g up a l l c la im t o T ex as a n d t u r n i n g o v e r C a l­ i f o r n i a t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . The s ta n d o f t h e M ex ican s re m in d s one o f a s e n te n c e from V o l t a i r e : "C et a n im a l e s t t r e s m e c h a n t. Quand on l ’a t t a q u e , i l s e d e f e n d . ”20 Many A m erican h i s t o r i a n s h a d g iv e n g r e a t a t t e n t i o n t o P o l k 's ex ­ p r e s s i o n o f a " r e - v i t a l i z e d " Monroe D o c t r i n e , b u t Woodward i s m ore i n ­ t e r e s t e d i n t h e e f f e c t o f P o l k 's d ip lo m a c y on t h e L a tin -A m e ric a n coun­ trie s : The M ex ican War s e t t l e d , once an d f o r a l l , t h e fac-e o f t h e Monroe D o c t r i n e , so f a r a s i t s p o p u l a r i t y among S p a n is h A m erican s w as c o n -

18 P e r k i n s , The E v o lu tio n o f A m erican F o r e ig n P o l i c y , 3l4--5» 19 W oodward, A New A m erican H i s t o r y , lj-38* 20 I b i d . , W a .

228 c e m e d . They h a d th o u g h t a l l a lo n g t h a t i t was n o th in g m ore t h a n a d e v ic e t o k e ep E u ro p ea n n a t i o n s o u t o f t h e S o jith A m erican c o u n t r i e s so t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s c o u ld c o n q u e r them a l l , a t i t s l e i s u r e , Now t h e y knew t h a t t h e w o r s t w as t r u e . From t h e R io G rande t o Cape H orn t h e fam ous d o c t r i n e d i d n o t have a f r i e n d . 2 1 Jam es T ru slo w Adams* E p ic o f A m e ric a , p u b lis h e d i n 1931* p ro v e d one o f t h e m ost p o p u la r b o o k s on A m erican h i s t o r y e v e r o f f e r e d t h e Amer­ i c a n p e o p le . P r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s m ig h t b e s t i m u l a t e d t o u n g e n e ro u s r e f l e c t i o n b y t h e m ass s a l e s i t a t t a i n e d b u t Adams* n a r r a t i v e com bined a l u c i d d e s c r i p t i v e pow er and a p e n e t r a t i n g c r i t i c i s m w ith a s h a r p c u t ­ t i n g e d g e . H is c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n a n d h i s t o r i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f Jam es K. P o lk i s v i v i d and p r e c i s e . E v ery o n e m ig h t a s k , b e w ild e r e d , "Who i s P o lk ? 11 b u t he s to o d f o r a p o l i c y o f w e s te r n e x p a n s io n and d e f e a t e d t h e b r i l l i a n t H enry C la y . T h e re was n o th in g b r i l l i a n t a b o u t P o lk . H is m ind w as i n t e n s e l y lim ­ i t e d i n i n t e r e s t s , a n d t h e r e i s no e v id e n c e t h a t h e knew o r c a r e d a n y th in g f o r h i s t o r y , l i t e r a t u r e , o r a r t , o r even f o r many o f t h e a m e n i tie s o f l i f e . . . . B ut a lth o u g h P o lk * s p e r s o n a l i t y was c o l o r ­ l e s s , i t was f a r f rom s p i n e l e s s . He c o u ld f o r m u la te a p o l i c y an d p u sh i t th r o u g h , an d th e p o l i c y h e c h o se a d d e d a h a l f m i l l i o n s q u a r e m ile s t o t h e n a t i o n a l d o m ain . I n h i s l a c k o f c u l t u r e a n d p e r s o n a l i t y , h i s n a rro w an d u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d m in d , h i s u n m o r a lity r a t h e r t h a n im­ m o r a l i t y , he t y p i f i e d t h e movement o f e x p a n s io n i t s e l f a s a n a t u r a l f o r c e . T h a t movement c o u ld o v e r r i d e t h e I n d ia n s w ith o u t g o v ern m en t f o r m a l i t i e s ; b u t , a lth o u g h s e t t l e r s m ig h t c a r e no more f o r a M exican t h a n f o r a Shaw nee, when t h e M ex ican b o r d e r s h o u ld be c r o s s e d , i n ­ t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p lic a ti o n s w o u ld e n s u e . I f M a n if e s t D e s tin y w ere t o r e a c h San F r a n c i s c o , i t w ould have t o do so v i a W a sh in g to n . I t h a d b e e n a m ass m ovem ent, b u t a t l a s t i t c o u ld a c t o n ly th r o u g h a n i n ­ d i v i d u a l . T h a t i s th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Jam es K. P o l k . 22 The n a t i o n was d e s i r o u s o f e x p a n d in g i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s a t o n c e . N o tin g t h a t P o lk s e c u r e d a b o u n d a ry i n O regon ^ h ig h ly f a v o r a b l e t o t h e

21 Woodward, A New A m erican H i s t o r y , l|i|.5>. 22 Adams, The E p ic o f A m e ric a , 2 2 8 . I

229 A m erican s i d e , " Adams s a y s t h a t P o lk , "who h a d n e i t h e r lo v e n o r f e a r o f E n g la n d an d who w as n e v e r d e t e r r e d b y s c r u p l e s o f a b s t r a c t r i g h t , " m ig h t have h e l d o u t f o r more h ad h e n o t w is h e d t o f r e e h i s h a n d s f o r l a r g e r game — C a l i f o r n i a . 23 Adams re m a rk s t h a t a lth o u g h M exico w ith d re w h e r m i n i s t e r a f t e r T ex as was a n n e x e d , sh e "h ad no i n t e n t i o n o f d e c l a r i n g w a r. War was n e c e s s a r y , h o w e v e r, f o r P o l k ’s p l a n s , and w ould h av e t o b e f o r c e d . " The P r e s i d e n t commenced l a y i n g m in e s . He s e t an i n t r i g u e i n m o tio n in C a l i f o r n i a an d t h e n t u r n e d t o c la im s o f somewhat " l e s s th a n f i v e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s w h ic h A m erican c i t i z e n s h ad a g a i n s t M exico f o r b o n d s , c o n c e s ­ s i o n s , and th e u s u a l odds a n d e n d s t h a t c an be e a s i l y a c c u m u la te d f o r su c h a p u r p o s e ." P o lk o f f e r e d t o assum e t h e s e i f M exico w o u ld ack n o w led g e t h e R io G rande a s t h e s o u th e r n b o u n d a ry o f T e x a s, a lth o u g h f o r a c e n tu r y t h a t b o u n d a ry had a lw a y s b e e n t h e N u eces R iv e r . He o f f e r e d a n o th e r fiv e m illio n f o r New M ex ico , an d s t a t e d , l i k e a c o r p o r a t i o n la w y e r b u i l d i n g up a m e rg e r o f c o m p e tin g p l a n t s , t h a t "money w o u ld b e no " o b j e c t " i f M exico w o u ld s e l l u s C a l i f o r n i a . 2b Of c o u rs e a c c e p te d s u c h an

no M exican g o v ern m en t c o u ld s ta n d f o r

a momenti f i t

o f f e r . The m aking o f i t w as a n i n s u l t t o t h e i r p r i d e ,

"a q u a l i t y w h ich t h e E x p a n s io n is ts f e l t t h e M ex ican s h a d no r i g h t t o p o s s e s s . " And P o lk i n s i s t e d on a c c r e d i t i n g h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a s Min­ i s t e r i n s p i t e o f th e d i p l o m a t i c a l l y c o r r e c t i n s i s t e n c e o f t h e M exican g o v e rn m e n t. S l i d e l l w as r e f u s e d an d P o lk o r d e r e d T a y lo r t o t h e R io G ran d e•

23 Adams, E p ic o f A m e ric a , 229* 2l> I b i d . , 2 2 9 -3 0 .

230 M exican t e r r i t o r y h a d now b e e n in v a d e d by o u r arm ed f o r c e s *

says

Adams* b u t ev en y e t sh e o f f e r e d t o n e g o t i a t e th e d i f f e r e n c e s . T a y lo r how ever* " a t ta c k e d " M atam oros a n d a s m a ll bod y o f M ex ican s c r o s s e d th e r i v e r an d had a s k ir m is h w ith him . A f o r t n i g h t l a t e r P o lk s e n t a m essage t o C o n g re ss a s k in g f o r a d e c l a r a t i o n o f w ar on t h e g ro u n d t h a t o u r p a t i e n c e Yiras e x h a u s te d ; t h a t M exico h a d in v a d e d o u r t e r r i t o r i e s ; an d t h a t s h e h ad sh e d A m erican b lo o d on A m erican s o i l * a lth o u g h t h e t i t l e t o t h e s o i l was so u n c e r t a i n t h a t P o lk h ad j u s t o f f e r e d t o p a y M exico f i v e m il­ l i o n s f o r i t . 25 The p lu n d e r o f C o rte s * s a y s Adams* p a le d i n c o m p a riso n t o t h e b o o ty a c q u ir e d b y th e t r e a t y t " M a n ife s t D e s tin y h a d ta k e n n e a r l y a q u a r­ t e r o f o u r c o n t i n e n t a l a r e a a t a g u lp . A few h u n d re d th o u s a n d I n d ia n s w ere m e re ly p e p p e r on th e m e a t .

