A Coursebook on English Lexicology

Citation preview

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Н.А. Лаврова

A Coursebook on English Lexicology Английская лексикология Учебное пособие Рекомендовано УМО по образованию в области подготовки педагогических кадров в качестве учебного пособия для студентов высших учебных заведений, обучающихся по специальности 050303.65 – Иностранный язык, направлению 050100 – Педагогическое образование (профиль «Иностранный язык (английский)»)

2-е издание, стереотипное

Москва Издательство «ФлИнта»

2018

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

УДК 811.111'373(075.8) ББК 81.2Англ-3-923 Л13

R e v i e w e r s: Ph.D., Professor, the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State Pedagogical University, Nataliya N. Morozova. Dr. Habil., Professor, Head of the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State Pedagogical University, Elena A. Nikulina. Dr. Habil., Professor, Moscow State Linguistic University, Ekaterina E. Golubkova Ph.D., Moscow State Regional University of Humanities and Social Sciences, S.A. Reztsova Professor, The Department of English Philology, Moscow State Regional University, Irina I. Shustilova Ph.D., Professor, the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State Pedagogical University, Marina D. Rezvetsova

Л13

Лаврова Н.А. A Coursebook on English Lexicology : Английская лексикология [Электронный ресурс]: учеб. пособие / Н.А. Лаврова. – 2-е изд., стер. – М. : ФЛИНТА, 2018. – 168 с. ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6 “A Coursebook on English Lexicology” is an assortment of exercises on English lexicology, which are aimed at raising students’ awareness of the notion of the word, it covers stylistic stratification of the English vocabulary, its etymology, word-building patterns, the meaning of the word, the major types of semantic transference, systematic relations between words, English phraseology, some regional varieties of English. Hopefully, it will also aid students in understanding systemic relations between words, namely in differentiating between paronyms, retronyms, neonyms, various types of synonyms, as well as in activating some vocabulary items centered around specific thematic fields. The book is meant for foreign language students, for post-graduate students, teachers and instructors in English lexicology, as well as for a broader audience of philologists and linguists. Пособие состоит из 8 глав, рассматривающих такие актуальные лексикологические проблемы, как «проблема определения слова», «стилистическая стратификация словарного состава», «этимология», «значение слова», «словообразование», «фразеология», «некоторые региональные варианты английского языка» и многое другое. Схемы, графики, таблицы, а также иллюстрации английских фразеологизмов и идиом ставят своей задачей сделать материал наглядным, доступным и запоминающимся. Предназначено для студентов английского языка продвинутого уровня обучения и аспирантов, для преподавателей английского языка, а также для широкого круга читателей, интересующихся вопросами английского лексикологии.

УДК 811.111'373(075.8) ББК 81.2Англ-3-923 ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6

© лаврова н.а., 2012 © Издательство «ФлИнта», 2012

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Contents Acknowledgements...............................................................................................4 Introduction...........................................................................................................6 1. Word..................................................................................................................8 2. Stylistic Stratification of English Vocabulary. Slang. Barbarisms..................22 3. Etymology.......................................................................................................36 4. Word-building.................................................................................................50 5. The Meaning of the Word. Semantic Transference. Metaphor and Metonymy Euphemisms. Neologisms...............................................................................69 6. Synonyms. Antonyms. Paronyms. Hyperonyms and Hyponyms. Meronyms.......................................................................................................98 7. Phraseology...................................................................................................108 8. Some Regional Varieties of English.............................................................127 References.........................................................................................................136 Answer Key......................................................................................................143

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Acknowledgements The author is deeply indebted to her teacher, instructor and academic advisor, Dr. Habil., Professor, Elena A. Nikulina for her remarkable forbearance, unswerving support, encouragement and inspiration. My sincere appreciation goes to Professor Nataliya N. Morozova, who kindly agreed to read and review the book, bestowed her wise counsel, and suggested the ways to improve and variegate the present work. I am grateful to Dr. Habil., Professor, Olga G. Chupryna for her comments on some of the contentious issues of the book, which enabled me to reconsider some of the original statements made in the book. I appreciate the help and support provided by Professor Marina D. Resvetzova, who was very kind and benevolent in her comments and whose love of the Word is shared by the present author. My appreciation is also due to Dr. Habil., Professor, Ekaterina E. Golubkova, to Ph.D., S.A. Reztsova, and to Ph.D., Professor, Irina I. Shustilova for a review of the present book.

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Words are mirrors of their times. By looking at the areas in which the vocabulary of a language is expanding in a given period, we can form a fairly accurate impression of the chief preoccupations of society at that time and the points at which the boundaries of human endeavor are being advanced. (John Ayto, 1999. 20th Century Words. The Story of the New Words in English over the Last Hundred Years)

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Introduction English lexicology is not only a purely theoretical discipline aimed to upgrade students’ knowledge of its past, its present and its perspectives for the future, but is also an in-depth practical course with multiple objectives, namely: • to inspire students’ curiosity about the past of words; • to help them differentiate between subtle shades of meaning; • to facilitate the recognition of different word-building patterns; • to further the recognition of novel formations, actively used in the modern media-discourse; • to broaden their repertoire of synonymic ways of referring to reality; • to make students’ English more authentic and idiomatic; • to ultimately make students’ interaction with foreigners smoother and more gratifying, so that it should become a mutually beneficial experience. While writing this book, the author took into account some of the latest trends both in theoretical lexicology and in the lexical changes typical of modern English. It must also be noted that some sections are covered in greater detail, while others represent a narrower scale of material. Here is the rationale behind some of the exercises offered by the author. The exercises on word-building do not only cover traditional and typical word-building patterns in English, such as composition and derivation, but also less wide-spread and codified, such as blending (contamination), formations with semi-affixes, combining forms. The rationale behind including such formations is manifold. Firstly, some of them are traditionally made use of in the formation of terms (combining forms), others have gained popularity quite recently and are extensively used in media-discourse (blending). Secondly, if a word-building pattern becomes foregrounded, it should not be overlooked. This is the case with blending (or contamination), whose activation is down to several factors: the condensed and compressed form of blends makes them a very efficient means of expressing several notions through a single lexeme; it also aids to create a new notion, more often than not, pragmatically and emotion6

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

ally charged and/or humorously tinged. Blends are a potential metaphoric formation: two notions and two words are merged due to some more or less objective or subjective similarity. The more distant the notions are, the more striking the emerging blend is likely to be. The introduction of endocentric, exocentric (bahuvrihi), copulative and appositional compounds highlights various semantic and structural types of compound words and deepens students’ understanding of the nature and essence of nomination and the features that were chosen as the basis of nomination – whether reflecting the essence of the referent or seemingly superficial. In the latter case the resultant compound is, as a rule, idiomatic, metaphorical and evokes vivid imagery. Paraphrasing a text belonging to a different register makes a learner of English sensitive to formal and informal contexts and to stylistic colouring of words. Ultimately, it is supposed to inculcate in them a sense of appropriateness of a particular word or an expression and stylistic specifics thereof. Exercises centered around regional varieties of English are meant to raise students’ awareness of different types of English and to get them to understand that they are not to be mixed up. Getting familiar with some of the dialects of the British Isles may prove to be beneficial for learners of English and to facilitate interaction in case of their travelling abroad. Finding a Russian equivalent for English idioms as well as constructing proverbs from smaller rearranged blocks does not only expand students’ knowledge thereof, but also develops their analytical skills and establishes typological characteristics of both languages. The exercise that involves converting a literally described situation into a metaphoric idiom provides entertainment, fun, a diversion from the traditional academic exercises and activates students’ mental skills that involve searching for the relevant item in the long-term memory and filling a fitting slot. Each section of the book is divided into two parts – the “Points to ponder” part and the “Exercises” part. In the first part some theoretical questions, tasks as well as theoretical information are provided to facilitate a transition to the second part, which is comprised of exercises that are related to the topic under consideration. Many of the exercises are provided with keys, but only those where we felt learners may have difficulty in finding answers on their own or when access to the pertinent reference sources may not easily be available. 7

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

1. Word Points to ponder Over the years different definitions of the word have been suggested, some of them are based on the purely semantic criterion, others put the premium on structural, functional, stylistic, communicative or pragmatic aspects of the word. Investigate the problems of word definition and answer the following questions (do the tasks suggested): – Comment on the following definitions of the word and choose the one which seems the most appropriate to you. Specify the criterion that underlies each definition. Which of the definitions is the least precise? 1. A word is an uninterrupted string of letters which is preceded by a blank space and followed by a blank space or punctuation mark.

2. A word is an utterance conveying a single meaning.

3. A word is a speech sound or series of speech sounds that symbolizes and communicates a meaning usually without being divisible into smaller units capable of independent use (Merriam-Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, 2008). 8

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

4. A word is a sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation in writing or printing, that symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme or of a combination of morphemes (American Heritage Dictionary, 4th edition, 2000). 5. A word is one of the units of speech or writing that native speakers of a language usually regard as the smallest isolable meaningful element of the language, although linguists would analyze these further into morphemes (Collins English Dictionary, 6th edition 2007). 6. A word is the smallest unit of language that can be used independently; such a unit represented in writing or printing, usually separated off by spaces (Chambers Dictionary, 9th edition, 2003). – In Western linguistic tradition it is still fashionable to single out the morpheme as the minimal unit of communication. What is the problematic aspect underlying this methodology? – Enumerate structural and semantic characteristics of the word and say how it differs from a word-combination. Are there any fuzzy sets (borderline cases)? – How can you prove that “washing machine” is a word? Supple some other similar cases of a two-unit word. – Are “wrap up” and “single out” cases of one word or are they two words? – What is the difference between a word and a sentence? The notion of “word” is one of the central in lexicology. However, there is still no unanimous opinion as to what the word really is, that is to say, it is not amenable to an unambiguous definition. The 9

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

term “word” usually designates a structure smaller than a word combination, but larger that a single sound segment (Zé Amvela E., 2010). This simple and comprehensible definition is not free from fault: the indefinite article in the English language is a single sound segment and yet it is definitely a word. Definitions of the word are legion, some of them highlighting structural, notional, functional, phonological and other aspects of the word (see above). From the structural perspective, a word can be defined as a unit of language or speech that consists of one or more morphemes at least one of which can be used independently. This is, so to speak, the ideal scenario, because some words consist of morphemes that are no longer used in speech independently. Some examples are: receive, conceive, confer, refer, etc. These words consist of a prefix and a remnant root which is, synchronically, a bound form no longer recognized by the majority of native speakers as a meaningful element. According to the notional criterion, the word is defined as a linguistic unit conveying a single notion. This definition purports to distinguish between a word and a phrase, which conveys not one but at least two notions. According to the functional criterion the word possesses a fullyfledged nominative function. Unlike that of a word, the functions of a morpheme and a phrase can be, respectively, defined as constitutive and a poly-nominative, the function of a sentence being predicative-communicative. According to the phonological criterion, the word is a combination of sounds preceded and followed by pauses and conveying a meaning which distinguishes it from other words in a language. One of the most daunting lexicological tasks concerning the word is to distinguish between a compound word and a word-combination (a phrase). Some compounds represent the so-called fuzzy sets, that is, language elements whose status veers. What is meant here is that orthographically compounds can be spelt solid, hyphenated and spaced (A. Cruse, Jackson H., G.G. Bondarchuk): “Note that the orthographic treatment of compounds is by no means consistent. Some are written as one word (with or without a hyphen between two roots), while others are written as two or more words (emphasis mine)” [Jackson H., Zé Amvela E., 2010:92]. “Compounds may be spelt either solid (landmark) or hyphenated (land-law) or open (land mass). There may be some variation especially between hyphenated and open compounds: land-crab appears hy10

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

phenated in COD8 (1990) but open in COD9…” [Jackson H., Zé Amvela E., 2010:192]. The almost unpredictable nature of how compounds can or should be spelt is summed up by R.W. Zandvoort and H.W. Fowler: “The reader of the last and other sections of this handbook cannot fail to have been struck by a lack of consistency in the use of HYPHENS in the writing of compounds. This lack of consistency is entirely in keeping with English practice, on which the late H.W. Fowler in his Dictionary of Modern English Usage (a book to be used with care) expresses himself thus: ‘The chaos prevailing among writers or printers or both regarding the use of hyphens is discreditable to English education.’ Logic would, of course, prescribe that undoubted compounds, like goldsmith, should be spelt as single words; that a hyphen should be used when the two elements are only occasionally combined, and, therefore, to some extent preserve their individuality in combination (she-wolf); and that the two words should be written apart when they form a group of adjectives + noun, or attrib. noun + noun, etc., not a compound (the London streets). The very logic of this division, however, makes it difficult to apply in many cases, with the result that it is often ignored in cases of less difficulty. The best advice to be given in this matter is: when in doubt, consult the Concise Oxford Dictionary” [Zandvoort, 288:1962]. In the traditional sense, the word consists of at least one free lexical morpheme, “but it can also be made up of a whole series of lexical morphemes, like beer-drinker, theatergoer, segregationist, or denationalization. Leech … gives the examples drum-majorettishly and railway-station refreshment room” [Lipka, 2002:89]. One of the meaningful differences between a compound and a word combination is that the meaning of a free phrase can usually be inferred from its constituents, whereas “compounds are characterized semantically by the fact that they tend to acquire specialized meanings, thus becoming very much like idioms. Only in rare cases is the meaning of a compound derived from that of its constituents in the literal sense. In most cases, the meaning of at least one of the constituents is somehow obscured” [Jackson H., Zé Amvela E., 2010:94]. Compounds are also prototypically characterized by a single primary stress that falls on the first stem of a compound. If a compound, however, consists of three or more morphemes it is rarely the first stem that 11

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

receives the primary stress: usually, it is the second or the third. Some examples are: wastepaper basket, twenty-twenty vision. The former has its accent on the stem “paper”, the latter – on the last constituent “vision” (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Talking Dictionary).

Exercises: I Below are a number of words represented by numbers. Specify their structural, semantic and functional peculiarities1. What is unusual in their semantics and structure? Is there any connection between these words and text-messaging? word

meaning

illustration

24/7

24 hours a day, 7 days a week; I have to work 24/7. incessant(ly)

411

Data, information (from dial- I like my new colleague, but I ing 411 on the phone for infor- don’t have the 411 on him. mation)

5

Money for the purchase of I have got 5 on that pizza. some item

5150

Insane, crazy. California police Have you gone 5150 to attempt code for “escaped lunatic” to tackle the gangster on your own?

9-to-5

A job

08/15 

Designation for the standard This movie was just o-eight-fifmachine gun of the German teen, nothing special army before WWI, hence the meaning “something very common, nothing special”

He dropped out of school and got a 9-to-5

The examples are taken from the dictionary by A. Peckham, 2005, and from the electronic dictionary PseudoDictionary.com. See references. 1

12

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

word

meaning

illustration

10/90  (Also 20/ 80, 30/70)

Ten percent of one’s hair on the Chris has a 10/90. top, ninety percent in the back.

11 

A word for someone who be- Our school motto is “Be an lieves they are better than ev- 11”. It makes me sad. eryone else, and attempts to get everyone else to join them by telling them to “be an eleven”, even if they don’t want to.

00 (“dou- super-suave, sophisticated, He always acts so 00. ble O”) brilliant, debonair 1-and-2ed

used to accent victory over another person, usually said in the process of doing something unexpected or after getting someone to do something that only aids in your purpose; duped, betrayed, taken advantage of, cheated on

While Chris was deliberately distracted, Justin made the winning shot and cried out: “You’ve got 1-and-2ed!”

II Below are a number of compound words taken from Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Webster’s Third International Dictionary. Name the prototypical and marginal features of the compounds and say in what way they differ from a word combination. Compound Words

Prototypical features Marginal features

Twenty-twenty vision (noun) Perfect sight, especially as measured by a standard desk e.g. The optician told me I had twenty-twenty vision. (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)

13

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Compound Words House husband (noun) A man who stays at home and cleans the house, takes care of the children, while his wife goes out to work. (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary) Chair lift (noun) A set of chairs hanging from a moving wire driven by motor, which carries people, especially those who are going skiing, up and down mountains. (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary) Sewing machine (noun) A machine which is used for joining together pieces of cloth, and which has a needle that is operated either by turning a handle or by electricity (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary) Fork-lift (noun) A small vehicle which has two strong bars of metal fixed to the front used for lifting piles of goods. (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary) Hatband (noun) A strip of material which is fixed around the outside of a hat. (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)

14

Prototypical features Marginal features

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Compound Words

Prototypical features Marginal features

Hatchback (noun) A car which has an extra door at the back which can be lifted up to allow things to be put in (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary) Foxglove (noun) A tall thin plant with white, yellow, pink or purple bell-shaped flowers growing all the way up its stem (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary) Agony aunt A person who writes in a newspaper or magazine giving advice in reply to people’s letters about their personal problems (Oxford Wordpower Dictionary)

III The question of whether nonce-words can be regarded as words proper is open to argument. Noncewords are words created ad hoc for one particular occasion, they have a context-bound meaning and are created out of laziness (1), with a view to avoid the obvious (2), for love of precision (3), out of the desire for brevity (4). The function of nonce-words and the motivation behind their creation will differ depending on the type of discourse and the sphere of communication in which they appear. In literary genre they are deliberate coinages minted by the author out of stylistic purposes. In everyday colloquial communication they may be inadvertent slips of the tongue or emerge because of linguistic laxity, recklessness or lack of linguistic knowledge. a) Look through the nonce-words below which were coined in spontaneous everyday communication. Specify the causes of their ap15

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

pearance. What knowledge does the speaker lack word-wise? Can these words be regarded as words proper? Remindful (mindful), insuccess (failure), deplacement (displacement), correctitude (correctness), briskened (quickened), unquiet (unrest). b) Consider the following nonce-words selected from the works by British and American writers. Can these units be regarded as proper words? Dwell on the rationale behind their coinage and specify the linguistic means of their creation. “They caught him”, I say. “He’s not a threat anymore.” “That’s good!” she says, a big falsey-toothy smile opening onto her face. “You are a wonderful job for us. We are all grateful to you.” [Ford, 1996: 87].

“Do you feel sometimes that no one’s looking out for you anymore?” She smiles faintly. The creases at the corners of her mouth make weals in her cheeks. “Every day.” I try to beam back a martyrish look [Ford, 1986:245].

