A critical edition of the medieval French prose translation and commentary of De Consolatione Philosophiae of Boethius contained in ms 2642 of the National Library of Austria, Vienna

Citation preview

A CRITICAL EDITION

OF THE MEDIEVAL FRENCH PROSE TRANSLATION AND

COMMENTARY OF

DE CONSOLATIONE PHILOSOPHIAE OF BOETHIUS

CONTAINED IN MS 2642 OF

THE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF AUSTRIA, VIENNA.

Thesis submitted to the School of French

in fulfilment of the requirements for the

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Queensland.

Submitted by Margaret Bolton-Hall, B.A. Dip. Ed. 1989

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the preparation of this work, I am indebted to a number of people.

For their interest and support, and practical assistance in the technical aspects of production, I wish to thank the Academic and Administrative

staff and my fellow post-graduate students of the French Department of the

University of Queensland. Special thanks are due to Dr. Keith Atkinson, for his time, advice, and unfailing encouragement, and for his generosity in making available to me many of his own resources. I also wish to express

my gratitude to my husband, children, and friends for their support and forbearance over a lengthy and sometimes arduous period, with particular thanks to my daughters Barbara and Penny for the gift of their time in the

final printing and copying process.

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I

have not submitted this material, either in whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other university.

ABSTRACT

The object of this thesis is to present an edition of the medieval

French translation and commentary of Boethius' De

Consolatione

Philosophiae contained in the ms. 2642, National Library of Austria, Vienna.

The work is presented in three parts, in two volumes, part one in

Volume one, and parts two and three and a short appendix in Volume two.

Part one consists of an Introduction of five chapters. In Chapter one, the ms. Vienna is described, and an outline of our critical apparatus given. In Chapter two, we present an extensive language study, to include both

features of general interest and specific features more relevant to the

location and dating of the text. As a result of the dialect study, we have been able to propose south-eastern Burgundy as the probable place of origin of the

text; with a selection of other language features, we demonstrate that, as

concluded by A. Thomas, it was probably composed in the first half of the thirteenth century. Chapter three consists of an examination of the

translation, which we have measured against the most recent edition of the Consolado, that of Ludovic Bieler. Since the translation has proved to be extremely literal, it has here been possible to suggest for the translator a

number of probable variant readings, and to investigate his technique of dealing with certain Latin expressions. The text of both translation and commentary is of particular interest with regard to the vocabulary, which

includes a considerable number of early or rare usages, as well as a number of previously unattested words; these are presented in Chapter four. Finally,

in Chapter five, we examine the additions to the translation, which are

presented in italics in the edited text. The relationship of the additions to the Latin Boethian tradition is demonstrated, with regard to the Prologue, the

Latin Epitaph, and the commentary itself. The function and sources of the additions are discussed, particular consideration being given to the "Mythological Metres," Book III, metre xii, Book IV, metres iii and vii, and

to the "Boethian Hymn to the cosmos," Book III, metre ix.

The edited text is presented in Volume two, part two. This is followed, in part three, by a comprehensive glossary, a series of critical notes which relate primarily to syntax, omissions, misinterpretations, scribal errors etc.

not already dealt with in the Introduction, and a glossary of names. The work concludes with a list of works consulted, followed by a brief appendix in which are presented photographic reproductions of the miniatures and

diagrams appearing in the manuscript.

Part One

INTRODUCTION

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One

Chapter Two

Chapter Three

Chapter Four

Description and Treatment of the Manuscript Description 1-11 Treatment Language Study Introduction

24-27

Phonology

28-55

Morphology Dialectal Vocabulary Location of the Text Date of the Text The Translation The Source of the Translation The Greek Quotations Translation

55-69 69-70

Techniques Vocabulary Introduction Neologisms and Rare Usages Possible Haoax X

1-23

11-23 24-76

71-75 75-76

77-128

77-83 83-86 86-128 129-56

129-31 131-48 149-56

Chapter Five

The Additions to the Translation The Prologue 157-64 The Epitaph 165-66 The Commentary 166-245 —Function 166-77

—Sources —The Mythological

178-88

Metres —The Boethian Hymn

188-221

to the Cosmos: IIIzix

221-45

157-245

1

Chapter One Description and Treatment of the Manuscript Description 1

The prose translation of the Consolatio Philosophiae, here edited for the first time, is contained in a single manuscript: V = Vienna, National Library of Austria, 2642. The manuscript is homogeneous, containing solely the anonymous Boethian translation and commentary. Probably dating from the mid-thirteenth century, it would appear to have originated in the south of France.2 The manuscript is of parchment, and consists of 92 folios measuring 227mm x 147mm, numbered 1-91, with 78a. The folios are grouped into twelve quires, of which the first eleven are quaternions; the twelfth is a binion. Signatures in Roman notation appear on the backs of folios 2-11; the base of folio 91 has been cut, with no damage to the text itself. The justification is 175mm x 100 mm, ruled with a dry point; there are thirty-one lines to the page, each line covering the full width. The script is a textualis, closely resembling the script of the ms.678, Municipal Library of Lyon (1249-

1. We are indebted to L'Institut de recherche et d'histoire des textes. Paris, for many of the details included in the physical description of the ms.: this material has been supplemented by our own examination of the ms. during a brief visit to Vienna in 1986.

2. Llnstitut de recherche... notes that the ancient Tabulae Codicum II. 110 of the Vienna Library dates the manuscript as fourteenth-centuiy. but that the mid­ thirteenth is favoured by H.J.Hermann, who describes the ms. in Die romanischen Handschriften des Abendlandes, t.3, no.31 (Leipzig, 1927) 37-38 and flg.41. Of similar opinion is Antoine Thomas, who discusses the ms. in "Traductions françaises de la Consolatio Philosophiae de Boèce", HLF 37 (1938): 423-32, and Charles-Victor Langlois, La Vie en France au moyen âge t.IV, La Vie spirituelle (1928. Geneva: Slatkíne, 1970) 273.

2

50),3 a correlation which is consistent with the findings of Hermann and Thomas regarding the date of the manuscript.4 The fifteenth-century binding is of white leather on wood, measuring 227 mm x 140 mm; there are some traces of a metal clasp. A parchment label appears on the top of the front cover, with the inscription: "Boetius de consolatione / in lingua ytalica"; the last word has been crossed out and replaced with "gallica ." 5 Attached to the inside of the cover is a fragment of a musical manuscript of the twelfth century, an antiphonal composition for Palm Sunday and Easter, notated in neumes. At the base of the front cover, a paper label displays the mark "NVQ" and the "Nr 202" in the hand of Tengnagels. The back cover is divided into four. On the top is a label with the title: "A Severinus Boethius de consolatione gallice" in the hand of Gentilotti; on the top right appears the reference number assigned by Tengnagels, "Nr 202"; at the base is a label with the reference number of Gentilotti: "Codex MS Philosophicus n.CCCVII olim 202." In addition to the reference number of Tengnagels, which appears again on the inside of the front cover, and to that of Gentilotti, as already indicated, the manuscript also bears the call number of Hugo Blotius, 1237, on the inside of the back cover. Since 1576, the manuscript has been housed in the library of Vienna, as is attested by the earlier reference marks.

Rubrics appear in three places: on f° 9r, marking the transition from Book I to Book II; on f° 21v, to mark the transition from Book II to Book HI; on f° 54r, to mark the beginning of Book IV. Elsewhere in the text, titles are in black.

3. Charles Samaran et Robert Manchal. Catalogue des manuscrtts en écrtture latine. vol.6 (Paris: Centre National de la recherche scientifique. 1968) planche xxi. 4. See above, n.2.

5As noted by Llnstftut de recherche.... Hermann suggests by the hand of Blotius.

3

Large initial capitals introduce the prologue, proses and metres, with the exceptions of Book I metre 2, prose 2, metre 3 and prose 3, and Book IV prose 4 and metre 4. A second capital appears midway down the first page of the Prologue (f° lr). Most capitals are 2-4 lines in depth, coloured blue or red or a combination of both colours, with a simple filigree. Book I metre 1 (f° lv) is introduced by a 6 line capital, Book V metre 5 (f° 87v) by one of 7 lines; Book V prose 1 (f° 77v) is introduced by a 10 line capital P, with undulating blue lines in the vertical stem, and ornate red lines in the curve. Miniatures and diagrams appear occasionally in the manuscript, to illustrate certain aspects of the translation or commentary;6 photographic reproductions are presented in the appendix. 1) f° llr: The Wheel of Fortune (Roman type)7 (Appendix, Plate i): The figure is enclosed by the text, and occupies approximately one third of the page. The wheel is represented by a dark blue circle, bordered in red, within which Fortune, eyes covered by the two tresses of her hair, is seated on a throne of two crossed red dragons; around the outside of the wheel are placed: on the top, a blue calf, wearing a crown; on the right, a figure in the act of falling, his crown dislodged; beneath the wheel, a bearded figure, prone, holding in his left hand what appears to be a scroll; on the left, an ascending figure holding a spoke of the wheel in his left hand. Robes are 6. Of the origins of the miniatures and diagrams, as yet unknown, Thomas (424, n.3) quotes Langlois in remarking that they appear to be of "style rhénan." A less detailed diagram of concentric circles ((2)b, Appendix Plate 11) is to be found on f° 66v of the commentary on the Consolatio of Remi of Auxerre, ms. BN fr. 15090. For diagrams (2)b (Appendix. plate 11) and (3) (appendix, plate ill), see Chapter five, pp.233-36., and n. 190, p.235. Our transcription of Diagram (3) is included in the edited text (p. 109). 7As noted by L'Institut.... this miniature is reproduced in colour, with exact dimensions. In O.Mazal, Buchkunst der Romanik (Graz, 1972J Band 2; for a black and white reproduction, see Pierre Courcelle, La Consolation of Philosophie dans la tradition littéraire. ( Paris: Etudes Augustinlennes, 1967) planche 71.

4

pale green and white; breeches are red, and long red sleeves extend beyond the robes of the figures on the right and beneath the wheel. 2) f° 33r: Two geometric figures in pale green, bright blue, and red, set one below the other beneath nine lines of text, to occupy two-thirds of the page

(Plate ii): a) A diagram illustrating the qualities of the four elements, earth, water, air, and fire, and of the numbers viii, xii, xviii, xxvii. In the top left hand comer, in small script, is the title: "figure de .iiii. angles, tetragonus." On the right, enclosed on three sides by double lines and on the fourth by the right-hand side of the diagram, is the legend, in small script: La terre est iguelmcnt froide e seiche

Egue participat sicco cum frigore terra L'egue iguelment frcide e moistc

Frigus et humor aque pariter traduntur incsse Li aeirs moistes e chaudz Aer et humorem retinet simul atque calorem

Li feus chaudz e secs Ignis cum calidus nonquam non siccus habetur.

b) A diagram illustrating the relationship between man and the four humours, the four elements, the four seasons, consisting of six concentric circles of increasing diameters, arranged to form five bands around the

central point; the whole figure is divided into quadrants. The smallest circle is surrounded by a band containing the word (reading from the top left-hand quadrant, clockwise) H/O/M/E; a band surrounding the next circle contains

the words (from the top left quadrant, clockwise): enfance sane / cressance colereroge / iovent mélancolie / veillece fleume; the third band reads (top left, clockwise): issi forment / li element / le menor / monde; in the fourth and widest band are the words (top left, clockwise): humide - chaude / chaude - seiche / secche froide / froid - humide; this band is further divided by eight intersecting semi­

circles set around the outer circumference, containing (from the top, clock-

5

wise); V / feu - este / S / la terre - aust / T / legue - iver / Z / aeir - ver; in the segments formed by the intersections are the words (from the top left quadrant, clockwise): moiste - chaud / chaud - secche / secche - froide / froide - humide; the outer band bears the inscription (from the top, clockwise): bis duo que bi fi de findunt con tra ri a ri vo hoc sociata quidem federe sunt ad idem. 3) f° 38r: Geometric diagram in two parts, in blue, green, and red, occupying the top half of the page; on the left, a diagram of numbers, composed of

three vertical columns, the first and third consisting of three semicircular intersecting bands, the second made up of four small circles. The figure demonstrates the relationship between the numbers viii, xii, xviii, and

xxvii; it is joined on the right to a diagram similarly constructed, demonstrating the four elements and their qualities. (Plate iii) 4) f° 38v: A schematic diagram in red and blue, in the left- hand margin, of three upright bands rising fan-wise from a horizontal base, to indicate the qualities of water. On the base is the inscription, aqua; within the bands (left to right) are the words: nabili liquida lavili frigida labili húmida. (Plate iv)

5) f° 67v: A simple figure of eight concentric circles in blue and red, 51 mm in diameter; the outer band, formed by the seventh and eighth circles, is decorated with a design of contiguous triangles. (Plate v) On f° 92r, a latin epitaph in honour of Boethius has been transcribed; this has been included in the body of the edited text. The last letter of each verse is repeated on the alignment of the right-hand justification.

6

Punctuation 8

(1) From time to time, the sign T appears in the ms.: a) to enclose the "run-over" of a line, or possibly, to mark the end of a section of text: (f° lr) ... saveir covient la cause de rieissil de boece ... (single example).

b) to mark the change from prose to metre or vice versa; the scribe does not appear to be particular in the placing of the sign, which may either follow or precede the identifying word: (f° 2V) ... ¿g ma pense metre Dieu lasse ...

(f° 10v) ... en une höre Tprose ... c) to mark a change of speaker; again, the scribe is not particular with the positioning: (f° 2V) rphilosophie ... as moies muses Boecius Tcele compagnie ... (f° 4V) ... ia place Boece Tdunques ... (f° 22r)... au soverein bien TBoece parole ... d) to mark the change from commentary to translation or vice versa: (f° 51r)... que nuis ne prie Tor tornoms a la letre ...

(fos 52r-52v)... ele chad arriere Da glose de cest metre ... e) to create a division in the text, sometimes simply indicating a new sentence, elsewhere approximate to the modem system of paragraphing: (fo lr)... concile Ta la fin ...

(fo 6v)... de ces Tse nos fusins ...

(fo 50v) ...combatre od lui PTeseus ... 8. As far as possible, the scribal signs arc represented by the closest symbols available on our keyboard; a similar method is used for the abbreviations, pp. 14-15.

7

The scribe's use of the sign is erratic: it appears 33 times in the Prologue and Book I (fos lr-9r), once only in Book H (fos 9v-22r), 7 times in Book in (fos 22r-54r), 11 times in Book IV (fos 54r-77r), and not at all in Book V (f°s 77r-92r).

(2) The most frequently occurring mark of punctuation is the pointé which

has a variety of uses: a) to mark the end of a sentence. Since this usage is consistent throughout, and conforms with modern practice, examples are not provided. b) Within the sentence, it functions as the modern comma, to mark the end of a phrase or clause, or to separate the members of a series or sequence: (f° 2V) les muses des poetes sunt nuef . Clio . Talia . e les autres . por les nuef estrument[z] de parier

(f° 39r) la tierce arme est plus haute . mais la premiere est plus commune . e tant com chascune est plus estrecee. tant est plus precióse.

In longer sentences, it may be read as functioning as the modem semi­ colon:

(f° 58v)... e sunt mue en bestes, li uns est muez en lion ... c) Within the sentence, it is regularly placed after the speaker's name, and words such as glose and argument, functioning as the modem colon to herald what is to follow.

(3) Also frequently occurring throughout the ms. is the inverted semi-colon, 9.For terminology, see Neil Ripley Ker, Books. Collectors and Libraries. Studies in the Medieval Heritage, ed. A.G.Watson (London: Hambledon. 1985) particularly Chapter 1. 'Scribes and the Making of Books': 3-101.

8

which functions as the modern interrogation, mark, to indicate a direct question: (f° 35r) Que diroms nos de ce? (f° 50r) Gabes me tu? Unlike modern usage, however, in a compound sentence, it frequently marks all interrogative elements: (f° 4V) Est ce li armaires le quel ... dedenz noz maisuns? el quel tu ... des humains e devines choses? (f° 8V) menbre tei qués seit li fins des choses? e en quel leu l'entencion de tote nature entende? (f° 10r) Penses tu la felicité estre precióse que s’en fuit? e quant ele s'en vait, aporte lo pior? (f° 16v) Quar por quei se comba tisseient les gens? cum il veissent les cruels plaies e nuis loiers de lor sane?

On rare occasions, the inverted semicolon functions as the modem exclamation mark: (f° 29v) Heu lasse quels ignorance destorne les chaitis homes del dreit sen tier a la desveiable veie?

(4) A mark : similar in appearance to the modern colon, is used occasionally instead of the point, to function as a comma or phrase mark: (f° 14V) ¡cez desliees en pendant : ne puent soufrir charge (f° 17V) donques com non seit dotable chose ... a la feie des dignitez : apareissant est... (f° 66r) totes choses que avient rerement : troblent... (5) The punctus elevatus, a point surmounted by a small tick, also occasionally functions within the sentence as a comma: (f° 6V) e li mien saint sugre e honerabies Simacus < defendent nos ... (f° 67*) ausi come ... e en presents en tel maniere ...

9

(f° 70v) endementres que ... qu'il a feit < il gete fors ... We have noted one usage of the punctus elevatus as a mark of interrogation: (f° 17T) quei chose puez vos trover plus feible d'ome'f

(6) From time to time throughout the ms., a mark ' appears over certain vowels, similar in appearance to the modern acute accent. In commenting on its occurrence, Thomas notes, in support of his dating of the ms., that this practice was more frequent in the twelfth than in the thirteenth century.10 Presented hereunder is a random selection of examples we have been able to detect in our microfilm copy of the ms.: (f° 2r) veúé; (f° 6V) jetéés, recordéés; (fo 9V) desííér; éú; (f° 10v) áíés, plúíé; (fo 110 her, jóér; (P 27V) íégues; (fo 50^) óí; (P 58v) fiéé, chaiene; (fo 850 commodes. The mark also frequently appears on the conjunctions "o" (ou) and "e" (et).

(7) In some areas of the ms., a diagonal mark / is to be observed at the end of a line. In many instances, such a mark probably signifies nothing more than the movement of the scribe's pen as he proceeds to the next line; in other cases, however, it coincides with a break in a word, to suggest a practice analogous to the modern system of hyphenation: (f° lv) pre/mier; sapi/ence; excon/sul. (f° 3r) habun/danz; igno/rance. (f° 5r) ce/lestial; cho/ses; me/emes; ense/gant. (f° 8V) par/tie; go/vemees; gover/nemenz; en/tende. (f° 10r) se/ra; mu/able. (fo 4gv) re/cordes; go/vernez (f° 53v) ser/pentz; fei/bles 10. Thomas 424 n.2.

10

Expunctuations and Corrections. The usual method of expunctuation is by the placing of a point beneath the unwanted letter or letters: e.g. (f° 4r)"ne s blecera"; (f° 21v) "deite"; (f° 31r) "desirent"; etc.; exceptionally (f° 2V), the "g" of "cure g creist" has been expunctuated by three diagonal marks placed above; "solger" (f° 7r) is corrected to "soleer" by the simple expedient of overwriting the "g" with "e"; the "s" of "quels" (f° 15v) and the "le" of "le deit" (f° 54r) have been crossed out. Correction of single letters is sometimes carried out by expunctuation, with the correct letter written above, as, for example, on f° 31v, where "es" is corrected to "as"; elsewhere, the correct letter is written above the line, with no expunctuation mark: e.g. (f° 34v) "es ... es" corrected to "as ... as." On f° 4V, "occident" has been crossed out, and the required word, "orient," written beside it; on f° 22v, "desirer" is written above the line to correct "aveir"; on f° 53v, "gien" is corrected to "chien" by the same method. Short omissions are rectified by insertion of the required word above the line, with or without a caret: with caret: (f° lv) "gloire"; (f° 5V) "dreituriers"; (fo 46v) ; the "de" of "departies," etc. without caret: (f° 2V) the "no" of "estronomie"; (f° 13v) "noant"; (f° 25r)"vos"; etc. An omission of several words on f° 64v is marked by + in the right­ hand margin, with the missing section of text supplied in the left. Inversions are marked by " ", enclosing the words to be reversed: (f° ST1") "en hautece e en laesce" (f° 48r) "chose cele" (f° 52v) "de Ixion de la roe"

11

Each scribal correction is noted at the base of the page on which it occurs in the edited text.

Treatment of the Manuscript The Title We have selected as title the first reference to the Consolado, which appears in lines 18-20 of the Prologue in the edited text: A la fin, en sa veillece, tramis en essil en Pavie, fist cest livre, Del Confortement de Philosofie. Divisions and Numbering The text has been divided into books, proses, and metres according to Bieler’s edition of the Consolado.11 Books are numbered in large roman numerals. For the numbering of proses and metres, we have followed the convention instituted by Dr. J. K. Atkinson in his critical edition of a fourteenth-century Old French translation of the Consolado;12 thus, proses are numbered with arabic numerals, and metres, with small roman numerals; e.g., Book One metre one is designated I,i, Book One prose one, 1,1, etc. For easy reference, the sentences of each prose have been numbered according to Bieler's edition.

11. Ludovic Bieler, ed., Anicii Manlii Severini Boethii Phllosophiae Consolationis. Corpus Christianorum Series Latina XCIV (Brepols: Tumholt, 1984). For a minor discrepancy between Bieler’s book division and the translator's, see Chapter three. pp.85-86 and n.12. 12.John Keith Atkinson, ”A Critical Edition of the Medieva? French Prose Translation of *De Consolatione Philosophiae’ of Boethius Contained in MS. 898 of the Bibliothèque Municipale, Troyes” . 3 vols. (Doctoral Thesis University of Queensland, 1976) vol. 1:128.