"26

A r e c e n t one volum e h i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s i s o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i t p r e s e n t s o f t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a ­ t i o n a p p e a rs t o h ave some c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f h i s t o r y w h ic h th e a u th o r s p r o f e s s i n t h e fo rew o rd # Ray A lle n B illin g to n * , B e r t Jam es Loew enberg an d Sam uel Hugh B ro c k u n ie r i n 19h7 b ro u g h t ou t* The U n ite d S t a t e s * A m erican D em ocracy i n W orld P e r s p e c t i v e . They s t a t e t h a t t h e book i s d e d i c a t e d t o " fu n d a ­ m e n ta l d e m o c r a tic and humane v a l u e s " ; t h e y " b e l i e v e t h a t h i s t o r i a n s h av e a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e s h a p in g o f a p e a c e f u l f u t u r e . " The h i s -

25 Adams* E p ic o f A m e ric a * 2 3 0 . 26 I b i d . * 230.

t o r y o f e a c h n a tio n m u s t b e r e w r i t t e n t o g e t away fro m t h e i n s i s t e n t a c c e n t on " n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r *

n a t i o n a l p ro b le m s* n a t i o n a l s p i r i t . " The

c e n t r a l them e m ust be Man. T h ese h i s t o r i a n s u n d e r ta k e th e t a s k o f t e l l in g " t h e A m erican s t o r y a s t h e s t o r y o f man i n A m e ric a ." T h is a p p ro ach * th e y p o i n t out* " i l l u m i n e s A m erican f a i l u r e s a s w e l l a s s u c c e s s e s ." "A m erican h i s t o r i a n s do n o t assum e t h a t t h e i r own n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e i s n e c e s s a r i l y a y a r d s t i c k f o r c i v i l i z e d a c h ie v e m e n t. '.'2 ? B i l l i n g t o n c a r r y s t h e s t o r y th r o u g h t h e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n an d h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c r i t i c a l o f t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t d ip lo m a c y . In t h e O regon d i s p u t e P o lk g o t h i m s e l f i n a d ile m n a fro m w h ic h he was e x t r i ­ c a t e d b y t h e B r i t i s h when t h e y s e i z e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y

p r o v id e d b y th e

r e t r e a t o f t h e H u d s o n 's Bay Company t o " e s t a b l i s h a p e a c e f u l r e p u t a t i o n . B i l l i n g t o n f i n d s t h a t b o th M exico an d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s s t a r t e d g i r d i n g th e m s e lv e s f o r w ar a f t e r M exico b ro k e o f f d ip lo m a t ic r e l a t i o n s : P o l k 's t e r r i t o r i a l a m b itio n s p r e c lu d e d a p e a c e f u l s e ttle m e n t* f o r he was d e te r m in e d n o t o n ly t o k eep T ex as b u t t o a d d New M exico an d C a l i f o r n i a t o t h e U nion b y f a i r m e an s* o r f o u l . 29 He sowed s e e d s o f r e b e l l i o n i n C a l i f o r n i a w h ile h o ld in g o u t an o l i v e b ra n c h t o M exico b y o f f e r i n g t o b u y h e r n o r t h e r n p r o v i n c e s . When t h i s f a i l e d P o lk d e c id e d t h e tim e had come t o a c t . "A b o u n d a ry d i s p u t e p r o v id e d t h e e x c u s e ." P o lk p r e te n d e d t o ta k e T e x a s ' " e x t r a v a g a n t claim * n o t j u s t i f i e d b y f a c t s * " s e r i o u s l y * a n d o r d e r e d T a y lo r t o t h e R io G rande

27 B i l l i n g t o n * e t . a l . * The U n ite d S t a t e s * v - v i i . 28 I b i d .* 2 0 2 -3 . 29 I b i d . , 203.

232 T h e re th e y cam ped w h ile t e n s i o n m o u n ted , e a c h s i d e w a i t i n g f o r t h e o t h e r t o s t r i k e t h e f i r s t b lo w . P o lk w eakened f i r s t . On A p r i l 25* 181;6, he b eg an w o rk in g on a m essag e t o C o n g re ss u r g in g w a r. • • On May 9 • • • |a t t h e c a b i n e t m e e tin g ! a l l b u t one a g r e e d t h a t t h e g r ie v a n c e s w e re s u f f i c i e n t t o j u s t i f y w a r; t h i s d i s s e n t e r h e ld t h a t t h e U n ite d S t a t e s s h o u ld w a i t u n t i l M exico c o m m itte d a h o s t i l e a c t . T h a t n i g h t e a g e r l y a w a ite d d i s p a t c h e s from G e n e ra l T a y lo r b r o u g h t w elcom e new s; on A p r i l 25 & M ex ican f o r c e h a d c r o s s e d t h e R io G ra n d e, s k ir m is h e d w ith t h e A m erican t r o o p s , an d r e t i r e d a g a in . The P r e s i d e n t was o v e r jo y e d . H is m essag e was im m e d ia te ly r e w r i t t e n t o make i t seem t h a t t h i s a t t a c k was s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e w a r . 3 0 T h is p r e s e n t a t i o n ”i l l u m i n e s ” i n a n y c a s e , a f a i l u r e o f A m erican p r e s i d e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r and p r e s e n t s an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P o l k ’ s f o r e i g n p o l i c y f u n d a m e n ta lly o p p o se d t o t h e r e v i s i o n i s t e x p l a n a t i o n s o f many p ro m in e n t A m erican h i s t o r i a n s fro m G a r r is o n t o t h e p r e s e n t . The p r e c e d in g e i g h t c h a p t e r s h ave t r a c e d th e P o lk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n th r o u g h a c e n t u r y o f A m erican h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g . S t a r t i n g w i th a g e n ­ e r a l a g re e m e n t i n condem ning P o lk , b o th f o r h i s a g g r e s s i v e c o n d u c t o f A m erican f o r e i g n p o l i c y a n d f o r t he a s s e r t e d l y d i s r e p u t a b l e d i s t o r t i o n s and e v a s io n s w h ic h c h a r a c t e r i z e d h i s c o n d u c t o f h i s h ig h o f f i c e , we h av e se e n e f f o r t s made t o r e s c u e h i s r e p u t a t i o n w h ic h have won t h e a c c e p ta n c e o f a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o f e s s i o n . B ut one h u n d re d y e a r s a f t e r th e e v e n t t h e r e i s w id e d is a g r e e m e n t i n r e g a r d t o P o l k ’s h a n d lin g o f t h e M exican q u e s t i o n an d h i s s t a t u r e i n A m erican h i s t o r y .

30 B illin g to n , e t . a l . , The United S ta t e s , 20U*

CHAPTER XI PRESIDENT POLK AND CITIZEN-HISTORIANS The r e s u l t s o f a p r e s i d e n t i a l r a t i n g p o l l by f i f t y - f i v e

" o u t­

s ta n d in g a u t h o r i t i e s i n A m erican h i s t o r y " w ere p r e s e n t e d i n t h e Novem­ b e r 1* 19U8 i s s u e o f L i f e m ag azin e i n - p o p u l a r fo rm an d a few m onths l a t e r A r th u r M e ir S c h l e s i n g e r , t h e h i s t o r i a n who c o n d u c te d t h e p o l l , made a more s c h o l a r l y f o r m u l a t io n i n a c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l e s s a y s . Of t h e tw e n ty - n in e P r e s i d e n t s r a t e d , s i x w ere c l a s s i f i e d a s G r e a t, f o u r a s N e a r G r e a t , e le v e n a s A v e ra g e , s i x Below A v erag e an d tw o a s F a i l u r e s . Those r e c e i v i n g th e a c c o la d e o f G r e a t w ere L i n c o ln , W a s h in g to n , F r a n k l i n D. R o o s e v e lt, T fils o n , J e f f e r s o n a n d J a c k s o n , i n t h a t d e s c e n d in g o r d e r . The f o u r t o a c h ie v e t h e N e ar G re a t r a t i n g w ere T h eo d o re R o o s e v e lt, G ro v e r C l e v e l a n d , . Jo h n Adams a n d Jam es K. P o l k . l S c h l e s i n g e r re m a rk s t h a t " P o lk ’ s name i n t h i s g ro u p w i l l p r o b a b ly e x c i t e p r i n c i p a l w o n d e r, f o r he i s u n d e s e r v e d ly one o f t h e f o r g o t t e n men o f A m erican

h i s t o r y . "2

H is p o s i t i o n i n A m erican h i s t o r y , s a y s S c h l e s i n g e r ,

has been u n ju s tly n e g le c te d . H is r e c o r d i n t h e W hite House was an e x c e p t i o n a l o n e . A c o l d l y p r a c ­ t i c a l an d m e th o d ic a l man, P o lk s e t h i m s e lf c e r t a i n p r e c i s e o b j e c t i v e s t o be a c h ie v e d w h ile he w as P r e s i d e n t , a n d a c h ie v e th em he d i d d u r in g

1 The h i s t o r i a n s g av e P o lk tw o v o t e s a s G r e a t , tw e n ty - s e v e n a s N e a r G r e a t , tw e n ty -o n e a s A v e rag e and f i v e a s Below A v e ra g e . L e t t e r o f S c h l e s i n g e r t o t h e w r i t e r , S e p te m b e r 2 9 , 1914-9. 2 S c h l e s i n g e r , "A Y a r d s t i c k f o r P r e s i d e n t s , " P a th s t o t h e P r e s e n t , 97.