But if I’m right, his question is of a much more omenish and divining nature, having to do with the character of eventuality [Ford, 1986:98]. They are large women in white, tentish maid-dresses, talking and swinging big banger purses, waiting for their white ladies to come and pick them up [Ford, 1986:143]. 16

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

I am confused and sad as no idea if Mark still loves me or not and scared to ask. Very lovingful of Mark [Fielding, 2000:78]. So that for our most intimate moments we ended up skulking around on the sly: rendezvousing for dinner plus surreptitious hand-holding and smooching in angst-thick public places, then slipping out to the car and making out in the dark till our lips were numb and our bodies limp [Ford, 1986:42]. Was nightmare in shoe shop. Just trying on brown squareheeled 70s style shoes in office feeling very déjà-vu-sque for all those back-to-school times buying new shoes and fighting with bloody mom about what they were allowed to be like [Fielding, 2000:45]. Ten minutes later I was sitting in a Mark Darsy-esque white room in a white robe with a white towel on my head surrounded by Mum, a swathe of coloured swatches and somebody called Mary [Fielding, 2000:56]. I looked out my window, stood in my yard sunsets with a sense of solace and achievement, cleaned my rain gutters, eyed my shingles, fertilized regularly, spoke to my neighbours – the normal applauseless life of us all [Ford, 1996:90]. When it came time to teach, literature seemed wide and indifferentiable – not at all distillable – and I didn’t know where to start; mostly I would stand at the tall windows distracted as a camel while one of my students discussed an interesting short story he had found on his own [Ford, 1986:67]. 17

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

“I think I know exactly what you are getting at.” “What about?”Mr. Tanks says suspiciously staring sharks at me. “About wondering where I ought to go,” I say in as unaggressive, unsharky, unhomophilic a way as possible. [Ford, 1986:75]. Сonsequently it’s a good strategy to set the Markhams adrift... staring at the greasy motel walls, listening to the traffic drum past, everyone but them bound for cozy seaside holiday arrangements where youthful, happy, perfect-toothed loved ones wave greetings from lighted porches, holding big pitches of cold gin [Ford, 1986:98]. I literally bashed right into Frank one summer night a year ago, driving home tired and foggy-eyed from the Red Man Club, where I’d fished till ten [Ford, 1996:96]. Her eyes snap at me. She offers me a long-toothed, savage stare and waves my way as if she knew me from Bogalussa or Minter City – maybe she simply recognizes a fellow southerner (smth. in the submissive shruggy set of my shoulders) [Ford, 1986:265]. Because no matter how many emotions his fancy dipolar circuits had allowed him to mimic, he was still at it, a computer. Even following Eddie this far into riddledom’s Twilight Zone ad caused Blaine’s sanity to totter [King, 2003:56]. Instead I make my old, familiar turn down fragrant, bonneted Hoving Road, a turn I virtually never make these days but should, since my memories have almost all boiled down to good ones or at least to tolerable, instructive ones [Ford, 1996:79]. 18

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Then all at once five immense jet planes come cracking in over us, low and ridiculously close together, their wings steady as knife blades, their smack-shwoosh eruption following a heart’s beat behind [Ford, 1996:8]. “I’m way ahead of him emotionally. I’ll have my period pretty soon.” “Well, that’s good to know,” I say, my heart going ker-whonk, my eyes suddenly hot and unhappily moist – not with unhappy tears, but with unhappy sweat that has busted out on my forehead [Ford, 1986:9]. “Why are you driving so eff-ing slow?” he says. Then, in a mocking old-granny’s voice, “Everybody passes me, but I get there just as fast as the rest of them.” [Ford, 1986:100]. V Exclamations and interjections can be defined as conventional sound words that have developed as imitative words that resemble or suggest the sound2. Going by this definition and one (ones) that you can find in a dictionary (dictionaries), say in what way interjections and exclamations differ from other functional parts of speech. Consider the interjections and exclamations below and express your opinion of their linguistic status. Exclamation and Interjections Ah! Aha! Ahchoo! Ahem!

Function and General Meaning surprise, joy surprise, triumph sneezing throaty sound to attract attention

2 This is the way Sol Steinmetz and Barbara Ann Kipfer define exclamations and interjections (2006).

19

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Exclamation and Interjections Bah! boo er fie Hah? Ha-ha! Ho-hum Huh? Humph! Oh! Ouch! Phew! Pshaw! psst sh (shh) tehee tsk-tsk tut-tut ugh

Function and General Meaning contempt disapproval or derision hesitation disgust suspicion, interrogation laughter boredom disbelief, confusion disbelief surprise, sympathy sudden pain disgust or exhaustion impatience or contempt unobtrusive sound to call smb.’s attention shushing snickering laughter pity or commiseration disapproval or disdain aversion or horror

Recommended reading: Девкин В.Д. Очерки по лексикографии. – М.: Прометей, 2000. Дягтерь И.Г. О термине «окказионализм» или «окказиональное слово» // Структура словаря и вопросы словообразования германских языков. – Пятигорск, 1975. – С. 129–135. Касевич В.Б. Морфонология. – Л.: Изд-во ЛГУ, 1986. Кудрявцева Л.А. Моделирование динамики словарного состава языка. – Киев: ИСИОУ, 1993. Леонтьев А.А. Слово в речевой деятельности: Некоторые проблемы общей теории речевой деятельности. – 3-е изд., стереотип. – М.: КомКнига, 2006. Леонтьев А.А. Психолингвистические единицы и порождение речевого высказывания. – 4-е изд., стереотип. – М.: КомКнига, 2007. Лопатин В.В. Рождение слова. Неологизмы и окказиональные образования. – М.: Наука, 1973.

20

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Мешков О.Д. Словосложение в современном английском языке. – М.: Высш. шк., 1985. Мешков О.Д. Семантические аспекты словосложения английского языка. – М.: Наука, 1986. Минаева Л.В. Слово в языке и речи: учеб. пособие для студентов филол. фак. ун-тов и ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. – М.: Высш. шк., 1986. Федурко Ю.В. Идентификация незнакомого слова как синергетический процесс: дис. … канд. филол. наук. – Тверь, 2008. Харитончик З.А. Проблемы словообразования в современном английском языке. – Минск, 1989. Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка: учеб. пособие. – Минск: Выш. шк., 1992. Bauer L. English word-formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Lipka L. English Lexicology: lexical structure, word semantics and wordformation. – Tübingen: Narr, 2002. Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present Day English Word Formation. Second Edition. – Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1969.

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

2. Stylistic Stratification of English Vocabulary. Slang. Barbarisms Points to ponder – What are the earmarks of the neutral, colloquial and literary layers of English vocabulary? Why is it essential to single them out? – Name the pertinent characteristics of the neutral layer. What accounts for its indispensability? – Say whether each neutral word has its colloquial and literary counterparts? What does it depend on? – What are the peculiarities of common literary and common colloquial words? – Slang has been known to draw both criticisms and scholastic support over the years. Are there any contexts where slang could be appropriate or should it be regarded as a linguistic pariah to be avoided by all possible means? Do you think there are any situations (register) when slang words would be suitable in the speech of an academic? – What definition of slang do you consider the most exhaustive? In what way does slang differ from colloquial words? – What is enantiosemy and how is it related to slang? – Would you advise people who speak a dialect of English to discard their dialect if they are going to study in a London university or if they are required to make a public speech? Why or why not? – Would you consider a person who knows a lot of bookish words and has an extensive recognition vocabulary as the one who has reached the heights in language learning and who is truly proficient in it? – Should literary high-flown words be restricted to the printed page or is there any place for them in oral speech? – What are the spheres of application and usage of archaic, obsolete and poetic words? Can a word be simultaneously archaic and poetic? – Why is officialese so hard to read, understand and perceive for a foreign language learner? – What is the difference between slang, jargon and vulgar words? Can these terms be treated as synonyms? 22

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Slang Over the years slang has been an ample source of novel lexical items, be it from the structural or semantic point of view. Across different linguistic traditions opinions vary as to how slang should be treated – as a vagabond language, which is insensitive to and negligent of language norms, as well as referents it tends to downgrade or play down, or as the origin of metaphor, be it poetic or trite. If metaphor it certainly is, the poetic value of slang could be disputed. Poetry in the traditional sense of the word is aimed predominantly at elevating the subject or, in case it deserves censure, at giving its due by revealing some hideous aspects of society. In contrast, slang tends to bring elevated or neutral subject-matter down to earth, performing an anti-euphemistic function, it divests the clad, overfeeds the satiated, makes thin people still thinner and those with receding hairline – bald. In other words, it exaggerates the negative and dishonours the positive. Therefore, one would be well-advised not to resort to it more often than is absolutely indispensible, and when finding oneself in a group of more than two unfamiliar people to avoid it altogether, otherwise the social repercussions of blatantly violating the register may be far worse than apprehended. One of the most popular means of creating new slang words is semantic readjustment of some existing lexeme, often in such a way that the basis for the transference is hardly traceable, though in most cases it is. Thus, one wouldn’t have much difficulty in deciphering why the affectionate name for woman’s breasts is “girls”. After all, they form part of any “girl” and are deemed by some as one of the most compelling. Seriously speaking (or writing), the two most typical types of semantic transference are not unknown to slang. The above case is an example of metonymy, namely synecdoche, which is a type of transference when the whole represents some part or vice versa. The number of slang synonyms a word may have, seems to depend on the nature of the referent the word denotes: the more general and vague it is, the more slangish counterparts a word is likely to have. Another factor is the relative importance or value of the referent for the speaker – the more relevant the item is the more 23

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

slang names it is likely to develop. By way of illustration, the stylistically neutral lexeme “money” and the stylistically marked, emotionally tinged lexeme “cool” could be furnished. The former seems to have no fewer than a dozen slang synonyms: bank, Benjamins, bread, cabbage, cake, cash, change, cheddar, chips, clams, coin, dead presidents, dough, duckets, flow, loot, moola, paper, rice, scratch, smackers. The motivation behind most of the items is more or less transparent: referring to money with the help of the foodstuffs’ names reflects the relative value thereof during a particular historical period. “Cabbage” seems to have been chosen due to the resemblance in colour. All slang words for “money” are based on some existing vocabulary item, that is, apart from the truncated “mon”, there is hardly any slangish synonym that would twist the phonetic or graphic shape of the word “money”. In contrast, some of the slang words for “cool” do play on the phonetic and graphic shape of the word (at least the first two): kewl, coo, all that, awesome, badass, bangin’, boss, crisp, da bomb, def, dope, far out, fly, fresh, gnarly, groovy, keen, killer, mad, mint, neat, nifty, phat, pimp, rad, radical, sick, solid, sweet, tight, tubular, wicked. Unlike the slang words for “money” mentioned above, some of the “cool” counterparts are based on enantiosemy – the emergence of a positive connotation in a word that usually connotes something negative. This is the case with the cited words badass, dope, gnarly, killer, mad, sick, wicked. The rationale behind the positive meaning is that originally the application of such names was based on irony: evaluating something or a person’s activities as good or laudable, one refers to it using a negative word. It could be explained psychologically, however: consciously or subconsciously one realizes the meanness of some thing and acknowledges it linguistically. One of the remarkable features of contemporary slang is that, for some reason, one particular word-building pattern (which is best referred to as “word-creative”) is extensively made use of in slang, namely blending (or contamination). R. Cullen asserts that, “some of today’s most inventive neologisms, or new words, have been formed by combining two existing words. These blends, also called “portmanteaux”, include the prefix of one word and the suffix of another. The resulting term incorporates the definitions of both original words, often in clever or amusing ways…The more we talk and text our conversations, the more we seek to distinguish 24

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

and express ourselves with unique and creative vocabulary. When we do, it’s only a matter of seconds before an interesting new coinage makes its way around the world” [Cullen, 2007:37]. Some of the recent slangish portmanteaux are “definotly” (definitely + not: most definitely not), “flabdomen” (flab + abdomen: a flabby midsection), “irritainment” (irritate + entertainment: the annoying and degrading reality-based entertainment and media spectacles one finds impossible to resist), “mancation” (man + vacation: a men’s-only vacation; typically a weekend jaunt during which men bond and relax during rounds of golf, steak dinners, and plenty of beer), “resolutionary” (resolution + revolutionary: a person who makes a New Year’s resolution to join a gym and then quits after a few months), “ringxiety” (ring + anxiety: the panic and fear induced by one ringing cell phone in a crowd, causing everyone to scramble for their phone lest they miss a call). “The Little Hiptionary” by R. Cullen (2007) contains 61 blends out of 300 slang words, which is approximately 20%. The number is suggestive of the popularity of blending as a word-building pattern. There are a number of reasons underlying this popularity, some of them are purely pragmatic, others – psychological, still others are supposedly down to some peculiarities of referents that are designated with the help of blending. From pragmatic vantage point, condensed or compressed information tends to attract more attention and be more memorable. Second, since slang words reflect the distorted picture of the referent, which still bears resemblance to it, it is only convenient to use a model that admits of creating a paronymic lexeme – a derivative word resembling a dictionary unit and containing graphic, phonetic, morphemic and graphemic deformations simultaneously, one deformity entailing another. Due to technological progress and constant inflow of information as well as globalization, new objects develop that are characterized by a complex, previously incompatible properties. The blend “camcorder”, for instance, is just such an example. Although a slang word, by definition, can never be a term, it does not preclude it from lending a dictionary item some additional characteristics that vary on the scale of objectivity, never actually reaching complete objectivity and veering between mildly subjective to highly idiosyncratic. This is small wonder, because slang tends to disregard the usual order of things and sometimes, at least verbally, to distort objects and phenomena, evaluating them either as negligible and despi25

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

cable, or elevating the despicable and the negligible. According to “The Little Hiptionary”, the spheres that tend to be a draw for blended slang words are “negative feelings about something”, “poor or unusual quality of some object”. Another specific feature of modern slang is that converted proper names are used as common nouns, mostly with some negative evaluative connotations: How dare you to Lewinsky your way up the corporate ladder! Her skirt is so short you can practically see her Britney. Rumour has it that guy OJ’d his wife! [Cullen, 2007:35]. As can be seen from the cited examples, most of the proper names that have changed their referential status have a notorious or shameful background and more often than not are associated with pop-culture. Some of them are used as part of a blend: “Stay away from that girl. She’s a total Paris-ite” [Cullen, 2007:34]. Here the dubious celebrity P. Hilton is compared to a parasite. Sports, forming an integral part of British and American culture, also serve as an ample source of slang words: “Sports slang, and particularly words and expressions from the game of baseball, is so deeply ingrained in our culture that we may not realize the extent to which it peppers our everyday language. We step up to the plate, pitch ideas, drop the ball, and play hardball – all without setting foot on a field” [Cullen, 2007:114]. Some examples illuminated by “The Little Hiptionary” are: 1. nutmeg (v.) in soccer, to kick the ball between the defender’s legs, run around him, and continue dribbling the ball down the field: Kent was mortified when Michael nutmegged him in the first half. 2. Zebra (n.) a referee wearing a black and white striped uniform: Send this zebra back to the zoo! the hockey fans jeered. 3. Can of corn (n.) in baseball, an easy-tocatch fly ball: “C’mon, Mayes!” the coach yelled from the dugout. “How could you miss that can of corn?” 4. Juice (n.) steroids: Three months after starting his juice regimen, Tyrone’s muscle mass noticeably increased. [Cullen, 2007:117, 119, 123]. Sports slang gave rise to a couple dozen words with the meaning of “to beat” or “to win”: bash, beat, belt, blaze, blister, clip, clock, cork, drill, hammer, house, juice, lace, laser beam, lash, nail, own, paste, pepper, plank, pole, pound, powder, pown, pummel, ram, rap, rip, scald, school, scorch, shellack, slap, slug, smack, smash, smoke, spank, sting, stroke, whack, whang, whip. Some of the expressions referred to as sports slang 26

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

could be regarded as idioms that have become part and parcel of everyday parlance, in fact they could be regarded as sports terms that have developed an idiomatic meaning (for more detailed information see E.A. Nikulina, 2005): Caroline sent out party invitations in an attempt to get the ball Means of Forming Slang Words

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

86

1. Semantic readjustment

6

.

endin

.

m

.

n ersi n

. 6. . 8. S .

sitin 1

eri atin ra

ic

ist rti n

1

eia

6

n mat rtenin edu

icatin

1 .

e ica i ati n

11.

nc rrect deri ati n

a

1 .

cr n m

re i

e. .

reducti n in

c 1

rientate rce

1

27

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

rolling. Let’s try to get to first base by scheduling a meeting. How will we ever level the playing field? The most popular spheres which seem to have subjective gaps to be filled are subculture, business, technology, on-line slang, sports slang (according to “The Little Hiptionary”). The research into the percentage contribution of different word-building patterns as well as semantic processes that participate in the formation of slang items, based on “The Little Hiptionary”, revealed the following statistics3: The given figures demonstrate that semantic readjustment (86), blending (64), and composition (35) are the most wide-spread means of forming slang items. It must be noted that the resultant slang is not necessarily comprised of words, but may also include idiomatic phrases. To recapitulate, one could say that slang is characterized by a multifaceted nature: in one way it is a repository of metaphors, which when applied in an appropriate way, may serve to embellish the concept or, conversely, to foreground some hideous aspects that may be played down by authorities. In the latter case slang performs a purgatory function, disambiguating some notions that are made to look less repugnant. Slang is born as a result of a highly critical and judgmental attitude towards reality. One could object to this, however, by saying that youths and adolescents, when they resort to slang, are not really critical of reality, but, more often than not, emulate somebody whom they deem as more upbeat, fashionable, or popular with the peers. This indiscriminate usage of slang is traditionally looked down upon, since it shows a lack of discretion, discrimination and selectivity on the part of the speaker. Slang is a double edged-sword – no matter what kind of slang words you use or in what situation (formal/informal register), you have to be prepared to face the consequences of a possible misapplied word or of somebody taking offence.

Exercises: I Paraphrase the words and expressions in bold using different stylistic synonyms so that the resultant text belongs to a different register: 3

28

Some of the cases were left out as they did not lend themselves to easy categorization.

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

1. Although he was very loquacious at the defense, it did not transpire from his speech how the defendant had appropriated the effect. 2. Scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours. – said Oliver. How do you mean? asked George. I mean, lend me 5 greenbacks in dough and I leg it. 3. As I arrived, I found a despondent site, the place forlorn, the walls bearing no vestiges of the recent dwelling. 4. Will you be so kind as to elaborate on the point minutely, mentioning the pertaining and salient information only, discarding digressions. 5. The punitive measures are contingent upon your prospective demeanor. 6. Are you in the possession of the wherewithal to purchase the said article? 7. I presume you have a penchant for a more artistic occupation. II There are some word forming elements in slang that seem to be more actively used than others. These are, for instance, the lexical units “monkey”, “happy” and “dog”. Say what meaning they lend to the first element and what the resultant compound means. 29

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Air monkey Wheel monkey Car-happy Dough-happy Power-happy Mean dog Penny dog Smart dog III Australian slang is characterized by the extensive use of the suffix “-o”, which doesn’t have any specific meaning but renders the stem to which it is attached familiar-colloquial, bordering on derogatory. Using a dictionary of slang (e.g. Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang, 2005) find out what the following words mean:

Beano Blotto Cheapo Combo Compo Daddy-o Doggo Fatso Limo Milko Nutso Rabbito Salvo

30

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

IV The suffix “-ee”, which is traditionally used in standard English with the meaning of the receiver of the action, is also wide-spread in slang, but it is used with the meaning of the doer of the action and lends to the word a diminutive or a derogatory tinge. The suffix “-er” is used in slang in the formation of compound verbal nouns, it is added twice – to the verb stem and to the postpositive, making the resultant word morphologically and semantically pleonastic. Using a dictionary of modern slang, establish what the words below mean: Cookee, waitee, kissee, forgettee, breaker-upper, goerawarer, reader-in-bedder.

V Rhyming slang can be defined as a formation of a compound word, which rhymes with a common word, but which doesn’t have any semantic connection with it. The resultant word is facetious and humorous. Find out what the rhyming slang words below mean:

Bees-and-honey, boat-race, Brahms and Liszt, bubbleand-squeak, bull and cow, daisy roots, dog-and-bone, five-to-two, greengage, ham and beef, hot beef, linendraper, mince-pie, needle and pin, nickel and dime, Peckham rye, pen and ink, plates of meat, pot and pan, rabbit-and-talk, rogue and villain, round-the-houses, Simple Simon, skin and blister, tomfoolery, turtledove, two-and-eight.

31

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

VI Another characteristic feature of slang is the formation of pseudo-geographical names, aimed to reflect some characteristic feature of a locality. The following words are some such examples. What localities do they stand for?

Bananaland, Costa del Crime, Costa Geriatrica.

VII In slang, nouns denoting colours are used to form compounds. Predominantly, these are the nouns “blue”, “brown”, “red”, “yellow”. What do the compounds below mean and what meaning does the first element lend to the second one?

Blue funk, blue murder, brown job, to brown-nose, brown sugar, red-devil, red eye, red-hot, yellow-belly.