12

Italics

Additions to the translation—the Prologue, Commentary, and Epitaph—are differentiated by italic script. Bold type italics have been used to distinguish the long commentary on III,ix, which derives from a single Latin source, . from other additional comments. There has been little difficulty in distinguishing additional passages of commentary from the translated Latin text, since the author frequently introduces the former with Glose, and the latter, with La Letre, or begins his comment with the explanatory ce est; other comments not so identified are usually clearly recognizable because of the literalness of the translation. A problem sometimes arises with single words, phrases, or short clauses which have no equivalent in the Latin text, but which may be read either as expanded translation or as brief comment. To avoid increasing the visual disruption of the text already created by the italicizing of obvious additions, we have adopted the following somewhat arbitrary procedure: (a) Italicized (i) The words argument, essample, etc., regularly used to introduce certain passages of the text: almost certainly, these words have been incorporated from earlier Latin mss. which were used for the teaching of Logic and Rhetoric.*14

(ii) Appositional words or phrases, such as: I, iv: 7-8: Veisuvus, un munt en Champaigne; I,vi:3: de Cancride, cest signe; II, vi: 7: son frere, Drusum; etc. *3. See Chapter five, p. .178.

14. On this subject, see Diane K. Bolton, ’The Study of the ’Consolation of Philosophy* in Anglo-Saxon England," Archives d'Histoire Doctrínale et Littéraire du Moyen Age 51 (1977): 48-49.

13

(iii) Somewhat redundant expressions, such as: I,4: 117: Ves oïr la some? Je la dirai; 11,1: 45: Tu la loes ou non. Se tu la loes ... se tu ne la loes ...

(iv) Interpretative phrases, such as: II, 1:22-23: mole selonc rectorique^e delitable solonc musique; III, ix: 49: les animes des homes. (b) Not italicized (i) Explicit reference to God; reference to a Supreme Being, whether this be the Christian God or not, is implicit in the Boethian text.

(ii) The names of the interlocutors, Boethius and Philosophy; although these do not appear in the Latin text, they are implicit in the inquam and inquit, which usually indicate the speaker of a passage of dialogue in the Latin text.

(iii) Binary and related expressions.*16 Expansion of Abbreviations The scribe conforms to the usual practice of adapting the Latin system of abbreviation to Old French words. Expansions have presented few difficulties, and are based on examples of words written in full elsewhere in the text. Where multiple graphies occur, we have expanded the abbreviation according to the full form appearing most frequently either throughout the text, or, in certain cases, in a particular area of the text.

See Chapter five, pp.240-41.

16. For this recognized translation technique, see Chapter three, pp.91-92

14

e.g.: (a) The name of the Lady Philosophy appears in full as Phi/ylosophie and Phi/ylosofie; we have expanded all abbreviated forms with the more frequently used ph graphy. (b) q and ql have been regularly expanded to que and quel, despite frequent occurrences of qe and qel in part of Book I (fos 5v-8r).

(c) The 1st plural verbal termination appears throughout the text in full as om(s), -um(s), -on(s), -un(s); we have therefore expanded the abbreviations o(s), u(s) to the most common full graphy in the surrounding text. The following abbreviations are of interest: (a) e standing alone invariably denotes est. The Latin abbreviation ±_for est appears once only, on f° 27^. (b) The Latin abbreviation 7 for et is used occasionally, as, for example, on fos 4r, 45v, 5711. This has been resolved as e, in accordance with the invariable form throughout the text. (c) The Latin abbreviation Æ for atque also appears three times: on fos 75r and 80r, it forms part of the Latin expression retained in the Old French, and we have expanded accordingly as "atque e converso"; on f° 71r, it has been resolved as "e."

Resolution of certain graphies We have adapted to modern spelling words containing the consonantal u and i, which we have transcribed as y and j except in the word majesté (1,4:121,167 - fos 5V, 6r), since the reduced form, maesté, occurs

15

in ID,ix: 269 - f° 36r). The letter u for the future of the verb aveir has been

retained.17 There has been little difficulty in distinguishing between adjacent u and n. Distinction between f and long s, which could present a problem in forms of the verb esforcer, for example, or with the nominative and oblique cases of the masculine adjective chaitif < Latin captivum, is invariably clearly defined by a firm cross-wise stroke on the f. The letters ç and t are occasionally difficult to differentiate, particularly in words ending in -cion, z

tion, -ece, -ete. Word division

The following division of words has been adopted: (a) Printed as one word: beneuré/ez, beneuree, beneurté, be/oneure; maleuré/ez, maleuree, maleure; enpor. (b) Printed as separate words: le quel etc., des quels, del quel, as quels etc.;18 quel que; por quei; toz jors. (c) de + le or la before a word beginning with a vowel or h is frequently, but

not invariably, represented by the scribe as del:

e.g.: f° 3V: del innocent; f° lOv: del abondance; f° 47r: del aeir; f° 55v: del ethre; f° 59v: del humeine condition, del home; f° 78v: del un e del autre. We have represented all such cases by de 1'.

With a + 1(e) or 1(a) before a word beginning with a vowel, the scribe consistently separates the a from the following article:

17. See ÆT.Baker, "Le Futur des verbes avoir et savoir." Romania 63 (1937) 1-30, particularly 10, 20-23.

18. Rosalyn Gardner and Marion A.Greene, A Brief Description of Middle French Syntax (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1958) 77: "By mid­ fourteenth century the article was joined with quel and thereafter the combination was written as one word."

16

e.g.: f° 10v: a laeir, a lan; f° 44r: a lautre; f° 51r: a lentree; etc. These are printed in the edited text as a Faeir, a l'an, a Fautre, a Fen tree, etc. (d) Occasionally, the scribe attaches the initial a of a word to the preceding article or pronoun: e.g.: f° 2V: la guison; f° 5V: la stranje moneie; f° 29r: tu ta vileras; f° 76r: la reine; etc. These have been«ó^«¿*te'^in the edited text to Faguison, Fastranje, tu t'avileras, Fareine, etc.

Punctuation and Capitals The modern system of punctuation has been introduced into the text. Our procedure has to a large extent been guided in the translation passages by Bieler's punctuation of the Latin, but we have not hesitated to depart from his interpretation if the Old French indicates a different reading.19 In preference to the dash, frequently used by modern French editors to mark passages of direct discourse, we have elected to use double quotation marks; for passages of direct speech within direct discourse, as in 11,2:3-15, where Philosophy commences her address to Boethius in the persona of Fortune, single quotation marks have been used. Visual disruption of the text has been avoided by the inclusion, wherever practicable, of passages of commentary within the direct discourse; this we see as particularly necessary in sections of the text such as IV,6:77-104(13), where a running commentary keeps pace with the words of the speaker translated from the Latin. Passages of commentary identified by Glose, and those in which the commentator intervenes by moving from the first person of the discourse to the third person of the narrative, cannot, of course, be so included.

Capitals have been introduced for the first word of sentences and proper names, as in Modern French. 19. See. for example, the critical note on I,ii: 2-4.

17

Contrary to Bieler's procedure, we have capitalized all relevant forms of deu, since in this version of the Consolado, there can be no doubt that it is the Christian God to which the text is referring. Muse(s) has been capitalized throughout, as referring, collectively or individually, to the poetic Muses (I,i:4, etc.) or to the Muses of philosophic pursuits (1,1:69, etc.) There has been some difficulty with regard to fortune. In some areas of the text, the word clearly denotes the personified goddess Fortuna, in others, it as clearly denotes chance, operating for good or bad in men's lives, while, in other areas, its usage is ambiguous. After some consideration, we have decided to restrict personification to the following: I,i:18-19: Quant Fortune malement feele fust riant a moi... I,i:21: ... Fortune oscure mua sa decevable chiere. I, 4:112-13: Bien deust Fortune verguinier! II, 1, II,i, 11,2, and II,ii: all occurrences, with the exception of 11,1: 5: "la premeraine fortune"; Fortune is referred to as "ce monstre" (11,1:8), 'Tavegle deité" (11,1:43), and "la dame" (11,1:74), leading to Philosophy's assumption of the persona of the goddess Fortuna to address Boethius in 11,2; 11,3:1: se Fortune parlot o tei... 11,3:50: ... veus tu conter ensemble o Fortune ? 11,8:3: Je ai molt blasmee Fortune ... It has not been considered necessary to personify nature in the sense in which the word has been used in the text.

18

Diacritical Marks In conformity with the principles established by the Roques convention of 1925,20 diacritical marks are limited to the cedilla, the acute accent, and the diaeresis. We have been guided in the usage of these marks by A. Foulet and M. Speer, who have systematized and developed the Roques principles in On Editing Old French Texts.21 (1) The cedilla is used to mark ç sibilant before the vowels a, o, and u.

(2) The acute accent is used to distinguish e tonic from e atonic, and to differentiate between homographs: (a) Monosyllabic Words (i) the masculine and feminine plural article lé (I,v:23,28; 11,2:35), to distinguish from the masculine oblique article le. (ii) the preposition dés (< Latin de + ex), to distinguish from the partitive des. (iii) the relative pronouns gués and qés ( < Latin qualis); the adjective tés ( Modem French ébahir); the nouns traïson (Mod.Fr. trahison), aïol (Mod.Fr. aïeul), besaïue (Mod. Fr. bisaïeul); païen (Mod.Fr. payen) (c) In a limited number of cases, the diaeresis has been used where etymologically justifiable to distinguish between homographs or near homographs occurring within the text: pais : represented by the graphy e: -atum, -atem> e: acostumé, mostré, etc.; vérité, enfermeté, etc. b) á[ (non-final) > e, ei: -atu/os > -ez, -eiz: mostrez, donez, etc. (regular form); tresgiteiz (III,ix:316,318), mesleiz (IV,iii:74). -are > -er, -eir: doner, etc. (regular form); troveir (single example: IH,ix:660). -arunt > -erent, -eirent: accuserent, etc. (regular form); laboreirent (single example:II,5:49). -ata > -ee, eie: reportee, asignee, etc. (regular form); acostumeie (I,iv:ll), governeie (1,4:55), desirreie (III,ix:693). patrem > pere (regular form); peir (single example: Prologue 16). clara > clere (regular form); cleire (single example: IV,v:9). Pope notes the diphthongization of á[ as a feature of the north-east and eastern regions of France, being most widespread when becoming final in the word (Pope 107 §232, 491 N.E.iv, 494 E.iv.). The occasional occurrence of ei for fr. e , in final position only, is remarked by Philipon and Gossen in the charters of east and west Burgundy (Rom.39:506-07; Rom.41:575: Skriptastudien... 153-54). In non-final position, as (l)a) above, ei for Fr.e would appear to be more typical of the dialects of Wallonia, Lorraine, and Champagne (Rom.39:506; Skriptastudien 152); attested graphies from these regions listed by other authorities include espaventeiz, boteir, demeneie (Dialogues of Saint Gregory: Pope 491), acordeir, escumeneiez (Joinville: Goerlich 11); aoreirent, approveirent (Lorraine Psalter: Fouché 254 §127 f). However, that this graphy was not unknown in the Franche-Comté is

29

indicated by the occurrence, in early fourteenth-century charters, of the forms ameiz (Port-sur-Saône, 1308), gardeir, osteir , preiz (Dompierre-surSalon, 1316) (Philipon, Rom.43:534), and of the forms chemeneie, doneie, anneie, noted by Wendelborn in Comtois documents (9 n.l). Similar graphies are also remarked in the scripta of the Neufchâtel-Bernese-Jura southern border regions of the Franche-Comté (Gossen, Skriptastudien 154). (c) -iata- > -iee-, -ie-: castoiee, criee, vivefiees, etc.; gities (1,2:8), effacie (11,3:38), ennuie (11,4:26), lignie lies (I,vi:15, 11,3:53, 56, etc. See Pope N.v,488; E.iii,494; 193 §513). (2) a[ following a guttural or palatal consonant> ie, e: caru-> chier, cher; cara (visage)> chiere (I,i:6; 1,1:10 etc.); appareillier (IV,7:76), appareiller (111,12:179); plungiee (IV,vi:13), plungee (I,ii:l); canas > chenes (I,i:12). According to Bourciez (62 §41, Historique), a in this position became ie regularly in Old French until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when the group was reduced to e. That this development occurred earlier in Burgundy than in the central region is indicated by Goerlich’s research, which shows that forms in e existed alongside those in ie from the beginning of the thirteenth century (qtd. in Andolf, Introd, xcviii); verbal forms in e are also noted in the Ysopet: obligèrent, maingerent, despoillerent (Foerster, Introd.xxvii).

(3) a[ +1 > e, ie: tale < tel (regular form), tiel (single example: I,vi:13). Similar representations of á[ followed by a liquid are noted by Philipon in the Comtois charters: tiel < tale, biers < baro (Rom.43:534); from

30

Burgundian material, Goerlich (12) gives lesquiex (Cote-D'Or), tier (tiel) (Yonne). (4) á[ + n > ai, ei, e: soverai/ein(e) (regular forms); soveirenes (single example: II,vii:16;) lointai/ein (regular forms); lointen (single example: 1,5:6). The alternation ain/ein occurs throughout a large area of France (Philipon, Rom.41:575), and is therefore of little dialectal significance. Of more relevance are the reduced forms in -en-, which appear in the charters of west Burgundy and the Franche-Comté (Philipon, Rom.41:575; Rom.43:534-35), and are also noted in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd.c).

(5) á + yod > ai,ei: aqua > aigue, eigue. > ai, ei, e: magis > mais(z), meis(z), mes. For the representation by g of Lat. qu intervocalic, see Consonants (36)b) below. ai alternates regularly with ei throughout the text; mes is exceptional, occurring solely in the section 1,4-1,6. ai is the regular graphy in the charters of east Burgundy (Philipon, Rom.39:508): ei appears occasionally in those of the west (Philipon, Rom.41:576); in the Comtois charters, the occurrence of ei is noted as rare, but e occasionally appears, apparently as the graphic equivalent of ai (Philipon, Rom.43:536).

(6) á + n + yod > ai, a: Champaigne, montaigne, compaigne (regular forms); estrainge (single example: IV,3:26), estrange (regular form). As in the charters of east Burgundy, the alternate ei graphy does not appear in this position (Philipon, Rom.39:508). The development of a palatal glide before palatalised n or 1 intervocalic, following vowels other than e and u tonic and countertonic, is

31

noted by Pope as a feature shared by dialects of the east, south-east, south, and south-west regions (162 §408; 495 E.xxii). (cf.(22): o + n + yod ).

(7) a) -ariu- > -ier, -er; -aria > -iere, -ere, -ire: dreiturier (regular form); dreiturer (1,5:39), dreiturere (1,3:26), droiturerement (I,v:37); lumiere (regular form), lumire (V,3:158) (single example). The er(e) termination appears consistently in the charters of east Burgundy (Philipon, Rom.39:511); in western and Comtois charters, -ier(e) and er(e) are noted (Rom.41: 576-77; Rom.43:536). In a later study, Philipon observes that -er is the Burgundian form, ier, characteristic of Champagne, and -ir, more typical of Lorraine (Rom. 50:398); terminations in -ir, however, were not unknown in the FrancheComté, as is demonstrated by the forms chevalir < caballarium , proire < precaria , rivire < riparia, appearing in the charters of that region (Rom. 43:536). b) -aria > -aire, -ire: contraire (regular form); contires (single example: V,3:165). Contraire derives from the later loan-word contrario, and therefore follows a different line of development (see Pope 230 §645; Bourciez 61 §39, rem.ii). The contracted form contires could be due to the influence of nearby lumires (V,3:158), or could perhaps indicate a parallel reduction of -aire to ire. (8)a) fr.a > ai: portai (3 s. prêt.) (1,4:62); conoistrais (2 s. fut.) (11,1:12); ferai (3 s. fut.) (11,5:64); ceai (ça) (IV,2:19). These isolated examples represent an eastern feature which, according to Brunot, is particularly characteristic of the Lorraine dialect (314). That it was not uncommon in other regions of the east, however, is indicated by its presence in the Burgundian and Comtois charters (Philipon, Rom.39:513;

32

Rom.41:578; Rom.43:537), in the Floovant, (Andolf, Introd. ci-ii), and in the Girart de Roussillon (Ham, Introd.25); it is also noted in the ms. Bourguignon (Meyer, Rom.6:40-41), and by Foerster in the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd.xxix). b) fr.a > e: es (2 s. aveir ) (1,6:54); porrés (2 s. fut.poeir) (1,6:39); je (ja) (1,4:71); jemeis (11,5:156). This representation of fr.a is probably a variation of (a), above, with e as the graphic equivalent of ai (see Bourciez 56 §35 rem.i). A similar variation is noted in the Floovant, where tu as is occasionally represented as tu es (Andolf, Introd.cii).

Lat. au (9) au > o, ou, au: Paulu-> Pol (IV,6:262); +s > Pous (111,7:17); pauperu-> povre (regular form); clavus > clos (111,12:58); tauru-> tor (regular form), taurs (single example: 111,8:27); causa > chose (regular form), chause (single example:I,6:46), cause (single example: 111,1:37). o is the regular graphy, ou occurring solely with the vocalisation of 1 followed by s in Pous, ou is constant in the charters of eastern Burgundy (Philipon, Rom. 39:525); o appears occasionally in western and Comtois charters (Philipon, Rom.41:585; Rom.43:544-45); o alternates with ou in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd. c). In view of the southern coloration of the text, which will become evident in the course of the language study, retention of Lat. au, observed in the isolated examples listed above, is possibly due to the influence of Provençal, as suggested by Bourciez' comment (97 §83 Historique): “La diphtongue au s'est conservée deins le Midi de la France, où elle est encore généralement intacte." (See also Grandgent 25 §41.)

33

(10) au > oi: paucas > poies (11,2:3; 11,5:70); paucu-> poi (regular form). Feminine poie is characteristic of south-east, south-central, and south­ western regions, where ç (k) palatalised to yod when it stood between au and a (Pope 129 §302; 504,S.W.v). According to Pope, masculine poi can be explained in terms of an analogous development from the feminine form, and thus also characteristic of these regions. Chaurand (69), on the other hand, sees poi as deriving from *pauci (masculine plural); its occasional appearance in texts from other regions of France leads him to the conclusion that it has no particular dialectal significance. This is supported by attestations of poi in FEW VIII, 54a, listed as occurring over a wide area of France. The occasional representation of au + yod + a to oie in west Burgundy and the Franche-Comté is noted in the forms oies < aucas , and Savoie < Saupaudia (Philipon, Rom.41:585; Rom.43:545). Pou (invariable) is the regular form deriving from pauc- in Goerlich’s material (101), poi appearing twice only; one of these examples is from a Comtois document. In Philipon's charters, au is represented by ou in eastern Burgundy (Rom.39:525), by ou occasionally o in the west (Rom.41:585) and in the Franche-Comté; in the last mentioned region, the oi graphy is noted in choyse, choise (Rom.43:544-45). < Lat.e, ae (11) £[ >ie, e, i: erat > ere (Prologue 25; 1,1:10; 1,4:198, in,iv:8,111,5:28) (esteit: regular form); eras > eres (11,2:85) erant > erent (1,1:32) (esteient/oient: regular form); es > iés (1,4:4) (es: regular form).

34

laetu- > lié; laetu/os > liez; laeta > lee (111,9:56) (single example). (For the reduced feminine form, lies/z, see (l)c, above). *apremit > aprient (11,7:69), aprint (I,v:35); saeculu- > siec/gle (regular form), side (single example: IV,iii:56); Mathaeu-> Ma thé (III,ix:457). ie is the usual graphy in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd. ciii). Philipon is of the opinion that the diphthongisation of e did not occur in Burgundy until the second half of the thirteenth century; e is the predominating graphy in the charters of the east (Philipon, Rom.39:514), and numerous examples of the primitive representation of é[ appear in the western charters of the regions of Au tun and Charollais (Philipon, Rom.41:578); as in our text and in the Floovant, both graphies occur in the Comtois charters, with ie predominating (Philipon, Rom.43:537). The form Mathé is noted specifically for all regions. The reduction of ie to i does not appear among Philipon’s examples; it does,however, occur in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, ciii-iv), and Pope notes the effacement of the second element of the diphthong as a feature of northern and eastern regions (Pope 193 §531). (12)(a) g + yod > ie, i; ei, e: imperium > enpiere (11,6:11), empire (111,5:14), enpere (1,5:11);

equas > iegues (11,6:55), egues (11,6:53) sequere > segre (regular form). *pettia > pecies (single example: 1,3:34) precat> prie (regular form), pree (single example: LHJx:2); depreco > deprei (single example: 111,10:56); denego > denei (IV,2:146) (single example); con + collectas > concuilletes (H,v:14);

35

*tollectu > toleit (11,6:13, etc.). (For the alternative forms of the past participles of concuillir and tolir, see Morphology (65).) perfecta > parfite (IV,vii:152); delecta < delite; pectus < piz. Philipon notes in the charters of all regions the series ei, e; ie, i (Rom.39:514; Rom.41:579; Rom.43: 538); of their significance with regard to dialect, in the survey of the eastern charters he remarks: "Il faut sans hésiter écarter cette dernière série comme française pour ne retenir que la première." Throughout the text, the tripthongue *iei is usually reduced to i, as in francien and northern dialects; reduction to ei is noted by Pope as a general feature of north-east and eastern regions (Pope 491 N.E.i; 494 E.x); as noted above, reductions to ei/e are observed in Philipon's charters of all regions: e.g. leit < lectu, gete < *jecitu (Franche-Comté), effeit < effectu, suspez < suspectus (west Burgundy), proffet < profectum (east Burgundy). (See also Bourciez 69 §49 Historique.) (b) £ + n + yod > ie, i; ei: ingenium > engien, engieg, engin, engig (regular forms); adveniat > aviegne (regular form); veniunt > veignent (single example: III,x:2); *teniunt > tienent (regular form); teinent (single example: 11,5:57) . The representation of e[ by ei in forms deriving from *tenire and venire and compounds is noted by Philipon in the charters of the three regions of his survey (Rom.39:514; Rom.41:579; Rom.43:538). This feature appears in the dialects of a widespread region, including Champagne and the south-centre, "where the forms veign, veigne, teign, teigne etc. were substituted for the etymological forms under the influence of the weak palatalised forms veigniez eta and the palatalised forms of prendre." (Pope 352 §931).