23k

h i s s i n g l e te rm of- o f f i c e fro m l8l;5>-ii-9* He lo w e re d t h e t a r i f f , r e - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e in d e p e n d e n t t r e a s u r y sy ste m f o r p u b l i c fu n d s a n d c o m p le te d t h e w e stw a rd e x p a n s io n o f t h e c o u n tr y . To g e t O regon an d W ash in g to n he r i s k e d t h e t h r e a t o f w ar w it h G re a t B r i t a i n . And h e d id go t o w ar w ith M exico t o a c q u i r e C a l i f o r n i a a n d m o st o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o f th e p r e s e n t s t a t e s o f t h e S o u th w e s t.3 The " a u t h o r i t i e s 11 c a s t t h e i r v o t e s w ith o u t an y a g re e m e n t on a s im ila r c r i t e r i a f o r r a t i n g th e P r e s id e n ts and th e b a s is u se d ty th e i n d i v i d u a l r a t e r s w ere q u i t e v a r i e d .U But i n p r e s e n t i n g t h e r e s u l t s S c h l e s i n g e r g iv e s a c lu e t o h i s own c r i t e r i a i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m e r i t s o f t h e " G re a t" P r e s i d e n t s . He q u o te s F r a n k l i n R o o s e v e l t ’ s p h r a s e d e s c r i b i n g th e p r e s i d e n c y a s " p r e - e m in e n tl y a p la c e o f m o ra l l e a d e r s h i p , " and a s s e r t s t h a t i t w as t h e e x e r c i s e o f m o ra l l e a d e r s h i p t h a t won t h e s e men t h e l a s t i n g r e g a r d o f p o s t e r i t y . 5 I t may b e c o n f i d e n t l y a ssu m e d , h o w ev er, t h a t S c h l e s i n g e r d id n o t su p p o se t h a t P o lk had b e e n e l e v a t e d t o n e a r - g r e a t n e s s on t h a t b a s i s . H i s t o r i a n s a r e u n a n im o u s ly a g r e e d t h a t P o lk w as n o t a b l y u n s u c c e s s f u l i n p r o v id i n g a n i n s p i r i n g l e a d e r s h i p . N o r, i t i s c l e a r , d i d S c h l e s i n g e r i n t e n d t o a p p ly t h e p h r a s e t o P o lk i n i t s e t h i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s . H is

19UB,

3 S c h l e s i n g e r , "The U n ite d S t a t e s P r e s i d e n t s , " L i f e , N ovem ber 1 , .

6 6

U The w r i t e r w ro te t o e a c h o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e p o l l e n ­ c l o s i n g a r e t u r n - a d d r e s s e d c a r d w i t h a fo rm t o f i l l i n s t a t i n g t h e i r r a t i n g o f P o lk , t h e f a c t o r s t h e y c o n s i d e r e d i n r a t i n g him an d t h e i r o p in io n o f J u s t i n S m ith ’ s f i x i n g o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e M exican W§r. The r e s p o n s e was a b o u t $ 0 %. The c r i t e r i a i n d i c a t e d w e re so d i v e r s e a s t o make t h e r e s u l t s m e a n in g le s s . Some h a d j u s t p la c e d t h e P r e s i d e n t s in n u m e r ic a l o r d e r w ith no th o u g h t o f i n d i c a t i n g " g r e a t n e s s . " Some had b e e n e x p r e s s in g a p p r o v a l o r d i s a p p r o v a l , some n o t . Some w ere r a t i n g th e man, some t h e h i s t o r i c a l im p o rta n c e o f e v e n ts d u r in g th e te rm , a s i d e fro m t h e man. 5 S c h l e s i n g e r , L i f e , Nov. 1 , 19U8, 73*

23S i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P o l k ’s f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n h i s e a r l i e r w ork h ad b e en v e r y c r i t i c a l an d i n an e s s a y on "The M a r t i a l S p i r i t " i n t h e volum e i n /

w h ic h he p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f th e p o l l he m ak es t h e a g g r e s s io n ev en more i n v i d i o u s , P o lk " p r e c i p i t a t e d h o s t i l i t i e s " by m a rc h in g t r o o p s i n t o a s t r i p o f la n d c la im e d by b o th c o u n t r i e s an d when t h e M exicans r e s i s ­ t e d b lam ed them f o r s t a r t i n g t h e f r a y .

6

S c h l e s i n g e r s t a t e s j u s t one b a s i s f o r P o l k 's h ig h r a t i n g among U n ite d S t a t e s P r e s i d e n t s : By c a r r y i n g t h e f l a g t o t h e P a c i f i c he g av e A m erica h e r c o n t i n ­ e n t a l b r e a d t h and e n s u r e d h e r f u t u r e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n th e w o r ld . . • . P o l k ’s a g g r e s s iv e c o u r s e to w a rd M exico o u tr a g e d m o r a l i s t s a t t h e tim e and s in c e * b u t no r e s p o n s i b l e p e r s o n h a s y e t p ro p o s e d t h a t h i s w ork b e u n d o n e .7 T h a t S c h le s i n g e r i s n o t u n a p p r e c i a t i v e o f t h e m e r i t s o f a p o l i c y o f p e a c e f u l diplom acy* how ever* i s shown by h i s j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f th e r a t i n g o f N e a r G re a t f o r Jo h n Adams. Adams’ c r e d e n t i a l s * in g e r*

s a y s S c h le s ­

" c o n s i s t l a r g e l y o f h i s a c h ie v e m e n t i n w it h s t a n d i n g h i s own p a r t y 's

demand f o r a f u l l - s c a l e w a r w i th F r a n c e " ; he n o t e s t h a t Adams w is h e d h i s e p i t a p h t o r e a d : "H ere l i e s Jo h n Adams who to o k upon h i m s e l f t h e p e a c e w i t h F ra n c e i n t h e y e a r

1800*"8

T h is s y s te m o f r a t i n g c a n n o t f a i l t o i n t r i g u e t h e r e a d e r . The c o n j e c t u r e p r e s e n t s i t s e l f t h a t h ad Adams c o n n iv e d t o b r i n g on a w ar

6 S c h le s in g e r *

"The M a r t i a l S p i r i t * " P a th s t o t h e P r e s e n t * 192.

7 S c h le s in g e r * s e n t* 9 7 - 8 .

"A Y a r d - S t ic k f o r P r e s i d e n t s * " P a th s t o th e P r e ­

8

I b i d . * 97*

236 w ith F r a n c e , i n s t e a d o f r e s i s t i n g t h e f e v e r o f h i s c o u n try m e n , and h a d th e U n ite d S t a t e s a c q u ir e d t h e L o u i s ia n a T e r r i t o r y a s t h e f r u i t s o f t h a t w ar (w h ic h i s n o t to o i n c o n c e iv a b le t o p r o h i b i t i t s u s e f o r t h i s h y p o t h e s i s ) , h e w o u ld have fo u n d h i s n ic h e i n g r e a t n e s s e q u a l l y s e c u r e i n t h e h a n d s o f h i s n a t i o n ’ s h i s t o r i a n s . J e f f e r s o n , h o w ev er, w o u ld h av e b een i n d a n g e r o f s l i p p i n g t o a n u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d A v erag e f o r S c h l e s i n g e r s t a t e s t h a t J e f f e r s o n ’ s G re a t r a t i n g i s b a s e d p r i m a r i l y upon h i s p u r ­ c h a s e o f t h a t huge a r e a . 9 P e r h a p s , h o w ev er, J e f f e r s o n c o u ld h av e s a v e d h im s e lf by a n t i c i p a t i n g P o lk i n th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e t h e n S p a n is h dom ains and s q u a r in g o f f t h e n a t i o n ’ s b o u n d a r ie s a s t h e c e n t u r y o p e n ed . And h ad f a t e d e a l t s u c h a b lo w a t u n im p r e s s iv e , u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d P o lk , he c o u ld h a r d l y have p u l l e d h i m s e lf o u t o f a B elow A v erag e p o s i t i o n s h o r t o f e n g in e e r in g a w a r n o r t h o r s o u th t o a c q u i r e y e t m ore room f o r g r e a t n e s s — o r s u c c e s s f u l l y r e s i s t i n g a s tr o n g d e s i r e o f h i s c o u n tr y ­ men f o r s u c h a w a r. T h is p r e s i d e n t i a l p o l l i s n o t h e l p f u l i n a s tu d y o f P o l k ’ s p la c e i n A m erican h i s t o r y e x c e p t a s t h e s im p le r e c o r d o f t h e en d e f f e c t o f t h e r e v i s i o n i s t ’ s e f f o r t s . To r e c o v e r a m e a n in g fu l a p p ro a c h i t w i l l be a d ­ v i s a b l e a t t h i s p o i n t t o r e v ie w t h e c h i e f f a c t o r s o f im p o rta n c e i n t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk . T h e re was a d o c u m e n ta ry b a s i s , a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , f o r a more f a v o r a b l e r e v i s i o n o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g h i s t o r i c a l e s t i m a t e o f Jam es

9 The P r e s i d e n t s w ere r a t e d s o l e l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r a c t i o n s a s P r e s i d e n t , t h e i r c a r e e r s o th e r w is e n o t b e in g ta k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

237 K. P o lk and h i s p o l i c i e s on t h r e e s e p a r a t e c o u n ts : 1 . P o lk was n o t t h e i n e f f e c t i v e *

in a d e q u a te t o o l o f s t r o n g e r

p e r s o n a l i t i e s a ro u n d him . He h a d a f i r m , a lm o s t c o n v u l s i v e , g r i p on t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l p o w e r. The b e l a t e d te s t im o n y o f h i s s u b o r d in a te s an d t h e r e c o r d i n h i s d i a r y makes t h i s q u i t e c e r t a i n . 2. P o lk was n o t m o tiv a te d b y a d e s i r e t o e x te n d t h e a r e a o f s l a v e r y . The d i a r y , a g a i n , i s t h e b a s i s f o r t h i s r e v i s i o n .