VIII Some other elements that are used in the formation of slang words are “hard”, “Mr.”, “de-”. What do the following words containing these elements mean? Hard ticket, hard tail, hard cheese; Mr. Big, Mr. Clean, Mr. Proper; de-bag, de-bunny, de-bug. 32

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

IX Barbaric words (or barbarisms) are non-assimilated words that are traceable to Latin or French (rarely to some other languages) and that are used in a well-educated person’s speech. They also resemble terms in that they are, firstly, not known by everyone and, secondly, usually circulate within some specific professional fields, like jurisdiction or medicine. Below is a list of most common barbarisms in English. Consult a dictionary and (1) say what language they come from and (2) what their current meaning is4:

Ad hoc, ad hominem, a fortiori, a priori, a posteriori, alma mater, bona fide, cum laude, curriculum vitae, e pluribus unum, Ibid, inter alia, mutatis mutandis, per se, prima facie, quid pro quo, sine die, sine qua non, sui generis, á la carte, amour-propre, bête-noire, bon voyage, carte blanche, coup de grâce, déjà vu, enfant terrible, faux pas, laissez-faire, nom de plume, nouveau riche, par excellence, tour de force. An inkhorn word is a pretentious borrowing considered to be too highflown, pedantic, recondite, or obscure, and therefore often frowned upon by purists. The attribute “inkhorn” was chosen because it used to be associated with academics and writers, and later became a symbol of their activities. Very often such words are scientific terms for a neutral or a colloquial word. For detailed information on barbarisms in English and their meaning see П. Палажченко «Мой несистематический словарь», 2003. 4

33

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Inkhorn terms may be deemed superfluous and concealing the notion they represent. X Consider the supposedly “inkhorn” words below and their more natural English counterparts, express your attitude to them. Are they too scientific and redundant, or could their usage be indicative of a well-bred, well-educated person? Inkhorn word abecedarian abligurition acronyx baisemain batrachoid blattoid brevirostrate bruxomania buccula calamistration causeuse collation deoppilate dompteuse sedentate exennium glabrous hirci jactancy jaculate kyphotic natalitious noop odontalgia oxter

34

Meaning in plain English a person who teaches the alphabet excessive spending on food and drink an ingrown fingernail or toenail a kiss on the hand like a frog like a cockroach having a short nose the compulsive grinding of one's teeth a double chin the act of curling hair a sofa built for two people a light informal meal to remove an obstruction a woman who trains animals having no teeth a gift given at New Year having no hair armpit hair the act of boasting or bragging to throw or to hurl hump-backed pertaining to someone's birthday the sharp point of the elbow a tooth ache to walk arm in arm

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Inkhorn word plangonologist psellism quader quotidian rosicler saxify senectitude sloken thrip

Meaning in plain English a collector of dolls an indistinct pronunciation, such as produced by a lisp or by stammering to multiply a number by itself occurring every day the glowing light of dawn to turn to stone or rock old age to quench one's thirst to snap one’s fingers

Recommended reading: Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного английского языка. – М.: Высш. шк., 1973. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка: (Стилистика декодирования). – 3-е изд. – М.: Просвещение, 1990. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 8-е изд. – М.: Флинта: Наука, 2006. Гальперин И.Р. Очерки по стилистике английского языка. – М.: Изд-во литературы на иностранных языках, 1958. Гальперин И.Р. Лингвостилистика. – М.: Прогресс, 1980. Лаврова Н.А. О некоторых словообразовательных и семантических особенностях современного сленга // Актуальные проблемы английской лингвистики и лингводидактики. – М.: Прометей, 2010. – С. 41–47. Маковский М.М. Современный английский сленг: Онтология, структура, этимология. – 4-е изд. – М.: ЛИБРОКОМ, 2009. Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang. – N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2005. Peckham A. Urban Dictionary: Fularious Street Slang Defined. – Kansas City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC, 2005. Peckham A. Urban Dictionary: Ridonkulous Street Slang Defined. – Kansas City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Publishing House, LLC, 2007. Steinmetz S., Kipfer B.A. The Life of Language. The fascinating ways the words are born, live and die. – N.Y.; Toronto; L.: Random House Reference, 2006.

35

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

3. Etymology Points to ponder – Name the major landmarks of borrowing into English. What types of words were borrowed during these periods? – Given that the majority of words are non-native in English (mostly of Romance origin), why can’t we regard English as a Romance language? – What are the formal signs of words borrowed from Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian, Spanish, etc.? – What are the major types of assimilation? What do we call words that are completely non-assimilated? In what context are they predominately used? How would you characterize a person who uses such words? – Specify the reasons for borrowing words. – What spheres of life do international words tend to describe? – Name the types of etymological doublets. – Enumerate structural and stylistic characteristics of borrowed words, particularly learned and terminology. – Comment on the following quotation from Karl Sornig. Express your opinion: People have always used words without knowing where they came from and what they once denoted. Such knowledge would not be of use to a speaker anyway; on the contrary, the knowledge of obsolete meanings would most probably interfere with the present semantic rules of usage. And even if the etymological meaning of a lexeme has been traced and made public, the actual meaning of the word usually remains uninfluenced by this additionally acquired knowledge. Etymological explanations and clarifications have absolutely no effect whatsoever upon the speaker’s usage (except if he is one of the very few philologists). Despite their “etymological blindness”, people know precisely how to use a word, some are even capable of explicitly describing differentiations in meaning [Sornig, 1981:11]. 36

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Many compound and derived English words that are non-native in origin, in particular, those going down to Greek and Latin, are etymologically meaningful. Native speakers, however, may no longer be aware of this, because, as a result of the development of the meaning of a word, its semantics may have departed from its etymology, or, putting it differently, the word no longer means what it used to. Below are some examples of such well-known words. Are you surprised at their etymology?: Atrocious (XII) – 1) extremely cruel or wicked: ruthless atrocious deeds; 2) horrifying or shocking: an atrocious road accident; 3) informal very bad: detestable atrocious writing. Etymology: formed on Latin āter black + stem of oculus eye. Belfry (XIII) – bell-tower or chamber. Etymology: Old French berfrei, Frankish * bergfrid, formed on *bergan protect + * friduz peace, shelter; the etymological meaning being ‘defensive place of shelter’. Brandy (XVII) – 1) an alcoholic drink consisting of spirit distilled from grape wine; 2) a distillation of wines made from other fruits plum brandy. Etymology: formed on Dutch elliptical brandewijn: branden burn, roast + wijn wine. Caprice (XVII) – sudden unaccountable turn of mind; work of art of lively or sportive character. Etymology: formed on Latin caput – head + ericeus – urchin. Crocodile (XIII) – 1) any large tropical reptile, such as C. niloticus (African crocodile), of the family Crocodylidae: order Crocodilia (crocodilians). They have a broad head, tapering snout, massive jaws, and a thick outer covering of bony plates, 2) any other reptile of the order Crocodilia; a crocodilian, 3) a) leather made from the skin of any of these animals, b) (as modifier) crocodile shoes, 4) informal a line of people, esp. schoolchildren, walking two by two. Etymology: Greek *krokódrīlos, formed on krókē – pebble + drilos – worm. 37

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Pedigree (XV) – genealogy in tabular form; one’s line of ancestors; family descent. Etymology: formed on Latin pēs, ped- – foot + de – of + gru – crane: crane’s foot. So called from the mark – three radiating downward lines – used to denote succession in a genealogical tree; later forms show assimilation to degree.

Exercises: I Trace the etymology of the words below and state whether the inner form departed from the current meaning of the word:

Belligerent Carnival Haemorrhage Horoscope Manicure Neighbour Pomegranate Schizophrenia

Benediction Garlic Harbinger Jeopardy Marzipan Nostalgia Portmanteau Porcupine

II The following groups of words have the same root. 1) State how the words are related etymology-wise; 2) Specify the difference in the current meaning of the words: Permission –permissiveness Aggression – aggressiveness Agreement – agreeableness Vice – viciousness Legality – legalization 38

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Human – humane Miser – misery Longevity – longitude – oblong Closeness – closure – enclosure – cloister Sanity – sanitation – sanitarian Minute – minutiae – minuet III The county names of Great Britain are all meaningful in the sense that they are etymologically motivated. Below are some county names of Great Britain. Consult an etymological dictionary or an encyclopedia and trace their etymology: Derby, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Buckingham, Oxford, Dorset, Cornwall, Avon, Gwent, Warwick, Stafford, Cheshire, Manchester, Man

IV The Scandinavian lexical legacy is not only comprised of common nouns and adjectives, such as “sky”, “skin”, “ill”, “loose”, but also of various place names. Thus, the elements “-by”, “-thorpe” and “-thwaite” are of Scandinavian origin and are often found in place names. Consult a dictionary and say what they mean. Here is a list of geographical names containing these elements: Carnaby, Ellerby, Rugby, Thirtleby, Barleythorpe, Grimsthorpe, Hamthorpe, Hilderthorpe, Low Claythorpe, Fridaythorpe, Hampsthwaite, Hunderthwaite, Husthwaite. 39

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

V Consult an etymological dictionary and state the origin of the words below. Where possible, specify the period of borrowing:

Cradle, curse, loch, camp, linen, gem, devil, disciple, martyr, mass, offer, alphabet, fever, giant, mount, polite, radish, air, beast, beauty, colour, diet, fest, flower, journey, judge, oil, soil, tender, literature, art, medicine, figure, grammar, remedy, romance, surgeon, fragrant, elegance, baton, accent, adverb, amplitude, demolish, admire, avenue, balcony, opera. VI During the Renaissance period a lot of Italian musical terms were borrowed. Here is a list of some of them. Consult a dictionary and say what they mean:

Adagio (1746) Allegretto (1740) Andante (1742) Cantata (1724) Coda (1753) Concerto (1730) Divertimento (1759) Falsetto (1774) Impresario (1746) Moderato (1724) Oratorio (1727) Pianissimo (1724) Sotto voce (1737)

40

________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

VII The English Language absorbed a lot of words not only from Romance, Greek and Scandinavian languages. The influence of Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese and Hindi should not be disregarded. Study the table below and say in what spheres of life the following borrowed words are used. What notions do they convey? How important are they for everyday communication? Arabic admiral albatross alcohol algebra amber assassin cotton mattress mosque syrup sultan zenith zero

Persian arsenic azure bazaar caravan jackal jasmine kiosk lilac magic paradise shawl spinach tulip turban

Hebrew amen behemoth camel cherub hallelujah jubilee manna messiah Sabbath sapphire Satan

Chinese ginseng kung fu yin, yan tea

Japanese soy sushi sake aikido judo sumo banzai origami samurai karaoke geisha kimono rickshaw tycoon

Hindi bandanna bangle bungalow cheetah chintz jungle loot pajamas pundit shampoo thug yoga

VIII Below is a list of words borrowed during the Renaissance from Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese. Sort them out and allocate each word to one of the languages. Say what the meaning of each word is: Bully, cookie, kit, ogle, scoop, scuffle, snuffle, track, albino, cocoa, hacienda, jerk, palaver, mantilla, torero.

41

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

IX Cognates are words that are etymologically related. As was mentioned elsewhere, native speakers, however, may no longer be aware of this connection. Thus, the words “fame”, “infamy” “infant”, “infantry” and “bandit” are etymologically related. Look up their etymology in a dictionary and trace their connection. X Roots which are usually of Latin or Greek origin and emerge in a number or related words, but are no longer associated with a clear-cut meaning are called “remnant” roots. These are such roots as “-fer”, “-cur-”, “-aster”, “punct-”, “-pyr-”, “cap”, “syn-” (“sym-”, “syl-”), “-lev-”, “fa-” (fe-, pha-, phe-). Study their meaning and say how it is reflected in the meaning of the words that they form.

-fer: -cur-: -aster: punct-: -pyr-: cap-: syn-:

-lev-:

42

“to carry, bring, bear” – transfer, refer, prefer, confer, infer, offer “run” – current, concur, incur, occur, recur “star” – disaster, asteroid, astronaut “point” – punctuation, punctual, punctilious, puncture “fire; fever” – pyrotechnics, antipyretic “take, seize” – captor, capture, captive (sym-, syl-): “together, with” – synonym, synthesis, syllogism, syllable, symmetry, sympathy, “lift, rise” – elevate, lever, levy, levity

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

XI Some Indo-European remnant roots are characterized by gradation, a process by which root vowels alternate with each other or occasionally drop out of the root. There are different types of gradation, but the most wide-spread are e-gradation, o-gradation and zero-gradation. Study the following words with gradations and say how the words are related semantically. Root

e-gradation

o-gradation

zero-gradation

kel “hollow, cover”

cellar

colour

clandestine

gen “birth, origin”

genetic

gonorrhea

cognate

men “think, warn”

demented

admonish

mnemonic

pher “carry, bear”

Christopher

euphoria

-

pellagra

-

surplice

-

hyperbole

parable

cere “grow”

cereal

-

increase

gel “jelly, ice, solidify”

gelatin

-

glacial

legal

apology

-

mellifluous

molasses

-

menace

Montana

-

pel “skin, fell” bol “throw, reach”

leg “gather, read, study” mel “honey” men “lead, project, threaten”

XII Doublets are a pair of distinct words that ultimately derive from the same single source, but diverge along the line of their development. Doublets may resemble each other in form and sometimes in meaning. Doublets are a result of the historical process of borrowing, which involved acquiring the same or related vocabulary items from different sources, usually Latin and French. Study the etymology of the doublets below and say whether the words are at present semantically related. 43

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Capital, cattle, chattel. The words go down to Medieval Latin “capitale”, meaning “property”. Canary, cynic. From Greek “kun-” “dog”. Abbreviate, abridge. From Latin “brevis” “short”. Aptitude, attitude. From Latin “aptitūdō” “fitness”. Castle, chateau. From Latin “castrum” “fort”. Cloak, clock. From Medieval Latin “clocca” “bell”. A cloak was so called because its shape resembled that of a bell. A clock was a timepiece in which each hour was marked by the sound of a bell. Costume, custom. From Latin “cōnsuētūdinem” “habit, custom”. Coy, quiet. From Latin “quiētus” “at rest, in repose”. Faction, fashion. From Latin “factiō” “doing or making”. Guarantee, warranty. The former is from Old French “garant” “warrant”, the latter is from Old Norse French “warantie” “a warrant”. Guardian, warden. The former is from Old French “gardein” “protector”, “custodian”, the latter is from Old Norse French “wardein” “guardian, custodian”. Inch, ounce. The former is from Latin “uncia” “twelfth part (of a foot, pound, etc.), the latter is from Old French, meaning “a twelfth of a pound”. Legal, loyal. From Latin “lēgālis” “legal”. Poison, potion. From Latin “pōtiōn-” “a poisonous drink”. Regal, royal. From Latin “rēgālis” “fit for a king”. Tradition, treason. From Latin “trāditiōn-” “delivery, handing over, surrender”. 44

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

XIII Eponyms (from Greek “eponymous” “named for”) are words that can be traced back to a proper name (whose bearer is noted for something) but function as common nouns and may no longer be capitalized. Study the following eponyms and say what the sphere of their application and usage is. Divide them into several groups according to their origin. Atlas: a collection of maps. The mythical Atlas fought an unsuccessful war against Zeus, who condemned him to bear the heavens on his shoulders. Band-aid ™: is usually generalized to refer to any small bandage for a cut or scratch. Bikini: the islands where the atom bomb was tested. Boycott: after Charles Boycott, an English land agent in Ireland. Cardigan: a sweater or jacket that opens down the front. Named after the 7th Earl of Cardigan (J.T. Brundell, 1797–1868), who wore such a jacket when he led the heroic Charge of the Light Brigade during the Crimean War. Casanova: after Giovanni Jacopo Casanova de Seingalt, who wrote vividly about his amorous adventures throughout Europe. Cashmere: fine wool; named for Cashmere (now Kashmir), a region in the Himalayas where this wool is obtained. Chauvinism: militant patriotism. Traced back to Nicholas Chauvin, a wounded French veteran of the Napoleonic Wars famed for his devotion to Napoleon and the Empire. At first he was admired, but after Napoleon’s downfall he was ridiculed for his excessive patriotism. Cheddar: a village in Somerset whence the cheese first came. Dahlia: after the Swedish botanist Anders Dahl. Denim: cotton cloth, originally serge, made in the town of Nîmes, southern France, hence serge de Nim. Derby: a stiff felt hat with rounded crown and narrow brim; named for the Derby, the annual horse race in Britain, at which men wore this kind 45

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

of hat. The Derby was founded by the 12th Earl of Derby in 1780, after the county of this name in central England. Derrick: a crane for lifting heavy weights; originally, a structure for hanging someone, a gallows, named after Derrick, surname of a noted hangman of the Tyburn gallows in London during the 1600s. Dunce: a stupid person. A clipping from the name of John Duns Scotus (1265–1308), a teacher of theology and philosophy at Oxford who challenged the teachings of Thomas Aquinas. Followers of Aquinas attacked the disciples of Scotus, calling then “Dunses”, and finally equating them with fools and blockheads. Guillotine: a device with a large blade for beheading people, named for Joseph Ignace Guillotin (1738–1814), a French physician who was a member of the Constituent Assembly in 1789 when he proposed that those condemned to death should be beheaded by a machine, which would be quicker and more humane than the methods used until then by executioners. Guy: named for the Catholic conspirator, member of the Gunpowder Plot in Great Britain, 1606. Since he was held up for ridicule, and in Britain the word still means “a person of odd or grotesque appearance”, it is apparent that American English has generalized and neutralized the word. Hector: to bully. Named for Hector, the champion of Troy in The Lliad, who fought the Greeks. Jeans: from the Italian city of Genoa, where the cloth was first made, as in blue jeans. Jello ™: a particular brand of jellied emulsion, is generalized to refer to any edible substance of the same type. Nemesis: after the name of a Greek goddess who punished violations of all forms of rightful order and proper behavior. Malapropism: a ridiculously inappropriate use of words; named after Mrs. Malaprop, a character in R. Sheridan’s comedy “The Rivals” (1775). She regularly misapplied words by replacing the intended word with one that sounded alike. Maverick: an individualist, a political independent; (earlier) an animal unmarked with a brand. Named after A. Maverick (1803–1870), a Texas rancher who refused to brand his cattle, saying that branding was cruel. 46

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

His neighbours accused him of lying, since it allowed Maverick to claim nay unbranded cattle on the range as his. By the turn of the century, “maverick” had taken on the meaning of someone independent and unconventional, especially a politician who breaks away from his party. Mentor: a trusted guide, advisor. Named after “Mentor”, the faithful friend of Ulysses in Homer’s Odyssey. The goddess Athene assumes the form of Mentor when she accompanies Telemachus as a guide and advisor in his search for his father. Morphine: a drug extracted from opium. Named after “Morpheus”, the Roman God of dreams, son of the god of sleep. Panic: noises which caused fear in the flocks by night were attributed in Ancient Greece to Pan, the God of misdeeds; a panic is irrational behavior in the herd. Nicotine: after Jacques Nicot, who introduced tobacco into France in 1560. Pompadour: an upswept style of hair. Named after the Marquise de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV of France, who wore her hair in this style. Raglan: a loose overcoat with sleeves extending to the collar. Named after Lord Raglan (1788–1855), a British field marshal who wore such a coat during the Crimean War. Sandwich: after the eighteenth-century British nobleman, the Earl of Sandwich, who brought bread and meat together to provide sustenance for himself. Sardonic (alteration of “sardinic”): coming from the island of Sardinia. Refers to a type of sarcastic laughter supposed to resemble the grotesque effects of eating a certain Sardinian plant. Silhouette: a portrait made by tracing the outline of a profile, figure and so on. Named after Etienne de Silhouette (1709–1767), the controller of finances in France in 1759. Bork: to attack a political candidate, especially in the media. Named after Judge Robert H. Bork, whose nomination to the Supreme Court in 1987 was rejected by the Senate after an extensive media attacks by his opponents. 47

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Quisling: a traitor who cooperates with the enemy; named after major Vidkun Quisling, who headed Norway’s puppet government under the Nazis in World War II and was executed for treason in 1945. Sherry: white wine, originally from Xerez, now Jerex de la Frontera in Spain. The final “s” was deleted on a mistaken view that it was the plural suffix. Solon: a lawgiver. Named for Solon, an Athenian statesman and lawgiver. Strangelove: a military strategist who plans large-scale nuclear warfare; named after Dr. Strangelove, a mad military planner in the 1964 motion picture “Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, directed by St. Kubrick. Velcro ™: a fastening consisting of two strips of nylon fabric, one having tiny hooked threads and the other a coarse surface, that form a strong bond when pressed together. Xerox ™: especially as a verb has come to mean “to copy by a dry process”. Reborrowing (обратное заимствование) is the process when a word is borrowed from one language into another, and then it is borrowed back into the original language in a different form or with a different meaning. Study the examples below and say how the meaning of the reborrowed word differs from its etymon (etymon – is the original word to which a word’s etymology can be traced). French: “tenez” (to hold): English “tennis”: French: “tennis” (the name of the sport) French: “cotte” English: “riding coat”: French: “redingote”: English: “redingote” Greek: “kínma” (movement): French: “cinéma”: Greek “sinemá” (cinema) English: “animation”: Japanese: “anime”: English “anime” (Japanese animation) English: crack (news, gossip): Irish Gaelic: craic (fun): English: craic 48

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Phono-semantic matching (фоносемантическое соответствие) – is an inconspicuous, disguised borrowing in which a foreign word is rendered by means of the recipient language, the resultant word resembling the original word phonetically and semantically. The rationale behind phono-semantic borrowing is as follows: Recycling obsolete lexical items; camouflaging foreign influence; facilitating learning; playfulness; iconicity; political correctness; attracting customers (if they are brand-names). Some examples are: the Mandarin form of “World Wide Web” is “wàn wéi wng”, which literally means “myriad dimensional net”; the Icelandic “toekni” (technology, technique) is a phono-semantic matching of the Danish “teknik”, “toekni” derives from “toeki” (tool) and the nominal suffix “-ni”; Turkish “okul” is a phonosemantic variant of the French “école” (school), “okul” is derived from “okumak” (to read, to study). In what way does phono-semantic matching differ from loantranslation, or calquing?