36

(13) a) -ella > -ele: damoi/eisele, bele etc. (regular forms). Philipon notes in the Burgundian and Comtois charters the habitual usage of -ele, as opposed to the occasional appearance of -ale (Rom.39:515; Rom.41:579; Rom.43:538); a similar preference for the -ele graphy is remarked in the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd. xxx). The exclusive use of the latter in the text, then, is not inconsistent with the dialects of these regions, b) -ell- > -el, -iau: bel, biau; -ell- +s > -eaus, -iaus, -eals: beaus, biaus, beals (single example: II,vii:23). -eau and iau alternate throughout the text; el occurs frequently, and, as noted above, -eal once only.In the charters of all surveyed regions, Philipon remarks the sequence -el, -eal, -eaul; -iau does not appear (Rom. 39:515; Rom.41:579; Rom.43:538). The last-mentioned graphy would appear to be more characteristic of north and north-eastern regions, where Pope notes the differentiation of -eau to -iau as a regular feature (201 §540; 488, N.vii); however, that it is not entirely inconsistent with the dialect of some areas of the east is suggested by its regular alternation with -au in words terminating in s, noted in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, civ-cv). (c) melius > mielz, miez, miuz, miauz (single example: 1,2:11). miuz is a northern and eastern graphy (Pope 202 §546; 488, N.vi); miauz is characteristic of the north-east, south-east and south-central regions, where the e element of the diphthong ie was sometimes lowered to a (Pope 189 §501 (ii)). The latter form is remarked by Ham in the Girart de Rossillon (Introd. 28). For the effacement of 1, see Consonants (41 )a). (d) We follow Philipon (Rom. 41, 580) by remarking at this point the occasional representation of the Latin preposition per (fr. par) by por, as in the charters of western Burgundy: cassé por l’aversité ... eslevé por prospérité (Prol.42-43); hastive por les maus (I,i:ll-12); encline por le charge (I,ii:24-25); por contraire

37

(11,5:155);... solst la joie ... por les tristes lermes (IV,vii:30);... por la receue nécessité ... (V,3:162-63), etc. por in this sense does not appear in the eastern charters (Rom. 39, 526), but the form pourmei (fr. parmi) is remarked (Rom. 39, 514). In noting the frequent representation of fr. par by por in the Fioovant, Andolf also draws attention to similar forms in the ms. Bourguignon and the Girart de Rossillon, and remarks its dialectal significance: " 'Pour' au sens de 'par' se trouve actuellement au moins dans certaines expressions, en Bourgogne, en Franche-Comté, et dans quelques localités en Lorraine" (Introd. cxxvi-vii); the feature is thus later recalled as one which "semble bien indiquer la Bourgogne comme patrie possible de nos copistes" (Introd. clxxix ).^

é < Lat. e, oe, i (14) (a) é] > e, o: deversus > devers (regular form); devors (single example: IV,6:221). The o graphy is remarked by Pope as a feature of Burgundian dialect (495, E.xvii). (See also Bourciez 79 §60 rem.i). (b)ej > e, ei: letre (regular form); sec, seche, etc. (regular), seichet (3 pres.subj.; single example, I,v:28); verre (1,5:27), veirre (I,vii:5). In the charters of all regions, Philipon notes the regular diphthongization of é], represented by the concurrent graphies ei, oi, and ai, reduced in certain cases to e,o, and a (Rom.39:515-22: Rom.41:580-82: Rom.43:538-42). With regard to the last mentioned reduction, however, Foerster’s classification as dialectal of the graphy -at < -ittum, appearing in the late twelfth-century Ysopet (Introd.xxxi), suggests that this representation of é] is more characteristic of the Franche-Comté. The complete absence of -a 4. For the par/nor alternation, see also Molgnet 319. where, as well as being explained as a possible dialectal variation, it is also attributed to possible scribal interpretation of abbreviations. In our ms., the prefix par/ner is represented by nor by pr; the prepositions are written in full, with the exceptions of ß (pari. f° 3r and f° 5r.

38

< é] from our text, then, is probably more indicative of Burgundy than of the Franche-Comté as its place of origin. (15) (a) é + yod > ei, oi: conseil (regular graphy); oreille (regular), oroille (single example: 11,7:93). The representation of é in this position by oi (as well as ei and ai) is remarked by Philipon in the charters of all three regions, with more examples of the oi graphy being given from west-burgundian and comtois material (Rom.39:516; Rom.41:581; Rom.43: 539-40). (b) é[ > ei, oi, ai: peine (IV,3:50 etc.), poine (IV,3:54 , etc.) meine (cminat) (regular form), moine (single example:IV,i:48); plein(e) (regular form), plaine (single example: II,ii:4). The differentiation of ei. to oi following a labial consonant and preceding a nasal, as in the above examples, is noted by Pope as a general eastern feature (Pope 495, E.xix). (c) é[ > ei, e: peines, penes (1,4:175); aveir (regular), aver (1,4:114,126, 131, 225); saveir (regular), saver (1,4:136); voleir (regular), voler (1^5:23); poeir (regular), poer (I,iv:18; III,ix:301); primeveire (regular), primevere (single example: I,ii:19). The reduction of the diphthong deriving from é in all positions is noted by Philipon as a distinctive feature of Burgundian and Comtois dialects (Rom.39:519; Rom.41:581-82; Rom.43:541). Similar reductions are to be observed in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd.cviii) and the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd.xxxi). In his discussion of the development of the diphthongs ei, oi, and ai deriving from é blocked or free (Rom.39:519-22), Philipon remarks that ei alone appears in the charters of Burgundy from the eleventh to the mid­ thirteenth centuries, when it begins to be displaced by oi and ai. The

39

predominance in our text, then, of the ei graphy (and its reduction to e ) as the representation of e[ suggests an early date of composition. (16) illos > eaus (regular form); ecce + illos > ceaus (11,1:9,10; II,6:41;III,ix:598; IV,iii:38); cels, ces, icés. The -eau/-au graphy appears in documents of a widespread area, ranging from Wallonia in the north-east to Vendee in the south-west (Schwan Vol.2 Part 3, 120). In the charters of both regions of the Duchy of Burgundy, Philipon notes the stressed form of the 3rd plural personal pronoun consistently as aus or eaus, and the oblique form of the masculine plural demonstrative pronoun as ceauls, ceaus, alternating with cels, ces (Rom.41:590); in the Franche-Comté, illo- is represented by el, eal, eaul (Rom.43:538); as in our text, fr. -eu- does not appear in the charters of any region, aux (aus) appears regularly in the ms. Montpelier of the Girart de Rossillon (Ham, Introd. 28), aus in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd. cix).

< Lat. ó Xó----------(17) ó[ > ue,oe, u,o,e, eu: uevre (1,1:60,1,4:125, etc.); pueble (1,4:227, • 1,5:38); iluec (11,1:77); vues ( oi, ui, uei, oei, iou: voil(l), vuil(l), vueill ( feu (regular form), fou (I,iv:9,111,11:109); jocu- > geu (single example: 11,2:52). Of the representations of locu in the text, liu is the predominating form, occurring 41 times; lou and leu appear respectively 12 and 11 times. Pope identifies liu as a northern form (488, N.vi); it appears, however, in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd.cxiv), in the ms. Bourguignon (Meyer, Rom.6:19), and in charters of the Côte-D'Or and Haute-Marne regions (Goerlich 85). lou is noted specifically in the Comtois charters (Philipon, Rom.43:543), the -ou-

41

graphy in çou (< *ecce+hoc) in those of west Burgundy (Philipon, Rom.41:583), and fou in the eastern text, Le Livre de fob (Philipon, Rom.50:395). Leu is the Burgundian form (Philipon, Rom.39:523; Gossen, Skriptastudien, 298) appearing regularly in the charters of the three regions. The retention of c, becoming final when followed in Latin by u or o, is a Provençal feature (Anglade 162), but was apparently not unknown in western Burgundy and the Franche-Comté, as is indicated by the occasional occurrence of the form luec in the charters of these regions (Philipon, Rom.41:583-84). — V o < Lat.o, u (20) (a) o[ > o,u: dolor, dolur; plusor, plusur; mors, murs; lor, lur; juf (< jugu-) (II,vii:10; III,i:17). (b) ó[ > o: orgoillose, contrarióse, glorios, etc.; lof ( ou: duos (< dous) (regular form); jous (< jugu+s); louf (< lupu-) (IV,3:78), lous (IV,iii:100). The concurrent graphies o, ou, and u are noted in east Burgundian charters (Philipon, Rom.39:523); ó[ is similarly represented in those of the west, with ou predominating (Philipon, Rom.41:584); o, ou, and more rarely u appear in Comtois charters (Philipon, Rom.43:543). ou alternates regularly with o in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, cxiv), and is constant in the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd, xxxiii).

(21) ó + yod: -atoriu- > o: miraor (V,iv:26,27) Andolf remarks the occasional elimination of the second element of the diphthong in the Floovant (Introd, cxvi), as does Philipon in the charters of west Burgundy and of the Franche-Comté: e.g. terraor < *terratoriu-:

42

pressor < pressatoriu- (Rom.41:584), terreor, terror etc. (Rom.43:543), noting that a similar reduction occurs in Rhodanian and Provençal dialects. (22) ó + n + yod > oi, ui: vergoigne, verguine (1,4:123); Babiloine (111,12:106); charoigne (IV,2:5,6), charoinne (IV,2:148). The development of a palatal glide following vowels other than e and u + n is noted by Pope as occurring most frequently in the east, south-east, and south-central regions (162 §162). The forms Borgoinne, Borgoigne appear in the charters of east Burgundy and the Franche-Comté (Philipon, Rom.39:524; Rom.43:543); Babiloine is noted in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd.cxvi-vii). (23) ó[+ nasal (final or becoming final) > o, u: maison, maisun; nom, num; don, dun; etc. 1 plural verbal terminations o/ums etc. (See also Morphology (59)b). o alternates with u throughout the text, with u occurring more frequently in Book I. This alternation occurs in a range of dialects—i.e. Norman, Anglo-Norman, Picard, Champenois (Chaurand 78), Burgundian (Philipon, Rom.39:524; Rom.41:584), and Comtois (Philipon, Rom.43:544). According to Gossen, the o graphy would appear to be more usual in Burgundy, o/u in the Franche-Comté (Skriptastudien, 298). (24) ó] > o, ou, u: jor, tor (< turre-), volt (< vultu-), cors ( ui, u: pecuine (11,5:15; 111,2:38; 111,8:12, etc.), pecune (11,5:20, 23, 25;III,3:15, etc.); luxuire (III,iv:5), luxure (IV,ii:12, etc.); deluives (11,6:9); estuide (1,1:62, 64, etc.), estudes (IV,2:42). In learned loan-words such as lu(i)xure < luxuria, deluive < diluviu-, estu(i)de < estudia, u was equated with u, and represented accordingly (Pope 231 §647 (2)). In the north-east and eastern regions, the diphthong ui was retained late and ordinarily reduced to u (Pope 492, N.E.vii; 494, E.xiii). Philipon notes in the charters of east Burgundy the concurrent graphies conduiz, conduz, fruit, fruz (Rom.39:525), in the western charters, pecuine, autru, celu (Rom.41:585), in those of the Franche-Comté, muy re, seituyre, fruz, construz (Rom. 43:544). b) ú > ui: multituide (single example: 11,3:45) A similar representation of Lat. u is noted in the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd, xxxiii). Chaurand (97) notes the representation of fr.u by ui as an "inverse graphy," occurring in a wide range of dialects, including Norman, Anglo-Norman, Walloon, Lorraine, and Burgundian.

44

Atonic Vowels (26) Pretonic a in hiatus > a, e: ausse (1,4:142; 1,5:4), ause (1,4:142) (< habuissem), aust (1,5:7) (< habuisset); eusse, eust (regular forms); sausse (1,4:146) (< sapuissem), sausses (1,4:146) (< sapuisses); seust etc. (regular form); taus (a: aorner, aorneit, aornement, etc.; aovert, aovertement, etc.; (by analogy) aordener etc. >a,e,o: paor, peor, poor (< pavor) (alternating graphies in the text). Goerlich (40-41) cites numerous examples of the preservation of Lat.a in this position, observed in documents and texts of Burgundy and the Franche-Comté; verb forms in a(h)u are remarked by Meyer in the ms. Bourguignon (Rom.6:42). Gossen’s table of graphies lists a and e as occurring in Burgundian and Comtois scripta (Skriptastudien, 299), and a and o are noted in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, cxxii-xiii). Of the retention of Lat.a and its transformation to o, Schwan comments: "Dans les dialectes français du Sud-Est et du Sud-Ouest, a s'est conservé très fréquemment devant la voyelle tonique suivant immédiatement, ou bien e issu du latin a y est redevenu a ... On trouve o pour a après les consonnes labiales." (Vol.I pt.I, 69 §87r). (27) Germanie hari- > ar, er: arberja (IV,vii:259); herbe[r]geit (11,6:53), herberga (11,6:55). The preservation of the Germanic-Burgundian radical, hari-berg, as in the first listed example, is noteworthy. Similar examples of the retained etymological form appear in Burgundian and Comtois charters (Philipon, Rom.39:510 n.2; Rom.41:585; Rom.43:545).

45

(28) Pre tonic a + yod > aizaze: maiesté, saietes, chaienes, essaierai, etc. (regular forms); maesté (IIIzix:712)z saetes (IV,vii:79); chaenes (III,x:2); essaerai (V,4:17); veantz (< vagantes ) (IVzvi:80). The elimination of the palatal element of the diphthong deriving from a + yod is noted in Burgundian and Comtois charters (Philipon, Rom.39:525; Rom.41:585; Rom.43:545-46). This reduction is characteristic of dialects of the south-west, south-central, and south-east regions (Pope 199 §533). (29) Initial and pre tonic e > a, e: Avangile (III,ix:310), astoire (III,x:9), assil (1,5:6), astranje (1,4:101), sanat (1,4:126), ancor (1,1:44), anelepas (111,11:81), manaces (11,1:60), racordara (1,2:19); asgarde (1,4:215). Evangile, estrange, Senat, esgarde, etc.(regular forms). A single example of e becoming a before a labial consonant is remarked in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, cxxix); this representation appears frequently in the charters of western Burgundy (Philipon, Rom.41:586), and in the Ysopet, where e also becomes a before st in astrece (Foerster, Introd, xxxi). In all mss. of the Girart de Rossillon, the Latin prefix ex > a (Ham, Introd. 29); in the Floovant, e initial or pretonic, followed by a nasal consonant, is occasionally similarly represented (Andolf, Introd. cxxx).

(30) a) e pretonic and intertonic > ei, oi, ai; e, o: reial, roial, real (1,1:38, etc.), reaus (111,5:55); leial,Ioial; dameisele, damoisele, damaisele (single example: IV,vii:222); seient ( ei,oi, i: feie(e), foiee (regular forms); fiee (III,ix:359,etc.), fieie (1,4:196). The reduction of ei/oi to i in this position is a northern and eastern feature (Pope 165 §422; 489, N.xviii; 494, E.ii), remarked by Philipon as appearing rarely in the charters of east Burgundy (Rom.39:526), more frequently in those of the west and of the Franche-Comté (Rom.41:587; Rom.43:546). (31) a) initial o + n, r > o, e: onorable, (h)onor, orgoill, etc. (regular forms); enorable (III,ix:94), enor (111,9:47), ergoill (111,12:104). The passage of o to e before n and r is noted in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, cxxxi-ii), the mss. Montpelier and Paris of the Girart de Rossillon (Ham, Introd. 31, 42), and in the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd, xxxiii). This feature appears rarely in the Burgundian charters (Philipon, Rom.39:526-27; Rom.41:587), more frequently in those of the Franche-Comté (Philipon, Rom.43:547). b) > o,e,a: roont, roondece, promez, etc.; reont, reondesce; raondece (I,v:7), prametent, prameteient, pramise, etc. The representation of o in this position by e and a is noted in the ms.Montpelier of the Girart de Rossillon (Ham,Introd.31)/ by e in the ms. Paris (Introd.42). raonde appears to be the regular form in Li Abrejance de Chevalerie (Robert, w.800, 8596, 10522, 10924.)

47

Philipon notes the occasional similar representation of pretonic o (initial and internal) in Comtois charters (Rom.43:547).

(32) pretonic u > u, ui: plusors, luxure, etc. (regular forms); pluisors (1,4:214), luixure (III,v:4). Pretonic u is occasionally represented by ui in Burgundian documents and charters (Goerlich 98; Philipon, Rom.39:527; Rom.41:587). Neither Goerlich nor Philipon notes the graphy as occurring in this position in Comtois material. Consonants

(33) initial ç + a > ch, c: chanter, chaitif, char, chose, etc. (regular forms); car (char) (III,ix:189), caste (chaste) (111,12:222; IV,vi:18), casteé (chasteé) (IV,vi:19;IV,vii:20), cause (chose) (111,1:37). Retention of Lat. ç in this position is classified as characteristic of northern dialects (Pope 487, N.i; Thomas 430; Brunot 310-11). However, the presence of the forms Kalemaigne, Kallun, Kalles in the ms. Montpelier of the Girart de Rossillon (Ham, Introd. 33) suggests that it was not entirely unknown in western Burgundy; in the present context, the graphy may be regarded as further evidence of the influence of the south, where, in the dialects of Catalogne, Gascogne, Languedoc, and Provence, Lat. ç before a remains intact (Anglade 161; see also Bourciez 134 §120, Historique.) (34) sibilant ç + a,o,u > c, ce, z, ch: ca, comenca, dolcor, recui, etc. cea, comencea, dolceor, receut, etc.; za (in,x:6), comenzas (11,3:28), manazant (II,iv:14), dolzor (11,3:7), menzonge (in,vi:9), rezut (m, 10:69), etc.;

48

cha (11,5:55; III,ii:13, 26; 111,4*58,60; III,iv :9; comencha (11,1:3), dolchor (11,4:91), rechut (11,3:26), etc. The distribution of the above graphies is of interest: ce, which predominates , occurs 9 times in Bk.I, once only in Bk.II, 21 times in Bk.III, and is used exclusively in Bks.IV and V; c appears 13 times in Bk.I, not at all in Bk.II, and once only in Bk.III; z appears in Bk.II (4 times) and Bk.III (9 times) only, as does ch (Bk.II, 6 times, Bk.III,7 times). According to Philipon's research, ç would appear to be the regular graphy in Burgundy and the Franche-Comté, ce being exceptional in the east (Rom.39:531), slightly more frequent in the west (Rom.41:589) and in the Franche-Comté (Rom.43:551); the ce graphy is also noted by Meyer in the ms. Bourguignon (Rom.6:45). We have found no recorded examples of the z graphy, with the possible exception of Besenzcon, remarked by Philipon in Comtois charters. çh is a normano-picard notation (Gossen, Grammaire ... 91 §38).

(35) fricative g + a,o > j,g,ge: losenjant, sonjant, venjance, etc.; herberga, geue (< iocat) (II,i:9), geu (< jocu-) (11,2:50). j is the predominating graphy in the text, j and g alternate in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd.clx); g. is constant in Philipon's charters (Rom.39:531). Occasional forms with ge are to be observed in the ms. Montpelier of the Girart de Rossillon (Ham, Introd.34). (36) a) intervocalic ç + u > c, g: siede, siegle (regular alternation); seconz, segonz (single example: n,l:rubric); segurs, segurité, segurement, asegure (regular forms). The forms seurs (11,5:156; 111,5:44) and seurement (111,10:207) are exceptional.

49

Formations with g appear frequently in Burgundian and Comtois material (Goerlich, 115; Andolf, Introd, clxi; Ham, Introd.33; Foerster, Introd,

xxxviii). b) intervocalic qu > g: aigue, eigue (< aqua); iegues, egues (< equas); segre (< sequere); seguent, segant, etc.; consegre. This representation of qu is regular in the text, with the exception of the verbal forms siut (III,ix:467), sit (I,ii:21), ensiut (111,9:54; III,ix:165z572, 664), ensivre (111,12:167). Philipon notes the passage of qu to g as a feature common to Burgundian, Comtois, and Rhodanian dialects (Rom.39:531;

Rom.43:550). The form aigue/eigue appears consistently throughout the text. According to Goerlich (33-34), it is the form characteristic of Burgundian and Comtois dialects ; it appears in Philipon’s charters of all regions (Rom.39:508: Rom.41:576; Rom.43:535), is a frequent form in all mss. of the Girart de Rossillon (Ham, Introd.26-27) and is an occasional alternative to eve in the Floovant. (See also Pope 135 §330). c) qu initial or internal > q, qu: qe (1,4:122 etc.), que (regular form); qel (1,4:132, etc.), quel (regular form); qés (1,4:99 etc.), quels (regular form); freqentees (single example: 1,5:37); unqes (1,4:171 etc.), dunqes (1,4:121 etc.), o/unques, do/unques (regular forms). The g graphy represents a spelling variant of no particular dialectal significance. Its interest lies in the fact that it occurs only in I,4-I,vi (fols.5v8r) of the text, as a frequent alternative for the regular qu graphy. (37) a) final t effaced: dun (1,4:157 ), don (11,1:67; 111,9:59,147) (= dont ); quan (quant) (in,viii:10). A similar effacement of t in this position occurs frequently in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, clv-vi); Goerlich (113) cites examples from the ms.