I t is d if f i­

c u l t t o m easu re m en’s m o tir e s an d i t may seem h a z a rd o u s t o b a s e s u c h a judgm ent, on t h e m an’ s own a c c o u n t , b u t t h e r e c o r d i n th e d i a r y i s b o rn e o u t b y h i s c o n v e r s a tio n s w ith C ongressm en a n d i s q u i t e c o n v in c in g . T here i s g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t on t h i s p o i n t . 3 . The gov ern m en t o f M exico i n I 8 I4.6 w as n o t so ‘‘p e a c e f u l ’1 a s h a d b e e n su p p o se d . I t s b e h a v io u r d i d n o t f i t t h e p a t t e r n o f a f r i g h t e n e d sh e e p s c u r r y i n g f o r c o v e r when t h e w o lf t a k e s t h e f i e l d , t o r e f e r t o t h e a l l e g o r y o f P o l k ’ s c o n te m p o ra ry c r i t i c s . The r e c o r d s o f t h e M ex ican governm ent w ere t h e b a s i s f o r t h i s r e v i s i o n ^ t h e y show ed t h a t t h a t gov­ e rn m e n t h a d o r d e r e d i t s commander a t M atam oros t o a t t a c k t h e A m erican s a few d a y s b e f o r e t h e f i r s t s k ir m is h o c c u rre d * On t h e o t h e r h a n d , one f a c t n e w ly come t o l i g h t i n c r e a s e d t h e d i f f i c u l t y in v o lv e d in a n y a tte m p t t o r e s c u e P o lk fro m th e c h a rg e o f h a v in g p l o t t e d a g g r e s s i v e w ar; a new f a c t o f s u c h w e ig h t t h a t i t w o u ld seem t o h av e d is s u a d e d a n y h i s t o r i a n fro m t h e a t t e m p t . T h is i s t h e te s t im o n y o f P o lk , a l s o fo u n d i n t h e d i a r y , t h a t he h a d d e te r m in e d t o wage w ar on M exico, p r e c i s e l y a t th e tim e t h a t w ar a c u a l l y commenced, f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f f o r c i n g h e r t o p a y t h e c la im s w h ich U n ite d S t a t e s

238 c i t i z e n s h e ld a g a i n s t h e r — and t h i s p ay m en t, a s P o lk m0.de e x p l i c i t , h ad o f n e c e s s i t y t o b e i n t h e fo rm o f t e r r i t o r y w h ic h P o lk c o v e te d . As t h i s r e v ie w h a s d e m o n s tr a te d , t h e r e w ere h i s t o r i a n s w i l l i n g t o a tte m p t a r e s c u e b u t t h i s dam ning a d d i t i o n made t h e o n e ro u s c o l l u s i o n o f f a c t s so u n m a n ag e a b le t h a t e v en P o lk * s m ost i n d u s t r i o u s an d d e t e r ­ m ined a p o l o g i s t s h av e b e e n c o n v in c in g o n ly t o th o s e who w ere e a g e r t o be p e rs u a d e d * T h a t P o lk was n e i t h e r a s l a v o c r a t n o r a s l a v o c r a t 's t o o l was v e r y e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d a n d i t g a v e t h e r e v i s i o n i s t movement an i n i t i a l momentum o f c o n s i d e r a b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a d v a n ta g e . B ut t h e im­ p e t u s w a s te d i t s e l f a g a i n s t t h e s tu b b o r n r e c o r d an d a l l th e a tte m p ts t o make M exico t h e g u i l t y o n e i n t h e o r i g i n o f t h e w ar e n d e d i n f r u s ­ t r a t i o n . F o r , ta k e n i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n , t h e nw a r o r d e r s ” o f t h e M exican go v ern m en t c o u ld o n ly show t h a t t h a t g o v e rn m e n t h a d more p r i d e th a n common s e n s e an d was n o t p r e p a r e d t o a d m it t h a t i t m u st su b ­ m it p e a c e a b ly t o a n y e n c ro a c h m e n t on i t s t e r r i t o r y w h ic h t h e r e p u b l i c cbn t h e n o r t h d e s i r e d . And i n an y c a s e , no m a t t e r how b i g t h e w ar o r d e r s m ig h t b e blow n u p , t h e r e w as Jam es K. P o lk i n t h e W h ite H o u se, g r i m l y p r e p a r i n g h i s r e q u e s t f o r C o n g re ss t o d e c l a r e w ar on t h e M ex ican s — b e c a u s e t h e y w ould n o t r e c e i v e h i s d ip lo m a t an d t h e y w o u ld n o t p a y w h a t th e y owed h i s c o u n try m e n . And t h i s a t t h e v e r y tim e t h a t h i s c o u n try m e n h a d re n e g e d on t e n tim e s a s g r e a t a sum t o E u ro p ea n c r e d i ­ t o r s . And t h e r e was h i s i n t r i g u e w i t h S a n ta A nna, h i s e f f o r t t o fo m en t r e b e l l i o n i n M exico*s p r o v in c e o f A l ta C a l i f o r n i a , an d h i s e a r l i e r e f f o r t t o p e rs u a d e T ex as t o ren ew h e r w ar w ith M exico# M ost o f t h e r e v i s i o n i s t s , a s t h i s re v ie w h a s show n, s im p ly r e ­

f u s e d t o f a c e t h e f o r m id a b le a r r a y o f u g ly e v e n t s ; t h e y c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r a t t a c k upon some one c h a r g e a g a i n s t t h e e l e v e n t h P r e s i d e n t an d p r e te n d e d t h a t th e y h ad c l e a r e d h i s r e c o r d . J u s t i n S m ith a lo n e a tte m p te d t o c l e a n t h e f i e l d . The s p e c t a c l e t h a t e f f o r t p r e s e n t s — t h e u rb a n e p r e t e n c e o f i m p a r t i a l d e ta c h m e n t a s th e h i s t o r i a n e n t e r s t h e l i s t s b e in g h a s t i l y d i s c a r d e d a s t h e r e c a l c i t r a n t f a c t s crow d upon him an d h i s r i n g ­ in g c o n c lu s io n s a p p e a r i n e v e r more l u d i c r o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t h e e v e n ts he m ust u n f o l d — t h a t s p e c t a c l e moves t h e r e a d e r a lm o s t t o a d m ir a tio n f o r t h e f o o lh a r d y p lu c k b e in g e x h i b i t e d . I t m u st be a lm o s t in c o m p a ra b le i n t h e w h o le ra n g e o f h i s t o r i c a l e f f o r t . The e a g e r a c c e p ta n c e o f S m ith ’ s c o n c lu s io n s by many p r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , how­ e v e r , i s n o t a m u sin g . I t s u g g e s ts a s e a r c h f o r t h e d e te r m in in g c a u s e b e h in d t h i s p e r s i s t e n t a tte m p t t o t w i s t t he r e c o r d ; a n d , o f c o u r s e , t h e cause i s n o t f a r to seek . The r e v i s i o n i s t s a s s e r t tw o m a jo r ,rf a c t s n i n d e f e n s e o f an Ku p w a rd H r e v i s i o n o f Jam es K. P o lk . P la c e d i n t h e o r d e r i n w h ic h t h e r e v i s i o n i s t s p r e s e n t them b u t num bered a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r r e a l w e ig h t and im p o rta n c e t h e y a r e : 2.

P r e s i d e n t P o lk d i d n o t f o r c e w ar upo n M exico i n c o n se q u e n c e

o f h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r t e r r i t o r i a l a g g ra n d iz e m e n t. 1.

P r e s i d e n t P o lk a c q u i r e d v a s t new t e r r i t o r i e s f o r t h e U n io n ;

he gave h i s c o u n tr y f r e e a c c e s s t o th e P a c i f i c and t h u s p r o v id e d t h e b a s i s f o r t h e c o n t i n e n t a l r e p u b l i c w h ic h i s t h e g r e a t e s t n a t i o n i n th e w o rld to d a y . I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t a lth o u g h p o i n t num ber tw o makes t h e p r i z e