Recommended reading: Лексикология английского языка: учебник для ин-тов и фак. иностр. яз. / Р.3. Гинзбург, С.С. Хидекель, Г.Ю. Князева и А.А. Санкин. – 2-е изд., испр. и доп. – М.: Высш. школа, 1979. Маковский М.М. Английская этимология. – М.: Высш. шк., 1986. Metcalf A. Predicting new words: the secrets of their success. – Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. Oxford Concise Dictionary of English Etymology (OCDEE). – Oxford, N.Y., 1996. Steinmetz S., Kipfer B.A. The Life of Language. The fascinating ways the words are born, live and die. – N.Y.; Toronto; L.: Random House Reference, 2006. Stockwell R., Minkova D. English Words: History and Structure. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Second edition. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

49

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

4. Word-building Points to ponder – What is the smallest meaningful indivisible unit in language? In what way can the status of this unit vary? What other types of units do you know? – Define a productive word-building pattern and name the types of productive patterns in English. Say what accounts for their productivity. – Does the dichotomy “productive – non-productive” equal the dichotomy “central-marginal”? – Say what derivation, composition and shortening are and specify their major types. – What do the terms “aphaeresis”, “syncope” and “apocope” refer to? Give examples. – Can the meaning of a derivative or a compound be deduced from the meaning of their constituents? – Why does one and the same suffix or prefix can lend different meanings to the stem? What does it depend on? – Why is conversion so typical of English? What types of semantic shift regularly occur in converted words? What part of speech seems to be most prone to conversion? – What is the difference between semi-affixes and combining forms? Which type of morpheme is more productive in modern English and why? – What other terms for “shortening” do you know? – In what situations do people tend to reduplicate words or to apply reduplicated words? – What is “blending”? Specify the structural and semantic types of blends. Say in what types of discourse they are most commonly used. Name all the possible reasons for their usage. Enumerate all the synonymic terms for “blending”. What term do Russian scholars seem to give preference to and Western ones? How can you explain this diversity of terms for “blending”. Do you know the name of the writer who popularized this word-building pattern? 50

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Exercises I Going by the given definitions of the stem and the root, identify them in the following English words: Stem is the part of a word that remains when inflections are removed, it serves as a derivational basis for other words. Root is the core part of a word that carries its primary meaning, it is left over when a prefix or a suffix has been removed from it.

Unmentionables, smallest, serendipity, supercilious, director, discredit, disability, eventuality, meticulousness, friendship, parturition, capability, mileage

II Specify the word-building pattern of the underlined words. 1. What is the make of your car? 2. My hairdresser did a good perm to my hair. 3. At first the password to Harry Potter’s dorm was ‘balderdash’, but then it was changed into ‘gobbledegook’

4. ‘I can’t administer a dressing to your wound because the nature of injury might be conducive to the formation of pus if it’s not exposed to the sun and fresh air’ said the nurse. 51

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

5. This regulation can be accepted mutatis mutandis. 6. – I think you need a good shake. – I’m not drinking it. – Certainly not. What I mean is that you need a proper telling-off, man. 7. – Do you need a hand? – Sorry? – I mean, shall I help you?

8. I don’t want to act as a go-between or a middleman in you row. 9. If the said subject fails to clarify the provenance of these possessions, the ramifications will include a legal action on my client’s behalf.

III Analyze the underlined words from the point of view of their morphemic structure Mr. Moon, with the air of a man who has remembered something which he had overlooked, shoved a sock in his guest’s mouth and resumed his packing. He was what might be called an impressionist packer. His aim appeared to be speed rather than neatness. He bundled his belongings in, closed the bag with some difficulty and stepping to the window opened it. Then he climbed out onto the fire-escape, dragged his suitcase after him and was gone. (P.G. Wodehouse) 52

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

The Rev. Thomas was a man of extreme nervous temperament. He was, par excellence, a fusser and when he fussed, his digestive apparatus collapsed and he suffered agonizing pains. (Agatha Christie) To Forsyte imagination that house now was a sort of Chinese pillbox, a series of layers in the last of which was Timothy. One did not reach him, or so it was reported by members of the family who, out of old-time habit or absent-mindedness would drive up once in a blue moon and ask after their surviving uncle. (John Galsworthy)

IV Spot cases of conversion in the sentences below. 1. I kept glancing at the files of kopjes which, seen from a different angle, seemed to change with every step so that even known landmarks, like a big mountain that has sentinelled my world since I first became conscious of it, showed an unfamiliar sunlit valley among its foothills (D. Lessing, “The Old Chief Mshlanga”, 1956, P. 9). 2. And then he grinned, too widely, and lowered his face to the figurine, and crushed its head in his teeth, chomping and chewing widely, swallowing in lumps. His teeth ground the china to a fine powder, which dusted the lower part of his face (N. Gaiman, “Neverwhere”, 1996, P. 210). 3. We played in the sandpit for a little while, and then he went down the slide a few times, and then he had a ride on one of those wooden horses that have a big spring coming out of the bottom of them so you can wobble around (N. Hornby, “Slam”, 2007, P. 234). 53

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

4. The prohibition against “um” probably grew into a general expectation of flawless speaking with the advent of the radio. The popularity of the technology exploded in the 1920s in a way that contemporary Americans who witnessed the rise of the Internet would recognize (M. Erard, “Slips, Stumbles and Verbal Blunders and What They Mean”, 2007, P. 128). 5. Take a moment to map out your own sphere of influence. Where is it strongest, beginning with the sphere of your formal authority? (“Power, Influence and Persuasion”, 1992, P. 41).

6. If lists of universals show that languages do not vary freely, do they imply that languages are restricted by the structure of the brain? Not directly. First, one must rule our two alternative explanations (S. Pinker, “The Language Instinct”, 1994, P. 234).

7. I met a couple out walking two large black dogs of uncertain genetic background. The dogs were romping playfully in the tall grass, but, as always, happens, at the first sight of me their muscles tautened, their eyes turned a glowing red… (B. Bryson, “Notes from a Small Island”, 1998, P. 113). 8. He sat with the package on his knees, aware of the passengers’ glances, and somehow knew the colour was a giveaway (I. McEwan, “The Innocent”, 1999, P. 92). 9. The place emptied rapidly. The horizontal diggers, the tunneling sergeants, had long departed. The British vertical men had left just as the excitement was growing, and no one noticed them go (I. McEwan, “The Innocent”, 1999, P. 114). 54

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

V In an endocentric compound the head word is described by the first modifying component; in exocentric compounds both components refer to an unexpressed semantic head, this type of compound is traditionally called “bahuvrihi”, the meaning of such a compound is, par excellence, based on metonymic transference. In copulative compounds both parts describe the complex nature of the referent, that is, the referent simultaneously possesses two, very often opposed, qualities (e.g. bittersweet). In appositional compounds both parts provide equal descriptions for the referent (actor-director)). Define the type of compound – endocentric, exocentric, copulative, appositional: Milkman, blindfold, straphanger, longlegs, whitecollar, bullfinch, backstage, backlog, backdrop, tadpole, pinpoint, greenback, tall-boy, highbrow, sweetmeats, sweetheart, headache, backpack, ladybird, treadmill, dough-nut, nightmare, pigtail.

VI Match the left-hand word with the right hand-hand word to form a compound. Say whether it’s idiomatic or non-idiomatic. What do the words mean? Pigeon Salt Free- Dead Dumb Field Jay

day walk mark lizard thing hole for-all 55

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»



Land Lounge Nay Play Way

cellar bell pan say lay

VII The word-building pattern of contamination, also known as blending and telescoping, was traditionally a marginal model in English. At the beginning of the XXI century, however, the pattern is gradually gathering momentum and is extensively used in advertising. Contamination (or blending) consists in creating a new, as a rule occasional, word formed from morphemic splinters of two or more lexemes. A) Try to guess from the context what products the given names advertise. B) Name the source-words of blends. C) Say what the rationale behind each blend is. 1. Chewels a. chewing transparent candies b. candies in the form of a jewel c. sugarless liquid-centre chewing gum 2. Charmaternity a. nursing and maternity bras b. utensils for child-feeding c. apparel for pregnant women 3. Crystalace a. tiles b. exquisite lace c. decorative ledges patterned after lace 4. Pleascent a. perfume 56

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

b. hair permanent c. herbal shampoo 5. Scriptip a. markers b. erasers c. correction liquid 6. Slimderella a. rubber girdles b. tights c. pills for losing weight 7. Softint a. hair colouring b. paintbrushes c. markers VIII Assign the blends below to one of the seven thematic groups and define their components? The thematic groups are as follows: 1) journalism, 2) advertising, 3) politics and business, 4) cinematography, 5) culinary, 6) students’ slang, 7) computer (all blends are real):

Appeteasing, Chindia, europreneurs, amBUSHed, pandaplomacy, aquamatic, aristicat, cosmedicake, fabulash, filmusical, cinemagnate, docufantasy, autoslobile, basketbrawl, frappuccino, lamburger, D-graded, examnesia, herbacue, qualitea, Indy-pendence, netpreneurs, n(euro)sis, diplonomics, dramassassin, fuelishness, tragicomedy, clamato, crunchips, croissandwich, Bushonomics, blog, emoticon, netiquette, netizen.

IX Organize the following words into groups taking into account their word-building patterns – composition, derivation, formations 57

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

with semi-affixes, combining forms (комбинирующиеся формы), blending: zestimate (v.); womenomics (n.); inland (adv.); webonoics (n.); stressresistant (adj.); headfirst (adv.); waiflike (adj.); semicircle (n.); telegenic (adj.); enslave (v.); telephone (n.) ; washave (v.); toycoon (n.); overdo (v.); squarectangle (n.); carjack (v.); outwit (v.); eurepair (n.); whitecollar (n.); clamburger (n.); ensnare (v.); anticlockwise (adv.); bootique (n.); booklegger (n.); tragicomic (adj.); torrible (adj.); slimnastics (n.); roundwich (n.); treetop (n.); quicktionary (n.); homicide (n.); qatnapper (n.); pupcorn (n.); irregardless (adj.); leadvantage (n.); genomics (n.); classociation (n.); copelessness (n.); St. Petersburg; Edinburgh; buttlegger (n.); disctraction (n.); attraction (n.); netsomnia (n.); nescape (n.); motorcade (n.); butterine (n.); bushonomics (n.); brewtal (adj.); clockwise (adv.); parapsychology (n.); eavesdrop (v.); outcastaway (n.) ; newseum (n.); technocrat (n.); moneymoon (n.); childlike (adj.); telephone (n.); desktop (n.); defendamins (n.); brathlete (n.). blending combining forms composition derivation formations with semi-affixes

X A) Allocate the selected words into three groups – contaminated, occasional, neological. Can the word simultaneously belong to several groups? 58

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

B) Describe the word-building pattern of each word:

to feel towny; Spanish acquistadores (about Mexican banks); a big falsey-toothy smile; to be pally with smb; webonomics; laboRATory; a question of omenish nature; travelocity; meritocracy; retronym; women in tentish dresses; pill-gotten gains; $tar; to feel lovingful of smb.; propheteering; x-ray; radar; laser; to feel déjà-vu-sque; dancercise; winterval; prequel; PFInancial services; to lead an applauseless life; an oletimey pitcher of tea; medicase; car-clogged highway; n(euro)sis; kidult; bucket-eared; kyatastrophe; razorthin whisper; badvantage; blog; to speak in a clenchedteethedly way; glocalisation; bachelord; replicant; delicate spindly-thin boors; misunderestimate; taxicology; cyberspace; contradictate; robotics; flashy-darty look, eyes; Beatles; weekend-empty place; stressure; xenocide.

XI Some elements of a word may receive an unprecedented boost in usage in combination with rootwords. Although originally found as part of a single word, they become fashionable and wide-spread due to the topicality of the notion they convey. These are such elements as “franken-”, “e-”, “(o)rexia, “eco-”, “Mc-”, “-speak”, “(a)thon”, “-gate” and some others. The number of such words is currently on the increase, therefore it is hardly possible to enumerate all of them. The status of these word-building elements is hard to define, for convenience’ sake, we choose to refer to them as “vogue neo-semi-affixes” (модные нео-полуаффиксы). They are not affixes proper as they appeared relatively recently and as a result are rarely registered by dic59

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

tionaries; nor should they be called “combining forms” (as some linguists suggest), because combining forms are restricted to Latin and Greek roots, often found in combination with each other; calling them “roots” is also dubious, for they hardly ever function in speech independently, and even if they occasionally do, this is rather an exception than the rule. It seems that referring to them as “semi-affixes” is most appropriate, inasmuch as their meaning is more precise and concrete than that of affixes. Below are a number of words containing vogue neo-semi-affixes. Study them closely, trace the word that caused them to appear and say what they currently mean. Adspeak, artspeak, businesspeak, computerspeak, femspeak, videospeak, gayspeak, technospeak, doublespeak, litcritspeak, videospeak, discospeak, Olymspeak, Pentagonspeak, Freudspeak, bureaucratspeak e-Bay, e-commerce, e-trade, e-cards, e-medicine, e-financing, e-gold, e-library, e-pals, e-mentoring, e-music, e-museum, ehow, e-boat iTools, iTunes, iFilm, iVillage, iWon, iEarn, iPad, iPod, iOS Frankenfood, Frankenbeans, Frankencorn, Frankenfruit, Frankenrice, Frankenplants, Frankenword McJob, McFashion, McTheatre, McNews, McWord Bikeathon, talkathon, walkathon, telethon, discothon, Bachathon Nannygate, oilgate, Irangate, Hollywoodgate 60

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

XII Study the following back-formed words, specify their meaning, say what word they are derived from. Check whether any of them are registered by dictionaries. What accounts for their lack of representation in dictionaries?

sculpt, intuit, liaise, enthuse, donate, surveille, diagnose, swindle, escalate, sleaze, grunge, embeds, to jell, to automate, to jubilate, to emote, laze, televise

XIII Clipping, or shortening, or contraction is a productive way of wordbuilding in English. Reflect on the following clippings and say which of them are entrenched in the English word-stock and which are only emerging as fully-fledged independent words. What does it depend on? Which words are used in a clipped form exclusively without its full part any longer emerging in communication? Which clippings have a different meaning from their non-truncated counterparts? Bi Bra Champ Chimp Condo Coop Disco Exam Frank Hippo

← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ←

bisexual brassiere champion chimpanzee condominium cooperative discotheque examination frankfurter hippopotamus 61

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Lab Lunch Max Mayo Piano Porn Reg Rep Cute Gator Quake Copter Margarine Possum Cello

← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ←

laboratory luncheon maximum mayonnaise pianoforte pornography regulation reputation acute alligator earthquake helicopter oleomargarine opossum violoncello

Diminutive suffixes are not very productive or wide-spread in English, however, they are found in a number of words. These words may be registered by dictionaries, in which case they, more often than not, have a meaning of their own. They may also be created ad hoc, on the spur of the moment, in which case, however, the speaker should go by the rules of morphological collocation, according to which each diminutive can be added to a particular kind of stem. Some of the diminutives have the “remnant” status, native speakers may no longer be aware of their diminutive nature or meaning, as they are borrowed and non-productive. The functions of diminutives are manifold: 1) endearment and affection; 2) familiarity or intimacy; 3) condescension or dismissal; 4) a smaller (a small) size or dimension; 5) the young of animals or pets XIV Study the diminutives suggested below, specify the principle of their classification and establish the meaning they render to the stem. Translate the words into Russian: 62

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

– let: booklet, piglet, rivulet, starlet – et(te): kitchenette, cigarette, launderette, diskette, novelette, nymphet, statuette, towelette – ie (-y): doggie, kitty, laddie, lassie, sweetie – ling: duckling, darling, princeling, gosling, fosterling, hireling, underling, sapling, lordling, godling – cule, -culus, -ule: animalcule, calculus, capsule, corpuscule, globule, granule, module, molecule – el: bowel, chapel, colonel, fennel, hovel, spinel, tunnel – elle (-ella): membranelle, novella, umbrella – ing: farthing, tithing – kin: bodkin, gherkin, lambkin, manikin, napkin, babykins – ock: bullock, hillock, paddock, tussock

In English, as indeed in any other language, there are a number of words used particularly by little children or by their care-givers when talking to them. These words are united under the heading “baby-talk” or “motherese”. Such words are often reduplicated, short and are based on the distortion of ordinary words. Interestingly, baby-talk is also resorted to by pet-owners when talking to their pets, by lovers exchanging endearments and by nurses taking care of their patients, particularly, of terminally-ill ones. The attitude towards such words is ambiguous: on the one hand, they may be indicative of affection and care, but on the other hand, they have been stigmatized as infantile, superfluous, shallow and lacking gravity. In fact, their abun63

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

dant usage may indicate absence of true love and care whenever they are automatically retrieved to refer to almost anything under the sun. Terminally-ill patients have been known to resent the application of such words towards themselves, as well as the not-so-little children. XV Below are some examples of baby-talk words or motherese. Specify their word-building peculiarities and say in what context their application could be appropriate. Beddy-bye: the time for a baby to go to bed Binkie: a pacifier Blankie: a baby’s blanket Boo-boo: a minor injury Choo-choo: a railroad train Da-da: father Din-din: dinner Icky: sticky or disgusting Jammies: pyjamas Nana: grandma Oopsy-daisy: said on tossing a bay upside-down Owie: a minor injury Piggie: a baby’s finger or toe Teeny-weeny: very small, tiny Tummy: stomach Tush: buttocks Wawa: water Yucky: sticky or disgusting Yummy: tasty, delicious

XVI Onomatopoeic words are represented sparingly in the English word stock, however, a number of them play an important role in everyday communication, most of them are also registered by dic64

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

tionaries. Below is a list of onomatopoeic words produced by animals. Which of the sounds seem unusual to you? A bee – buzz A bird – chirp, chirrup A small bird – peep, tweet A cat – purr BOW-WOW! A cow – moo A crow – caw WOOF! A dog – bow-wow, woof A donkey – he-haw A dove or a pigeon – coo A goose – honk A grasshopper – chirr A hen – clucks A horse – neigh, whinny An owl – hoot A pig – oink A snake – hiss A sheep – baa A turkey – gobble XVII Paraphrase the following onomatopoeic words and translate them into Russian. What other word-building patterns (if any) are used in the formation of such words? Babble, blab, gab, holler, jabber, natter, stutter, susurrate, tattle, whine, yada-yada-yada, yap, gargle, gurgle, ululate, zap, sizzle, wheeze, whiz, chug, clipclip, flip-flop 65

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

The suffix “-ee” has a productive status in modern English, a surprisingly large number of words are formed with its help. It is regularly found in journalistic articles, however, its meaning may be ambiguous. It renders to the word the meaning of either “the recipient of the action” (1) or “the doer of the action” (2) (the actor). XVIII Sort out the following words with the “-ee” suffix and allocate them to either the first (1) or the second (2) group. Specify the criteria that you go by when differentiating between the groups. Adaptee, electee, examinee, franchisee, mergee, rescuee, transportee, appellee, mortgagee, educatee, releasee, addressee, deportee, nominee, trainee, absentee, escapee, riteree, returnee. XIX Consider the following derivatives, single out the suffix and say to what part of speech the stem of the derivative belongs. Mileage, breakage, spillage; Moroccan, Egyptian, Iranian; attendance, disturbance, performance, elegance, relevance, vigilance; assistant, attendant, consultant; accountancy, privacy; mouthful, pocketful, tablespoonful; comedian, historian, Freudian; heroism, idealism; originality, personality, superiority; clumsiness; manliness, politeness; agreeable, understandable, manageable; customary, honorary, momentary; bearded, bow-legged, bigheaded; ashen, golden, leaden; collectible, convertible, digestible; angelic, artistic, heroic; childish; fiendish, shortish, whitish; cloudy, greedy, earthy, jazzy; skyward, northward, rearward; clockwise, healthwise, salarywise, testwise; freshen, quicken, hearten, strengthen. 66

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Reduplication consists in repeating the stem either verbatim or introducing phonetic and graphic changes. Reduplicated words perform different functions, such as: indicating plurality, repetition, customary activity, increase of size, added intensity, continuance. There are two basic types of reduplicatives: tautonyms and ricochet words (these terms are upheld by E.C. Brewer, S. Steinmetz, B.A. Kipfer). In tautonyms the repeated stem is not modified, in ricochet words it is modified. The popularity and relative productivity of reduplicatives is explained psychologically by the fact that the repetition of sound is pleasurable to the ear. Reduplicatives may also be loan words, in which case they are often of terminological character: e.g. beriberi (disease of the nerves caused by vitamin deficiency, from Sinhalese “beri” “weakness”), mahimahi (dolphin, from Hawaiian “mahi” “strong”), ylangylang (an East Indian tree or its oil, from Tagalog), couscous (semolina dish, from Arabic), lavalava (a Polynesian garment, from Samoan “clothing”). XX Study the reduplicatives below, specify their type and function and say in what sphere of communication they are predominantly used. Choo-choo, doo-doo, pee-pee; honey-bunny, itty-bitty, itsy-bitsy, lovey-dovey; Dilly-dally, flim-flam, hobnob, shilly-shally, wishywashy; boogie-woogie, chit-chat, pitter-patter, seesaw, walkie-talkie; knick-knack, hodge-podge, mishmash, pell-mell; riff-raff, fuddy-duddy, helter-skelter, higgledy-piggledy, nitty-gritty, roly-poly, super-duper, teeny-weeny, willy-nilly.