50

Bourguignon; on (=ont), don (dont), renar (renart) occur in the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd. xxxv). b) -ts > -z, -tz: movemenz, plaignemenz, etc.; partz, hautz, aovrantz, mortz, etc. Examples of retained t are to be observed in Goerlich's Burgundian and Comtois documents (113-14), and in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd.clix). c) s final or intervocalic >s, z: médecines, blandices, etc.; faisant, soffisantz, justice, desoz,etc.; tempestez (II,iii:ll), remembrancez (111,6:29), diz (2 s. pres, indie. dire) (111,9:42, 111), etc.; dezoz (IV,3:72, etc.), justize (111,10:127), suffizance (111,12:41), faizanz (IV,6:285). A similar alternation of s and z is remarked in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, clix); the use of z in the above positions would appear to be analogical to its usage in words such as dolzor, commenzas, effaza etc., listed in (34) above. d) final s > sz: vensz (< ventus) (IV,iii:92), enseignesz ( tristres (11,3:54); teneru- > trendre (M,viii:19); multas > moltres (IH,8::18). Examples of the addition of a non-etymological r following a consonant are remarked in the Floovant: e.g. forbrie (forbie), celestre (celeste) (Andolf, Introd, cxxxvii).

51

(39) r > 1: selong (corrected in the text to selont) (V,6:222); Porfile (Prologue 6); rememble (11,2:60); reelment (11,6:20). Lambdacisms are noted by Chaurand as occurring in dialects of north­ eastern regions (Chaurand 94), and by Gossen as a feature of Picard texts (Grammaire ... 113). Several examples of 1 for r are remarked, however, in the Floovant: e.g. celvales , melvoilliez , contraliez (Andolf, Introd.cxlii); in the charters of eastern Burgundy, Philipon finds pallement (by assimilation), and altaul (by dissimilation) (Rom.39:530). A relationship between the language of our text and southern dialects is again suggested by the presence of this feature in dialects of Provençal, as noted in the examples albire < arbitrium, alberc < hariberc, polpra < purpura (Anglade 198). (40) 1 > r: a) corpables (colpables) (1,4:121). Before a labial consonant, 1 is sometimes replaced by r in the dialects of the south-east of France and of neighbouring Provençal regions (MeyerLubke Vol.1,480 §476; see also Anglade 197); a similar representation appears in the Floovant: e.g. erme (elme) (Andolf, Introd.cxxxv). b) soreil (I,v:13,15,16,20), asirum (III,x:13), Ardpiades (111,8:39, 40); der (del) (1,3:47); cerver(I,l:7). Similar graphies noted by Andolf (Floovant, Introd.cxxxv-vi) are as follows: Intervocalic: soroz (in the Floovant); sereu (cited from Durandeau's Dictionnaire franco-bourguignon ); Before a consonant other than a labial: archant (alquant). Final: amiraur, amirer (amiral).

52

(41 )a) 1 + consonant > 1, u, or effaced: alcun, aucun, acune (single example: 11,4:113); malvéis tié, mau veis tié, maveistié (single example: IV,3:7); mielz, miuz, miez; mo/ult, moz (single example: 111,9:80); dolce, douz, doce (single example: III,ii:25); colps, cous, cos (I,v:37); tels, teus (1,1:5), tés (1,6:33); quels, qel, queus (I,ii:13, etc.), qués (1,4:120, etc.), qés (1,4:137 etc.); cels, ces. The highest incidence of effaced 1 (apart from ces < ecce illos ) is in Bk.I. The effacement of 1 after a_ , as in tés, qés (< talis, qualis), was widespread in Old French, and therefore of little dialectal significance (Pope 155 §391(1)); occurring after other vowels, it is an eastern feature, particularly common in Lorraine dialect (Pope 155 §391 (3); 495, E.xx). However, examples of the effacement of 1 after o, as well as a, are remarked in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd.cxxxiii-iv), and Philipon notes saies (< sigillos ) and ces (< ecce illos) in charters of the Franche-Comté (Rom.43:548). b) 1 > 1, n: molt, munt (1,4:94, 103, 222). The representation of 1 by n when preceded by a nasal consonant is noted by Andolf and Meyer as occurring frequently in Burgundian texts (Introd, cxlvi; Rom.6:45). With regard to the Franche-Comté, we note that nullu- is regularly represented as nun or nunl in Li Abrejance de Chevalerie (Robert, w.373,374,1007,1040, etc.) (42) n + m > rm: arme: regular francien form, alternating with the learned forms anime, aneme, and the Latin anima (single example: 11,7:77). The francien form is also noted as regular in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, cxlix), the Girart de Rossillon (Ham, Introd. 33), and the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd.xxxvii). (43) n, sn intervocalic > gn: ignocence (IV,6:232), regnablement (1,5:1),

53

re(i)gnable (1,4:89; 1,6:42), igneleté (I,v:10), ignel(e)ment (1,1:66; m,ix:693) Similar instances of the palatalisation of n, sn are to be observed in the Ysopet: e.g. ignel, ignocence (Foerster, Introd, xxxvii); igniax appears in Li Abrejance de Chevalerie (Robert, v.6954). (44) n + r > ndr, nr: avendreit, aprendre, espondre, prendreit, etc.; tenrai (111,12:200), retenreient (IV,iii:52), esponrai (111,12:21), penreit (IV,vii:138), etc. As in the material of western Burgundy examined by Gossen (Skriptastudien, 299), the ndr combination is the more usual graphy in the text. According to the research of both Gossen and Philipon (Rom.39:530; Rom.43:548), the nr combination is more usual in eastern Burgundy and the Franche-Comté. However, both graphies appear in east Burgundian and Comtois material of Goeriich's study (Î11-Î2), ndr is constant in the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd, xxxvii), and we note in Li Abrejance de Chevalerie the forms poindre (v.464), tindrent (v.106), tendroie (v.675).

(45) Fr. palatalised n > -ign, -in, -inn,-n: vergoigne (111,12:98), vergoine (1,1: 72); charoigne (IV,2:5), charoinne (IV,2:148); Babiloine (111,12:106); senefie (IJI,xii:50 etc.) -ign is the predominating graphy in the text. Forms in -in and -n are noted in the Floovant: e.g. Borgoine, Babiloine , montenes , Bretene, compenie (Andolf, Introd.cxlix) and in Goeriich’s material from central and south-eastern Burgundy: e.g. Bourgoyne (Dijon), Bourgoine, Borgoinne (Chalon-sur-Saône) (107-08).5

5.See honorance. listed in the hapax of Chapter four, p. 151.

54

(46) Germanic w > g, gu: garder, guardai etc., and compounds esgarde, esguarda, regarder etc.; forms of guerpir and compounds. The regular representation of Germ, w by g, gu serves to distinguish the language of the text from the dialects of Wallonia, Picardy, Artois, and Lorraine (Pope 487, N.iii; 494, E.i). g and gu alternate regularly in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd.clxi) and in the charters of western Burgundy (Philipon, Rom.41:587); g is constant in the eastern charters (Philipon, Rom.39:527). According to Philipon's research, g and gu are rare in the Franche-Comté, appearing occasionally solely in documents from the southern regions (Rom.43:547-48). Brunot's conflicting statement,then, that "à l'initial, le Comtois, comme le Français, prépose g au w germanique" (317),67is possibly based, not on evidence supplied by charters, but on that of Comtois literary texts such as the Ysopet, where g and gu predominate (Foerster, Introd, xxxviii), and Li Abrejance de Chevalerie, where g and gu appear to be constant. The constant use of these graphies in our text, then, would appear to be insufficient grounds for eliminating Comtois as a dialect possibility. (47) a) Lat. habet > ha: (1,4:218; I,v:17). Philipon gives examples of the preservation of the etymological h in forms deriving from habere, appearing in the charters of east and west Burgundy and the Franche-Comté (Rom.43:553); this feature also occurs in the ms. Bourguignon (Meyer, Rom.6:45) and in the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd, xxxviii).

6. See. on the other hand, Thomas 431-32, where the Franche-Comté is excluded because of the absence of germ.w.

7. Neither Goerlich nor Wendelbom make specific mention of the treatment of germ.w in the Végèce of Priorat de Besançon; our observation is based on examination of the text and the extensive glossary of Robert's edition.

55

b) We note the occasional use of h to mark the hiatus, in: vehement (V,6:267), s'aherdent (111,11:79). Philipon remarks a similar usage in Burgundian and Comtois charters (Rom.39:531; Rom.41:589; Rom.43:549). Morphology (48) The Case System In proportion to the length of the text, the degree of non-observance of the two-case system is not excessive.The following examples of irregularities are to be observed: (a) nom.s. mase. def. art. + noun or pronoun: le profit (Prologue 47), le cuir (I,i:13); le ciel (I,iii:4); le lignage (11,4:132), le recoillement (III,ix:653); le quel (111,2:59). (b) nom.s. mase. def. art.: le cors (111,11:44); le jugieres (IIIpdi:34). (c) nom.s. mase, indef. art. + noun: un desveiement (111,8:7). (d) nom.s. mase, indef. art.: un vilains (IV,vii:258), un contraires (III,i:4), un sols (m,vi:5). (e) nom.s.mase, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (including present participles) without inflexional s: delit (III,vii:3), soverain bien (1,3:41-42, etc.), movement (1,4:29), governement (1,4:56), achatement (1,4:79), comencement (111,8:7), entreposement (III,ix:297), torment (III,xii:78); aucun (1,4:75), quel (1,2:4; 1,4:61), qel (1,4:173; I,v:9); discret (Prologue 3), ferm (Prologue 43), séant (1,4:13), segur (1,4:95), nul (11,1:50;II,2:37,69), beneuré (IV,4:77). (f) nom. mase. pl. + s/z: nuis (Prologue, 45), li uns (111,2:22), feibles (in,xii:161), moltz (IV,iii:90). (g) We note the occasional use of analogical e for Class II feminine pronouns, adjectives, and present participles: quele (11,1:49 etc.), tele (V,6:37), semblante (111,10:129), manante (V,6:77), presentes (V,6:112, etc.). (h) The form filz frequently appears in the oblique singular.

56

(i) The alternation bel / biau, oblique mase. sing. < Lat. bellu- is to be observed: bel: III,ix:23, 111,12:190, IV,3:36, 37, 38, IV,iii:21; biau: in,ix:291, 306, III, 12:234, IV,vi:17. (j) The alternation of nominative/vocative and oblique forms of imparisyllabic nouns is also occasionally to be observed: e.g. faitre (I,v:7)/faiseor (III,ix:9) (vocative s.); sires (III,5: 25, etc.)/seignor (III,ix:619) (nom.s.); governeres (III,ix:657, IV,5:38)/governeor (IV,1:20, IV,5:28) (nom.s.); portiers (III,xii:25)/porteor (III,ix:720) (nom.s.); jugieres (III,xii:34, IV, i:47)/jugeor (II,vi:l 1 )/j u ges (IV,4:216) (nom.s.); pre veires (IV,vii:21)/prestes (1,4:182) (obliquepl.); compaignes(I,i:8)/compai gnons (IV,iii:59) (oblique pl.).

The Definite Article The following variations from standard francien forms are to be observed: (49) Oblique mase, s.: Io (I,v:26; I,vii:9, etc.). Io alternates with fr. le in Bks.I and II, occurs once only in Bk.m, not at all in Bks.IV and V. According to Pope, lo, lu, and lou as article and unstressed pronoun (see (53) below ) were retained in the eastern regions of France into the thirteenth century (496, E.xxv (a) ). Philipon lists lou, lu, and le as the regular forms in the charters of the entire ancient Duchy of Burgundy (Rom.41:589). A study of the morphology is not included in Philipon's survey of Comtois charters, but examination of appended extracts (Rom.43:495-559) indicates, as does Goerlich's study (121-22), that lo was frequently used for lou or le in this region. (See also Andolf, Introd.clxvii). In this respect, the Comtois dialect approaches the dialects of Provençal, where lo was the regular masculine oblique singular form (Grandgent 101 §118(4)). (50)(a) Fem. singular: li (nom.) (1,4:52, 111); le (nom., oblique ) (I,v:30/33, etc.)

57

Li is more characteristic of northern regions (Pope 488, N.xii), but is noted by both Philipon and Goerlich as occurring ocasionally in Burgundian

charters (Rom.41:590; Goerlich 121); it also appears in the dialects of Provençal (Grandgent 101 §118(4) ). Le (f) is a northern form (Pope 488, N.xii). (b) Fem. nom. s.: læ(I,v:23); fem. nom. and oblique pl.: læs (11,7:11, III,ii:26, IV,iii:68). This is probably to be seen as an archaic graphy, with no particular dialectal significance. Analogical forms appearing in the text are as follows: contrae ( me, te, se: me mémoire (1,6:30), te volunté (1,6:4); se propre stacion (I,v:31), se justice (1,5:16). The isolated examples listed above are characteristic of northern (Picard) dialect, analogous to the development of the feminine le in the same region (Pope 488 N.xii; see above, (50) a) ). These forms do not appear in the Burgundian-Comtois material used for this survey. (57) 1 sing., 2 pl., 3 sing, and pl. mase, possessive: mes > mis; tes >ti; ses > sis, si: mis norriz (111,11:152), ti fill (11,3:43), ti ami (11,4:42); sis noms (IV,vii52); si desciple (1,3:27). The nominative ti and si are regular francien forms (Moignet 41); mis and sis, formed on mi and si, more regularly occur in western dialects (Pope 328 §853; Moignet 41). Goerlich (125), however, observes several examples of these forms in the Yonne and Charroux regions of western Burgundy.

60

Verbs (58) The Infinitive The following concurrent forms are noted: (a) moveir (III,ix:ll etc.), comoveir (11,1:6 etc.), esmoveir (III,ix:440); remuevre (1,6:34; 11,6:37); escommovre (IV,iv:3), commovre (IV,4:222, 224; IV,6:281). remaneir (11,1:65 etc.), parmaneir (11,1:53 etc.); permaindre (HI,11:136). As Pope remarks, interchange of the infinitive termination was frequent in Old French verbs of the third conjugation (337 §883); forms in re, therefore, are probably of little dialectal significance. (b) chaeir, chaoir; chair: The form chair was of frequent use in Old French, especially in the northern region (Pope 337 §884 (iv) ).

(59) Present Indicative (a) 1 singular: mostr ( IV,3:60; IV,5:11; IV,6:16, 112,305; V,l:57, 64, 69; V,3:33, 44; V,4:81,98,131,146; V,6:30,39, 134,176, 224.) Retention of the Latin 1 singular present termination o as e is more usual in verbs in which the radical terminates in consonant + liquid or consonant + j; Fouché, however, notes the occasional appearance in Old French texts of forms such as chaleng, repair,in which the termination has been suppressed through the influence of the more numerous forms without e (181 §87). (b) 1 pl. (pres, indie, and future) > ons/on: dirons, deneierons, etc.; rendon (1,6:58), useron (1,5:50). > oms/om: avoms, diroms, etc.; torneiom (11,2:52), savom (11,2:52), avom (11,2:9, n,4:50,111,2:18, 56, etc.), ajostom (111,9:41), dorrom (11,3:5), dirom (11,7:54,

IH4x:69). > urn/un:

61

façum (Prol.49), volum (111,12:153), sofrun (1,4:175). Forms without s were occasionally used in francien, but are more characteristic of the dialects of the western and south-central regions of France; the absence of s is also a feature of Provençal dialects (Pope 339 §894; 499, S.C.xvi; Grandgent 131 §167). (c) 1 pl.: -ornes: jujomes (111,4:21) This termination was probably introduced under the influence of somes (1 pl. estre), and was widely used during the twelfth century; in later Old French, it was most common in the north-east (Pope 339 §895). The extension of this termination to the present subjunctive is to be noted in aiomes (II,vii:3); jujomes (111,9:39), rendering iudicemus in a final clause, is also probably present subjunctive. (60) Future (a) porrés (2 s.) (1,6:39), ferai (3 s.) (11,5:64): See Tonic Vowels (8)a, b, above. (b) otreirai (11,2:13), deneira (III,x:29), verdeira (IV,3:25): The elimination of fr. e atonic is more characteristic of Middle French, and has no particular dialectal significance. Of this reduction Schwan comments: "En hiatus avec une voyelle précédente, e commence, depuis environ le 14e siècle, à perdre sa valeur syllabique ou même à s'amuïr complètement, surtout d'abord après une voyelle simple, et d'une manière plus restreinte après une diphthongue." (Vol.I, pt.2, 149 §286). Among the given examples, prira (priera) and emploirai (emploierai) are relevant to the forms listed above.

62

(c) 2 pl. fut.: porreiz (111,8:26): The use of the termination eiz / oiz, the etymological derivative of Lat. -etis, for the 2nd plural future of all conjugations, and for the present subjunctive of first conjugation verbs, was common to a number of regions: it is noted by Fouché as a feature of western and eastern dialects (203 §102), and by Brunot as occurring in the dialects of Picardy and Champagne (312,318). Philipon observes this development in Burgundian, noting the predominance of -eiz in the charters, and of -oiz in the ms. Bourguignon and the Floovant (Rom.41:594). No examples from the Franche-Comté are given in Philipon’s Conjugaison Bourguignonne (Rom.43:550-59); however, avroiz is noted in the Ysopet (Foerster,Introd.xli), and liroiz, prieroiz, porroiz in the Végèce (Wendelborn 43). (d) Future and Conditional racordara (1,2:19), achatareies (11,4:19). Fouché (388 §197) observes similar future forms in the Passion, attributing the presence of Lat. a in the radical to the Franco-Provençal character of the text in question. (See also Grandgent 123 §152). (61) Imperfect Indicative and Conditional (a) Radical Imperf. Indic.: estre On several occasions, forms deriving from Lat. eram, eras etc. are used in place of the more regular forms from Lat. stabam etc.: 2.eres < eras (11,2:85); 3.ere -eve-: 1. reconteve (1,1:4), seigneve (1,1:5); 2. jugieves (1,4:13), adrecieves, (1,4:165), 6. paluevent (IV,vii:81,91); (by analogy) complaigneves (IV,4:125). This development of Lat. -aba- is more characteristic of Walloon and Lorraine dialects (Pope 493, N.E.xvi, 496, E.xvii), and does not appear in the Burgundian-Comtois material studied by Philipon or Goerlich, in the Burgundian literary texts used for this study or the Ysopet. However, portevent is remarked in the Vegèce (Wendelborn 41), while the occurrence of regnevet in the early Burgundian La Vie de St. Leger leads Thomas to the conclusion (432) that such forms were probably in use in Burgundy prior to 1251, the date of Philipon’s first charter. It is to be noted that Lat. -aba- regularly became -ava- in Provençal dialects (Grandgent 132-33 §170). (ii) 1 pl.Imperfect indicative deserviem (single example: 1,4:163). This termination possibly represents the extension to the imperfect of -em, noted by Pope as occurring in La Vie de Saint Alexis in the present tense verbs avem, poem, and of the future, serem, to suggest that the introduction of -ons was late in the north-east region (339 §895). It is also possible that it is simply a variant of -iens, which occurs in the 1st plural imperfect and conditional in Philipon’s charters of all regions (Rom.43:55056), and is also to be observed in the dialects of Lorraine and Champagne (Brunot 316, 319).

64

(iií) Imperfect indicative fr. -oi- > o: (34 examples) 2. donoes (11,1:69), quidoes (11,3:56), etc.; 3. parlot (11,3:1 ), gardot (111,5:33 etc.; 6. demoroent (single example: V,iv:8). This reduction of Fr. oi < Lat. é appears most frequently in the text in the 3rd singular. Similar reduced terminations of 1 s., 3 s., and 3 pl.imperfects of all conjugations are noted in Philipon’s Burgundian and Comtois charters: e.g. havoe (Franche-Comté), devoe (west Burgundy), pouot (Franche-Comté), avoent (east Burgundy), entroent (Franche-Comté) (Rom.41:592-93; Rom.43:550-51); avoent is noted in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, clxxiii), and tenoe in the Girart de Rossillon (Ham, Introd. 35-36). In the latter text and in the charters, these terminations are also occasionally used for the conditional. (iv) Imperfect and Conditional fr. -ei- > e: Imperfect: (39 examples) 1. mesconoissee (single example: IV,1:18); 2. forsjetees (1,4:196), poees (111,11:7), etc.; 3. travaille! (1,4:74), destruiet (IV,vii:74), etc.; 6.traieent (1,3:30), poeent (III,xii:95,96), etc. Conditional: (4 examples) 2.porrees (1^5:48); 3.refreidiret (IV,4:230); ó.poreent (1,6:35), otreiereent (IV,4:238). Forms in -ee- are not included among Philipon’s examples, but Goerlich gives several similar forms from his Burgundian material (59), and .Meyer remarks meneent in the ms. Bourguignon, as well as aveent, regardereent, mostrereent, appearing in a charter from Bèze, in eastern Burgundy (Rom.6:43-44).

65

(v) Conditional fr.-eient > -eint: vendreeint (single example: 1,4:135). Reduced forms in -oint, for the imperfect only, appear in Philipon's charters of east and west Burgundy: reclamoint, demandoint, tenoint, vivoint (Rom.41:592-93); Goerlich (22) notes forms in -eint (soleint, moveint) in west Burgundian material. Forms in -eint, -oint, -aint, especially in the imperfect indicative, are noted by Pope as shared by the dialects of the east and south-central regions (496, E.xxix; 499, S.C.xix). We have no explanation for the doubled e of our example, except as a possible scribal idiosyncracy; other examples of an apparently superfluous e are to observed in engineest (3 s. imperf. subj., see (64)a below) (1,4:167) and amplisseeient (3 pl. imperf. indie) (IV,6:81). (62) Preterite (a) 4. destorbesmes (single example: 1,4:119). Philipon attributes to Rhodanian influence similar first conjugation forms, ajornesmes, commandesmes, appearing in charters of east and south­ east Burgundy (Rom.41:593). (b) 6.esperarent (1,4:151), sorposarent (1,4:137). Preterites of the first conjugation in -arent are attested in texts of Wallonia and Champagne (Brunot 314, 319), and are noted by Pope as occurring frequently in eastern dialects from the beginning of the thirteenth century (496, E.xxx). That "eastern" in this context does not include Burgundy is indicated by the fact that Philipon specifically notes the absence of such forms from the Burgundian charters, at the same time remarking their presence in those of the Franche-Comté (Rom.41:594); similarly, -arent does not appear in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd, clxxiv), and one example only is noted in the ms. Paris BN 15103 (probably west Burgundian) of the Girart de Rossillon (Ham, Introd. 46). On the other hand, Wendelbom dtes willarent, nommarent, alisarent from the Végèce (42), and numerous

66

examples are remarked in the Ysopet

(Foerster,

Introd.xxvii).