2l|0 more p a l a t a b l e i t i s n o t a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l t o i t an d many h i s t o r i a n s h ave b a s e d t h e r e v i s i o n o n ly on t h e u n s w e e te n e d f r u i t s . T h is u s e o f t h e r e s u l t s t o j u s t i f y t h e m eans w h ic h P o lk u s e d h as b e e n r e s o r t e d t o b y a lm o s t a l l o f t h e r e v i s i o n i s t s an d m ust b e e x am in ed . The c l i n c h i n g j u s t i f i c a t i o n h a s b e e n v a r i o u s l y f o r m u la te d . G a r r is o n s a i d t h a t r,few i n t h i s d a y , ev en o f th o s e who condemn t h e m eth o d s o f P o lk . . . w o u ld b e w i l l i n g t o s e e h i s w o rk u n d o n e ."10 Bemis a s s e r t e d : C e r t a i n i t i s t h a t no c o u n try m a n o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk to d a y w o u ld d e d i r e t o undo e i t h e r t h e a n n e x a tio n o f T ex as o r t h e M exican p u r c h a s e s o f l 8 lj.8 a n d 1 8 ^ 3 *H ' S c h l e s i n g e r S r . p u t s i t —" " b u t no r e s p o n s i b l e p e r s o n h a s y e t p ro p o s e d t h a t h i s w ork be u n d o n e ."12 S c h l e s i n g e r J r . s a y s " I t d o e s n o t seem . . . c o n s i s t e n t , h o w e v er, f o r p e o p le on t h e o n e h a n d t o b e r a t e P o lk f o r w h a t he d id an d on t h e o t h e r t o r e s t w ith c o m p la ce n cy on t h e f r u i t s o f h i s v i c t o r y . "13 The i m p l i c a t i o n b e h in d t h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s t h a t h i s t o r i c a l d e ­ ta c h m e n t i s a p r e t e n t i o u s f a r c e i n so f a r a s i t r e l a t e s t o t h e h i s t o r i a n ’ s own n a t i o n , I t im p l i e s t h a t i t i s n o t o n ly d i f f i c u l t t o a v o id a p r e j u ­ d ic e i n f a v o r o f t h e s o c i e t y i n w h ic h t h e h i s t o r i a n i s a c i t i z e n — t o escap e th e n a t i o n a l i s t i c f e v e r t h a t d i s t o r t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n — i t i s i r r e s p o n s i b l e an d i n c o n s i s t e n t t o b e s u c c e s s f u l i n a t t a i n i n g t h a t im -

10 S u p r a , 13 6 . 11 S u p ra , 202* 12 S u p ra , 235. 13 L e t t e r t o t h e w r i t e r , O c to b e r 1 9 , 19l|-9.

2hl p a r tia l o b je c tiv ity . Many t h i n g s c o u ld b e s a i d o f t h i s s t a r t l i n g v ie w ; t h e w h o le t r a ­ d i t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o f e s s i o n c o u ld be b ro u g h t t o b e a r a g a i n s t it.

T h a t t r a d i t i o n p r o u d ly p ro p o s e d t o w r i t e t h e s t o r y o f t h e human a d ­

v e n tu r e n o t f rom t h e G reek o r t h e Roman p o i n t o f v ie w b u t i m p a r t i a l l y , above th e s t r i f e — t o c a r r y fo r w a rd .th e memory o f t h e r a c e i n m e a n in g f u l l fo rm u n d i s t o r t e d b y t h e d i v i s i o n s o f h u m a n ity . T h a t t h e v a l u e s o f t h e h i s t o r i a n i n e v i t a b l y e n t e r i n t o h i s f o r m u l a t i o n o f th e s t o r y i s c e r t a i n , o f c o u r s e , b u t th o s e v a l u e s a r e p resu m ed t o be t h e u n i v e r s a l v a lu e s o f t h e r a c e upon w h ic h human c i v i l i z a t i o n i s p r e d i c a t e d — th e v e r y v a l u e s , i n c i d e n t a l l y , w h ic h h av e b e en b r o u g h t t o b e a r a g a i n s t t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s e x a m in a tio n . I t may b e p r o t e s t e d , in d e e d i t h a s b e e n , t h a t t h e e x p a n s io n o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t o c o n t i n e n t a l b r e a d t h was an d i s i n t h e i n t e r e s t s , n o t o n ly o f t h e c i t i z e n s o f t h a t n a t i o n , b u t o f h u m a n ity i t s e l f . T h is n o t i o n i s p re s u m a b ly b a s e d upon t h e a s s e r t e d l y b e n e f i c e n t u s e w h ic h t h a t n a t i o n m akes o f i t s po w er. Such a v ie w w o u ld seem t o b e d e r i v e d e i t h e r f r o m a p r o v i n c i a l p a t r i o t i s m o r fro m a p re s u m p tu o u s p r e t e n s i o n t o a n a b i l i t y t o f o r e s e e t h e f u t u r e an d p r o p e r l y r a t e th e im p o rta n c e o f o n e 's own n a t i o n - s t a t e a s a c a r r i e r o f human v a l u e s . The h i s t o r i a n m ig h t e x e r c i s e h i s g a m b lin g p r o c l i v i t i e s i n l e s s d a n g e ro u s p a s tim e s t h a n i n j u s t i f y i n g v i o l e n t a g g r e s s io n on t h e b a s i s o f s u c h te n u o u s r e a s o n in g . The v i l l a i n i n t h e p i e c e , o f c o u r s e , i s t h a t p e rv a s iv e , s p i r i t o f n a t i o n a l i s m w h ic h h a s b e en ra m p a n t i n w e s te r n c i v i l i z a t i o n f o r s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s . The h i s t o r i a n h as b e e n b o t h 't h e v i c t i m o f t h a t d w a rfin g

2h2 d i s e a s e and i t s c a r r i e r * H ajo H o lb o rn a s s e r t s t h a t nI n t h e g ro w th o f m odem n a t i o n a l i s m th e i n f l u e n c e o f th e te a c h i n g o f h i s t o r y i s o f p r i ­ m ary s i g n i f i c a n c e an d h a s done, much t o fo m e n t t h e b e l l i c o s e i n s t i n c t s o f man* " ill F. York P o w e ll s a y s t h e h i s t o r i a n h a s b e e n " to o much t h e a ll y o f th e p o litic ia n .

. . .

I t i s n o t p a trio tis m , n o r re lig io n , no r

a r t , b u t t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t r u t h t h a t i s a n d m u st be t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s s i n g l e a im . "15 A r th u r W alw o rth , i n a s tu d y made u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f A r th u r M. S c h l e s i n g e r , S c h o o l H i s t o r i e s a t W ar: A S tu d y o f t h e T re a tm e n t o f o u r W ars i n t h e S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l H is to r y Books o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and in T hose o f I t s F orm er E n em ies, p r e 's e n ts an e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n d ic tm e n t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o f e s s i o n an d th o r o u g h l y d e m o lis h e s t h e i r p r e t e n s i o n s t o o b j e c t i v i t y on t h i s s u b j e c t . ' T h is e v id e n c e o f f a i l u r e s h o u ld be p r o ­ d u c tiv e o f m ore c o n c e rn i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n t h a n a p p e a r s t o b e g e n e r a te d . I t w o u ld seem p r o p e r t o i n c o r p o r a t e some c o n t r a - i n d u c i n g m a t e r i a l i n t o g r a d u a te t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s i n t h e w r i t i n g o f h i s t o r y . I t s h o u ld n o t b e n e c e s s s r y t o ad d t h a t i t i s n o t o n ly o b l i g a t o r y fro m t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l an d human s t a n d p o i n t b u t a l s o th e b e s t s e r v i c e t h e h i s t o r i a n c a n r e n d e r h i s f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s t o t e l l t h e s im p le t r u t h a b o u t th o s e p e r i o d s i n U n ite d S t a t e s h i s t o r y in w h ich t h e a c t i o n s o f i t s g o v ern m en t a r e s u b j e c t t o c o n d e m n a tio n when v ie w e d fro m t h e b r o a d p la n e o f s o c i a l e q u i t y . F o r f a i l u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y o f c o r p o r a t e g r o u p s ,

111. H o lb o rn , "The S c ie n c e o f H i s t o r y , " The I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f H is­ t o r y , J o s e p h R. S t r a y e r , e d i t o r , 62*

lf> P o w e ll, p r e f a c e t o , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e S tu d y o f H i s t o r y by C h a r le s V$ L a n g lo is an d C h a r le s S e ig n o b o s , x i .

2k3

c o n t a i n more e d u c a tiv e v a lu e t h a n do i n t o x i c a t i n g s u c c e s s e s — a r e ­ f l e c t i o n w h ich h a s p ro m p te d a r e v e r s a l o f an o ld a d a g e ; e x a m iie d i n t h e lo n g v ie w o f h i s t o r y * n o th in g f a i l s l i k e s u c c e s s . And t o d en y a g u i l t * a s t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t s p o i n t o u t* i s t o hug a c o r r o s i v e p o is o n t o o n e ’s bosom . J u s t so* t h e lo n g m o ra l b a n k r u p tc y o f t h e S o u th h a s b e e n t r a c e d b a c k t o t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y when t h e e x p a n d in g c o t t o n c u l t u r e p l a c e d a prem ium on t h e i n d e f i n i t e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f r a c i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n an d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l e a d e r s . o f t h e s o c i e t y e r e c t e d an e l a b o r a t e s y s te m o f j u s t i f i c a t o r y d o c t r i n e s w h ic h i s s t i l l b e a r in g b i t ­ te r fru it. I f t h i s s tu d y h a s d e m o n s tr a te d an e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f some A m erican h i s t o r i a n s t o im p ro v e on h i s t o r y * how ever* i t h a s a l s o r e ­ c o rd e d t h e w ork o f many i n th e . p r o f e s s i o n who h av e r e s i s t e d t h a t r e v i s i o n and i t w i l l p e rh a p s n o t b e p re su m p tu o u s a t t h i s p o i n t t o f o r m u la te some 11e s t i m

a t e s ” o f P r e s i d e n t P o lk w h ic h a p p e a r w e l l s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n t h e r e ­

c o r d . I n so d o in g t h e c r i t i c n e e d ta k e no p l e a s u r e i n h i s s t r i c t u r e s n o r make c o m p la c e n t c o m p a ris o n s ; b u t a s L o rd A cto n s a i d i n c o n n e c tio n w i t h h i s fam ous r e f l e c t i o n on t h e c o r r u p t i n g te n d e n c y o f pow er — h i s t o r i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m ust make up f o r th e w a n t o f l e g a l r e s p o n s i b i l ­ i t y . The ’’man o f a f f a i r s ” f o r f e i t s t h e r i g h t t o g o o d - n a tu r e d in d u lg e n c e when he p i c k s u p t h e r e i n s o f p o w e r, 1.