Recommended reading: Ильченко Л.М. Компрессивное словообразование как один из способов реализации принципа языковой экономии (на примере современного

67

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

английского языка): автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук. – Пятигорск, 1993. Лукьянова Н.А. Активные семантические модели английских производных прилагательных суффиксального и префиксального типов: автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук. – М., 1996. Мешков О.Д. Семантические аспекты словосложения английского языка. – М.: Наука, 1986. Минаева Л.В. Лексикология и лексикография английского языка: учеб. пособие. – М.: АСТ: Астрель, 2007. Нухов С.Ж. Семиологические аспекты окказионального словообразования современного английского языка: дис. … канд. филол. наук. – М., 1987. Нухов С.Ж. Языковая игра в словообразовании (на материале лексики английского языка: дис. ... д-ра филол. наук. – М., 1997. Харитончик З.А. Проблемы словообразования в современном английском языке. – Минск, 1989. Algeo J. Blends, a structural and systemic view // American Speech. – Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1977. – № 52. – Р. 47–64. Bauer L. English word-formation. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Bauer L. Introducing Linguistic Morphology. – Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988. Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present Day English Word Formation. – Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1960. Pound L. Blends: Their Relation to English Word Formation. – Heidelberg, 1914. Stockwell R., Minkova D. English Words: History and Structure. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Dick Thurner’s Portmanteau Dictionary (PD). Blend Words in the English Language, Including Trademarks and Brand Names. – Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 1993.

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

5. The Meaning of the Word. Semantic Transference. Metaphor and Metonymy. Euphemisms. Neologisms Points to ponder – What is the difference between the meaning of the word and the concept (notion)? – Is there any connection between the referent and its sign? What types of linguistic motivation can you single out? – In the ancient linguistic tradition of Greece it was customary to distinguish between the theory of “thesei” and “fusei”5. These theories represent the results of the research into whether there is a natural connection between the word and its referent or not. According to the former, words are arbitrary signs and they do not reflect the properties of objects they nominate. The latter theory, conversely, postulates a natural connection between the word and its referent. Which theory do you personally support? Ground your choice. – Specify the types of analysis of the semantics of the word. Which type do you find the most efficient one? What are the constraints of the componential analysis? What semantic groups of words is it mostly applicable to? – Do you agree that the context is the ultimate “sieve” for the meaning of the word? – Name the types of semantic components of the word. What is the pragmatic component of the word? What other types of information6 that a word conveys do you know? – Why do words develop new meanings and what does it result in? – Specify the types of metaphoric and metonymic transference. – Metaphor and metonymy, which are based on different types of transference, sometimes go hand in hand, this phenomenon is 5 The word “thesei” comes form Greek and means “convention”, the word “fusei” is also of Greek origin, where it means “nature”. 6 The term “types of information” is used by prof. A.A. Reformatskij.

69

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

known as “metaphtonymy”, for example, the adjective “black” in “black despair” can be treated as a case of metaphtonymy? Can you explain why? – Give examples of broadening and narrowing of meaning and degeneration and elevation of meaning. Why can the last two terms be regarded as arbitrary and imprecise? – Comment of the following statement by Karl Sornig and specify the functions that a metaphor serves: …the capability to use and create metaphoric language can be regarded as a most delicate indicator of communicative competence for a certain language. The capability and propensity for that kind of handling language creatively might very well be considered a universal of language use. Metaphoric replacement of words for each other is a deliberate process which is brought about by the deletion of certain semantic features while other features from the feature-potential are selected and foregrounded, viz. those that would bring certain peculiarities of a certain denotation (whose “real” name has been suppressed and substituted) to the attention of the interlocutor. Focusing on a certain semantic aspect serves at the same time as an evaluative assessment of the concept denoted and an invitation to the recipient to comply with this assessment. Thus, metaphorization serves the evaluative/connotative processing of expressive means from the speaker’s evaluation of situational reality, and it tries to influence the recipient’s interpretation of that same situation [Sornig, 1981:36]. The cognitive theory of metaphor by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson According to the cognitive theory of metaphor worked out by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, our perception of the world is metaphorically structured and this is reflected in the language. In the frame of this conception, metaphor can be defined as understanding the essence of one thing through the essence of another. Cognitive metaphor emerges as a result of interaction of the target domain (the 70

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

concept we intend to convey) and the source domain (the word by means of which we describe the target word). Thus, in the sentence “Time is money” the word “time” is the target word and the word “money” is the source word. All cognitive metaphors are structural because one concept is structured in terms of another, for instance “argument is war”, “time is money”, “ideas are objects”, “communication is sending”. Structural metaphors can be orientational if they form an opposition: “happy is up” – “sad is down”, “virtue is up” – “depravity is down”, “rational is up” – “emotional is down”. Ontological metaphors emerge when events, actions, emotions, ideas are perceived as material matter and substances, for instance “the mind is a brittle object”, “an argument is a journey”, “the path of a journey is a surface”. Types of metaphors Structural Argument is war

Orientational Ontological Happy is up – sad is The mind is a brittle obdown ject

Your claims are indefen- I’m feeling up. sible.

His mind snapped.

He attacked every weak That boosted my spirits. He broke under crosspoint in my argument. examination. I’ve never won an argu- My spirits rose. ment with him. You disagree? shoot!

O’k, You are in high spirits. I’m feeling down.

She is easily crushed. The experience shattered him. I’m going to pieces.

He’s really low these days. My spirits sank.

Is there any difference between a metaphor and a cognitive metaphor? Can a metaphor be not cognitive? 71

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Exercises: I Paraphrase the sentences and/or translate them into Russian, thereby demonstrating different meanings of the italicized words. Academic (noun/adjective) 1. When academics convene, their elaborations are usually lengthy and heated. 2. I did not expect to be given the job for lack of academic credentials, so the employer was taking a risk hoping that on-the-premises vocational training would do the trick. 3. This is an academic debate, what you are saying is ungrounded.

Anecdotal (adj.) 1. There is extensive anecdotal evidence that the first-born child in the family tend to have a higher IQ. 2. I hear that the district is crime-infested, do you personally have any anecdotal evidence? – Oh, yes, I was once mugged as I was going home later than usual.

Arguable (adj.), arguably (adverb) 1. There are some arguable issues still unsolved. 2. It is arguable that she is the best tennis-player. 3. She is arguably the best tennis-player.

Babushka (noun) 1. The young lady covered her head with a babushka and entered the church. 2. A kind babushka told me that I should take bus 35 to reach my destination. 72

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

To commit (smth., oneself) (verb) 1. He is considering the offer but he has not yet committed. 2. The number of crimes committed by women in handling is much higher than the number of crimes committed by men. Epithet (noun) 1. One of the stylistic devices used for the embellishment of speech is an epithet, which is placed attributively before a noun. 2. Don’t shout epithets at me. Advise (verb) 1. The doctor advised me to stay in bed for at least two days for me not to get any complications. 2. I am here to advise you that I expect the contention to be settled within a few days. Treatment (noun) 1. I look down on your treatment of senior citizens: it is customary in our country to give up your seat for an elderly person, which you always fail to do. 2. Your treatment of the famous actress was unjust: she is a celebrity who blundered, but is she fair game to be preyed on? (a letter from some reader of a journal addressed to the author of an article about a well-known actress). Ultimate (adj.) 1. The contest will be the ultimate test of your ability to come first. 2. L’ Oreal is the ultimate mascara (an advertisement).

are:

II Insert the right word or expression. The words to be inserted 73

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Attested, growth (used attributively), street, sky, table, installments, with, nonce (used attributively), flux, band, scruple (v.), under the guidance, assistance, renamed, they, feature, change, flux, blazoned, yuppies, stunt (used attributively), cryptic, editorial, chair, on the wing, transferred (the second form of the verb “to transfer”), customarily, chronicle(v.), ancestors, xerographically, host. A community is known by the language it keeps, and its words…the times. Like the … rings of a tree, our vocabulary bears … to our past. While our linguistic … still dwelled on the European continent, they discovered the paved road (via strata) of the Romans, and borrowed the second half of the Latin term to become our … Having translated themselves to the British Isles, they played … to the Danes, who paid for the hospitality with words like … and … and to the Normans, who brought with them … and … As English speakers went on to meet new situations and developing new manners and morals, the vocabulary of English went on changing, too. In 1941 Dwight L. Bolinger, who had been writing a column on new words for a magazine published in Los Angeles, … his work to American Speech and … it “Among the New Words”. Bolinger continued to edit the … until 1944, when it came … of I. Willis Russell, who looked after it for forty-two years, until his death in 1985. During the first fifty years of the feature’s publication in American Speech, it appeared in 113 …, with 222 persons acknowledged as contributors of citations or other… The first monolingual English dictionaries recorded “hard words” exclusively, and so were mainly glossaries of unusual new words in the language intended to help ambitious … of the seventeenth century keep up … the knowledge explosion of their day. In that sense, “Among the New Words” is in a very old tradition. The aim of “Among the New Words” is more detached. When American Speech began publication, it had a motto … on its cover: “They haif said. Quhat say they? Lat thame say.” The … motto (traceable to an inscription over a door at Marshal College in Aberdeen, but with ante74

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

cedents going back to magical amulets of the late Classical period) has several interpretations. But most probably it was intended as a statement of…policy: The aim of American Speech was to observe and record the language of the populace, without concern for correcting it – to be descriptive, not prescriptive, in its approach to the subject, to glory in the vernacular. The aim of “Among the New Words” has always been to catch…in our vocabulary …, to record it, to marvel at it, and when possible to explain it. The feature has been a dispassionate, albeit sometimes amused, observer of the lexical and social … of our society. On the other hand, “Among the New Words” does not … to include words that would not usually appear in any general dictionary: … words and … words. New contributors join …every year. They watch for words that strike them as new uses in whatever material they… read or listen to. Because printed evidence is easy to gather, most of the new words are…from newspapers, magazines and books. If the material is not disposable, the preferred method of collecting is to copy the page … (with source information – author, title, place, publisher, date, and page number – added by hand as necessary), and then to treat the copies in the same way as tear sheets7. III Reformulate the sentences below using the word in bold, which can be changed in any way (for instance, made a derivative or a compound). The word can be any part of speech. Mind that the words and expressions can belong to any register. The first one (o) has been done for you. 0) The office was temporarily closed because they planned to change the interior. furbish…………………………………………………………… Possible answer: The office was temporarily closed because it was being refurbished. The text is an abridged excerpt from the introduction to “Fifty Years among the New Words” by J. Algeo. 7

75

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

1. If you were less impulsive, you wouldn’t have made that sudden decision. snap…………………………………………………………… 2. I don’t very much fancy people who are excessively polite to someone, especially someone who is in a superior position to them. crawl…………………………………………………………… 3. He acts so unnaturally in public, making a speech for him is an insurmountable task. inhibit…………………………………………………………… 4. It is obvious that you have taken the wrong decision. Why are you keeping saying you didn’t? pig……………………………………………………………… 5. When the child saw an array of various toys displayed in the shop-window, he started crying and demanding that his mother should buy one for him. tantrum………………………………………………………… 6. When we saw the price of the article, we had a feeling of doubt about whether to buy it or to shop around. reservation……………………………………………………… 7. He failed to explain to me properly what I was supposed to do, his instructions were vague, as a result, I feel very confused. muddle………………………………………………………… 8. The elderly man said he was no longer keen on exercising regularly. work…………………………………………………………… 9. Although he was not an athlete, he was quite interested in skating. into…………………………………………………………… 10. Sometimes he feels bitter and resentful because he is not as assertive as his brother. chip…………………………………………………………… 11. The workload I am facing now is much more than I can handle, therefore I feel nervous and confused. fluster…………………………………………………………… 76

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

12. He always will insist on very small differences, which are, in my opinion, unimportant. hairs…………………………………………………………… 13. Because he stumbled over the word several times and was never able to get it the right way, his colleagues started to make fun of him. mickey………………………………………………………… 14. The government is trying to make us see that the economic crisis is less important than it really is. play…………………………………………………………… 15. We are quite well-off, although we don’t have money to burn. comfortable…………………………………………………… 16. She has a natural ability to cook things well, although she never actually learnt how to do it. flair…………………………………………………………… 17. As he was top of the class, I didn’t have any doubts that he was going to pass the exam. foregone………………………………………………………… IV Choose the word which best completes each sentence. 1. He must have known the truth, but he didn’t let… a) In b) on c) at d) about 2. He is wealthy, but is not very happy in his personal life. It just goes to…that money isn’t everything. a) Tell b) mention c) show d) indicate 3. Long holidays are not the only reason why I have taken up teaching, but it has a….on it. a) Influence b) impact c) bearing d) affect 4. The wedding part of Bill and Joan proved to be a draw. A lot of people…it. a) Stormed b) attacked c) crashed d) gatecrashed 5. I don’t like to…, but who presented you with such an expensive necklace? a) Interfere b) intervene c) investigate d) pry 77

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

6. She’s terribly…, she always asks impertinently personal questions. a) foxy b) nosey c) handy d) hairy 7. He is very assertive and has a flair for management, I am sure he’ll go… a) places b) to heaven c) far d) straight 8. Try as I would, I couldn’t book an apartment for three, I drew a…at all the hotels I phoned. a) Ticket b) ill luck c) blank d) blanket 9. I feel that I have been…out of the position, because they preferred to hire a younger woman. a) done b) made c) taken d) uprooted 10. He is a real fanatic, I would even go as far as to say that he is a …, for it is impossible to discuss politics or religion with him without getting involved in a heated argument. a) craze b) bigot c) madman d) lunatic 11. That’s an interesting point you’ve touched upon. Will you…? a) elaborate b) develop c) continue d) hang on V Trace the evolution of the meaning of the words below. Specify the type of transference. 1. Crush (noun) 1. A crowding together, especially of many people. 2. A soft drink made from the juice of fresh fruit (e.g. an orange crush). 3. (informal) an infatuation with smb., especially smb. unsuitable or unattainable 2. Crusade (noun) 1. Any of the medieval Christian military expeditions to win the Holy Land from the Muslims. 2. A reforming enterprise undertaken with zeal and enthusiasm (e.g. a moral crusade). 3. Invite (verb) 1. To request smth. or the presence of smb., especially formally or politely. 2. To increase the likelihood of smth., often unintentionally (e.g. His actions invite trouble) 78

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

4. Invest (verb) 1. To commit money to a particular use. 2. To devote time or effort to smth. for future advantages. 5. Redolent (adjective) 1. (archaic) Having a pleasant smell. 2. Full of a specified fragrance (e.g. air redolent of seaweed). 3. Suggesting a particular quality, evocative (e.g. a city redolent of antiquity) 6. Satellite (noun) 1. A celestial body orbiting another of larger size. 2. Somebody or something subordinate or dependent (e.g. a satellite nation) 3. An obsequious follower

7. Furious (adjective) 1. Exhibiting or goaded by uncontrollable anger. 2. Having a stormy or turbulent appearance (e.g. furious bursts of flame) 3. Intense (e.g. the furious growth of tropical vegetation) 8. Embark (verb) 1. To go on board a ship or aircraft 2. (on, upon) To make a start on something (e.g. He embarked on a new career). 9. Brood (verb) 1. (of a bird) To sit on eggs in order to hatch them 2. (on, over, about) To dwell gloomily on or worry over or about something; to be in a state of depression. 3. To hover or seem to hover menacingly (e.g. the brooding cliffs).

VI What meaning do the given postpositives (postpositions) lend to the verb-stem? 79

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Up - top, double, pep, wrap (e.g. a discussion) Down - put (e.g. a dog), pin (e.g. a robber), go (e.g. a computer). In – pitch (informal), cut, usher (e.g. a new era). Out – jut, count, lash (at smb.), draw (e.g. meetings), want. Around – switch (e.g. classrooms), potter, skirt. Off – shake (e.g. the police car), work (e.g. anger, frustration), cut (e.g. electricity), cordon, round, switch.

VII Fill in the blanks with suitable postpositives: 1. He had been speaking for twenty minutes when Larry came… and he broke… 2. Allergic people should not eat too many nuts or else they may break …in a rash. 3. No matter how hard he tries to control himself, his fiery temper breaks… now and then and gives his true disposition… 4. The peddler did me …of all my salary. 5. Do not do me…, it’s unfair to criticize me now that it turned out that my assistance was invaluable. 6. For a child of twelve months it is an insurmountable task to do the buttons… 7. Given the chance to do it…, what would you change in the preparation for the press-conference? 8. It’s inadmissible to take it …on somebody when you are tired, angry or in a bad mood. 80

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

9. Mobile phones gradually took …from pagers. 10. The meeting will last for about 15 more minutes, but I can’t chair it any longer, because I’m urgently needed in the office, so will you take…as my deputy? VIII Find cases of metaphor in the passages below. Say what the metaphor draws on. If the metaphor is cognitive, specify its type. 1. I went to see the village again, about a year afterwards. There was nothing there. Mounds of red mud, where the huts had been, had long swathes of rotting thatch over them, veined with the red galleries of the white ants. The pumpkin vines rioted everywhere…: it was a festival of pumpkins. The bushes were crowding up, the new grass sprang vivid green (D. Lessing, “The Old Chief Mshlanga”, 1956, P. 14). 2. The warmth of that fire spread through Gwen, enveloping her in a sweet golden aura that seemed in her mind to outshine the pale, cold light of the moon. Laying her head down on her arms, she began to cry again, but these tears sprang from a different well, one deeper and purer than she had ever imagined existed. They were tears of joy, for she knew that she had loved Joram unselfishly (M. Weis, T. Hickman, “The Dark Sword Trilogy”, Vol. II, P. 228).