(63) Present Subjunctive (a) 3.tornoiet (I,ii:14), seichet (I,v:28), vivefiet (nizix:509), abaissiet (IV,3:72). The retention of the Latin termination for the 3rd singular present subjunctive of first conjugation verbs is an archaic feature, with no particular dialectal significance. (See Fouché 199 §99.) (b) The following isolated forms are of interest: (i) 3. travaut (IV,6:235) < *tripaliet. Fouché (42-43 §21a) notes the t termination for the 3rd person singular present subjunctive of verbs of the first conjugation of which the radical in vulgar Latin terminated in 1 or 1 palatalized; other examples listed include baut (< bajulet), veut (< vigilet), conseut (< consiliet). (ii) 3. estreinge (II,viii:20); donge (IV,4:157). Moignet (65) notes as more characteristic of dialects of the west, particularly of norman and anglo-norman, forms in ge of the present subjunctive of all conjugations. (c) (i) 3. mueit (I,v:19), eschiveit (II,iv:9), forseneit (II,iv:25), penseit (11,5:114), otreit (III,ix:4)z desirreit (111,11;61), hasteit (111,11:65); 6.deserveient (11,5:51, corrected in the text from deserviem). Present subjunctives of first conjugation verbs terminating in -oi-, -eiare a uniquely Burgundian-Comtois feature (Brunot 317), noted in the Floovant (Andolf, Introd.dxxvi), the Ysopet (Foerster, Introd, xl), the Végèce (Wendelborn 41), as well as in the Burgundian-Comtois charters. Of the distribution of this form within the regions of his survey, Philipon remarks a decreasing incidence as the western border of Burgundy is approached, while examples, on the other hand, are extremely frequent in the FrancheComté; the following forms are listed: l.-ois, -oie, and the earlier form -eis; 2.-oies; 3. -oist, -oit, and the earlier -ait; 6.-oient, sometimes reduced to -oint, and the earlier -eient,

67

sometimes reduced to -eint (Rom.41:597). (ii) ovreit (I,iii:9). The extension of the termination in ei/oi to verbs of other conjugations is noted by Philipon in the Burgundian charters,in reduced form for the 3rd plural only: puisseint, metteint (east Burgundy), sacheint, faceint (west Burgundy) (Rom.41:598); in full, matoient is listed for the Franche-Comté (Rom.43:541). The forms covroient, traoient are remarked in the Végèce (Wendelborn 41). (d) 5. faceiz (11,5:121). The extension of -eiz / -oiz < Lat. -ëtis to the present subjunctive of verbs of conjugations other than the first (cf. (60c) above) appears to have occurred only in Burgundy, and to a lesser extent in the Franche-Comté: e.g., receveiz, sacheiz, voilloiz, facoiz (Burgundy); metoiz (Franche-Comté) (Philipon, Rom.41:595; Rom.43:557). In locating the -eiz termination "dans une partie du domaine du française de Fest," Schwan makes no reference to the extent of its usage (Vol.I,pt.2, 213 §340r); however, all the listed examples are of third conjugation verbs, occurring in a single Burgundian document (Côte-D'Or 1273): e.g. façois, façoiz, randoiz, recevoiz (Vol.2,pt.3, 131). (64) Imperfect Subjunctive (a) 3.enginneest (1,4:167), gorvernest (1,5:45). Philipon notes e as the vowel characteristic of Burgundian and Comtois dialects, and remarks their similarity in this respect to Rhodanian (Rom.41:595-96: Rom.43:551 n.24). (b) 4.fusins (1,4:181), volesins (1,4:181); ó.fusient (1,4:107), fuisint (1,6:17), defendiseient (1,2:7), combatisseient (II,v:17). The 1st plural termination -ins appears to be a reduction of -iens, noted by Moignet (78) as a dialectal alternative to -ions , and appearing among the listed examples of all regions in Philipon’s Conjugaison Bourguignonne (Rom. 53: 551); a single example of a form in -ins is

68

remarked by both Philipon and Goerlich in what is possibly the same east Burgundian doocument of the early thirteenth century (Rom.41: 595; Goerlich 150.) The 3rd plural termination -ient is noted by Moignet as an eastern form, analogous to -iens; in the Conjugaison Bourguignonne, Philipon lists fussient from Dijon in the east and Auxois in the west, and fuissient from Autun, in the west, and from the Franche-Comté (Rom.53: 557); -int of the 3rd plural, apparently reduced from -ient, is parallelled in fuissint, noted by Goerlich (138) in a Burgundian document of the early fourteenth century. The forms in -eient listed above correspond to fussoient, appearing twice in a charter from Chalón, in south-east Burgundy (Philipon, Rom.41:599). Philipon suggests that this form is a late manifestation of a more ancient termination in -eient/-oient/-aient, appearing in the charters of east and west Burgundy in the contracted form -eint/-oint/-aint.

(65) Past Participle concuilletes (II,v:14); toleit (11,6:13), toleites (111,3:56, 77). Fouche notes the presence in Old French of a group of weak participles of ir verbs terminating in -eit, of which toleit ei: N.E., E. (ii) (l)c: -iata > -ie: N., N.E., E. (iii) (11): é[ > i: N., E. (iv) (12)a: *iei > i: N.E., E. (v) (30)b: e pretonic + yod > i: N.,E. (vi) (34): ç sibilant > ch: N. (vii) (41)a: 1 effaced after vowels other than a: E. (viii) (50)a: li fem. s. nom. article: N.,E.; le fem. s. nom. and oblique: N. (ix) (56): fem. s. possessive pronoun me, te, se: N. (x) (61)b: imperfect indicative forms in -eve-: N.E., E. (xi) (62)b: 3 plural preterite forms of first conjugation verbs in -arent: E. (b) Differentiating Features: (i) (15)c: e[ > e: The reduction of the diphthong is a distinctively Burgundian/Comtois feature. (ii) (13)d: fr. par > por. According to our material, this is more indicative of Burgundy than the Franche-Comté. (iii) (19): locu- > leu: This form is characteristic of both Burgundy and the Franche-Com té. (iv) (36)b: qu intervocalic > g, noted particularly in the regular occurrence of the Burgundian/Comtois and southern form aigue/eigue < aqua. (v) (41)b: 1 > n: a distinctive Burgundian/Comtois feature. (vi) (46): germ, w > g, gu: The complete absence of the w graphy distinguishes the text from the scripta of Picardy, Wallonia, and Lorraine.

72

(vi) (61)b,iii: reduced imperfect indicative terminations in -o-. (vi) (63)c: 3 s. present subjunctive terminations in -eit are a distinctively Burgundian/Comtois feature. (vii) (64)a: 3 s. imperfect subjunctive terminations of first conjugation verbs in -e-. (2) Features suggesting the influence of Franco-Provençal (i) (9): Lat. tonic au retained. (ii) (33): Lat. ç before a retained. (iii) (39): r > 1. (iv) (40): 1 before a labial consonant > r. (v) (59)b: 1 plural verbal terminations without s. (vi) (60)d: retention of Lat. a in the radical of the future and conditional of first conjugation verbs. (vii) Vocabulary items, as listed in Dialectal Vocabulary, pp.69-70 above.

(3) Particular localizing features (a) Features shared by the text with the material of east and west Burgundy: (i) (17): o[ > e (Floovant and the ms. Bourguignon). (ii) (13)d: fr. par > por. (iii) (19): locu- > liu. (iv) (32): pretonic u > ui (two examples only). (v) (61)b,iv: reduced terminations of the imperfect indicative in -ee-. (b) Features shared with east-Burgundian material: (i) (6): á + n + yod > ai (regular graphy). (ii) (8)b: fr.a > e (Floovant). (iii) (11): é > i (Floovant). (iv) (13)b: differentiation of -eau to -iau (Floovant). (v) (37)c: s final > z. (Floovant). (vi) (37)d: s final > sz (Floovant). (vii) (38): presence of non-etymological r (Floovant).

73

(viii) (39): r > 1.

(ix) (40): 1 > r (Floovant). (x) (45) palatalised n > -in, -n. (xi) (62)a: 1 plural preterite termination, 1st conjugation: -esmes (single example). (xii) (64)b: Imperfect subjunctive terminations in -ins, -int, -eient. (c) Features shared with west-Burgundian material: (i) (5): á + yod > ai/ei. (ii) (33): c before a retained (as k, Girart de Rossillon). (iii) (57): 1st and 2nd possessive pronouns mis, sis. (d) Features shared with the material of east Burgundy and the Franche Comté: (i) (22): ó + n + yod > oi. (ii) (41 )a: effacement of 1 following vowels other than a. (iii) (63)c: 3 s. present subjunctive terminations in -eit. (e) Features shared with the material of west Burgundy and the Franche Comté: (i) (10): -auca > -oie. (ii) (19): retention of ç in the representation of locu-. (iii) (29): initial e + labial, s, x > a. (iv) (30)a: e pretonic and intertonic > e,o.

(v) (30)b: e pretonic + yod > i. (vi) (31)b: o pretonic > e,o,a. (vii) (34): ç sibilant > ce. (f) Features shared with Franc-Comtois material: (i) (l)b: á[ > ei in non-final position. (ii) (5): á + yod > e.

(iii) (7): -aria > -ire (two examples) (iv) (17): 0[ > ue, oe, o, u. (v) (19): locu > lou.

74

(vi) (23): ó[ + n becoming final > o/u. (vii) (43): n, sn intervocalic > gn. (viii) (49), (53): lo - mase, article and unstressed personal pronoun. (ix) (50)d: las - nom. and oblique feminine plural article. (x) (55): lor - 3 plural personal pronoun in stressed position. (xi) (62)b: Preterite terminations of first conjugation in -arent (two examples).

The distribution of the features listed in (3) is as follows: east Burgundy: 20 features, of which 5 are shared with west Burgundy, 3 with the Franche-Comté; west Burgundy: 15 features, 5 shared with east Burgundy, 7 with the Franche-Comté; Franche-Comté: 21 features, 3 shared with east Burgundy, 7 with west Burgundy. While the distribution of the selected features would appear to exclude the probability of west Burgundy as the location of the text, further differentiation would have little validity if based solely on a feature-count which has taken little account of the incidence of listed forms, or of the absence from the text of forms considered distinctive to a particular region. In the latter respect, we note, as does Andolf of the Floovant (Introd, clxxxiii), the complete absence of the representation of é by a ((14)b), a feature which we would expect to find in some measure in a Comtois text; on the other hand, we observe that one of the strongest features of the text, reduced imperfect indicative and conditional terminations in -ee- ((61)b,iv)) is attested solely in Burgundian material; furthermore, and more significantly, Burgundy and the regions of the south are clearly indicated by the dialectal vocabulary (p.69). On the basis of this evidence, therefore, we conclude that the text probably originated in the south-east of Burgundy; as a more specific location, we suggest Chalon-sur-Saône, in the documents of which city appears the single parallel example of the unusual imperfect subjunctive

75

terminations in -eient observed in our text ((64)b). The situation of Chalón in eastern Burgundy, adjacent to the south-west border of the FrancheComté, could well account for the high incidence of Comtois features in the text, while the large Cluniac monastery of St. Marcel within its walls (Atlas des monastères ... 11) would be a highly appropriate birth-place for a translation of a text of the stature of the Consolatio.

The Date of the Text In the absence of firm testimony from within the text, in the form of

references to contemporary events or personages, our dating of the text can be no more than an approximation, based on observation of certain aspects of the language. In this regard, the highly latinized syntax has proved to be of little assistance; however, a study of graphies, morphology, and vocabulary reveals nothing incompatible with Thomas' conclusion (432) that the translation was written in the thirteenth century . As Thomas, we remark a number of archaic or obsolescent features which suggest an early date of composition: (i) the archaic æ graph y, noteH in thp form? la?z l^s, sæs etc. (50)b; (ii) the predominance of the graphy ei < é ( (15)); (iii) imperfect indicative terminations in -eve- (61)b,i; (iv) alternative imperfect indicative forms of estre in -ere-, (61 )a, which,

according to Fouché (421-22 §220e), had almost disappeared from usage by

the end of the thirteenth century; (v) imperfect subjunctive terminations in -eient (64)b; (vi) the use of the preposition estre < Lat. extra (1,4:204; 11,4:116), which, according to Marcello-Nizia (272), was "peu fréquent déjà en ancien français."

(vii) the adverb entaimes (IV,4:145), rarely attested in the second half of the thirteenth century (TL III: 565-67; Gaston Paris, ed.z Vie de saint Gilles,

76

Introd, xvii, qtd. in Thomas 432 n.4.); (vii) when considered in relation to the length of the text, the number of observed instances of breaches of the case system is small; this is consistent with texts of the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. On the basis of the above observations, we conclude that the text was written in the early years of the thirteenth century, possibly, to venture a

closer approximation, between the years 1210 and 1240. Li Confortement de Philosofie, then, remains the first known complete translation of the Consolado into the Old French vernacular.s

8. This chronology excludes the late twelfth-century Anglo-Norman text, the Roman de Philosophie by Simund de Frein, which is a free verse adaptation of only part of the Consola tip. (See John E. Matzke, Les Oeuvres de Simund de Frein (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1909) Introd, xi.)

Chapter Three The Translation

The Source of the Translation It is generally agreed that the popularity of the Consolatio in the Middle Ages was probably due initially to Alcuin, who is thought to have introduced the study of Boethius into the Christian scholarship of eighth­ century western Europe via the great Carolingian monasteries of northern France.1 From these centres of learning, then, emanated the enthusiasm for

the Consolatio which gave rise to a proliferation of manuscripts that was to continue throughout the entire medieval period. There is, of course, no way of knowing how many of these mss. have not survived to the present day, while of those known to be extant, many yet remain to be examined. In view of this unavoidably fragmentary knowledge, it is extremely unlikely that the actual source of our translation will ever be located. Most modern editors of the Consolatio, such as Bieler (1957), Weinberger (1934), Fortescue (1925), Stewart-Rand (1918), and Peiper (1871) have used as their bases the earliest known extant mss., which date from the ninth and tenth centuries. These can be assumed to be relatively true to the hypothetical archetype, in comparison to the late medieval mss. at our translator’s disposal, which would inevitably have born the imprint of generations of scribal emendations and errors. In measuring our text against that of Bieler's edition, we are therefore hesitant to classify as mistranslations, additions, or omissions discrepancies which may well be

1. Courcelle 29-66. On this subject, see also Bolton. 'The Study of the 'Consolation of Philosophy’..." 34; Jacqueline Beaumont. 'The Latin Tradition of the 'De Consolatione Philosophiae". Boethius, His Life, Thought and Influence, ed. Margaret Gibson (Oxford: Blackwell. 1981) 279.

78

accepted readings of the particular ms.tradition within which the translator was working; in addition, we must be aware that his Latin ms. would almost certainly have been accompanied by marginal and/or interlinear glosses, which would also form part of his source material. Despite the absence of a specific source, it is nevertheless possible to establish a number of readings probably used by the translator, compiled from variants provided in Bieler's edition, and from available readings of late Medieval Latin mss. To this purpose, we have followed the procedure of Dr. J.K. Atkinson for his inquiry into the Latin sources of the Old French version of the Consolado contained in the ms. Troyes 898, to consult, for the later Latin readings, the most extensive work on the subject contained in Barnet Kottler's doctoral dissertation on the possible Latin sources of Chaucer's translation of the Consolatio. Apart from the Bieler variants, therefore, our findings are limited to the range of Kottler's research, which covers the whole of Book I,and Books 11,4, 111,10, IV,6, and V,3 of the Consolatio, measured against the text of Weinberger's edition. As Dr. Atkinson has noted,2 34 of the numerous mss. examined by Kottler, many date

from the fourteenth century; however, the presence of equivalents in a thirteenth-century text would indicate their prior existence in earlier mss.

2. Atkinson. " A Critical Edition ..." VoI.I, 269-76. 3. Bamet Kottler. "Chaucer's Boèce and the Late Medieval TYadition," diss.. Yale. 1953 (Ann Arbor microfilms. 1973). 4. Atkinson. "A Critical Edition ..." Vol. 1. 270.

79

Kottler's findings reveal that identification of the interlocutors, Boethius and Philosophy, is consistent in one group of mss.5 Otherwise, constant crossing of readings renders it virtually impossible to group the variants according to any clear line of descent. Therefore, in the table of correspondences presented below, we have not identified the Latin mss. in which a particular reading occurs, but simply indicate the concurrence as evidence of its probable use by the translator. Column 1 of the table contains the Bieler text, replacing that of Weinberger in Kottler's study, column 2, the Kottler (denoted as K.) or Bieler (denoted as B.) variants, and column 3, the Old French translation. Bieler 1,1:12: vestes erant

Variant K.74: vestes eius erant

1,4:13: exempla 1,4:24: conscii nullum 1,4:29: Triguillam 1,4:57: eo die

K.84: exemplar (almost all mss.) K.85: conscii estis nullum B.7: Trigillum K.87: eodem die

1,4:22: cessavit

K.88:cessabit

5. Kottler 60.

Translation 1,1:20-21: les ves teures de Philosophie 1,4:20: l'examplaire

1,4:61: estes consachables I,4:69:Trigillum 1,4:108: en ce meesmes jor 1,4:124: je entrelaisserai (with a change of subject)

80

1,4:87: posse

K.89:posse agere posse facere

1,4:118: me conscientiam 1,4:126: socer etiam sanctus

K.91: meam conscientiam K.92: socer Simacus

1,4:137: rumores quam

K.93: rumores sunt quam

1,4:143: autem videor I,v:37: nocet I,v:38: mendaci

K.94: autem mihi videor K.96: nocent K.96: mendacii

I,v:41: gaudet

K.96: gaudent

1,5:12: libertas

B.13: summa

libertas

1,5:35: lenioribus

K.99: levioribus

1,6:52: lenibus

K.106: leuibus B.19: suis K.108: speciem

II,i:8: subitis 11,4:22: specimen

1,4:150: que il puurent aveir fait 1,4:194: la moie

concience

1,4:206: li mien saint sugre ... Simacus 1,4:221-22: qés sunt ores les noveeles 1,4:228: or me semble I,v:39: nuisent I,v:40: de la mençugnie I,v:41-42: il ajoisent 1,5:15: sovertaine franchise I,5:70:plus leier (ms.lejeres)6 1,6:70: legiers

II,i:10: as suens 11,4:31: la beautez

6. Kottler notes (99-100) that some mss. undoubtedly read leuioribus. but for the most part It is difficult to distinguish with certainty between the n and the u.

81

11,4:87: praesens in,2:l-2: in augustam sedem suae mentis... recepta sic coepit

K.114: praesens vita B.38: in angustam sedem ...

III,x:3: habitans

B.56: hebetans

111,11:62: ad tempus manendi

B.58: permanendi

IV,6:31: quamvis diversa IV,6:66: liberum est

K.127: omitted

IV,6:73: ea series

K.130: liberius est K.131: ea fa ti series

IV,6:123: dispensado

K.135: dispensado dei

IV,6:128: quidam

K.135: quidam philosophus grecus

IV,6:133: remordet deus

K.136: remordet adversitate

II,4:138: la present vie 111,2:5: e comença a penser estreitment III,x:5: que rebuche 111,11:95: au temps de permaneir IV,6:60: omitted IV.6:126: plus délivrée IV,6:147: li destinable ordenementz IV,6:233: li sages ordenementz de Deu IV,6:244: un sages grec

IV,6:250-51: les autres remort par l'aversité

82

IV,6:136: hos ducit

K.137: hos deus ducit

IV,7:42: proelium

B.87: nimis acre

animis acre

V,3:4: videtur

K.142: videntur

V,3:38: ratiocinari

K.144: ratiocinari

patet

potest

IV,6:253: Dex demeine les autres IV,7:87-88: trop aigre bataille V,3:8-9: dous choses me semblent V,3:56-57: poet hom desputer

In addition to the above attested variants, we present below a number of hypothetical readings, which, while not appearing in the Latin material at our disposal, we suggest as possibly appearing in the translator's ms.: Bieler Translation Suggested Reading I,ii:3: externas I,ii:3:pardurables eternas tenebras tenebres tenebras I,ii:19: roseis I,ii:20: diverses variis floribus ...floribus flors 1,4:114: O méritos 1,4:188: je me O miratos merveil 1,5:41: la plus 1,5:29: postremus maximus

11,3:19 :praedicavi t 11/3:39: scenam

grant 11,3:30: dira 11,3:59: l'oscurité

praedicabit tenebram

7. cf. Jean de Meun: en la cortine e en l'ombre: Venceslaus Louis Dedeck-Héry.ed., "Boethius' 'De Consolatione' by Jean de Meun," Medieval Studies (1952): 191, lines 4546.

83

11,4:20: dolore ni,ix:22: augustam

III, 11:85-86: ex animali motione IV, 1:29: praemittere IV,i:18: verendi IV,iii:34: abdita IV, v:l: sidera V, 2:13: optatorum

II, 4:28: defors III,ix:59, 631: estreite III, 11:123: del movement de Farme IV, 1:52: de leisser IV,i:42: veire IV,iii:113: haute IV, v:5: les signes V, 2:22-23: que sunt a desirrer

e (or de) foris angus tarn

ex animae motione praetermittere veri alta signa optandorum

The Greek Quotations 89 From Kottler's compilation, we conclude that the usual late medieval scribal practice was either to omit the quotation completely, or to transcribe it into roman characters and then translate into Latin, or simply to translate directly into Latin. The translator, therefore, would almost certainly have had a Latin version at his disposal. We list hereunder the quotations as they appear in Bieler’s edition, together with the Old French version and the closest equivalent provided by Kottler; for those not appearing in his compilation, we give the late medieval equivalent of the incunabula of 1482, Q Cologne, Johan Kolhoff the elder.