P r e s i d e n t P o lk was a man o f c o n s i d e r a b l e a b i l i t y i n th e d i s ­

p a tc h o f p u b l i c a f f a i r s . He h a d t r a i n e d h im s e l f t o o r g a n iz e h i s t h i n k i n g a n d v i s i o n h i s g o a ls c l e a r l y . He w as a b le t o f o r m u la te h i s id e a s w e l l an d make h i s p o i n t s e f f e c t i v e l y .

2kk 2 . P o lk w as e x tr e m e ly i n d u s t r i o u s . H is c o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e p e o p le h a s seld o m b e en e q u a l l e d among th o s e who h av e b e e n p re s id e n t, 3 , P o lk w as a man o f g r e a t s t r e n g t h o f w i l l . The w id e s p r e a d co n ­ te m p o ra ry e s t i m a t e t h a t he was b u t t h e t o o l o f m ore p o w e rfu l p e r s o n a g e s was v e r y w ide L o f t h e m ark. He d o m in a te d h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s an d u s e d th em , li, P o l k 's r e f u s a l t o d e le g a te a u t h o r i t y i n t h e e x e c u tio n o f h i s p o l i c y was a m a jo r w eak n ess a s an a d m i n i s t r a t o r , 5>. P o lk was e x tr e m e ly n a rro w and p in c h e d i n h i s p e r s o n a l i t y a n d c u l t u r e . H is i n t e r e s t s w ere r e s t r i c t e d t o p o l i t i c s t o a d e g re e e x t r a ­ o r d i n a r y among p o l i t i c i a n s . T h is ’' s p i r i t u a l ” in a d e q u a c y h ad f a r - r e a c h ­ in g c o n s e q u e n c e s . .He was t o t a l l y u n f i t f o r m aking b ro a d d e c i s i o n s o f p o lic y . 6

. P o lk f a i l e d n o t a b l y i n p r o v id in g " m o ra l l e a d e r s h i p . ”

7« Though i n h i s p r i v a t e l i f e t h e e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n o f h o n e s ty an d i n t e g r i t y , P o lk was s e c r e t i v e , d e v io u s an d w h at m u st b e c a l l e d e s s e n ­ t i a l l y d i s h o n e s t i n h i s u s e o f th e p r e s i d e n t i a l p o w e r. H is a d m i n i s t r a ­ t i o n was m arked b y c a l c u l a t e d d e c e i t t o a g r e a t d e g re e th a n i s u s u a l i n a p r o f e s s i o n i n w h ic h f o r t h r i g h t n e s s i s th o u g h t t o b e a d i s a b l i n g v i r t u e . 8

.

In h is la c k o f c o n s id e ra tio n f o r t h e r i g h t s o f o th e r s th a n

c i t i z e n s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , P o lk w as t y p i c a l o f th e d o m in a n t f e e l i n g o r " r e l i g i o n ” o f h i s tim e . A m erican s i n h i s tim e w ere so c o n v in c e d o f t h e b e n e f ic e n c e o f A m erican i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t s e lf - a g g r a n d i z e m e n t a p p e a re d to be a l t r u i s t i c

5

i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g g r e s s iv e n e s s was a n a t u r a l e x p r e s s io n

o f t h i s b e l i e f . P o lk c a n n o t b e u n d e r s to o d w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s

2h$ m o ra l c l i m a t e . 1

6

9 . I n t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e O regon b o u n d a ry P o lk a c q u i r e d more t e r r i t o r y f o r h i s c o u n tr y t h a n an i m p a r t i a l w e ig h in g o f t h e c la im s w ould h av e d e c r e e d . He was s u c c e s s f u l i n t h i s p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e ‘th e B r i t i s h g o v ern m en t a t t h a t tim e w as more i n t e r e s t e d i n a v o id in g w ar w i t h t h e U n ite d S ta te s * an d m a i n ta in in g a p r o f i t a b l e commerce w i t h h er* th a n i n d e fe n d in g h e r c la im s i n t h e m an n er u s u a l among n a t i o n s . P o l k ’ s a c t i o n i n a s k in g t h e ’'a d v i c e ” o f t h e S e n a te b e f o r e c o n c lu d in g th e t r e a t y w ith B r i t a i n was n o t t h e r e s u l t o f a s c r u p u lo u s d e s i r e t o b ro a d ­ en t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e n a t i o n ’ s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n m a jo r d e c i s i o n s * b u t a c a l c u l a t e d e f f o r t t o a v o id r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a l t e r n a t i v e a c ti o n s * e i t h e r o f w h ic h w ould h av e re d o u n d e d t o h i s d i s c r e d i t among l a r g e s e g ­ m en ts o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . 1 0 . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e w ar w i t h M exico c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o one man* Jam es K. Polk* i n l a r g e r d e g re e th a n i s g e n e r a l l y t h e c a s e in su c h c a ta c ly s m ic e v e n ts * The w ar w i t h M exico was t h e l o g i c a l an d a l ­ m ost i n e v i t a b l e p r o d u c t o f h i s o b s e s s io n f o r C a l i f o r n i a . I t i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t t h e c h a o t i c c o n d i t i o n s t h a t p r e v a i l e d in Mexico* an d t h e i r r e ­ s p o n s ib le p o l i t i c i a n s who* i n b r i e f r o t a t i o n * so m ism anaged t h e a f f a i r s o f t h a t c o u n try * made i t e x tr e m e ly d i f f i c u l t f o r f o r e i g n g o v e rn m e n ts t o s e t t l e o u t s ta n d in g g r i e v a n c e s . T h is* how ever* i s b a r e l y r e l e v a n t t o

16 " T h is i s t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f m a n if e s t d e s t i n y — i n e s s e n c e t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t one n a t i o n h a s a p re e m in e n t s o c i a l w orth* a d i s t i n c t i v e l y l o f t y m is s io n * and e o n s e q u e n tly u n iq u e r i g h t s i n th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f m o ra l p r i n c i p l e s . " A l b e r t K. W einberg* M a n if e s t D e s tin y (1 9 3 5 ) y 8 . W ein b erg p r e s e n t s an i n t e r e s t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f A m erican n a t i o n a l i s m and im p e ria lis m * b a s e d on i n t e r n a l c r i t i c i s m o f th e i d e a l o g y an d j u s t i f i c a t o r y d o c t r i n e s o f A m erican e x p a n s io n is m .

2l|6 P o l k ’ s a c t i o n s : t h e f i n a n c i a l c la im s w h ic h w ere h e l d b y U n ite d S t a t e s '” c i t i z e n s a g a i n s t M exico m ig h t f i n a l l y have b e e n p a i d — t h e M exican g overnm ent had n o t r e p u d i a t e d t h a t d e b t . I f t h i s s h o u ld h a v e p ro v e d im­ p o s s i b l e t h e U n ite d S t a t e s m ig h t w e l l h av e f o llo w e d t h e ex am p le o f Eng­ l a n d i n s u b m ittin g t o n o n -p a y m e n t. As f o r t h e a d ju s tm e n t o f t h e T exas boundary* i t i s in c o n c e iv a b le t h a t M exico w o u ld h av e t r i e d t o re c o n q u e r T exas fro m t h e U n ite d S t a t e s when sh e h ad made no s e r i o u s e f f o r t t o do so w h ile t h e s t a t e s to o d a lo n e f o r a d e c a d e . Had P o lk n o t a tte m p te d t o f o r c e th e s o l u t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a ry q u e s t i o n t h e r e seem s no l i k e l i h o o d t h a t M exico w o uld have a tte m p te d t h e u s e o f m i l i t a r y f o r c e t o e s t a b l i s h ' h e r " r i g h t s ” a s sh e saw th e m . I n a n y c ase * t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y r e s t s w ith t h e p a r t y who a c t u a l l y d i d f o r c e t h e c o n f l i c t ; n o t w i t h th e one who t h r e a t e n e d i t . P o lk f o r c e d M exico i n t o a p o s i t i o n i n w h ic h sh e e i t h e r h a d t o r e s i s t w ith f o r c e o r ack n o w le d g e h e r s u b s e r v ie n c e t o h e r n o r t h e r n n e ig h ­ b o r . He u n d o u b te d ly d e s i r e d t o a v o id w a r b u t he h ad a c r a v in g f o r t h e f r u i t s o f war* an d he h a d a s l i t t l e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e h o r r o r s o f w ar and t h e i n e v i t a b l e d e b ase m en t i t e n t a i l s f o r a l l t h e p e o p le s in v o lv e d a s a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e c u l t u r a l v i r t u e s w h ic h e n n o b le a p e o p le i n a i c r e a t i v e and c i v i l i z e d e n d e a v o r. 11.

f

I

P r e s i d e n t P o l k ’ s a d d r e s s e s b e f o r e t h e C o n g re ss d e fe n d in g h i s

M exican p o l i c y a r e m o d els o f d e c e i t . They r e v e a l a p o l i t i c i a n - l a w y e r u s in g a l l t h e t r i c k s o f h i s t r a d e i n a . d e s p e r a t e a tte m p t t o f r e e him­ s e l f fro m t h e s u s p i c i o n a n d d a m n atio n o f h i s f e l l o w s . H is e f f o r t s a t s e l f - j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e m e ssa g es t o C o n g re ss i n 181;6 an d I d h l > s ta n d ™ a s t h e m ost p e r s i s t e n t in d ic tm e n t o f h i s a c tio n s * h i s m o tiv e s an d h i s c h a ra c te r.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY A.