3. As chief librarian in charge of records for over thirty years, he considered the entire history of British international affairs his private domain. He made a speciality of ferreting out policy blunders and scandalous intrigues…that had been swept under the carpet of secrecy (C. Cussler, “Night Probe”, 2003, P. 59). 81

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

4. The third day broke, bleak and windy. At sunrise the Ents’ voices rose to a great clamour and then died down again. As the morning wore on, the wind fell and the air grew heavy with expectancy… The afternoon came, and then, going west towards the mountains, sent out long yellow beams between the cracks and fissures of the clouds. Suddenly they were aware that everything was quiet; the whole forest stood in listening silence (J. R.R. Tolkien, “The Lord of the Rings”, Part two, “The Two Towers”, 1994, P. 99).

5. The Butters were a family of large, inbred, indeterminately numerous individuals who lived seasonally in a collection of shanty homes in an area of perpetual wooded gloom known as the Bottoms along the swampy margins of the Raccoon River (B. Bryson, “The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid”, 2007, P. 73). 6. Some people argue that because God is a caring deity ill health and suffering must also have an origin in divine care. From this proceeds the widespread understanding that disease and physical suffering are the means by which God purifies the soul (I. Mortimer, “The Time Traveller’s Guide to Medieval England”, 2007, P. 190). 7. The glass of the kitchen window-panes rattled in their frames and then the rumble of the guns rolled down from the north. Once again the German guns were hunting along the ridges, clamouring and barking like wild dogs (Wilbur Smith “The Burning Shore”, 1997, P. 48) 8. Centaine shivered. Death – that word again. Death was all around them. On the ridges over there where for the moment the sound of the guns was just a low rumble, death in the sky above them (Wilbur Smith “The Burning Shore”, 1997, P. 68) 82

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

9. Everything I’ve written so far about Los Angeles is true, as far as I know. But everything I’ve written so far is also profoundly inaccurate. If you think of LA as a room, it would be fair to say that I’ve been deliberately neglecting an elephant sitting by itself in the corner. Lots of Angelenos choose to do the same – they behave as if the elephant weren’t there, or they pretend it’s no bigger than a mouse. But soon I think they won’t have a choice. The elephant is not aggressive. It just keeps on growing” [Mark Abley, The Prodigal Tongue, 2009:129]. 10. He leaned back. Somewhere in the house there was the sound of rushing water. The radiator rattled and the rain knocked with soft fingers at the window [Remarque, 1971:69]. 11. A huge old chestnut tree stretched its naked arms upward toward the wet sky [Remarque, 1971:85]. 12. I am sitting here with a woman between pale chrysanthemums and a bottle of calvados, and the shadow of love rises, trembling, lonesome, strange and sad, it too an exile from the safe gardens of the past, shy and wild and quick as if it had no right – [Remarque, 1971:146]. 13. She calls that joy! To be driven by multiple dark propellers, in a gust of breathless desire for repossession – joy? Outside there is a moment of joy, the dew at the window, the ten minutes of silence before the day stretches out its claws [Remarque, 1971:248]. IX Specify the functions performed by the following cases of metonymy: 1. He looked across the room toward Albert. The feathered hat was just explaining to him very audibly why he was such a swine, at the same 83

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

time rhythmically rapping on the table with her umbrella [Remarque, 1971:64]. 2. She did not put it on. She simply hung it around her shoulders. It was an inexpensive mink, possible an imitation – but it did not look cheap on her. 3. In Vienna – five years, it was not yet expensive, I could live cheaply; but it cost me two Renoirs and a Degas pastel. In Prague I lived on and ate up a Sisley and five drawings [Remarque, 1971:347]. 4. Number twelve is dead, Veber. Now you call the police [Remarque, 1971:438]. X Differentiate between cases of metaphor and metonymy. The jacket of the book The roof of the tongue The cover of the night A wedge of a melon A lump of sugar A lockjaw A train of thought A flight of fantasy

A hint of brandy A spoiler Fishfingers The brow of the hill The crest of the wave The cheek to ask for smth. To hate smb.’s guts The eye of the storm The heel of the sock

Euphemisms are indirect words and word combinations that are used instead of a harsher word or expression to gloss over or conceal the notion that the latter word or expression conveys. Euphemisms can be classified according to various criteria: according to their origin and current sphere of application (politics, medicine), according to their stylistic characteristics and word-building peculiarities (idioms, slang words, blends, shortenings, terms). XI Match the left-hand euphemisms with their right-hand meaning and specify the linguistic strategy that underlies each euphemism. 84

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

To neutralize Pro-life Pro-choice John Correction officer Adult bookstore Grass Lived-in Road apples The C-word To buy the farm Sanitation engineers Middlescence Senior moment Halitosis

toilet horse manure untidy cancer elderly prison guard bad breath to die a lapse of memory to kill pro-abortion anti-abortion pornographic bookstore garbage collectors marijuana

As technology develops, some words may acquire a narrower or reduced meaning, the process and its result known as “specialization”. Thus, the advent of the computer and its evolution introduced into the language a number of specialized meanings for older words, traditionally used in a more general sense. XII Study the table of computer and Internet terms below, specify the type of transference and say what specialization resulted in. Computer and Meaning and Description Internet Terms blend 1. A drawing program command that computes the intermediate shapes between two selected objects. The blend command is used to make the smooth highlights on a rendering of a three-dimensional object. In many ways, the blend command is like morphing special effects seen on television commercials. With its help, one could make the letter C, for example, turn into a cat. 2. A photopaint program filter that smooths colours and removes texture over a selected area. 3. A piece of digital art in which several images have been combined seamlessly into a visually interesting whole.

85

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Computer and Meaning and Description Internet Terms Boot To start up a computer. The term “boot” (earlier “bootstraps) derives from the idea that the computer has to “to pull itself up by the bootstraps”, that is, load into memory a small program that enables it to load larger programs. Bottleneck

Cinnamon bun Client

Ear

Efficiency

Justification

Node

86

The part of a computer system that slows down its performance, such as a slow disk drive, slow modem, or overloaded network. Finding and remedying bottlenecks is much more worthwhile than simply speeding up parts of the computer that are already fast. The symbol @ 1. A computer that receives services from another computer. For example, when you browse the World Wide Web, your computer is a client of the computer that hosts the web page. 2. An operating system component that enables a computer to access a particular types of service. 1. The small stroke on the right side of the letter “g”. 2. A small box of information on either side of a headline. In newspapers, an ear is commonly used for the weather forecasts. The conservation of scarce resources. In order to measure efficiency, you have to decide which resources you want to conserve. For example, one program may be more efficient than another if it uses less memory, and another program may be more efficient in terms of speed; the question is whether you would rather conserve memory or time. The insertion of extra space between words in lines of type so that the left and the right margins are even and smooth. Most word processors and desktop publishing programs can automatically do the computations necessary to justify type. Problems arise only when the column width is too narrow or too large. Then you will get rivers of white space running down the column. 1. An individual computer in a network 2. A point on a curve or line that helps define the shape of the line

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Computer and Meaning and Description Internet Terms Permission An attribute of a file that indicates who is allowed to read or modify it River A series of white spaces between words that appear to flow from line to line in a printed document. Rivers result from trying to justify type when the columns are too narrow or the available soft-ware or printer is not versatile enough. Slave The dependent unit in a pair of linked machines.

The appearance of new words is often influenced by technological progress; when technology advances there may appear new versions of the preexisting product or thing, in this case new words are required to nominate the novelty. New words for old or outmoded objects have come to be known as “retronyms”. Retronyms are almost always represented by an attributive word-combination, in which the first element is key to disclosing the essence of an outdated object. The classical example is the retronym “acoustic guitar”, which emerged when guitar was replaced by an electric guitar, that is, by its more advanced version. Interestingly, retronyms, despite referring to old-fashioned notions, often have positive connotations, unlike many of their more advanced counterparts (called “neonyms”). XIII Below are a number of neonyms. Study them closely and find out their retronym counterparts. Which of the retronyms are characterized by positive connotations? Neonym

Retronym

Digital computer Digital watch Liquid soap Colour television Disposable diapers

87

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Cordless drill Laptop computer Digital camera Ballpoint pen Softcover book Water polo Machine-readable Machine translation Laser printer Automatic transmission Peroxide blonde Artificial language (machine language) Cable television Electron microscope Radio telescope E-book Electronic journalist Jet plane Push-button phone Dried egg (artificial egg) Water skiing Single-parent family Drive-in theatre Skim milk

Different terms are used to refer to novel lexemes in a language, such as “neologisms”, “lexical innovations”, “neo-lexemes”, etc., the prevailing being the term “neologisms”. Although this term is not by all means new, there is still no unanimous opinion among linguists and pundits as to its semantics. The noted Russian linguist N.Z. Kotelova suggests several linguistic theories that disclose its essence. Another linguist, T.V. Popova, refers to these theories as “stylistic”, “psycholinguistic”, “lexicographic”, “denotative”, “structural” and “historical”. 88

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Let us outline them in some detail. According to the fist theory (“stylistic”), neologisms are stylistically-marked words (that is, negatively marked along the line of neutrality), their meanings and phraseological units, whose usage and application entails a novelty effect. Psycholinguistic theory defines “neologism” as “a linguistic unit that has not been previously encountered by a native speaker in his experience” [Togoeva, 1999:88]. This theory brings to the fore the subjective individual novelty of a word. Proponents of this theory underline that most neologisms are not represented in dictionaries. According to the lexicographical theory, neologisms are words registered by neological dictionaries. The theory is open to argument, since it is hardly possible to enter all new words in a neo-dictionary, which would make it bulky and non-selective. The denotational theory posits that neologisms are words referring to a new notion or realia. For all its convenience, the theory disregards purely linguistic reasons for the appearance of new words, among which are: the penchant for expressivity, creativity and evaluative nominations, linguistic economy and analogical extensions. Adherents of the structural theory believe that neologisms are words that are new from the point of view of their form, structure. This theory does not count derived words built with the help of known affixes as neologisms, because such “innovations” are relatively easy to decode and interpret if one knows the meaning of the stem and the appended affix. Professor T.V. Popova considers the historical theory as the most appropriate, as it takes into account the period of time when a new word emerges, consequently, it is possible to speak of neologisms of the 18th, 19th and, indeed, any century. Within the framework of this theory, the notion of neologisms is relative, a word can be regarded as new in one or several aspects. The following criteria of a word’s novelty are taken into account: 1) Novelty for all native speakers 2) Novelty for a particular national language 3) Novelty for a particular genre of speech 4) Speech novelty or language novelty 5) Structural, semantic or stylistic novelty A neologism, thus, can be defined as “a word, its meaning, or a phraseological unit (an idiom) that exists in a particular language or its genre and that did not exist earlier” [Popova, 2005:12]. 89

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

XIV There are various criteria underlying the classification of neologisms, such as the year of their emergence, the word-building pattern used in their creation, the sphere of their application and usage, etc. Below are a number of neologisms selected by the year of their appearance. Comment on their meaning and word-building pattern and speculate on their prospective longevity, going by the criteria suggested by R. Fischer (1998): 1) Frequency of usage. After a new word is introduced, it starts to be used more frequently. After some time, the frequency reaches its peak, and then either levels off or goes gradually down. This is the stage when the word has completed the process of standardization. 2) A variety of contexts in which the new word is used. If a novel word appears in different texts and in different genres, it means that standardization is in full swing. In case the application of the word is confined to a social or a geographical dialect, standardization is absent. 3) Absence or presence of graphic markers, such as capitals, bold fonts, italics, hyphen, etc. If these markers are present, standardization is either close to nil or is nascent. If the word is standardized, these markers are either absent or only one type of marker prevails. 4) The meaning of the word. If the word becomes polysemantic or develops a metaphorical meaning, it is on the way to standardization. If the word’s meaning is constantly explained and paraphrased by means of synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms and hyperonyms, its standardization is not completed, therefore it has slim chances of taking root in the language. 5) If a novel word is used as a proper name, for example as a trade mark name, it has more chances of catching on, as it facilitates the word’s recognition. 6) Word-building productivity. If a novel word becomes a derivational basis for other words, it testifies to the completion of standardization. 7) Syntactic function. Standardization entails the usage of a novel word as an attribute before a noun. 8) Topicality. The degree of standardization increases if the word is rarely used as the theme of an article. 90

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Neologism and Its Meaning

Year

bushlips: insincere political rhetoric interview without coffee: a formal disciplinary meeting or official reprimand; a dressing-down. mother of all: greatest area boy: a hoodlum or street thug lilywhite: a person without a police record; someone who does not trigger suspicions McJob: An unstimulating low-paying job Babymoon: a planned period of calm spent together by a justborn baby and its parents; occasionally, time spent by parents without their baby. Chalk: the personnel and equipment that make up the load of an aircraft. dress down day: a workday when employees are allowed to dress casually love-cum-arranged marriage: matrimony between a mutually acceptable and consenting couple that has been facilitated by the couple’s parents. go postal: to act irrationally and violently as a result of work-stress Jesus year: a person’s 33rd year of life

1990

Word-building peculiarities and estimated longevity

1991 1992

1993

1994

1995

91

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Neologism and Its Meaning

Year

prebuttal: 1996 preemptive rebuttal chocolate foot: the foot favored to use or to start with when running, biking, or kicking; one’s dominant foot. millennium bug: 1997 the bug predicted to affect all computers at the start of the millennium foot fault: in jurisprudence, a minor criminal or procedural violation; a legal misstep senior moment: 1998 a momentary lapse of memory due to old age babalog: a young, Westernized social group or individual concerned with wealth, pop culture fads, appearance, material goods, or other superficialities. eat up the camera: in movies, to be appealing or engaging on screen horse blanket: a large, complex, or comprehensive report or chart. cybersquat: 1999 to register a Web address with the intention to sell it at a profit chad: 2000 a scrap of paper torn off a ballot that invalidates it and upsets a presidential election dub-dub: a restaurant server or waiter.

92

Word-building peculiarities and estimated longevity

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Neologism and Its Meaning

Year

second-hand speech: overheard cell-phone conversation in public places Asiental: An Asian of unknown or unspecific nationality. vlog:  a blog that contains video material. feather lift: a delicate method of cosmetic surgery involving implanted cords that lift and pull gurgitator: a person who participates in eating competitions flexitarian: a vegetarian who occasionally eats meat red state: a state who residents favour conservative Republicans in the political map of the United States phish: to induce someone to reveal private information by means of deceptive email wardrobe malfunction: an unanticipated exposure of bodily parts muffin top: the bulge of flesh hanging over the top of low-rider jeans staycation: a vacation spent at home or nearby. vacation deprivation  foregoing vacation days because of busyness at work.

2001

Word-building peculiarities and estimated longevity

2002

2003 2004

2005

2006

93

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Neologism and Its Meaning

Year

empty spam: a spam message that contains passages from classic literature, but no discernible advertisement, phishing attempt, or malicious code. sub-zero: a dress size smaller than size 0 smexting: sending text messages while standing outside on a smoking break. ninja loan: a loan or mortgage given to a person who has no income, no job, and no assets.  multi-dadding: having multiple children with multiple men. quake lake: a lake formed when an earthquake causes landslides that block a large river Obamacon: a conservative voter who supports Democratic candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 U.S. presidential election recessionista: a person who dresses stylishly on a tight budget. DDo$ a scheme where a fine or fee is paid using a massive number of small electronic payments, particularly when each payment generates a transaction cost greater than the payment itself. cookprint: the energy and other resources used while preparing meals.

2006

94

2007

2008

2009

Word-building peculiarities and estimated longevity

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Neologism and Its Meaning

Year

deather: 2009 a person who believes that U.S. health care reform will lead to more deaths, particularly among the elderly.  psychache: 2010 extreme psychological pain upgradation: the state of being upgraded; the act or an instance of upgrading eco-bling: ineffective green technology, particular equipment added on to an existing building that does little to reduce the building’s use of natural resources. 

Word-building peculiarities and estimated longevity

The Pragmatic Component in the Meaning of the Word The classic understanding of pragmatics was formulated by Ch. Morris who posited that pragmatics is the relationship of the sign towards its interpreters. The pragmatic component of meaning reveals itself in the process of communication, is originally occasional and may retain an emergent status for some time. The specific feature of the word’s pragmatic component is that if the word which bears it recurs in communication, this meaning may become systematic and codified. V.I. Zabotkina points out that all innovations, unless they are terms and have only the denotative component, possess the pragmatic sememes of being rhematic, new from the point of view of time and voguish. A pragmatically-charged word may also change its function depending on the social status of the person who uses it. Thus, the usage of such a word by a superordinate towards his/her subordinate is not deemed as an admonition, or a reprimand, conversely, the usage of such a word by a subordinate towards his/her superordinate is regarded as an insult. Some of the important pragmatic sememes are those of gender, age, ethnic and social status. These sememes are rarely registered by general95

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

purpose dictionaries, that is, they are not part of the word’s denotative or connotative component. XV Dwell on the pragmatic component of the meaning of the words bellow. With what stylistic characteristics does the pragmatic component go hand in hand?

thickhead hay-head rubblehead hash-head puddinghead airhead knucklehead grasshead crackhead pot-head chickenhead tea head bonehead weedhead dust-head

atom-buster balloon-buster belly buster brush buster button-buster cop-buster crime buster gangbuster ghost buster kidney-buster knuckle-buster molly-buster need-buster racket buster sin-buster spy-buster tank-buster trust-buster union-buster

Recommended reading: Апресян Ю.Д. Лексическая семантика. – М.: Наука, 1974. Беляевская Е.Г. Семантика слова. – М.: Высш. шк., 1987. Беляевская Е.Г. Модель и моделирование в лингвистических исследованиях (традиционный vs когнитивный подход) // Принципы и методы когнитивного исcледования языка: сб. научных трудов. – Тамбов: Изд-во ТГУ им. Г.Р. Державина, 2008. – C. 98–109.

96

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Заботкина В.И. Новая лексика современного английского языка. – М.: Высш. шк., 1989. Заботкина В.И. Семантика и прагматика нового слова: дис. … д-ра филол. наук. –  М., 1991. Заботкина В.И. Основные параметры прагматики нового слова / Проблемы семантики и прагматики. – Калининград, 1996. –  С. 83–91. Кобозева И.М. Лингвистическая семантика. – М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2004. Котелова Н.3. Первый опыт лексикографического описания русских неологизмов // Новые слова и словари новых слов. – Л., 1978. – С. 8–9. Кубрякова Е.С. Типы языковых значений. Семантика производного слова. – М.: Наука, 1981. Кубрякова Е.С. Коммуникативно-прагматический аспект лексического значения слова // Коммуникативные аспекты значения: сб. науч. тр. ВГПИ им. А.С. Серафимовича. – Волгоград, 1990. – С. 15–29. Лейчик В.М. Терминоведение: Предмет, методы, структура. – 4-е изд. – М.: ЛИБРОКОМ, 2009. Попова Т.В. Русская неология и неография: учеб. электронное текстовое издание: ГОУ ВПО УГТУ-УПИ. – Екатеринбург, 2005. Тогоева С.И. Новое слово: подходы и проблемы // Психолингвистические проблемы функционирования слова в лексиконе человека : кол. монография / под общ. ред. А.А. Залевской. – Тверь, 1999. – С. 75–101. Уфимцева А.А. Лексическое значение: Принципы семиологического описания лексики / под ред. Ю.С. Степанова. – 2-е изд., стер. – М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2002. Шувалов В.И. Метафора в лексической системе немецкого языка: автореф. дис. ... д-ра филол. наук. – М., 2006. Algeo J. Fifty Years among the New Words. A Dictionary of Neologisms. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms. – N.Y.: Barron’s Educational Series, 2006. Fischer R. Lexical Change in Present-Day English. A corpus-Based Study of the Motivation, Institutionalization, and Productivity of Creative Neologisms. – Tübingen, 1998. Harrison M. Word Perfect. Vocabulary for Fluency. – Edinburgh: Nelson, 1990. Lakoff G., Johnson M. Metaphors We Live By. – Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE). – L.: Longman Group Ltd., 1995.