8. For a discussion of the Old French vernacular translators' treatment of the Greek quotations, see Glynnis M.Cropp, "Boethius’ Donkey and other Greek Quotations in the Medieval French Translations of the 'Consolatlo Philosophlae"', New Zealand Journal of French Studies Vol.9. 1 (1988): 19-32. 9. These have been supplied by Mr.Brian Donaghey, of the University of Sheffield, via Dr.J.K. Atkinson, University of Queensland.

84

J¡ f Bieler: 1,4:2: ovoç Xupaç ? (Greek proverb) Translation: I,4:2-3: Exceptionally, the translation is preceded by transcription into roman characters: Onos liras—es tu cum li asnes a la harpe qui ot e non entent ? Kottler, 83: Es tu sicut asinus ad liram ? Bieler, I,4:2-3:7EÇ(xüÔ(X, (IT] KeuOe voœ. (Homer, Iliad I, 363) Translation, 1,4:4-5: Manifeste le a Kottler, 83: confitere mihi et ne abscondas.

moi,

ne l'ascondre pas.

Bieler, 1,4:122: eæou OeÇ). (This was attributed to Pythagoras, but used by many schools of philosophy.)10 Translation, 1,4:200-01: A un Deu servuns, non a plusors. Kottler, 92: servi uni deo et non pluribus diis. Bieler, 1,5:10: elç Koípavóç éonv, Eiç ßaoiÄEug (Homer, Iliad 2, 204-05). T ranslation, 1,5:13-14: u quel est un seignor, un governeor. Kottler, 97: eo unus dominus est et unus rex. Bieler, 11,2:35-36: Suo 7Ù0ovç, tov pèv eva kockSv, tov 5è ezepov eoccov (Homer, Iliad 24, 527 ff.) Translation, 11,2:86-88: dous toneaus ... l'un plein de bien e l'autre plein de mal.

10. Cropp 22-23.

85

1482 Sig.b Iro: duo dolía quidem malum aliud autem bonum. Bieler, 111,6:3-4: S ÔoÇoc, 5ÓÇa, jivpioiau ôq ßpouov

ovSèv ycycoai ßioxov œyKcoaaç peyav. (Euripides, Andromache, 319.) Translation, 111,6:6-7: O gloire, o gloire, ele non est autre chose as milliers des homes se non granz enflemenz des oreilles. 1482 Sig.c 4ro: O gloria, gloria, milibus hominum mortalium nihil aliud facta nisi aurium inflatio magna. 11

Bieler, IV,6:129: avôpòç Ôq lepov ôcpaç ociôépeç ôiKo5ojj.r|oav. (Source unknown) Translation, IV,6:245-46: Les vertuz nurrirent le cors del saint home. Kottler, 136: Viri sacri corpus edificaverunt virtutes. Bieler, IV,6:175: ÂpyaXeov Ôe jj.e xama Oeov coq kocvt1 ¿yoppEUEiv. (Homer, Iliad 12, 176) Translation, IV,6:315-16: De ce dit uns sages grec: Li tres fortz Dex governe totes choses. Kottler, 140: expositio grece auctoritate id est fortissimus in mundo deus regit omnia. f

?

~

i

/

Bieler, V,ii:l: flavi* E(|)Opav mt rcavx' ekockoveiv (Homer, Iliad 3, 277; Odyssey xii, 323) Translation, V,2:47-48: Dex veit totes choses e ot totes choses e governe totes choses.

11. See Cropp 25, where it is noted that the French translators perpetuated an error common to the Latin texts and commentaries, whereby the Greek words Biorov 'lifestyles' and Sncov 'ears' were confused.

86

1482 Sig.g 2ro: Omnia videt et omnia audit.1213

Translation Techniques

Within the limitations imposed by the inadequacies of his language, the translator has produced a competent rendition of the Consolatio into Old French, commensurate with an admirable degree of proficiency in Latin, and a considerable understanding of the Boethian text. To the modern reader, the translation is extremely literal, sometimes

to the extent of requiring recourse to the Latin as a means of clarification. Adaptations and paraphrase are therefore rare, the more usual method being to transpose the Latin into the vernacular either by careful imitation of its expression and structure, or alternatively, by attempting to convert the Latin idiom to the more readily understood Old French equivalent. As will be demonstrated below, the combined procedures produce some interesting results in the areas of both vocabulary and structure, which contribute in no small measure to our knowledge of the French language. In not restricting himself to a rigid "imitation" method as practised, for example, by earlier translators of the Bible, the translator has anticipated the method used by Jean de Meun in his Old French prose version of the Consolatio, where we find a similar alternation of caiques of the Latin and more idiomatic French expression. This latter procedure, as remarked in Jean's translation particularly with regard to the "opening" of such uniquely Latin constructions as the ablative absolute and the accusative and

12. Donaghey remarks that Chaucer also places this quotation at the end of V.2. 13. See, for example, 1,11:14-16, and 1,3:58-62, sentences (9) and (10), and critical notes on these passages. These departures from the more usual procedure may be due to deficiencies or variant readings in the translator’s ms. Other examples are remarked as they arise in the critical notes.

87

infinitive, is considered by Cline14 to be evidence of the author's innovative approach to the task of translation, as expressed in the preface, where he states his intention as being to render "plainement la sentence de l'aucteur sens trop ensuivre les paroles du latin."15 The contribution of Jean de Meun

to the development of translation theory and techniques has long been recognized;16 therefore, in predating him by over half a century, our anonymous translator must also be acknowledged as a pioneer of the literary genre which was to attain wide popularity in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. For the detailed examination of translation techniques presented below, we have selected the following aspects for special consideration: 1. The translator's choice of Vocabulary: (a) latinity; included in this section are examples appearing in the Prologue and in the second commentary in III,ix, which, as is shown in chapter five, are themselves translations; (b) the use of synonyms, and of binary and related expressions. It will be noted that here, passing reference only is made to neologisms, early or rare usages, and hapax. Since the text of both translation and commentary has proved to be of considerable lexical interest, these words are dealt with separately in chapter four. 2. The treatment of Proper Nouns and related adjectives pertaining to (a) PersonsXb) Places, (c) Winds, (d) Stars and Constellations. Again, we have included words from the commentary, apparently deriving directly from a Latin source. 14. James M. Cline, "Chaucer and Jean de Meun: De Consolatlone Philosophiae", A Journal of English Literary History Vol.3 (1956): 170-81. 15. ed.Dedeck-Héiy, Preface, lines 9-11.

16. See. for example: Paulin Paris, "Jean de Meun, traducteur et poète", HLF 28 (1881): g 393: '[J. de M.) ouvrit la voie que les clercs du xiv siècle suivirent avec tant d’ardeur et de succès.' Qtd. in John Keith Atkinson, "Les Compléments Prédicatifs dans 'Lf Livres de confort de Philosophie' de Jean de Meun," Studia Neophilologia 46, 2 (1974):392.

88

3. Style: treatment of (a) Metaphor, (b) the Latin Sentence. 4, Grammar and Syntax: methods of translating (a) questions introduced by nonne and num;(b) participles and participial phrases; (c) the accusative and infinitive construction; (d) the passive; (e) impersonal verbs; (f) the subjunctive; (g) the gerund and the gerundive. 17 1. Vocabulary

(a) Latinity As is to be expected in such a literal translation, the vocabulary is to a large extent made up of words deriving directly from their Latin counterparts in the Boethian text. The greater number of these imitations have been used by earlier authors, and are thus well attested in the major dictionaries, as, for example, abit, habit < Lat. habitum, aministraciun < Lat. aministrationem, hume / ain < Lat. humanum, cogitacion < Lat. cogitationem, négoce < Lat. negotium, etc.; at the same time, however, the translator’s innovative attempts to accommodate his language to the exigencies of the Latin are evidenced by a number of other caiques which, either in form or in usage, are listed as entering French through the works of authors dating from the thirteenth century and beyond, or which, on some rare occasions, are to the best of our knowledge elsewhere unattested, and thus may be unique to this text. Occasionally the Latin itself is retained, sometimes probably overlooked in translation, as ordo (Prol.54), Metrum (Headnote, I,v),

17. For the imitation of the anaphoric relative, the "urbs condita” idiom, the accusative and infinitive, and the ablative absolute in the literary language of later Middle French, via the translators of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, see Peter Rickard, A History of the French Language (London: Hutchinson. 1974) 83-84.

89

flammas (11,2:63), 18 and juventute (11,3:34), 19 or preserved for specialized terminology or expressions, sometimes accompanied by a short gloss, as: pretura, cele dignitez de Rome (111,4:57-58); porismata (111,10:117), corrollarium (111,10:118), followed by an explanatory comment (118-22); atque e converso (V,3:47); similarly in the commentary, we find cist lius est a maiori -ce est del graignor (11,7:51-52), the mathematical terms cubi (III,ix:355), longilateri (III,ix:356), sesquartera (III,ix:393), and atque e converso (IV,vii:164). Semantic imitation of the Latin is to be observed in the treatment of Latin compound words consisting of the negative prefix, in/m, + adjective, adverb, or noun, which are consistently rendered by their separate components, the Latin negative being preserved in the semantic equivalent, non or ne/oient, and accompanied by the appropriate French caique or synonym, as: inopina - non esmable; impotentes - non poissant; insolentia - la neient acostumance; incommutabilitate - la noient muableté; inevitabiliter - noient eschivablement; etc. This treatment of negative compounds appears to have been standard procedure in early medieval translations, as indicated in the listings in TL VI, 653-54: increduli 'nient creable', innoxium 'nient nuisable', innocenter 'nient nuisantment* (Cambridge Psalter),

18. For a possible ms.variant, see the critical note on this line.

19. See critical note on this word.

20. We have found a single exception to this practice, occurring in a passage of commentary: indevides (V,iv:40, 41).

21. For this abbreviation, see Chapter two, p.27.

90

incorruptibile 'niant corrumpavle' (Sermons of St. Bernard), intolerabilis 'nient soffrables' (Dialogues of St. Gregory). 22 The translator adopts a similar method for the Latin phrase, res publica, which in all contexts is rendered by its separate semantic equivalents, la commune chose (Prol. 23, 27, 69; 1,4:51 (in the plural), 55; 11,7:15, 44; IV,6:324).22 23

(b) Synonyms As a frequent alternative to the "caique" method, individual words are rendered by synonyms of different etymology, a number of which, as will be demonstrated in chapter four, appear to be neologisms of form or usage. Occasionally, a word has apparently been translated in isolation, with little regard—or perhaps understanding-of its context, to suggest that the available lexical material had certain limitations: Bieler, 1,1:17-18(4): inter utrasque litteras in scalarum modum gradus quidam insigniti videbantur Translation, 31-32: Entre les dous letres erent degré noble a semblance d'eschiele The context demands that insigniti here be read in the sense of "marked," "clear." 24 Bieler, I,iii:9: subito vibratus lumine Phoebus Translation, 10: e il, balancié par sodeine lumiere 22. See also Atkinson, "A Critical Edition ..." Vol. 1:306. 23. Similarly, Jean de Meun. in 1,4 (Dedeck-Héiy. 177, lines 16, 20) and IV,6 (D.-H. 258, line 200); in 11,7 he has more regard for the context, translating as "le commun profit" and "la communeté" (D.-H. 200, line 8. 201, line 31). 24. Charlton T.Lewis and Charles Short. A ï .a tin Dictionary rev.ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1969) 965b.

91

The translator is apparently unaware of the usage of the verb vibrare, in the sense of "to gleam," "to glimmer," arising from its primary meaning of "to set in tremulous motion," "to shake," etc.25 Bieler, 1,4:34: Provincialium fortunas ... Translation, 76: les aventures des suzjez a Rome ... Again, the translator demonstrates his limited lexical resources in not rendering the plural, fortunas, in the frequently assigned sense of "wealth," "possessions."2627

More usually, however, the familiar words selected by the translator come within the range of meanings demanded by the context.

As pertaining to the "synonym" method, we draw attention to the frequently used technique, well attested in medieval translations, of rendering a single Latin word by two French words, thus forming a semantic doublet, or binary expression. In later translations, this procedure was sometimes adopted as a means of glossing, whereby the doublet consisted of a caique and an explanatory synonym. Here, however, the caiques that occasionally appear in the expressions are well established in the language, and thus require no such treatment; rather, the binary expression appears to represent the translator's attempt to capture more fully, or to amplify, the perceived sense of the Latin. To the modern reader, the additional term frequently seems to be little more than a redundancy; however, that the 25. Lewis and Short 1985a-b. 26. Lewis and Short 773b. For other examples, see critical notes on 1,3:71 and 111,12:58.

27. See, for example, Keith Vai Sinclair, The Melbourne Livy. A Study of Bersuire's Translation Based on the Manuscript in the National Gallery of Victoria (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1961) 35-36 and n.99; Atkinson Vol. 1:288.

92

pleonasm was to become a valid means of literary enrichment for the medieval author is indicated by the later endorsement of its use by Brunet Latin: Tout çou que on poroit dire en .iii. mos ou en .iiii. ou a mout poi de paroles, il l’acroist 28 par autre paroles plus longues et plus avenans ki dient ce meismes.

In the following selection of binary expressions appearing in the translation, each example is preceded by the corresponding Latin expression, respective locations and text being separated by the sign /: 1:35/67: dulces/douces e delitables 1, 1,3:6/8: magistra/maistre e dame I, 6:8-9/11: praesidere/garder e governer II, 2:14-15/30: nulla violentia/nule force, nule cruelté 5:26/50: 11, vestram excellentiam/vostre hautece e vostre dignité II;5:78/136: vitio/par vice e par malveistié 5:83/142: foeditate/en sa orrece e en sa mauvesté 11, 11,7:63/103: iniurias/les torz e les laidenges II, 7:75/122-23: negotium/le terrien négoce e la temporel loenge III, iv:8/ll: miseri/li malvais e li chaitif 7:2/5: 111, anxietatis/par si grant travail e par si grant angoisse ix:l 1/34-35: purior/plus purs e plus sotils III, 111,11:39/60-61: subsistendi/d'estre e de permaneir 111,11:72/106-07: liquentia/moles e corrantz III, 11:88/126: desiderent/desirrent e s'esforcent IV, 1:14/28: calcatur/est marchee e tenu vil IV,6:97/191: discernere/conoistre e deviser IV, vii:33/305: inertes/malveiz e coart V, 2:18/31: deditae/se donent e sozmetent

28. qtd. in PJL Messelaar, Le Vocabulaire des Idées dans le Tresor* de Brunet Latin (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1963) 346.

93

On at least one occasion, a Latin word has been rendered by three French words: 3:31/60: instituti/saive e bon e garni de nostres bons murs 1, As a variation of the above technique, we note the expanded translation of a Latin word by a French word + an adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase: I,ii:6/6: liber/delivrez des temporels cures I,iii:2/2: vigor/vigor de pacience I, 4:141-42/227: existimatione/por lo pensement del pueble II, 3:41/61-62: velox hora/l'isnel hore de la mort III, 1:17/27-28: imagines/les images de la veire bieneurance III,i:9/14: tenebras/tenebres de la nuit 111,2:21-22/32-33: gaudio laetitiaque/par joie del cors e par leece de l'anime III,v: 1/3: potentem/veirs puissanz 111,7:8/21: pecudes/les foles bestes 111,8:31/51-52 (passim): beatitudinem/la veire beneurance 111,9:3/9: video/je vei veraiement 3/9-10: opibus/les richeces tenporels 65/113-14: habes/tu as en ta concience III, xi:9/16-17: lumen/lumiere de la vérité IV, 4:59/89: supplicio/del deu torment IV, iv:14/56: seras umbras/les tardis ombres de la nuit V, 6:88/162-63: accesserit/aucuns horn ... porra aprochier por conoistre Less common are condensed translations, where two Latin words are rendered by one in French. These expressions are probably interpretative reductions rather than omissions: I, 6:1-2/1-2: paterisne me ... attingere atque temptare/sofreras ... que je conoise II, 1:4/5: affectu desiderioque/par le desiier IV,4:3-4/ll: atrox scelerataque mens/la male volentez rV,iv:8/10: iniustas acies et fera bella/les cruels batailles

94

V,1:47/72: convenit et concurrit/il avint 49-50/78: concurrere atque confluere/ensemble corre V,3:101/168: dissaeptum atque disiunctum/miparti. 2. Proper Nouns and related adjectives 29 (a) Personal Names The names of the interlocutors, Boethius and Philosophy, are regularly rendered by the French forms, Boece and Phi/ylosoph/fie; exceptionally, the Latin form is retained in Boecius (1,1:70) and Philosophia (11,6:4). Names of historical and literary personages are sometimes converted to the French form: (unless the nominative form only appears in the text, the oblique form of the name is listed) Platun (1,1:64), Platon (1,3:25 etc.), Caton (II,vii:19, etc.), Neiron, Nerón (II,vi:4, etc.), Seneque (111,5:57), Epicures (111,2:64). Frequently, however, the Latin form of the name is retained, sometimes to the extent of conserving the case termination of its usage in the text: a Conigasto (1,4:67), je forgitai Trigilium (1,4:69), la male volenté Cipriani (1,4:90), en l'aage de March Tullii (11,7:43), li os del feeill Fabricii (II,vii:17), Antonius contraposa ... Papinianum (111,5:59-60), etc.; this practice is also to be observed in the commentary: e cele partie ... fu apelee "Ege um Mare" (111,12:214); la fable de Orpheo (III,xii:52); Aristeus ama Euridicem (III,xii:144); Diana ... Eufigeniam tresporta (IV,vii:23-24); Li dur travail honorent Herculem (IV,vii:48); les filles d'Athlantis (IV,vii:102); puis rameine Perithoum a Theseum (IV,vii:185); etc.

29. A full list is provided in the Glossary of Proper Names. 30. For a possible variant reading, see critical note.

95

For the misrepresentations of Persi regís as lo reis de Perse, Antoninus as Antonius, and Lyncei as de loue cerviere, see the critical notes on 11,2:7879,111,5:59, and 111,8:36.

Sometimes the necessity for a gloss has been avoided by the resolution of an allusion in translation, or by the replacement of an obscure or archaic name by its more familiar equivalent: I, 1:33-34/62-64: Eleaticis et Achademicis studiis/en l'estuide de Socrotes ... en l'estuide de Platun. (See critical note). II, 6:32/60: plures Poenorum/plusors des Aufricans II, 7:29/46: Parthis/as Turs III, ii:7/8: Poeni leones/li lions d'Aufrique IV, iii:l/93: Vela Neritii ducis/les veilles del due Ulixes IV,iii:18/102: numen Arcadis alitis/Mercurius IV,vii:2/8: ultor Atrides/Agamennon ... vengeor de tort IV,vii:8/26: Ithacus/Ulixes Similarly, the rhetorical devices, personification and metonymy, are invariably resolved in translation: Phoebus/le soleil (standardized form): I,iii:9/9; I,v:9/15; I,vi:l/4; II,iii:l/3;

Phoebe/la lune: II,viii:8/13-14; IV,v:10/18; IV,vi:7/9; Cereris fide/par la fei del blé: I,vi:5/5; gravis Ceres/li pesantz formentz: III,i:4/7-8; Cerealia pabula/les mangiers del froment: IV,iii:23-24/106; Bacchica muñera/lo vin: II,v:9/7; Oceano/en la mer:IV,vi:12/14. In a reversal of the above procedure, a touch of contemporaneity is introduced with the rendition of "vulpeculis exaequetur" by "cil est itels com Renartz li goupilz": IV,3:53/81.

96

(b) Place Names These are sometimes rendered bvy the French form: iii:7/8: Threicio/de Thrace; I, I, 4:38/81: Campania/Champaigne; 55/106: Ravenna/Ravenne; II, 7:27/45: Caucasum/Caucason; III, v:5/5-6: Indica longe tellus/la derreene terre d'Inde; V,i:3/3: Euphrates/Aiguefreite. Elsewhere, they remain virtually unchanged: l, iv:8/7: Vesaevus/Veisevus; III,v:7/6: Thyle/Tile; in,x:7/17: Tagus/Tagus; etc. The practice of resolving allusions in translation is again to be observed in the following: i:2/4-5: aestuantis more ... Euripi/par la costume del torment de la mer; II, II, v:9/9: Tyrio veneno/par le sane del pulpe; m, ii:31/30: Hesperias in undas/en la mer d'occident; III, iv:l/7: Tyrio ostro/en sa riche porpre; viii:8/14: III, Tyrrhena vada/la mer; III, xii:26/22-23: Taenara/la valees d'enfer; 45/38: Tartara/enfer; 55/119: Tartareum in specus/en l'enfernal fosse; IV, vii:2/10: Phrygiae ruinis/par le destruiment de Troie. Exceptionally, we note a departure from this procedure in the rendition of Aetna by Vulcan: II,v:25/21; 11,6:4/8. (c) Names of Winds In the Latin text, the winds are referred to by their classical names, e.g., Boreas or Aquilo (Greek or Roman: the north wind), Auster or Notus (Geek

97

or Roman: the south wind), Eurus (the east wind), Corus (the west wind), and Zephyrus (the gentle western breeze). In translation, a particular wind is sometimes not identified: I,iii:3/4: praecipiti Coro/par le trebuchable vent; I, vii:6/3: turbidus Auster/li torbeillis venz; II, iv:4/8: flatibus Euri/par les souflemenz del sonable vent; IV,v:13/50: flamina Cori/li soflement des ventz. Elsewhere, Boreas and Aquilo are translated by Boire (I,v:27: Boira), Auster and Notus by Oistre. The Latin form is preserved in Eurus (IV,iii:92) and Zephiri (Latin genitive singular form: II,iii:7).