BOOKS

A b e rn e th y , Thomas P e r k i n s , From F r o n t i e r t o P l a n t a t i o n i n T e n n e s s e e . C h a p e l H i l l s 19 3 2 . Adams, E p h raim D ., B r i t i s h I n t e r e s t s and A c t i v i t i e s i n T e x a s . B a ltim o r e : 1910 Adams, Jam es T ru slo w , The E p ic o f A m e ric a . B o sto n : 1933* Adams, Jo h n Q u in cy , The D ia r y oTJ 1 7 9 t-ld U 5 * A lla n N e v in s , e d i t o r . New' Y ork: 1 9 2 8 . , M em oirs. C h a r le s F r a n c i s Adams, e d i t o r . 12 v o l s . P h i l a d e l p h i a :

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1577Adams, R an d o lp h G ., A H i s t o r y o f The F o r e ig n P o l i c y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . New Y ork: 1 9 2 $ . A n d e rso n , R o b e r t, An A r t i l l e r y O f f i c e r i n t h e M exican W ar. New Y ork: 1 9 1 1 . A ndrew s, E. B en jam in , H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . V o l. I I I . New Y ork: 1903* B a n c r o f t, H u b e rt Howe, H i s t o r y o f M exico. V o l. V. (V o l. X I I I o f W o rk s). San F r a n c i s c o : 18 8 7 . H is to r y o f C a l i f o r n i a . V o l. V. (V o l. XXII o f W o rk s). San F ra n ­ c i s c o : "1B 85.----------------------_______, R e t r o s p e c t i o n : P o l i t i c a l and P e r s o n a l . New Y o rk : 1 9 1 2 . B a r n e s , H a rry E lm e r, A H i s t o r y o f H i s t o r i c a l W r itin g .. Nqrm an, O klahom a: 1938. B a s s e t t , Jo h n S p e n c e r , The P l a n t a t i o n O v e r s e e r , a s R e v e a le d i n H is L e t­ t e r s . N o rth a m p to n , M a s s .: 1 9 2 $ . B e a rd , C h a r le s A. and M ary E . , The R is e o f A m erican C i v i l i z a t i o n . New Y ork: 193U. B em is, Sam uel F la g g , A D ip lo m a tic H is t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . New Y ork:

191*3. _______ , The L a tin - A n te ric a n P o l i c y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . New Y ork: 19lj-3. B e n to n , Thomas H a r t , T h i r t y ** Y ears1 V iew . 2 v o l s . New Y ork: 18$U. B i l l , A l f r e d H o y t, R e h e a r s a l F o r C o n f l i c t . New Y o rk : 191*7 • B i l l i n g t o n , R ay A lle n , B e r t Jam es L oew enberg a n d Sam uel Hugh B r o c k u n ie r , The U n ite d S t a t e s : A m erican D em ocracy i n W orld P e r s p e c t i v e . New Y o rk r "191*7 • B is h o p , F am ham , Our F i r s t War i n M exico. New Y ork: 1 9 1 6 . B la in e , Jam es G ., Tw enty Y e a rs o f G o n g re s s . N o rw ic h , C o n n .: 1881*. B ow ers, C lau d e G ., The P a r t y B a t t l e s o f t h e J a c k s o n P e r i o d . C h a ta u q u a , New Y ork; 1922. B rad y , C y ru s Tow nsend, The C o n q u est o f t h e S o u th w e s t. New Y ork: 1 9 0 $ . B uchanan, Jam e s, The W orks o f . Jo h n B a s s e t t M oore, e d i t o r . 12 v o l s . P h i l a d e l p h i a : 1909. B u rg e s s , Jo h n W ., The M id d le P e r io d , I 8 l 7 - l 8 $ 8 . New Y ork: 1897*

2b9

C a lh o u n , John C ., The Works o f , R ic h a rd K. C r a l l e , e d i t o r . New Y o r k : l 8 8 8 . C a lla h a n , J . M., A m erican F o r e ig n P o l i c y in A m erican R e l a t i o n s . New Y ork: 1932. “ : C harm ing, Edw ard, A H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . V o l. V. New Y ork: 1921* C orw in, Thom as, L i f e an d S p e e c h e s o f . J o s i a h M orrow, e d i t o r * C i n c i n n a t i :

1896 .

C u r t i s , G eorge T ic k n o r , L if e o f Jam es B u ch an an . 2 v o l s . New Y ork: 1 8 8 3 . Dewey, D a v is R ic h , F i n a n c i a l H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . New Y ork: 1 9 3 6 . D eV oto, B e r n a r d , The' Y ear o f D e c is io n , 1 8 I4 6 . B o sto n : 19^3* D ic k e n s , C h a r l e s , A m erican N o te s an d P i c t u r e s fro m I t a l y . New Y ork: 1903* D y e r, B r a in e r d , Z a c h a ry T a y lo r . B ato n R ouge, L a . : 1 9 5 6 V E l l i o t t , C h a r le s W inslow , W in f ie ld S c o t t : The S o l d i e r a n d t h e Man. New Y ork: 1937* ~ ” E m erson, R a lp h W aldo, The J o u r n a l s o f . V o l. V I I . C am bridge: 19114-* F i s h , C a r l R u s s e l, A m erican D ip lo m acy . New Y ork: 1 9 1 9 . , The R is e o f t h e Common Man: 1 8 3 0 -1 8 5 0 . New Y ork: 1 9 2 7 . Form an, S. E . , A dvanced A m erican H i s t o r y . New Y ork: 1 9 llu F re m o n t, Jo h n C h a r le s , M em oirs o f My L i f e . New Y ork: 1 8 8 7 . G a r r is o n , G eorge P i e r c e , W estw ard E x t e n s io n : I 8 1 |l- l8 5 0 . New Y ork: 1 9 0 6 . _______, T e x a s , A C o n te s t o f C i v i l i z a t i o n s . New Y ork: 1903* G r a n t, U ly s s e s S . , P e r s o n a l M em oirs. 2 v o l s . New Y ork: 1885H a r t, A l b e r t B u s h n e ll, The Monroe D o c tr in e : An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . B o sto n :

1916 .

_______, The F o u n d a tio n s o f A m erican F o r e ig n P o l i c y . New Y ork: 1 9 0 1 . \ / H athaw ay, E sse V ., The Book o f A m erican P r e s i d e n t s . New Y ork: 1933* H itc h c o c k , E th a n A lle n , F i f t y Y e a rs i n Camp and F i e l d . New Y ork: 1909* H i t t e l l , T h eodore H ., H i s t o r y o f C a l i f o r n i a . V o l. I I . San F r a n c is c o :

1898 .

von H o l s t , H erm ann, C o n s t i t u t i o n a l an d P o l i t i c a l H i s t o r y o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . C h ic a g o : iff 8 8 . Hone, P h i l i p , The D ia r y o f , 1 8 2 8 -1 8 5 1 . A lla n N e v in s , e d i t o r . 2 v o l s . New Y ork: 1927. Howe, M. A. D eW olfe, The L i f e an d L e t t e r s o f G eorge B a n c r o f t. 2 v o l s . New Y ork: 1 9 0 8 . J a y , W illia m , A R eview o f t h e , C au se s a n d C o n seq u en ces o f th e M exican W ar. B o sto n : l8 h 9 * J e n k i n s , Jo h n S t i l l w e l l , Jam es Knox P o lk an d a H i s t o r y o f H is A d m in is­ t r a t i o n . A u b u rn , New Y ork: T 8 5 I. _______ , H i s t o r y o f t h e War B etw een t h e U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico. Buf­ f a l o , New Y ork: 18U8* J o n e s , A nson, Memoranda and O f f i c i a l C or r e s p o n d e n c e . New Y ork: 1 8 5 9 .

250 K lein * J u l i u s * T r e a ty o f G u ad alu p e H id a lg o . B e r k e le y : 1931* Kohl* C la y to n C h a rle s * C laim s a s a C ause o f t h e M exican W ar. New Y ork: 191U. K raus* M ichael* A H i s t o r y o f A m erican H i s t o r y . New Y ork: 1937* L a n g l o i s , C h a r le s V.* and C h a r le s S e ig n o b o s* I n t r o d u c t i o n t o th e S tu d y o f H i s t o r y . T r a n s a l t e d b y G. G. B e r r y , London: 1 9 1 2 . Ladd* H o r a tio 0 .* H is t o r y o f t h e War W ith M exico. New Y ork: 1883* L a ta n e* Jo h n H o lla d ay * A H i s t o r y o f A m erican F o r e ig n P o l i c y . New Y ork: 1929. L in c o ln * Abraham* C om plete Works o f . N ic o la y an d Hay* e d i t o r s . V o l. I* Hew Y ork: 1 89U* L ow ell* Jam es R u s s e ll* The B ig e lo w P a p e r s . M a rs h a ll* Thomas M a itla n d * A H i s t o r y o f t h e W e s te rn B o u n d ary o f th e L o u is ia n a P u r c h a s e . B e r k e le y : 19317 McCormac* E ugene I r v in g * Jam es K. Polk* A P o l i t i c a l B io g ra p h y . B e r k e le y : 1922 M cM aster* Jo h n Bgch* A H i s t o r y o f t h e P e o p le o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . V o l. / V I I . New Y o rk : 19 1 0 . J M ille r * M ario n M ills * e d i t o r * G re a t D e b a te s i n A m erican H is to r y . V o l. I I . New Y ork: 1913* ] Moore* Jo h n B a s s e tt* A m erican D ip lo m a c y . New Y o rk : 1 9 3 6 . J Morgan* James* Our P r e s i d e n t s . New Y ork:. 1 9 2 i|. M orrel* M a rth a M acBride* nYoung H ic k o ry *n The L i f e an d Tim es o f P r e s i ­ d e n t Jam es K, P o lk . New Y o rk : 19U9* M o rriso n * Sam uel E l i o t an d H enry S t e e l e Commager, The G row th o f t h e Ame r i c a n R e p u b l ic . V o l. I . New Y o rk : 1937* Muzzey* D a v id S a v i l l e * The U n ite d S t a t e s o f A m erica. 2 v o l s . New Y ork: 1933*