97

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

6. Synonyms. Antonyms. Paronyms. Hyperonyms and Hyponyms. Meronyms Points to ponder – What are criteria for synonymy and what are the major types of synonyms? – Why are synonyms not always interchangeable in the context? What are the semantic characteristics of synonyms that make them in a way opposed to each other? – Name the types of connotations by which synonyms usually differ. – In what way does stylistic connotation differ from all the other types? – How are semantic characteristics of synonyms linked to their syntactic peculiarities? – What part of speech is more prone to having synonyms? – What is the dominant synonym? – What words from stylistic point of view do not admit (or hardly admit) of any synonyms? – What are antonyms? What groups of antonyms can there be distinguished? – Define the term “paronym” and give examples of paronyms. Does the presence of paronyms in a language facilitate language acquisition or impede it? – What kind of an error will occur if one substitutes a word for a similar sounding word which has, however, no semantic connection with it? – What are hyperonyms, hyponyms and co-hyponyms? Does the relationship of inclusion characterize all words in a language? What is the difference between “hyperonymic-hyponymic” organization of words and thematic fields? Illustrate the difference with your own examples. 98

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Exercises: I Supply both a derived antonym and an antonym which contains a different root for the following adjectives (variants are admissible). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Famous Sensitive Faithful Proper Trustful Moral Safe Wise Standard Profitable Continuous Clear Material

_______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________

II The following adjectives (or participles II) (in bold) are either synonyms or are semantically connected. Going by the illustrations, pinpoint the contexts in which each of them is used. Specify the type of connotation by which they differ. 1. It is immaterial whether you were present there or not, you knew about the gathering, so you could have prevented it. Those who believe in God, claim that the provenance of the universe is non-material. Spiritual needs are to be put ahead of corporeal ones. 2. It is unclear to me why you should choose to please both your friends, when one is definitely in the wrong. But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts benighted walks under the midday sun (J. Milton, cited in NPED). She was in a foul temper. I’ll get 99

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

what I want by fair means or foul. The ship ran foul of a hidden reef. The archeologists stumbled upon a foul copy of a manuscript. The water in the well was contaminated, it was a life-hazard to drink it. There are many synonyms for the word-building pattern of blending, one being “contamination”. For instance, the word “shamateur” (sham + amateur) can be referred to as contaminated. 3. The dotted line on the graph indicates the hypothetical development of the trend. All day long we had intermittent rain, so we chose not to go and do the sights. The signal was intermittent and I couldn’t make out what he was saying. A discontinuous morpheme is the one that changes its grammatical meaning by way of an inner flexion. 4. The newspaper is believed to be unprofitable for at least the past decade (cited in CCED). I was in a disadvantageous position as compared to my better-equipped rivals. I am particularly unfavourable to the idea that we should abandon our original plan. 5. You’d better avoid climbing the perilous cliffs. It was a perilous journey lying through the woods, impregnable mountains and marshy lands. It is hazardous to health to smoke, drink or eat too much canned food. The harmful effects of these byproducts are yet to be discovered. It’s a risky business to invest in failing companies. It’s risky to presume that the storm won’t change its direction. This machine is unsafe, it may jam any moment. 6. Most traditional cultures believe that abortion is immoral as it nips the life in the bud. Those who think that moral considerations do not apply can be described as amoral. 7. Depraved and evil-minded criminals will stop at nothing to get what they want. Films featuring sick and perverted people should be banished from the market. I don’t want you to learn the twisted notion that life is a bed of roses. A thwarted plan will never succeed. 8. Reckless driving is a potential risk to the driver, his passenger and pedestrians. You were indiscreet in saying that I have weight 100

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

problems. It was careless of you to leave the gas turned on – there could have been an explosion. 9. Have you heard about the infamous massacre of the innocents? The man was infamous in the vicinity for his extremist views. The writer is ill-reputed for making indecent allusions in his book. Our guide said that we should avoid the disreputable pat of the city. 10. The woman criticized her husband for being insensitive about her predicament. After the leader’s callous disregard of the soldiers’ plea to retreat, a riot ensued. The suit is insensitive to radiation. 11. A gullible man is easily taken in. Credulous citizens should be put wise as to the means that some con-men use to wiggle money out of them. III Read the following texts. Choose the right word for each context to complete the text below. If you are invited to remain/to stay/to linger some time in the court of a great lord, you will end up spending a lot of time standing/staying/posing around. When this happens, do not sit down until the most important person present gives you permission/allowance/authorization/green light to do so. This is not necessarily the lord; if the king or queen or any other superior is visiting/attending/ frequenting the same house, and is present, then the social courtesies/politenesses/pleasantries/ endearments of rank are automatically due to the king or queen, not the man whose house this is. If a man who is superior/higher/more advanced in rank to you enters, move back and make room for him to stand nearer the lord or lady than you. When doing all this standing around do not let your eyes wander/travel/distract around the room [I. Mortimer, “The Time Traveller’s Guide to Medieval England”, 2007, P. 89].

101

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

One other contribution/input/share to the English vocabulary from Gulliver’s Travels is Lilliputian, meaning miniature. Many who have never made it to Book IV still have enjoyed Book I, where Gulliver finds himself shipwrecked/forlorn/devastated/run aground on an island where everyone and everything is one-twelfth his size… That Lilliputian term and most of the other words from the languages Gulliver encounters/meets…remain within the covers of the book. But because Gulliver’s story of Lilliput is so well-known/illustrious/ reputable, Lilliputian has entered/penetrated our vocabulary; and yahoo is so successful that it is known even among those who have no knowledge of Swift’s book [A. Metcalf, “Predicting New Words”, 2002, P. 57].

Though speech input/contribution is necessary for speech development/evolution, a mere soundtrack is not sufficient. Deaf parents of hearing children were once advised to have the children watch a lot of television. In no case did the children learn/study/acquire English. Without already knowing the language, it is difficult for a child to figure out/make out/discern what the characters in those odd, unresponsive televised worlds are talking about. Live human speakers tend/try/strive to talk about the here and now in the presence of children [S. Pinker, “The Language Instinct”, 1994, P. 278].

IV Find the dominant synonym and name the type of connotation by which synonyms below differ. In what context would you use each of the synonyms?: Brave – courageous – valiant – bold – fearless – intrepid; stupid – dim – dazed – slow – witted; talkative – verbose – loquacious – eloquent – voluble; clever – intelligent – sensible – sagacious – acute – wise; merry – lively – jolly – cheerful – jovial – cheery – joyous; sad – mournful – doleful – wistful – grievous – dismal – rueful. 102

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

to respect – to esteem – to revere – to honour; to fight – to knock – to hit – to strike; to live – to dwell – to reside – to subsist; to eat – to consume – to devour – gobble – gorge – sup – wolf; expose – uncover – bare – disclose – divulge – reveal – unveil.

clothes – apparel – garment; stoutness – corpulence – plumpness – obesity; illness – sickness – disease – ailment – malady – malaise; noise – murmur – roar – din – uproar – hubbub – racket– clamour. Antonyms are words of the same part of speech but with contrastive meanings. Traditionally, the following types of antonyms are distinguished (H. Jackson, E. Zé Amvela): gradable, contradictory (complementary), and converses. gradable: beautiful – ugly; expensive – cheap; fast – slow; hot – cold; increase – decrease; long – short; love – hate; rich – poor; sweet – sour; wide – narrow. They are called “gradable” because they represent a continuum on a scale and consequently allow comparison, for example: My hair is longer /shorter than yours. I love a good book more than I love a good newspaper. These adjectives can be modified by “intensifying” adverbs: very long, extremely hot, extraordinary beautiful. They do not represent absolute values. contradictory (complementary): asleep – awake; dead – alive; on – off; permit – forbid; remember – forget; shut – open; true – false; win – lose. These antonyms are in the relation of oppositeness: one state excludes the other: if you lose a contest, then you do not win it; being alive is incompatible with being dead. converse antonyms: above – below; before – after; behind – in front of; buy – sell; give – receive; husband – wife; parent – child; speak – listen. 103

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Each word in these pairs of antonyms expresses the converse meaning of the other. In the case of sentences with, for instance, “buy” and “sell” the same transaction is expressed from different perspectives: e.g. I bought the flowers from Mary. – Mark sold me the flowers. Similarly, with the nouns “husband” and “wife”, a sentence may express the relationship in converse ways: e.g. Helen is John’s wife – John is Helen’s husband. The same is true for prepositions like “above” and “below”: The semolina is on the shelf above the buckwheat. – The buckwheat is on the shelf below the semolina. V Distinguish between gradable, contradictory and converse antonyms: light – dark; clever – stupid; early – late; to move – to stand; pure – contaminated; to go – to come; to leave – to arrive; a teacher – a pupil. VI Find the hyperonym for the following words. Under what heading can the words be subsumed: 1. Tongs, pliers, tweezers 2. Vest, half-slip, full-slip, camisole, chemise 3. Earmuffs, mittens, windbreaker 4. Lapel, shoelace, hem 5. Striped, checked, polka dot, solid, print, plaid 6. Right tackle, flanker, quarterback Choose the odd one out:

VII

1. Swings, seesaw, slide, teeter 2. Pickaxe, sledgehammer, shovel, scaffolding 3. Stingray, flounder, swordfish, sea horse 4. Cut, bruise, burn, rickets 5. Stapler, paper clips, staple remover, pencil sharpener 6. Cashews, peanuts, walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds, chestnuts 104

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

The general names for a group of objects or animate beings are not always easy to learn or to remember. Apart from such recurring names as “a school (or shoal) of fish”, “a flock of birds”, “a clutch of eggs”, there are a number of less well-known, such as “bale”, “bevy”, “drove”, “exaltation”, “parliament”, “pride”. VIII Specify which groups of animals the following general words refer to:

A bale of A bevy of A drove of An exaltation of A parliament of A pride of

tigers larks owls quail oxen turtles

IX The semantic relation of meronymy can be represented by a hierarchy of superordinate and subordinate terms, but, unlike the relationship of hyponymy, which is a “ ‘kind of’ relationship”, meronymy is the “ ‘part of’ relation”. In the case of meronymy the superordinate term is not a more general way of talking about its meronyms, rather, it represents an entity in its totality. The parts of the entity are its meronyms, and they make up the whole. Study the examples below and specify which type of semantic relationship is observed between the words – that of hyponymy or that of meronymy. Translate all the words into Russian. 105

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

spice cinnamon cloves parsley dill basil bay leaf ginger

fabric silk chintz velvet crepe-dechine corduroy

garment seam hem lining lapel

garment frock dress cape tunic gown

feeling premonition anticipation foreboding prescience

cook boil stew fry roast simmer grill poach braise

mushroom fly agaric (death cap) toadstool chanterelle brown cap boletus orange cap boletus (aspen mushroom) cep boletus (squirrel’s bread)

church altar choir nave transept crypt vault

glasses earpiece arm lens bridge hinge frame

Recommended reading: Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка: English Lexicology. – М.: Дрофа, 2004. Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного английского языка. – М.: Высш. шк., 1973.

106

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Гальперин И.Р. Очерки по стилистике английского языка. – М.: Изд-во литературы на иностранных языках, 1958. Гальперин И.Р. Лингвостилистика. – М.: Прогресс, 1980. Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка: учеб. пособие. – Минск: Выш. шк., 1992. Cruse A. Meaning in Language. An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics. – Oxford; N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2009. Harrison M. Word Perfect. Vocabulary for Fluency. – Edinburgh: Nelson, 1990.

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

7. Phraseology Points to ponder – What criteria are applied in singling out phraseological units? – In what way does a phraseological unit differ from a word, a free word-combination, a sentence? – Are the terms “phraseological unit” and “idiom” synonymous? How is phraseology defined in Western linguistic tradition? – Elaborate on the various types of classification of phraseological units. – How does a person speak if he speaks “idiomatic English”? Does it imply that he/she necessarily uses a lot of phraseological units? – How are the notions of metaphor, slang and phraseological units connected? – What is the relationship between phraseological units and proverbs? – Why does a writer sometimes choose to transform phraseological units? What effect does it produce? – What are the sources of phraseological units? How do they originate? – What is a terminological phraseological unit (терминологизм)? In linguistic tradition there exist broad and narrow understanding of phraseology. In the narrow sense of the term, phraseology forms part of lexicology and focuses on fixed and semi-fixed word-combinations that are characterized by the nominative function and whose meanings are partially or completely transferred. In the broad sense of the term, phraseology is an independent discipline whose realm of study, tasks and goals were described by Prof. A.V. Kunin. Phraseological units are examples of secondary nomination: their meaning emerges on the basis of 108

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

metaphoric and/or metonymic transference. The salient features of phraseological units comprise expressivity and evaluation, structural stability and pre-fabricated nature: every time the need for their usage arises, they are not created out of the inventory of linguistic units, but are retrieved from the long-term memory as a whole unit that has a unique structure and meaning. An all-embracing classification of phraseological units was worked out by Academician V.V. Vinogradov. This classification is based on the degree of semantic fusion of the components. Hence, the terms for each of the three subgroups: 1. Phraseological fusions are characterized by a complete transference of meaning, absolute structural stability and are demotivated. It means that tracing their etymology presents a challenge even to etymological dictionaries: the cat’s whiskers and the bee’s knees, at sixes and sevens, etc. 2. Phraseological unities are also characterized by transference of meaning and structural stability. However, they are clearly motivated: to keep one’s card close to one’s chest, to bark up the wrong tree, to be a slowcoach, to be quick off the mark, etc. 3. Phraseological combinations are less stable, transparent in meaning, and one of its components is used in the direct sense: to take advantage, to lose hope, to have a walk, etc. There exist a number of synonymic terms of the expression “phraseological unit”, such as: set expressions, set phrases, fixed word-groups, collocations. In Russian linguistic tradition the preference is given to the term “phraseological unit”, whereas western scholars usually use the term “idiom”, which is broader in meaning, however, and can be defined as, first, “a phrase which means something different from the meanings of the separate words from which it is formed, and, second, “the way of expression typical of a person or a group in their use of language” [Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture, 1993:655]. Hence, one can say the idiom of the young, the idiom of popular music, etc. 109

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Exercises: I Specify the function the following proverbs and sayings perform. Explain what they mean in English and/or find their Russian equivalent. 1. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched. 2. One swallow does not make a summer. 3. Don’t cross your bridges before you come to them. 4. After dinner sit a while, after supper walk a mile. 5. All are good lasses, but whence come the bad wives? 6. Ask no questions and you will be told no lies 7. Better a lean peace than a fat victory 8. A cock is valiant on his own dunghill. 9. Empty vessels make the greatest sound. 10. He that has no children knows not what love is. 11. He that will not when he may, when he will he shall have nay II Construct a proverb from the given constituents: 1. would, the fruit, climb, that, eat, must, the tree, he ____________________________________________ 2. is, policy, honesty, the best ____________________________________________ 3. bad, is, a, supper, breakfast, but, a, hope, good ____________________________________________ 4. mud, you, enough, of it, will, stick, if, throw, some ____________________________________________ 5. is, with, bait, is, a, silly, that, twice, the, fish, same, it, caught ____________________________________________ 6. think, sheep, heavy, lazy, its, wool ____________________________________________ 7. heavy, makes, a, heart, light, purse ____________________________________________ III 110

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

III Explain the meaning of the phraseological units below. Say whether they are fusions, combinations or unities. Consult a dictionary if necessary. To pull a fast one, to be in the red, to take the biscuit, to be on the make, to make a meal out of something, to keep one’s card close to one’s chest, to bark up the wrong tree, to be a slowcoach, to be quick off the mark (to be slow off the mark), to be middle-of-theroad, to pour oil on troubled waters, to be the cat’s whiskers and the bee’s knees, to buy a pig in a poke, to get a finger in every pie.

Paraphrase the sentences:

IV

1. There are more holes in your project than in a Swiss cheese. 2. This history essay is a complete dog’s breakfast. 3. When he entered the room, I realized he had heard everything, and I got egg on my face. 4. We took his story with a pinch of salt. 5. When the personnel manager asked him why he was leaving, he answered that he had bigger fish to fry elsewhere. 6. I chose not to spill the beans about my prospective promotion, because I am a little superstitious. 7. July was fed up with playing second fiddle to her boss, so she walked out. 8. Getting a second degree is important, because you get a second string to your bow. 9. The spokesman’s report struck a chord with the audience. 10. When Larry said he had done all his homework, his father answered that he was going to cast an eye over his essay. 11. When Jane heard the coveted words “I carry a torch for you”, she was on cloud nine. 12. I asked you to buy chicken, not veal. – Sorry, I got my wires crossed.

111

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

V Finish the proverbs. Some of them rhyme.

1. Bad news has... 2. Be slow to promise and quick to … 3. Better be the head of a dog than the tail of a… 4. Betwixt and… 5. Children and fools must not play with edged … 6. Envy shoots at others and wounds…7. Follow the river and you'll get to the… 8. Forced kindness deserves no … 9. Great boast, small… 10. Great spenders are bad… 11. He that mischief hatches, mischief…12. Hedge between keeps friendship… 13. If things were to be done twice, all would be…14. Little strokes fell great… 15. No herb will cure … 16.The darkest place is under the…. Phraseological units are, as is well known, set expressions with a transferred meaning. If understood literally, which sometimes happens to foreigners, little children or those who don’t know the language well enough, they either mean something completely different or appear nonsensical. VI Below is the literal understanding of some well-known English idioms. Work out what kind of idiom is meant in each case. 1. There is an unpleasant smell in the room, as if a rat has died somewhere. 2. My feet are very cold. 3. They say that there is a land when everyone nods. 4. I have eaten a lot of beans today, my stomach is full of them. 5. As he was going home, he saw a vehicle and some things fell off its back. 112

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

6. The other day I visited my friend’s garden and he led me up its path to see the dahlias that grew at the back. 7. As I was driving, my hand slipped off the steering wheel and the car ended in a muddy groove . 8. The man was so tall and the ceiling so low that he could easily reach it and hit his head against it. 9. I asked my Granny to tie a knot, but she couldn’t do it properly.