(d) Names of Stars and Constellations The form of the Latin text is retained in the following: I,v:17: Hesperus; I,v:19: Lucifer; I,v:28: Sirius; I,v:29:. Arcturus, IV,v:5: d'Arturi; IV,v:9: Bootes. Lucifer becomes simply l'esteille jornais in III,i.T3, and Vesper, roman name for the evening star, is rendered as Hesperus in IV,vi:55. Ursa, constellation of the Bear, is rendered by the French form, li Orse (IV,vi:10), as is sidus Cancri, by la grief esteille de Cancride (I,vi:3). 3. Style (a) The treatment of Metaphor The richness of the Boethian imagery is diminished in translation by the occasional resolution of metaphors, as demonstrated in the following examples: I,iii:l/1: discussa ... nocte/forsgitee ignorance 8/9: clausum reseret diem/ovreit la clarté del soleil enclose 1,3:33/64: circumflantibus procellis/par diverses persecutiuns I, v.T 4/22-23: frondifluae frigore brumae/el freit driver 31-32/35-36: perversi mores/li pervers tiran

98

11, 1:44-45/64-65: cum semel iugo eius colla summiseris/com tu aies sosmis tes cous au servise d’icele 2:21/42-43: licet caelo/il leist a l'air 11, II, ii:6/4: pleno cornu/par plaine habundance 3/7: s tel li feris noctibus/par la clere nuit III, i:5/9: apium labor/li mielz III, vi:5/14-15: celsa sede/del haut ciel IV, i:21/47: currum/tornoiement vi:35/76-77: IV, rerumque regens flectit habenas/il demeine le governement des choses. (b) The Latin Sentence The compact hierarchical expression of the Latin is frequently restructured, subordinated clauses and phrases being replaced with a series of co-ordinated or juxtaposed main clauses. In the following examples, corresponding components of the Latin and French are identified by small roman numerals: Bieler, I,l:3-7(1): (i) visa est mulier (ii) reverendi admodum vultus, oculis ardentibus ... (iii) colore vivido atque inexhausti vigoris ... (iv) statura discretionis ambiguae. Translation, 6-15: (i) je vi une feme ... (ii) La chiere de la feme ere forment honorable, li oil cler e resplendant...; (iii) sa color esteit vive e de grant vigor ... (iv) sa stature esteit de dotose discretiun. Bieler, IV,2:103-05(39): (i) nam si, uti paulo ante collegimus, malum nihil est, (ii) cum mala tantummodo possint, (iii) nihil posse improbos liquet. Translation, 161-64: (i) car nos mostrames un petit desus le mal estre neient; (ii) mais li malvéis poent tant solement faire le mal; (iii) ... donques aparissant est que li mal ne poent neient.

99

Bieler, IVZ4:132-36(42): (i) Nam si uti corporum languor ita vitiositas quidam est quasi morbus animorum, (ii) cum aegros corpore minime dignos odio sed potius miseratione iudicemus, (iii) multo magis non insequendi sed miserandi sunt quorum mentes omni languore atrocior urguet improbitas. Translation, 246-52: (i) Car ausi corne la langors est enfermetez des cors, en tel maniere la malveistiez est ausi come enfermetez des armes, (ii) Nos ne

jujoms pas les malades par cors estre dignes de haine mais de pitié; (iii) ... donques molt plus nos ne devoms pas degeter mais aveir pitié d'icez les pensés des quels la malveistiez, plus cruels de tote langor, travaille.

The Latin use of the anaphoric relative where French and English would normally use a demonstrative or personal pronoun is frequently imitated in translation, leading sometimes to a duplication of the Latin word-order: Bieler, 1,3:18(7): Cuius hereditatem cum ... raptum ire molirentur Translation, 28-29: L'eritage del quel ... si desciple enginnerent a ravir Bieler, 11,1:8-9(4): Cuius si naturam, mores ac meritum reminiscare Translation, ll-12:La nature de la quel e les mors e la mérité se tu

remembres Bieler, 11,6:45(16): De quibus illud etiam considerandum puto Translation, 77-78: Des quels choses, je pens ice estre a esgarder

Bieler, IV,iii:8-9: Quos in varios modos / Vertit herbipotens manus Translation, 96-97: Les quels puis que la mains, poissantz d’erbes, tres torne en diverses manieres

100

On at least one occasion, the relative used by the translator does not have a Latin counterpart: Bieler, 11,7:53(18): Ita fit ut... Translation, 87-88: Por la quel chose, est e deit estre que ...

4. Grammar and Syntax (a) Questions introduced by "nonne" and "num" The affirmative (nonne) or negative (num) implication of questions of this type is conveyed in the following ways: (i) By making explicit the appropriate response: Bieler, 111,8:22-23(10): Nonne introspectis visceribus illud Alcibiadis superficie pulcherrimum corpus turpissimum videretur? Translation, 38-40: ... se il poeit veeir dedenz es entrailles le cors d’Arcipiadis, qui est tant beaus defors, ne li semblereit il estre laiz? Oil! Bieler, V,5:34(7): Nonne rationis potius causam probaremus? Translation, 65-66: Ne loerioms nos plus la cause de raison? Nos la devoms plus loer.

Bieler, 11,5:31(12): Nu m audes aücuius talium splendore gloriari? Translation, 58-59: Oses tu gloirefier tei par la resplendor d'aucune de tels choses? Non te deiz gloirefier.

Bieler, 11,6:21-22(7): Num quicquam libero imperabis animo? Num mentem ... ammovebis? Translation, 36-39: En quel maniere puet l’om comander ...? En quel maniere puet horn remuevre ...? En nule maniere. (ii) nonne is sometimes rendered by ne or non: Bieler, 11,2:35-37(13): Nonne adulescentibus ... didicisti? Translation, 85-86: Quant tu eres jeunes horn, non apreis tu en estuide ...?

101

Bieler, 111,11:8(5): Nonne, inquit, monstravimus ...? Translation, 14: nen avoms nos mostré ...?

In the following examples, we note the rephrasing in translation of the num question to imply an affirmative response: Bieler, 11,2:32-33(12): Num te praeterit Paulum ... pias impendisse lacrimas? Translation, 78-80: Ne te remembre que Paulus ... plora devant lui por sa misere?

Bieler, IV,4:98-99(31): N u m videntes eadem caeco putaremus? Translation, 171-72: Donc ne jugerioms nos cez qui entendreient cez meemes choses estre avogles? 31 (iii) On at least one occasion, num has been ignored, the required negative response thus having to be conveyed by the context: Bieler, V,4:14-15(5): Num enim tu aliunde argumentum futurum necessitatis trahis nisi ...? Translation, 29-30: Traiz tu d'autre part argument de la nécessité des choses se non ...? (iv) Sometimes the question is converted to a positive or negative declarative sentence: Bieler, 1,3:14-16(6): Nonne apud veteres ... magnum saepe certamen cum stultitiae temeritate certavimus ...? Translation, 23-24: Nos eûmes sovent grant tençun ensemble la presunciun de folie ancienement...

31. This rendition may be due to a ms.variant. See critical note.

102

Bieler, 111,11:64-66(25): Ea etiam quae inanimata esse creduntur nonne quod suum est quaeque simili ratione desiderant? Translation, 95-97: Maimement celes choses que nos creoms estre noient vivefiees desirrent par semblant raison ce que est lor propre. Bieler, II,vi: 14-15: Celsa num tandem valuit potestas / vertere pravi rabiem Neronis? Translation, 15-17: La haute poesté ne pout, a la parfin, trestorner la rage del felon, Neiron.

Bieler, IV,2:36-37(15): Num dubium est bonos quidem potentes esse ...? Translation, 66: Non est dotable chose les bons estre poissantz ... (b) Participles and Participial Phrases (i) Past and present participles used adjectivally: These are frequently retained in translation: Bieler, 1,1:37(12): His ille chorus increpitus deiecit maestior vultum ... Translation, 70-71 : Cele compaignie, chastoiee par teles paroles, geta sa chiere

Bieler, III,ii:27-28: validis quondam viribus acta / ... flectit virga

Translation, 26-27:La verge, menee cha en arriéré par læs granz forces des homes, flechist... Bieler, IV,vi:6: ... sol rutilo concitus igné Translation, 7-8: Li soleilz, commouz par sun vermeil feu Bieler, 1,1:11(2): respicientiumque hominum frustrabatur intuitum. Translation, 19-20: ele ... deceveit les homes esgardant.

103

Bieler, 11,1:38(14): calami tos fugiens facit... Translation, 55: ele, fuianz, fait les homes chai tis ... Bieler, IV,iii:4: pulchra qua residens dea ... Translation, 94-95: en la quel une bele deesse ... seantz

The adjectival use of the past participle in Latin to express an abstraction, commonly known as the urbs condita idiom, is imitated in the following: Bieler, 11,7:70(21): post r e s o 1 u t u m morte suprema corpus Translation, 111-12: en après le cors deslié ... par la dareine mort Huygens, III,ix:259-60: fmortificato] semine Translation, 496: de la semence mortifiée

Bieler, IV,4:65-66(22): post defunctum morte corpus Translation, 112: en après le cors mort Here the translator demonstrates his awareness of the difference between the Latin and the French idiom with the following gloss: 113-14: Je lais moltz grantz tormentz as armes en après la mort del cors. Exceptionally, in the next example, the Latin participle has been rendered by an adjective: Bieler, 0,11:61(23): semine multiplícate Translation, 93-94: par multepliable semence

32. R.B.C. Huygens, ed.. "Mittelalteriche Kommentaire zum *O qui perpetua*." Sacris Erudirt 7(1954):419. As already noted in Chapter one. the source of the long commentary on III.lx Is discussed in Chapter five. p. 178.

104

The difference between the Latin and French modes of expression is recognized in translation by the rendition of the past participle by the form in -ant in the following: Bielen IZ1 :1(1): dum tacitus ... signarem ... Translation, 4: Cum je meesmes, taisant, seigneve ... Bieler, I,3:6-7(3): supero cardine delapsa Translation, 9-10: descendant del soverain ciel

Bieler, 1,4:21-23(7): secutus ... op ta vi Translation, 58: je, ensegant ... desirrai Bieler, I,iv:17: locoque motus Translation, 19: movanz de sun liu Sometimes the participle is expanded to a full clause: -- to a juxtaposed or co-ordinated principal clause (see 3.(b) above): Bieler, I,ii:6-8: Hie quondam cáelo liber aperto / suetus in aetherios ire meatus / cernebat... Translation, 6-9: leist, ça en arriéré délivrez des temporels cures, esteit acostumez a aler as celestiaus trespassemenz ... Il esgardeit...

Bieler, 111,8:9-10(5): Sed per aspera quaeque distractus securus esse desistis. Translation, 18-19: tu seras detraiz par moltres aspres choses e jamais segurs ne seras. Bieler, IV,l:6-8(2): eaque mihi ... non tarnen antehac prorsus ignora ta dixisti. Translation, 15-18: e tu [les] deïs a moi ... nequedent je ne les mesconoissee pas de tot en tot un petit aneéis.

105

Bieler, II,vi:5-6: corpus et visu gelidum pererrans / ora non tinxit lacrimis Translation, 9-11: il esgarda le cors tot freit, ne mua sa chere par pieté ne par pior

Bieler, 111,2:13-17(5): Quorum quidem alii summum bonum esse nihilo indigere credentes, ut ... élaborant ... alii vero bonum quod sit dignissimum veneratione iudicantes ... nituntur. Translation, 21-26: Li uns des homes creient neient besoignier estre soverain bien: icil travaillent ... li autre jugent cele chose estre soverain bien ... cil s'esforcent... — to a relative clause: Bieler, IV,ii:10: non facit quod optât ipse, dominis pressus iniquis. Translation, 18-19: cil qui est sozmis a tantz seignors ... ne poet faire ce qu'il desire.

Bieler, IV,6:56-57(14): ea vero sunt quae primae propinqua divinitati stabiliter fixa fatalis ordinam mobilitas excedunt. Translation, 109-11: Cez choses sormontent l'ordenance de la destinee les quels, procheines a la premiere devineté, sont fichees establement e sormontent l'ordre de la destinable movableté.

Bieler, 1,2:12-13(6): ... lumina ... caligantia Translation, 21-22: ses lumières ... qui sunt oscuré Bieler, 11,6:56(19): res sese aliter habentes Translation, 92-93: les choses qui sunt en autre maniere

Bieler, III,ii:28: curvans dextra Translation, 28: la dextra qui la corbe

106

— to a temporal clause: Bieler, 111,1:11-13(3): talia sunt quippe quae restant ut degustata quidem mordeant, interius autem recepta dulcescant. Translation, 16-19: Cez choses que je ai a dire sont iteles: quant om les goste, premièrement se mordent ... mais quant eles sunt receues dedenz, devienent douces. Bieler, IIZ4.T 1(4): meliora ... retinens Translation, 15-16: cum tu retiegnes encore les meillors choses Bieler, 11,6:22(7): mentem firma ratione cohaerentem Translation, 37-39: ... la buene pensé ... quant eie siet en ferme raison

— to a concessive, causal, or hypothetical clause: Bieler, IV,l:6-7(2): eaque mihi etsi ob iniuriam dolorem nuper oblitam Translation, 15-17: e tu [les] deïs a moi ja seit ce que je les eusse obliees novelement por la dolor del tort Bieler, 1,4:14(4): tibi obsequentes Translation, 49: quar obeïsuns a tei

Bieler, 11,4:79-80(27): Sic quoque perexile bonum est quod aeque animo fera tur amissum Translation, 126-27: En tel mesure, cil biens est molt petiz le quel Torn suefre par egal corage se Torn le pert

107

(ii) The Ablative Absolute In Old French, the use of the absolute construction was limited to the present participles of oi'r and veoir.3334The retention of the construction in the following examples, then, is simply an imitation of the Latin: Bieler, I,iii:l: discussa ... nocte Translation, 1: forsgitee ignorance

Bieler, 111,1:2(1): arrectis ... auribus Translation, 2-3: adrecees mes oreilles Bieler, 11,3:26-27(8): eisdem in curia curules insidentibus Translation, 43: e ti fill seient el siege des cónsules

On several occasions the retained absolute construction is introduced nA by si que/ which gives to the expression a temporal, or possibly, as in the first and second examples, a consecutive sense: Bieler, I,iii:5: ac nondum cáelo venientibus astris Translation, 6-7: si que les esteilles non aparisant el ciel Bieler, I,iv:l: Quisquis composito seren us aevo Translation, 1: Quicumques sages, si que sa vie bien ordenee

Bieler, I,vii:10-12: unda ... caeno sórdida resoluto Translation, 4-6: l’onde ... enesiepas faite paiuabie, si que comeu lo tai Bieler, IV,4:93(29): cunctis extra cessantibus Translation, 164: si que totes choses defors cessent 33. Rickard 83. 34. cf. Prologue. 29.

108

Bieter, V,4:100(37): sensu tarnen absente Translation, 171-72: si que le sens defaillant On a single occasion, the ablative absolute has been expanded to a full clause, si que + the subjunctive, which we read as expressing a consecutive sense: Bieler, V,v:15: corpore Celsius levato Translation, 31-32: si que li cors seit levez plus haut

The use of si que + participle would appear to be unique to this text, the absence of a full verb possibly being due to the translator's desire to follow the Latin as closely as possible. As a conjunction introducing a temporal clause, si que is regular in Old French; however, in assigning to it a consecutive sense, the translator looks forward to the usage of Jean de Meun in his translation of the Consolatio, and to that of the authors of the Middle French period, as remarked by Marchello-Nizia: Pour indiquer de façon spécifique une conséquence, le moyen français se sert de "si que" ♦indicatif ... c'est la locution de conséquence la plus utilisée chez Joinville,Froissart, Molinete

35. Gérard Moignet. Grammaire de l'ancien français. 2 1976) 236.

ed. (Paris: KHncksieck,

36. Bieler, I,v:4-7: legemque pati sidera cogis ut... condat steïlas luna minores Dedeck-Héiy 181, Unes 3-4: et constrains les estoiles ... si que la lune ... repolgne et escurclsse les estoiles meneurs c c 37. Christiane Marchello-Nizia. Histoire de la langue française aux xiv~ et xv~ siècles (Paris: Bordas, 1979) 298.

109

Precisely this construction does, in fact, appear in the commentary: IV,v:44-46: quant l'ombre n'est mie espesse, si que la clarté del soleil poet petit passer oltre ...

Other observed methods of translating the ablative absolute are as follows: — by an adverbial phrase: Bieler, I,i:12: effeto corpore Translation, 13: en mun cors senz fruit

Bieler, 1,3:18(6): me astante Translation, 26: en ma presence Bieler, 1,4:39-40(12): rege cognoscente Translation, 83-84: en la presence del rei Bieler, 1,4:88(29): inspectante Deo Translation, 154: en l'esguardement de Deu Bieler, IV,1:32(9): perturbatione depulsa Translation, 56: senz aucune turbación

— by a temporal clause: Bieler, II,vi:2: urbe flammata Translation, 5: quant il embrasa la cité Bieler, 111,1:21(7): ea perspecta Translation, 38-39: Quant auras coneue icele

110

-- by a hypothetical clause: Bieler, 11,4:30(10): illis manentibus Translation, 46: se eles se tienent Bieler, 111,8:22(10): introspectis visceribus Translation, 38: se il poeit veeir dedenz es entrailles

— by a causal clause: Bieler, 111,1:16-17(5): occupato ad imagines visu Translation, 26-27: car la veue ... est porprise par les images

Bieler, 111,11:94(36): hoc enim sublato Translation, 135-36: Car se nos ostoms une chose Bieler, V,l:21(8): cohercente in ordinem cuneta Deo Translation, 30-31: Car cum Dex constreigne totes choses en ordre — by a concessive clause: Bieler, 111,2:45-46(13): etsi caligante memoria Translation, 71: ja seit ce que la mémoire seit obscuree

— by a juxtaposed or co-ordinated principal clause: Bieler, 1,1:41-42(13): obstipui visuque in terram defixo ... exspectare ... coepi Translation, 75-76: Merveillai moi, fichai mes iouz en terre e començai a atendre

Bieler, nziii:10: immotis ... fluctibus Translation, 10-11: e les ondes ne se muevent

Ill

Bieler, 11,7:57-58(19): relicta conscientiae virtutisque praestantia Translation, 93-94: e vos deguerpiz la vaillance de vostre concience e de vostre vertu (iii) The Future Participle The latin future participle is active in meaning. It is used as an adjective in agreement with a noun or pronoun, with esse to serve as the future infinitive, or with the appropriate tense of the subjunctive of esse to form the future or "future in the past" subjunctive, and carries with it a variety of nuances, according to the context, i.e., "going to" and the more immediate "about to," "intending to," "able to," "likely to," "must," etc. In the absence of a single-word equivalent in French, it has been rendered in the following ways: — as a noun: Bieler, 1,4:95-96(32): quoniam me dicturum quid facturumve praesens semper ipsa dirigebas Translation, 164-66: car tu mees mes, presenz, adrecieves totes hores les miens diz e les miens faiz. 39 — by the present infinitive: Bieler, 111,3:6-7(2): ... se homines adepturos beatitudinem putant

Translation, 14: il cuident sei aquerre la beneurance

38. See B.L.GildersIeeve and Gonzalez Lodge. Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar. 3rd ed.(London: Macmillan. 1948) 163 §247. 39. The sense of "futurity in the past" is more adequately conveyed in Jean de Meun's version:... que quant je vouloie dire ou faire aucune chose (Dedeck-Héry 110. lines 11213).

112

Bieler, IV,4:125-26(40): vitiorumque sordes ... se deposituros vidèrent Translation, 234-35: il verreient sei déposer les ordures des pechiez 40 In these examples, the context is probably sufficient to establish the idea of futurity.

-- by an adjective, to convey the sense of "capability": Bieler, III,iii:2: non expleturas ... opes Translation, 3-4: ses richeces neient aemplissables — by a relative clause, with the verb in the present tense; again, the context provides a future sense: Bieler, 11,1:35-36(13): abituram felicitatem Translation, 51-52: la felicité ... que s'enfuit -- by the use of a + infinitive: Bieler, 111,2:66(19): laetitiam credunt esse venturam Translation, 97-99: il creient ... la leece ... estre a venir

Bieler, IV,6:81-82(20): res ... alioquin temere fluituras Translation, 161: les choses ... en autre maniere a decorre We note a similar rendition of the future participle in Jean de Meun’s translation of profliga tura in Bieler 1,4:37(12): ... fust veuz a degaster. 41

40. For the imitation of the Latin accusative and infinitive construction, see below, p. 114(c)..

41. Dedeck-Héiy 178. line 46.

113

— In the next example, our translator has expressed the imminence of the event by the use of devoir, in the sense of "être sur le point de," in a relative clause: Bieler, 1,4:36-38(12): Cum ... gravis ... coemptio profligatura inopia Campaniam provinciam videretur Translation, 78-81: Cum grief achatement de blé ... li quel deveit tormenter par povreté tote Champaigne; similarly, in the following: Bieler, 111,12:37(15): et id te paulo ante d ic tu ram tenui licet suspicione prospexi Translation, 62-63: e je vi de loing, ja seit ce que par petit esgardement, que tu devoies dire ice meesmes — devoir gives to the future a sense of necessity in: Bieler, V,6:28-30(9): cum audiunt ... mundum ... nec habiturum esse defectum Translation, 50-53: li quel oi’rent ... que cist mundes ... ne deveit aveir aucun defaillement

— A nuance of volition is made explicit by the use of voleir in the following: Bieler, 1,1:41-42(13): quidnam ... esset actura Translation, 77: qu'ele voleit faire

Bieler, I,vi:7-8: lecturus violas Translation, 6-7: qu[i] veut col ir les viole tes

42. Moignet 191.

43. cf. Jean de Meun: Dedeck-Héiy 184.1ine 3: se tu veulz cuillir vloletes ...