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N ev in s* A lla n * O rd e a l o f th e U n io n . V o l. I . N ew ‘Y ork: 1 9 h l• Nye* R u s s e l B .* G eorge B a n c r o f t ; B rahm in R e b e l. New Y ork: 19lUu Owen* C h a r le s H .* The J u s t i c e o f t h e M exican W ar. New Y ork: 1908* P e rk in s * D e x te r* The M onroe D o c trin e * 1 8 2 6 -1 8 6 7 . B a ltim o r e : 1933* _______* H ands- O f f * A H i s t o r y o f t h e Monroe D o c t r i n e . New Y o rk : I 9 I4.I. _______ * The E v o lu tio n o f A m erican F o r e ig n P o l i c y . New Y ork: 1 9 i|8 . P e te r s * W. A. * L iv e s o f Opr P r e s i d e n t s . l 8 H u Polk* Jam es K. * The D ia r y o f a P r e s i d e n t * l81j.5-l8J49» A l la n N ev in s* e d i t o r . New Y ork: 1929. _______ * The D ia r y o f * D u rin g H is P r e s id e n c y * 181|5"-18U9« li. v o l s . M ilo M ilto n Q u a ife * e d i t o r . C h icag o :. 1 9 1 0 . Poore* P e r l e y Ben: * P e r l e y t s R e m in is c e n s e s o f S i x t y Y e a rs i n t h e N a t i o n a l M e tr o p o lis . P h ila d e lp h ia * Ib86* R e e v e s * J e s s e S .* A m e r ic a n D ip lo m a c y u n d e r T y l e r a n d P o l k . B a l t i m o r e :

1907.

2£L R h o d e s, Jam es F o r d , H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , V o l. I . New Y ork: 1 9 2 8 . R i e g e l , R o b e rt E . , A m e ric a Moves W est. New Y o rk : 1930. R ip le y , R. S . , The War W ith M ex ico . New Y ork: 181*9. Rippy* J* F r e d , The U n ite d S t a t e s a n d M exico. New Y ork: 1 9 2 6 . R iv e s , G eorge L o c k h a r t, The U n ite d S t a t e s an d M exico, 1821-181*8. 2 v o l s . New Y ork: 1913* R o o s e v e lt, T h e o d o re , Thomas H a rt B e n to n . C a m b rid g e : 1891* R o y ce, J o s i a h , C a l i f o r n i a . C am b rid g e: 1896. S c h l e s i n g e r , A r th u r M e ir, P o l i t i c a l an d S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1 8 2 9 -1 9 2 5 . New Y ork: 1 9 3 0 . _______ , P a th s t o th e P r e s e n t . New Y o rk : 19l*9* S c h l e s i n g e r , A r th u r M. J r . , The Age o f J a c k s o n . B o sto n : 191*5* S c h o u le r , Jam e s, A H is t o r y o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s U nder t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . j V o ls . IV a n d V. New Y ork: I 8 9 I*. V S c h u rz , C a r l , H enry C la y . V o l. I I . New Y o rk : 1887* S e a r s , L o u is M a r tin , A H i s t o r y o f A m erican F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s . NewY ork: 1927. S ik e s , E noch W a lte r a n d W illia m M orse K e e n e r, The G row th o f t h e N a tio n , 1 8 3 7 -1 8 6 0 . P h i l a d e l p h i a : 1 9 0 5 . S m ith , J u s t i n H a rv e y , The War W ith M ex ico . 2 v o l s . New Y ork: 1 9 1 9 . _______ , The A n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s . New Y o rk : 1911* S tanw ood, E dw ard, A H i s t o r y o f t h e P r e s id e n c y . 1 8 9 8 . S te p h e n s o n , N a th a n ie l W., T ex as an d t h e M exican War. New H aven, Conn: 1921 . S t r a y e r , J o s e p h R ., e d i t o r , The I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f H i s t o r y . P r i n c e t o n : 191*3* T h o re a u , H enry D a v id , W alden an d O th e r W r iti n g s . (M odern L i b r a r y E d i tio n ) New Y ork: 1937* T u r n e r , F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n , The U n ite d S t a t e s , 1 8 3 0 -1 8 5 0 * New Y o rk : 1935* U n d e r h i l l , R ueben J . , From Cowhide t o G olden F le e c e . S ta n f o r d : 191*6. Van d e r L in d e n , F r a n k , D ark H o rs e . San A n to n io , T e x a s: 191*1** W alw o rth , A r th u r , S c h o o l H i s t o r i e s a t W ar. C am b rid g e, M a s s .: 1 9 3 8 . W e in b e rg , A l b e r t K ., M a n if e s t D e s ti n y . B a ltim o r e : 1935* W ilc o x , G e n e ra l Cadmus M ., H i s t o r y o f t h e M exican W ar. W a s h in g to n , D .C .:

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2^2 B.

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B o u c h e r, C hauncey S . , " I n Re T h a t A g g re s s iv e S l a v o c r a c y , " M i s s i s s i p p i V a lle y H i s t o r i c a l R eview , 8 :1 3 -7 9 * J u n e -S e p te m b e r, 1921* D eV oto, B e r n a r d , "The E asy C h a i r , " H a r p e r ’ s M ag a z in e, F e b r u a r y , 192*6, 1 2 3 -1 2 6 . M arch, 192*6, 2 3 ^ -2 3 7 . R e e v e s , J e s s e S . , " L e t t e r s o f G ideon J . P i l l o w t o Jam es K. P o lk , l81j.li-," A m erican H i s t o r i c a l R eview , 11:832-82*3, J u l y , 1906* _______ , "R eview o f J . K. P o lk by M cCorm ac," A m erican H i s t o r i c a l R eview , £8:332-332*, J a n u a r y , 1923S c h l e s i n g e r , A r th u r M e ir, "I’he U n ite d S t a t e s P r e s i d e n t s , " L i f e , November 1 , 191*8, 65-71*. S c h l e s i n g e r , A r th u r M. J r . , "A S en se o f N e c e s s i t y , " The R e p o r t e r , 1 : 2 6 27, A p r i l 2 6 , 1 9h9m , "R eview o f "Young H ic k o ry " b y M. M. M o r r e l , " The P r o g r e s s i v e , 1 3 ,6 :3 0 - 3 1 , J u n e , 192*9. , ' "The C au ses o f t h e C i v i l War,-" P a r t i s a n R eview , 1 6 :9 6 9 -9 8 1 , O c to b e r , 19k9* S c h u y le r , R. L . , " P o lk a n d t h e O regon Compromise o f ''182*6, " P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e Q u a r t e r l y , 26:2*2*3-2*61, 1911* S te n b e r g , R ic h a r d R ., " J a c k s o n , A n th o n y B u t l e r a n d T e x a s ," S o u th w e s te r n S o c i a l S c ie n c e Q u a r t e r l y , 1 3 : 26i*-286, D ecem ber, 1932* _______, " P r e s i d e n t P o lk a n d t h e A n n e x a tio n o f T e x a s ,” S o u th w e s te rn So- . c i a l S c ie n c e Q u a r t e r l y , 12*:336-356, M arch, 1932*. _______, "The F a i l u r e o f P o l k ’ s War I n t r i g u e o f 182*5,” P a c i f i c H i s t o r i c a l R ev iew , 2*: 3 9 -6 9 , M arch, 1935* C.

ESSAYS

S i o u s s a t , S t. G eorge L e a k in , "Jam es B u ch an an ," A m erican S e c r e t a r i e s o f S t a t e and T h e ir D ip lo m a c y . Sam uel F la g g B em is, e d i t o r . New Y ork: 1928. V o l. V, pp." 2 3 7 - 3 3 6 * L e a rn e d , H. B ., " C a b in e t M e e tin g s U nder P r e s i d e n t P o lk ," A m erican H is ­ t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n R e p o r t. W ash in g to n : 1912*. V o l. I , p p . 229-22*2. D*

GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS

C o n g r e s s io n a l G lobe M anning, W illia m R . , e d i t o r , D ip lo m a tic C o rre sp o n d e n c e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , I n te r - A m e r ic a n A f f a i r s , 1 8 3 1 -1 8 6 0 . Volume V I I I , M ex ico , 1 8 3 1 - 1 8 2 * 8 "(M id -Y ear), D ocum ents 3 lfH -3 7 7 1 . W a sh in g to n : 1 9 3 7 . R ic h a r d s o n , Jam es D ., e d i t o r , A C o m p ila tio n o f t h e M essag es an d P a p e rs o f t h e P r e s i d e n t s , 1 7 8 9 -1 8 9 7 . V o ls . I l l and IV . 1911* University o f

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