114

Bieler, 11,7:62-63(20): adiecissetque iam se sciturum an ille philosophus esset Translation, 101-02: e dist que il voleit saveir se il fust veirs philosofes

(c) The Accusative and Infinitive The use of the accusative and infinitive after verbs of saying, thinking, believing, etc. is frequently imitated in translation: 44 Bieler, 1,4:18-19(6): necessarium causam esse monuisti Translation, 53-54: tu amonestas ... ceste chose estre besoignable Bieler, 11,2:7(3): ego iam tua fuisse quae repetis sponte concedam Translation, 13-14: je otreirai a tei de ma volenté celes choses aveir esté toes lé quels tu requiers Bieler, 11,8:6-7(3): reor adversam quam prosperam prodesse fortunam Translation, 10-11: je cuit la contrarióse fortune plus profeitier que la prospre

Bieler, 111,3:9-10(3): nos quoque fateamur fieri aliquos horum adeptione felices Translation, 16-18: nos devons ensemble dire aucuns homes estre faiz beneurez par l'aquierement d'icez

44. For the restriction of the accusative and infinitive in Old French to verbs of perception and factitive verbs, see Rickard 83: for Bersuire's extended usage, in imitation of the Latin, in the early fourteenth century, see Sinclair 43. An extensive examination of Jean de Meun's translation indicates that here the construction was avoided. For the parallels of the examples selected from our text, see Dedeck-Héiy 177.1.19. 188.8-9. 203.7-8. 209.11.

115

In accordance with more usual Old French expression, the construction is as frequently rendered by a noun clause introduced by que; after negative verbs of thinking etc., the translator conforms to the regular usage of the subjunctive in the subordinate clause: Bieler, 11,6:30-31(10): Busiridem accepimus necare solitum ... fuisse Translation, 50-51: Nos savoms que Busiris soleit tuer ses hostes

Bieler, 11,8:1-2(1): ne me inexorabile gerere bellum putes Translation, 3-4: ne quidier pas que je face cruel bataille Bieler, 111,3:17-18(6): Atqui ... libero me fuisse animo ... reminisci non queo Translation, 26-27: Certes je ne puis remenbrer que je fusse onques de tant delivre corage

Bieler, 111,12:81-83(34): Deum quoque bonitatis gubernaculis universitatem regere disputabas volentiaque cuneta parère Translation, 239-41: E tu desputeies encontre mei que Dex governeit tot le munde par les governementz de sa bonté e que tote choses obeïsseient a Peu par lor volenté (d) The Passive While not avoiding the passive completely, the translator usually elects to convert to the active voice, the subject being supplied from the context or represented by the general on/(h)om or nos: Bieler, I,l:3(l): visa est mulier Translation, 6: je vi une feme Bieler, 111,6:8(3): Quae si etiam meritis conquisitae sint Translation, 15: que li sage agujerent loenges par lor desertes

116

Bieler, 111,9:78-79(29): a te ... ostensum est Translation, 136: e tu le m'as mostré

Bieler, IV,4:64(22): conclusa sunt Translation, 105-06: ce que tu as conclus Bieler, 111,9:62(23): praestare creduntur Translation, 108-09: tels i a qui creient Bieler, 111,3:38-39(16): nam quae suficientes sibi facere putabantur Translation, 67-68: car l'on ciiidot que les richeces deussent faire les monies sofisanz

Bieler, IV,4:5-7(2): Nec licet ... uíi convenienii monstrabitur loco, sed tarnen, si id ipsum quod eis licere creditur auferatur ... Translation, 13-15: Il nen ont nul poeir, ensi cum nos mosteroms en loe co venable; mais nequedent, se hom toleit as escumeniez icel poeir que hom creit que il aient...

Bieler, 111,9:87-88(32): debeat implorari Translation, 151: nos devoms requerre Bieler, IV ,6:182-83(56); quae in terris abundare creduntur Translation, 328: les quels mais nos creoms habunder as terres

(e) Impersonal verbs (i) liquet 'it is evident' is regularly rendered by the formulae, apari/eissant est or manifeste chose est, followed by the construction dictated by the Latin:

117

— followed by the accusative and infinitive: Bieler, 111,2:9(3): liquet igitur esse

beatitudinem

statum

bonorum

congregatione perfectum

Translation, 16-17: Enpor ice, est manifeste chose l'estement parfait par Fajostement de toz les biens estre beneurance Bieler, IV,4:26(9): infinitam liquet esse miseriam

Translation, 46: aparissant est cele misere estre noient fenie — followed by an indirect question: Bieler, 11,4:60(21): liquet igitur quam sit mortalium rerum misera beatitudo

Translation, 95-96: Por ice, apareissant est com seit chaitive la beneurance des homes

Bieler, V,3:77-78(29): quantus accasus humanarum rerum consequatur liquet Translation, 126-27: aparissant est cum grantz dechaimenz des humeines

choses aviegne (ii) necesse est 'it is necessary' is regularly rendered by besoignable chose est,

usually followed by an imitation of the Latin construction: — followed by the accusative and infinitive:

Bieler, 111,10:66(20): ipsam necesse est summam esse beatitudinem

Translation, 109-10: besoignable chose est la sovereine beneurance estre cele meemes Bieler, V,3:29-30(10): opinionem ... veram esse necesse est

Translation, 46-47: besoignable chose est l'opinion ... estre veir

118

Occasionally, the accusative and infinitive is rendered by a noun clause: Bieler, 111,10:75-76(24): ita ... deos fieri simili ratione necesse est Translation, 129-30: besoignable chose est par semblante raison que li home sunt feit dei On two occasions, the Latin accusative and infinitive has been rendered by a final clause: Bieler, 111,5:10(4): plu res necesse est gentes relinqui Translation, 15-16: besoignable chose est que plusors genz seient leissies Bieler, 111,10:12(4): in eo perfectum quoque aliquid esse necesse est Translation, 18: besoignable chose seit que aucune chose seit parfeite en cele meesme maniere -- followed by a final clause: Bieler, 11,5:16(6): pauperes necesse est faciant quos relinquunt Translation, 30-31: besoignable chose est que ele facent povre cels que ele guerpist

Bieler, 111,3:46-47(18): maneat necesse est quae possit expleri Translation, 79-80: besoignable chose est que cele remaigne la quel puisse estre aemplie

Exceptionally, necesse est has been rendered by the impersonal usage of covenir in the following: Bieler, 111,7:12-14(5): quam sit mordax ... te ñeque necesse est ammonere Translation, 27-28: ne te co vient amonester com seit mordable ...

119

(iii) libet 'it is pleasing' is usually translated bv(il) plaist, and followed, as in the Latin, by the infinitive: Bieler, 1,4:149(46): libet exclamare Translation, 237: me plaist escrier Bieler, I,vi:13: uuis si libeat frui Translation, 9-10: se plaist user raisins The impersonal expression is avoided in the following: Bieler, III,viii:7: nec vobis capreas si libeat sequi Translation, 13: se vos volez aveir gras ch[e]vreus (iv) licet 'it is permitted' accompanied by the infinitive is imitated only once in translation: Bieler, 11,2:19(8): licet cáelo proferre ... Translation, 42-43: il leist a l’air mostrer ... Elswhere, the translator prefers a personal construction: Bieler, 11,5:17-18(7): quas nec habere totas pluribus licet Translation, 32-33: les quels plusor horn ne puent aveir totes

Bieler, 111,9:55(21): ratiocinari ... licet Translation, 94: poons nos mostrer

Bieler, V,l:47(18): licet definiré Translation, 74: nos pooms deffenir

120

However, when licet is accompanied by a final subjunctive, the Latin formation is usually retained: Bieler, 11,4:9(3): reputes licet Translation, 11: bien te leist que tu contes

Bieler, 111,10:89(30): addas ... licet Translation, 154: bien te leist que tu ajos tes Exceptionally, the personal construction is used in: Bieler, 111,11:98(38): licet describas Translation, 145: tu poes descrire

licet also serves as a concessive conjunction, the equivalent of quamquam or quamvis, to introduce a clause or modify a word or phrase. The latter expression is sometimes expanded to a full clause in translation, the conjunction being rendered invariably by ja seit ce que, followed by the subjunctive: Bieler, 11,7:48(16): minimam licet Translation, 81: ja seit ce que ele seit petit

Bieler, 111,2:68(20): licet variae dissidentesque sententiae Translation, 102-03: ja seit ce que la sentence des homes seit diverse e descordables Bieler, 111,3:1(1): licet tenui imagine Translation, 8-9: ja seit ce que par petit imagene Bieler, 111,12:37(15): tenui licet suspicione Translation, 62: ja seit ce que par petit esgardement

121

Bieler, 111,12:8(3): licet... prospiciam Translation, 16: ja seit ce que je veie

Bieler, IV,6:37(11): quae licet diversa sint Translation, 66-67:ja seit ce que seient divers (v) oportet 'it is fitting' is regularly translated bv(il) covient, and is usually followed by a final subjunctive, in imitation of the Latin: Bieler, 1,4:3(1): oportet vulnus detegas Translation, 6: covient que descovres ta plaie

Bieler, 11,1:44(16): oportet toleres Translation, 62: il te covient que tu suefres Bieler, 0,11:21-22(9): oportet concedas Translation, 32-33: il covient que tu otreis

Exceptionally, but more in accordance with Old French usage, the subjunctive verb is replaced by the infinitive in: Bieler, 0,11:108-09(41): oportet fateamur Translation, 159-60: il nos covient otroier (f) The Subjunctive Since the fluctuation in Old French between the imitation of the Latin use of the subjunctive and the indicative and conditional moods is well documented,45 there is little point in here presenting an extensive collection of specific examples which are attested as according with normal Old French 45. See. for example, Moignet 208-52: Frede Jensen, The Syntax of the Old French SubjunctlveiParis: Mouton, 1974).

122

usage. We have therefore restricted comment to the following points of particular interest: (i) Hypothetical sentences -- Potential or Ideal (the Modern French type for both Ideal and Unreal in the present: "s'il venait, je partirais.") In Old French, forms with two past subjunctives or mixed constructions are preferred; in the latter, the subjunctive is used in the apodosis, and frequently in a secondary hypothesis coordinated to the first; it rarely follows "se," except in anglo-norman. 46 The translator's use of the present or perfect subjunctive after "se" in the protases of hypothetical sentences would appear, therefore, to be simply an imitation of the Latin: (Present subjunctive of both verbs in double protasis) Bieler, I,iii:8-9: hanc si ... verberet et... reseret, emicat ... Phoebus Translation, 8-10: se Boire ... departe ceste obscurité e ovreit..., li soleil resplendist... Bieler, II,ii:l-8: si ... fundat ... Copia nec retrahat ..., humanum ... haud ... genus cesset... Translation, 4-8: Se Dame Copia espande ... e non retraie ..., li humains lignages non cesse ... (Subjunctive in single protasis) Bieler, 11,5:12-14(6): si... congeratur ..., fecerit... Translation, 23-35: si... seit ajos tee ..., ele fera ... Bieler, ÜI,ii:22-24: si... viderit..., proterit... Translation, 21-23: se eie ... ait veu ..., eie gaste ...

46. Jensen 103; Moignet 242-45.

123

Bieler, 111,10:113-14(39): si ... quispiam velit..., non ... desiderat

Translation, 191-92: si aucuns voiîlo ..., il ne desire pas ... Bieler, V,5:27(7): si ratio respondeat ... , probaremus? Translation, 55-65: Se raisons responde ... , ne loerioms nos?

Sometimes, however, the translator prefers the indicative: Bieler, 11,1:45-47: Quodsi ... scribere ... velis ... (present subjunctive), nonne iniurius fueris ...? Translation, 65-67: Se tu veus escrivre ... (present indicative), don ne feras tu tort? Bieler, V,i:5-7: si coeant... revocentur ... , convenient ... Translation, 8-10: se eles s'ajostent e eles sunt rapelees ..., les nés i porront ajos ter ... (It is to be noted in this example that the subjunctive is not used for the second protasis.)

Occasionally the present indicative of voleir + the infinitive expresses the sense of the subjunctive in the latin protasis; in each of the following examples, the mood of the verb in the apodosis conforms with the Latin: Bieler, 11,3:34-36(10): Si ... consideres ..., negare non possis ... Translation, 53-54: Se tu veus esgarder ... tu ne puisses neier Bieler, HIzvi:7-9: si... spectes ..., exstat... Translation, 18-19: se vos volez esgarder ..., nuis ne n'est... ~ Unreal Conditions in the past: The imperfect subjunctive usually serves to translate both the imperfect and the pluperfect of the Latin, as was usual in Old French of this

124

period.47 However, when both tenses occur in the same sentence, the translator recognizes the anteriority: Bieler, 1,2:5(3): nisi ... abiecisses ... (pluperfect), tuerentur ... (imperfect) Translation, 7-8: les quels defendiseient ... (imperfect), se tu ne les eusses gities ... (pluperfect)

Bieler,11,5:89-90(34): si ... intrasses ... cantares Translation, 151-53: se tu eusses entré ... tu chantasses (ii) Methods of translating other Latin uses of the subjunctive Sometimes what is seen as the full sense of the subjunctive is conveyed by the use of the subjunctive, indicative, or occasionally the conditional form of the verbs poveir, voleir, deveir + the infinitive: — poveir : Bieler, 1,4:117(37): (final clause) uti alcuius sceleris ammixtione fuscarent ... Translation, 192: e por ice que il la poessent oscurer ...

Bieler, 11,4:68(24): (final) ut agnoscas ... Translation, 108-09: e que tu puisses conoistre ...

Bieler, 111,6:20(7): (deliberative) quis non videat? Translation, 31: Qui ne puet or veeir? Bieler, 111,9:32-33(14): (indirect question) Se unde huic ... tali maeror ullus obrepat ne cogitare quidem possum. Translation, 59-60: Mais je ne puis neis neier don aucun tris tos puisse venir a tel chose.

47. Jensen 103.

125

— voleir Bieler, 111,8:10(6): (deliberative) Voluptarium vitam degas? Translation, 19-20: Tu veus vivre solonc le delit del cors?

(See also the use of voleir in the protases of hypothetical sentences, (i) above) — deveir : Bieler, 111,3:9-10(3): (iussive) nos fateamur ... Translation, 16-17: nos devons ensemble dire ... Bieler, III,v:2: (iussive) animos domet ille feroces ... Translation, 3-4: Cil ... deit danter ses cruels corages ...

Bieler, IV,2:76-77(29): (comparative) Sicut ... potentissimum esse censeres ... Translation, 122-23: Ausi com tu devroies jugier celui estre tres poissant ... Bieler, IV,6:177-78(55): (iussive) hoc tantum perspexisse sufficiat... Translation, 319-20: il nos deit habunder esgarder ...

(g) The Gerund and Gerundive (i) The gerund, or verbal noun, is active in meaning, and transfers readily into Old French as follows: -- as an infinitive: Bieler, IV,7:5-6(3): remunerandi, exercendive ... puniendi corrigendive Translation, 13-14: de guerredoner o de travailler ... de tormenter o d'amender

126

-- as a noun: Bielen IV,4:135(42): insequendi... miserandi Translation, 249-50: de haine ... de pitié — by the verbal form in -ant: Bieler, 11,3:44-45(14): moriendo deseras an te ilia fugiendo . Translation, 66-67: ou tu déguerpisses Fortune morant, ou ele guerpisse tei fuiant.

Bieler, V,4:102(38): in cognoscendo Translation, 179-80: en conoissant Bieler, V,5:8(l): in discernendo Translation, 9: en devisant

Bieler, V,6:49-50(13): ... ut continuaret eundo vitam cuius plenitudinem complecti non valuit permanendo. Translation, 82-84: ... que il continuast la vie alant ... la plenitudene de la quel il ne pot embracier permanant. (ii) The gerundive, or verbal adjective, is passive in meaning, and carries with it a sense of obligation or necessity. It is translated as follows: -- by an adjective in -able, with passive sense: Bieler, 11,6:60-61(20): ... in qua nihil expetendum ... manifestum est. Translation, 99-100: ... en la quel il est manifeste chose nule chose estre requerable.

Bieler, 111,2:52-53(15): ñeque enim vile quiddam contemnendumque est... Translation, 80-81: car cele chose non est vil ne depreissable ...

127

Bieler, 111,4:21-22(9): cum reverendos facere nequeat... Translation, 36: com ele ne puet faire cels honorables ... — by the infinitive + direct object, thus rendered as a gerund: Bieler, 111,12:39(16): ad cernenda vera ... Translation, 66: a esgarder la vérité ...

Bieler, IV,2:58(23): adipiscendi boni ... Translation, 97: del bien aquerre ... Bieler, IV,7:37-38(18): gloriae propagandae ... conformandae sapientiae ... Translation, 79-82: de la bone renomee essaucier ... de la sapience confermer

— Sometimes the expression is expanded to a relative clause, the passive gerundive being converted to the active voice by the use of the appropriate form of aveir + a + infinitive: Bieler, IV,6:22(8): rebus gerendis ... Translation, 47-48: as choses que ele a a governer ...

Bieler, IV,6:39(12): faciendae rei... Translation, 70: de la chose qu'il a a faire ...

The passive sense is frequently retained by the use of estre, or form thereof, + a + the infinitive: Bieler, 11,6:45(16): illud ... considerandum puto ... Translation, 77-78: je pens ice estre a esgarder ...

128

Bieler, IV,2:22(9): ... consendus est... Translation, 36: ... uns chascuns est a jugier ...

Bieler, IV,6:49-50(13): gerendarum ... rerum ... Translation, 101-02: des choses qui sunt a faire ... Bieler, V,2:8(5): optandum esse ... Translation, 17: estre a desirer ...

Bieler, V,5:l(l): in corporibus sentiendis ... Translation, 3-4: as cors qui sunt a sentir ... — Necessity and obligation are sometimes rendered by the use of deveir + infinitive: Bieler, 11,5:49(19): nihil ... appetendae pulchritudinis ... Translation, 91-92: ... neient de beauté que Fon deie requerre ...

Bieler, 111,8:17-18(8): Quod quidem caelum non ... est mirandum Translation, 31-32: Car nos ne devoms tant merveillier del ciel ... Bieler, 111,9:89-90(33): Invocandum ... rerum omnium patrem ... Translation,155: Je juge que nos devons apeler le Pere de totes choses ... Bieler,rV.2:79(29): expetendorum finem ... Translation, 126-27: la fin des biens c'um deit requerre ...

Bieler, V,4:30(12): demonstrandum est... Translation, 60-61: nos devoms ... demostrer ...

129

Chapter Four Vocabulary

As remarked in the preceding chapter, the vocabulary of L i Confortement de Philosofie merits special consideration with regard to its contribution to the lexicography of the Old French language. Examination of the translation and accompanying commentary has brought to light words which, in form or usage, have been assigned later dates of appearance in the French language by the dictionaries and published language studies, or which have been listed as appearing rarely in Old or Middle French; in addition, our investigations have revealed other words the forms and/or usage of which are unattested in the material at our disposal, and which we therefore classify as possible hapax. Of the words so culled from the text, of greatest significance are the synonyms of different etymology from the Latin words the translator is rendering, and words from the commentary for which no Latin equivalents suggest themselves as possible bases for caiques; of more restricted interest are the neologisms with direct counterparts in the Latin text; as obvious caiques, their appearance in the translation does not present strong evidence of the time of their entry into current usage; of yet more restricted lexical interest are the hapax, as words probably unique to the text, formed directly on the Latin or to which a new meaning has been assigned, in the attempt to come to terms with the difficulties of translation. In illustration of the above observations, we present a collection of neologisms and rare usages occurring in the text, which we follow with a list of possible hapax. Wherever possible, words are accompanied by their counterparts in the corresponding Latin text--the Consolatio of Bieler's edition, the parallel Latin commentary on III,ix, and other occasional correspondences. French verbs are listed in the infinitive form, nouns, in the oblique singular, masculine adjectives in the oblique singular; corresponding Latin verbs are given in the infinitive form, nouns in the

130

nominative singular, adjectives in the nominative singular. Words appearing in the commentary are printed in italics. Each word is accompanied by the relevant lexical information, such as earliest attested date of appearance, recorded usage, etc.; reference material is represented by the following abbreviations: BW: Oscar Bloch and Walther von Wartburg, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française, 5th cn ed. (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1968).

Den.: Alexander J. Denomy, "The Vocabulary of Jean de Meun's Translation of Boethius’ ’De Consolatione Philosophiae'," Medieval Studies 16 (1954): 19-34.

Gam.: Ernst Gammillscheg, Etymologisches Wörterbuch der Französischen Sprache 2n mamm qlorbeüâ« bêla«

frin« seit -faire. cele choie text eftvt mantfoftv certnnemer la pernean« be beu eftve laforme bes choies q sur afaire neient-

mouabte eiimple. (liais labefrmec eft h mouables ailacomtru e II reperds orbre be cet chiofes les quels la beu me fipliarer ofbena a feiet. Vor« ament q totee crofts q sût sor labeftm« jeteur fot trufes ala pernean« alaquel m«fme la beftin« efr fot trufe. Car moites choies formontvttr lorbeñáce be labeftm«

les quel? sur aloees ío? la perneante. Oct chotes formentöt lot

beñáce be labeftm« Icsquels^pchctnesala pmicre beuinitt sont fichées eftablemêr c sormonttnt Icfbre be la befrinable mou a blet?. £ te le moftr par fetnblarrr. Car auficotne bei ttonbecef que 9t romoienr benuiron un ni teime point, edeq eft-bebñ

aptoche pluf ala ftpluitt bd point q efr en mi liu. ede eftaau

û come uns point« enutron lequel cet autres iLeonbefces pofees befovs fut tomotets e la Aeonbefce beforetne tomoiee par ©lue gnr auivonemenr eu gntmenr ele beieture plus be la moi ene _

*iT

siplicitt bel point,tantgntmenr de efr befploiee par plus am

pies dpaees.O^aiô ft aucune choie fatofte éiaqpaujne aede

chofe moi ene ce eft-au point.de F aioftte en sipl terre -e ceffe eftve efpanbue e betörte. enft come Vjom poet uetir en cefte figé. Par Comblant tnifon >. «le choie que sebeffe ■* ture pluf loingbe ¿ la premiere penfe

be bev eft emploie

lacem entíbela

'