VII Below are some of the sources of idioms in English. Say what each item means and think of the possible contexts in which they could be used. Family and children Chip off the old rock Spitting image Smb.’s middle name Put through the mangle Household name

Sports and Games To be on the ball To take a rain check To touch base The real McCoy Who ate all the pies? From pillar to post To turn the tables on smb. The cards are stacked against smb. To pass the buck

Food and cooking Big cheese To nail jelly to the wall To go pear-shaped Eye-candy On the back burner To put a finger in every pie

Manners, moods and mores Age before beauty To keep one’s shirt on To blow one’s top To take umbrage A wet blanket To take an early bath

113

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Popular culture and the arts To make smb.’s day To jump on the bandwagon To pull out all the stops Back to the drawing board To paint smb. warts and all

Fables Sour grapes Halcyon days To add insult to injury

Drink Wake up and smell the coffee Small potatoes Small beer To be meat and drink to smb. I’ll drink to that Drinking in the last chance saloon

Proverbs Tread on the worm and it will turn Ill-gotten gains never prosper Live fast, die young All is fair in love and war It takes all sorts to make a world Great minds think alike The pen is mightier than the sword Marry in haste, repent at leisure

Quotations and allusions Speak softly and carry a big stick (Theodore Roosevelt) Coughs and sneezes spread diseases (the Second World War Ministry of Health slogan) Diamonds are a girl’s best friends (a song by Leo Robin and Jule Styne, 1953) Catch-22 (the title of the novel by Joseph Heller, 1961)

W. Shakespeare Salad days (Antony and Cleopatra) It beggars description (Antony and Cleopatra) Method in smb.’s madness (Hamlet) All Greek to me (Julius Caeser) To gild the lily (King John) More sinned against than sinning (King Lear) The milk of human kindness (Macbeth) A foregone conclusion (Othello) The seamy side (Othello) Spare the rod and spoil the child (Taming of the Shrew)

114

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

VIII Match the idiom on the left with its explanation on the right (the right column contains three extra explanations) To be taken to task Against the grain To lay it on thick To be like putty in smb.’s hands Run of the mill To shoot the messenger Bread and circuses The dog ate my homework To have the Midas touch What’s the damage? To keep smb. posted Sinking feeling Armed to the teeth To have a chip on one’s shoulder To pick up the gauntlet To pass muster A shot in the dark Son of a gun Flotsam and jetsam To leave no stone unturned A jaundiced eye To be on the same wavelength The acid test A sight for sore eyes To keep one’s nose clean

to be in despair American dream to be reprimanded to flatter to control smb. completely the wrong way visual, sensual entertainment to be lucky, to bring profit a childish excuse for not having your work done A feeling caused by anxiety or apprehension How much does it cost? to keep smb. informed fully prepared average, middle of the road not to welcome bad news to explore every possible way to pass inspection to bear a grudge, to be resentful to accept a challenge a wild guess the ultimate proof of smth. odds and ends a rogue or rascal to understand smb. completely trying to stay out of trouble by not getting involved in any sort of wrong-doing a person or thing that one is pleased or relieved to see cynical, resentful, bitter a prejudiced view, a critical or resentful manner

115

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

IX Supply a pertinent phraseological unit that the pictures below illustrate.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

116

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12. 117

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

13.

14.

15.

118

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

X There are a number of phraseological units in English that are centered around the thematic field “parts of the body”. Consult a dictionary of phraseological units and try to trace the origin of each unit. Does your dictionary explain the motivation behind the part of the body that was chosen as one of the components of the phraseological unit? Parts of Phraseological Meaning the body unit as constituent elements of a phraseological unit Arm, leg To cost an arm To be very expensive and a leg Elbow More power to An expression of your elbow! praise or encouragement to someone Fingers

Mouth

Example

The new house cost me an arm and a leg. I am writing a new novel now. Well, more power to your elbow. To put some- To postpone some- Once you decide to find a new job, do not put it on the thing on the thing indefinitely long finger long finger To work one’s fingers to the bone To look as if butter wouldn’t melt in smb.’s mouth

To be extremely hard- When I started my career, working I worked my gingers to the bone.

To look innocent but He looks as if butter to be capable of do- wouldn’t melt in his mouth, ing unpleasant things but I know better and do not trust him too far. To give financial support to activities or causes that one be- I believe in charity and am To put money lieves are right going to help the homeless where one’s by putting my money where mouth is my mouth is.

119

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Parts of the body as constituent elements of a phraseological unit

Phraseological unit

Teeth

To do something To just manage to do by the skin of smth. almost failing To do smth. with a lot one’s teeth of energy and enthuTo sink one’s siasm teeth into smth.

I escaped the predicament by the skin of my teeth

To have itchy To find it difficult to stay in one place, to feet like travelling and discovering new places To be clumsy or awkward in one’s moveTo have two left ments To have a small but feet successful start in something A foot in the door

I can never stay long anywhere. I’ve got itchy feet.

To keep one’s To make sure that one ear to the is aware of what is happening around ground To suddenly pay attention to what is being said To prick up one’s ears

When he found himself in that new organization, he had to keep his ear to the ground. When the students heard the word “exam”, they pricked up their ears.

Foot, feet

Ear

120

Meaning

Example

When he got promoted, he immediately sank his teeth into the new job

I am sorry for inadvertently pushing you forward, I seem to have two left feet. It’s difficult to get a foot in the door in any profession nowadays.

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Parts of Phraseological Meaning the body unit as constituent elements of a phraseological unit Shoulder To have a chip To feel resentful for on one’s shoul- being treated unfairly, der especially because of their background Used to refer to a child or young person who thinks and acts like an older more An old head on experienced person young shoulders To make a lot of effort in order to achieve smth.

To put one’s shoulders to the wheel

Example

Now that she hasn’t been promoted, she has a chip on her shoulder, because she thinks it’s because of her ethnic origin When little Emily started to rebuke her elder brother for coming back home late, her mother said that she had an old head on young shoulders I’ll have to put my shoulders to the wheel to prepare the room for the coming guests

XI There are quite a number of idioms containing the names of animals as their constituent elements. Consult a dictionary or try to work out from the illustrative examples what each of the following idioms means. 1. cat gets one’s tongue: The cat got my tongue at the meeting and I could not say anything. one cannot speak because of shyness. 2. not to have enough room to swing a cat: My apartment was so small that there was not enough room to swing a cat. 3. there is more than one way to skin a cat: If your strategy in fulfilling the task does not work, remember that there is more than one way to skin a cat. 121

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

4. to have a cow: My father had a cow when I confessed that I hadn’t dome my homework. 5. until the cows come home: My parents will come back very late tonight, so we can talk until the cows come home. 6. every dog has his day: Remember that one day you will be rewarded: every dog has his day. 7. to be in the doghouse: I am in the doghouse with my teacher, because I didn’t prepare properly for the test. 8. to put on the dog: We put on the dog for our wedding anniversary party. 9. to see a man about a dog: She left the table in the restaurant and said that she had to see a man about a dog. 10. The tail is wagging the dog: It seems that his personal assistant controls everything in the office. It’s like the tail wagging the dog. 11. by shank’s mare: Despite the distance being great, I went the whole way by shank’s mare. 12. to get off one’s high horse: I wish my friend would get off his high horse and begin to be more mindful of others’ feelings. 13. to put the cart before the horse: planning a party before you even know who you are going to invite is putting the cart before the horse. 14. to make a monkey out of somebody: You made a monkey out of me when you started arguing with me in front of my colleagues. monkey see, monkey do: It is monkey see, monkey do for you: you copy everything that I do. a monkey on one’s back: I was a monkey on my back when I failed to get a job three times running. to be more fun than a barrel of monkeys: Everybody adores jack because he is more fun than a barrel of monkeys. XII Comment on the following idiomatic statements about love. Which of them seem contentious to you? What perception of love is reflected in the statements? – Course of true love never did run smooth (from Shakespeare’s play, A Midsummer Night's Dream.)  122

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

– One cannot love and be wise. – When poverty comes in at the door, love flies out of the window (Alternatively: When the wolf comes in at the door, love creeps out of the window). – Love begets love. – Love me, love my dog. – Love will find a way. – Whom the gods love die young. XIII Idiomatic expressions enjoy popularity with writers, playwrights and film directors. Study the following titles of books, films and musicals and explain the meaning of each phraseological unit. Why would writers, playwrights and film directors choose an idiomatic name for their creations? – An American Dream (a novel and a film adaptation) – Lord of the flies (a book title and a film) – Ants in the pants (a film title) – Cakes and ale (a book title and a film) – Blackboard Jungle (a film title) – Cat on a hot tin roof (a film title) – On dangerous ground (a film title) – Seventh heaven (a film title) – The seventh seal (a film title) – Time out of joint (a novel) – Salad Days (a musical by Julian Slade) – Mortal Coil (Star Trek: Voyager episode) – The Asphalt Jungle, (a novel and a film adaptation) XIV Below are idiomatic expressions that contain words (underlined) not used outside the pertinent idiom. Consult a dictionary (either a general-purpose or a dictionary of idioms) and trace the etymology of these words. Specify the meaning of each idiomatic expression. 1. to smash/blow smth. to smithereens: (informal) to destroy something by breaking it into very small pieces, or with an explosion. 123

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

2. spick and span new: new and fresh and therefore neat and clean. 3. to run amok (amuck): to indulge in physical violence while in a state of frenzy. 4. sac and soc: the conveyance of rights in private jurisdiction to the grantee. 5. of that ilk: of the same family, of the same kind. XV Consider the following definitions and explanations of English idioms taken from Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Try to work out what idiom is described in each case. Sometimes the words that constitute an idiom are echoed in the definition, which serves as a clue. Definition and explanation of some English idioms Compassion, sympathy. The affections were once supposed to be the outcome of certain secretions of organs. The head was regarded as the seat of understanding, the heart was the seat of affection and memory (hence ‘learning by heart’), the bowels were the seat of mercy, and the spleen was the seat of passion or anger. To change from one’s usual habits. In former times an artist would break the mould of a high-quality cast so that it could not be replicated by others. To be wastefully extravagant and luxurious; to gain advantages from two sides at once. Pre-recorded laughter that is dubbed on to radio and television comedy programmes. It is the modern equivalent of the claques who were hired to clap and cheer at theatre performances and is a device of American origin. It was first heard in Britain in the American television comedy show I Love Lucy (1955).

124

Idiom being described

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Definition and explanation of some English idioms

Idiom being described

To be in the state of doubt or suspense with regard to the outcome of a situation, not knowing on which side the scales of fate may descend. An American expression meaning ‘to begin one’s professional career’. ‘Shingle’, a kind of wooden tile, refers to the small signboard To submit to punishment or misfortune meekly and without murmuring

XVI Below are well-known English proverbs and sayings. However, only the second part is retained. Supply the first part. The number of words contained in the beginning is indicated. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

_______________(6 words missing) the one-eyed man is king _______________(3 words missing) is another man’s poison _______________(3 words missing) always goes barefoot _______________(4 words missing) that dance lightly  _______________(3 words missing) hinder good counsel  _______________(6 words missing) a morsel may slip  _______________(3 words missing) we learn to do ill  _______________(1 word missing) is man’s true touchstone  _______________(2 words missing) thinks her own gosling a swan _______________(2 words missing) and then desire _______________(1 word is missing) always rushes to the fore _______________(1 word is missing) are thieves of time  _______________(5 words are missing) and then the puppy’s eyes are open. 125

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Recommended reading: Кунин А.В. Курс фразеологии современного английского языка. – М.: Высш. шк., 1986. Кунин   А.В.   Структурно-семантические аспекты первичной фразеологии //  Основы русской фразеологии. – М.: Педагогический институт иностранных языков им. Мориса Тореза, 1987. Минаева Л.В. Лексикология и лексикография английского языка. – М.: Ступени, 2003. Никулина Е.А. Англо-русский словарь терминологизмов. – М.: Прометей, 2005. Палажченко П. Мой несистематический словарь. – М.: Р. Валент, 2003. Jackson H., Zé Amleva Etienne. Words, Meaning and Vocabulary. An Introduction to Modern English lexicology. – L.; N.Y.: continuum, 2010. Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. – L.: Cassell Publishers, 2001.

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

8. Some Regional Varieties of English Points to ponder – Is there any difference between a regional variety and a dialect? – Amass all the possible evidence to disclaim that American English is a separate language. – What are some of the potential causes for misunderstanding between a Briton and an American? – What groups of Americanisms can there be distinguished? – Does a Welshman or a Scot have any difficulty in understanding each other? If yes, what are the possible causes for misunderstanding? Are they mostly of phonetic, grammatical, lexical or idiomatic character?

Exercises I Suggest American variants for the British English words below: British English Pocket money Aluminium Hair grip Chest of drawers Holdall Candy floss Nappy Hall of residence Conscription Curtains Chips Interval Marrow

American English

127

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Nail varnish Nil, nought trolley Trainers Noughts and crosses Tights Whisky Solicitor Saltcellar Number plate Pavement II Figure out who is likely to speak – an American or a Briton? Which words helped you to do it? 1. When the shopping cart was filled to overflowing, I found out that there were not enough banknotes in my billfold. 2. Harry bought a local newspaper at the newsagent’s and headed for the railway. He intended to travel on foot, but as he passed a dozen terraced houses and realized he was nowhere near the station, he decided to go by the tube. He reached the station on time and promptly found his carriage. 3. When little Mary was asked what her favourite food was, she answered: popsicles, jell-o, French fries and cotton candy. 4. Some parents do not immediately buy a crib for their newborn baby and let it sleep in a baby carriage. 5. When I saw the road sigh “detour” in front of me, I got frustrated, for it meant that I would have to forgo the expressway and travel by some bumpy country lanes. 6. Since the advent of the cellular phone telephone kiosks have decreased in number and lost their popularity. 7. I once confused the cold and the hot faucets and got scolding hot water running onto my hands. Luckily, the druggist’s is not far 128

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

away from my apartment building, so I went there and bought some anointment. 8. What do you usually wear? – Well, usually something casual and nothing fancy: a pair of sneakers, corduroy pants or sweatpants, a sweatshirt or a cardigan. If the occasion is formal, then a threepiece suit or a tuxedo. III The Scots lexicon derives from Gaelic, Norwegian and French8. Particularly noteworthy “Scottishisms” are represented by the following lexemes: dominie (teacher), high-heid yin (boss), kirk (church), pinkie (little finger), swither (hesitate). Find British English equivalents for the legal Scottishisms below: Aliment Arbiter Apprehension Extortion Fire-raising Culpable homicide Defender

_____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________

IV There are not so many distinctively Welsh words in English, some example are “Duw” (stands for “god” in exclamations), “del” (“dear”, a term of endearment), “nain” (grandma”), “taid” (grandpa). The number of Irishisms, however, is higher: “to blather” (to talk nonsense), “to cog” (to cheat), “freet” (superstition), “garda” (police), “insleeper” (overnight visitor), “kink” (a fit of coughing), “mannerly” (well-mannered). One of the peculiarities of Irish English is the 8 For more detailed information on regional varieties of English see “The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language”, second edition, D. Crystal, 2003.

129

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

usage of the diminutive suffix “-een” (y/ei in British English): “children”, “girleen”. There are also a number of Irish idioms. a) Match the idioms below with their British explanatory counterpart: You’ll knock a while out of it He would waste your day He’d put the day astray on you He is related to me He is the rest of myself It will last you for a while b) Find the correct ending for the Irish comparative idioms below. Can you trace any rationale behind the idiomatic comparison?: As often as As mean as As fat in the forehead as As sharp a tongue as

get out a hen would shave a mouse fingers and toes

V Immigration to the African continent from Britain began at the start of the nineteenth century, when several thousand settlers arrived from south-east England. This area had already been colonized by the Dutch in the seventeenth century. Today around 10 percent of the population of South Africa speak English as their first language. South African English is a distinct regional variety, with a vocabulary drawn from Afrikaans, from native African languages and from developments and adaptations of English words9. Below are four groups of words of South African English. Find out what they mean and say in what way their usage is restricted. Which of the words and in what contexts could you ever use? 9 Examples for the following four exercises have been taken from Jackson H., Zé Amvela “Words, Meaning and Vocabulary. An Introduction to Modern English Lexicology”, 2010.

130

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

South African English Words Words used in British and American English: Aardvark Apartheid Eland Trek Veld Words Restricted to South African English: Bakkie Kloof Lekker Platteland Verkrampter voorkamer Words from African Languages that Have Entered South African English: Gogga Indaba Muti Sangoma Tsotsi Words form English that are Peculiar to South Africa: Bioscope Bottle store Camp Matchbox Robot

Meaning

VI English has been spoken in India since the seventeenth century. Nowadays it is the second official language of India, along with Hindi. Around 30 million people in India use English with some regularity (circa 4 per cent of the population). Study the following groups of Indian English and say which of the words (if any) are used in British and/or American English: 131

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Indian English words

Meaning

Words borrowed into Indian English from Portuguese: any of the four major hereditary classCaste es, namely the Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra into which Hindu society is divided Peon

a Spanish-American farm labourer or unskilled worker

Bamboo

any tall treelike tropical or semitropical fast-growing grass of the genus Bambusa

Curry

a spicy dish of oriental, esp. of Indian origin that is made in many ways but usually consists of meat or fish prepared in a hot piquant sauce

Mango

a tropical Asian anacardiaceous evergreen tree, Mangifera indica, cultivated in the tropics for its fruit

Pundit

an expert

Sahib

(in India) a form of address or title placed after a man’s name or designation, used as a mark of respect

Arabic and Persian: Mogul

an important or powerful person

Sepoy

(formerly) an Indian soldier in the service of the British

Shroff

a moneychanger or banker

Vakeel

lawyer

132

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Indian English words

Meaning

Words composed from one element of English origin and one element from a local language: Village bank Grameen bank Policewala

Policeman

Tiffin box

Lunch-box

English words that have developed new meanings or have been adapted to new forms: Classmate Batch-mate Drumstick

Green vegetable

Condole

Offer condolences

Head-bath

Washing one’s hair

Prepone

Opposite of postpone

VII For almost a century Australia was used as a penal colony (from the end of the eighteenth till the middle of the twentieth century), the fact that partially determined the specifics of modern Australian English. When simultaneously free emigrants started to arrive in Australia, Australian English was enriched and variegated. Nowadays Australian English has around ten thousand distinct words taken from a variety of sources. The language of the first settlers was drawn from a number of British English dialects as well as underworld slang. These are such words as cobber (friend), dinkum (genuine), larrikin (hooligan), shake (steal). As settlers encountered new flora, fauna and geographical features, they either invented words for them or borrowed them from the aboriginal languages. Study the Australian English words below and say what sphere of life they refer to: 133

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Australian English Words Realia They Describe Dingo (brolga) – bird Morwong – fish Billabong – stagnant pool in a stream Dillybag – a small bag made of plaited grass, often used for carrying food Outback – the remote bush country of Australia Backblocks – bush or remote farming area far distant from city amenities Stockman (squatter) – sheep or cattle farmer Rouseabout – unskilled labourer Sundowner – tramp seeking shelter at sundown Fossick – search for gold in abandoned areas Mullock – waste material from a mine Nugget – thick-set or stocky VIII A large influx of British settlers began to arrive in New Zealand starting from the middle of the nineteenth century, after the treaty of Waitangi with Maori chiefs in 1840 was signed. Words describing local geographical features, flora and fauna are taken from native Maori dialects. The other group of New Zealand words is represented by adaptations and extensions of British English words, these words have developed over the years. Study the two groups below. Which of the words are familiar to you: 134

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Words describing local geographical features, flora and fauna, and words relating to Maori culture

New Zealand words represented by adaptations and extensions of British English words

Kowai, totara – trees

Back (clipped from bachelor) – a holiday cottage

Kumara – sweet potato

Chilly bin – cool box

Takahe – bird

Private bag number – a post office box

Katipo – spider

State house– council house

Tuatara – lizard

University graduation – a capping ceremony

Ariki – chief Haka – war dance Pa – village Tangi – ceremonial funeral Tohunga – Maori learned in traditional lore Wahine – woman or wife Waka – canoe Pakeha – white person Aroha – affection, sympathy Kuri – an unpleasant person

Recommended reading: Jackson H., Zé Amvela E. Words, Meaning and Vocabulary. An Introduction to modern English Lexicology. – L.; N.Y.: Сontinuum, 2010. Steinmetz S., Kipfer B.A. The Life of Language. The fascinating ways the words are born, live and die. – N.Y.; Toronto; L.: Random House Reference, 2006. Stockwell R., Minkova D. English Words: History and Structure. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Second edition. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

135

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

References 1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка. English Lexicology. – М.: Дрофа, 2004. 2. Апресян Ю.Д. Лексическая семантика. – М.: Наука, 1974. 3. Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного английского языка. – М.: Высш. шк., 1973. 4. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка: (Стилистика декодирования). – 3-е изд. – М.: Просвещение, 1990. 5. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык: учебник для вузов. – 8-е изд. – М.: Флинта: Наука, 2006. 6. Беляевская Е.Г. Семантика слова. – М.: Высш. шк., 1987. 7. Беляевская Е.Г. Модель и моделирование в лингвистических исследованиях (традиционный vs когнитивный подход) // Принципы и методы когнитивного исследования языка: сб. научных трудов. – Тамбов: Издво ТГУ им. Г.Р. Державина, 2008. – C. 98–109. 8. Гальперин И.Р. Очерки по стилистике английского языка. – М.: Изд-во литературы на иностранных языках, 1958. 9. Гальперин И.Р. Лингвостилистика. – М.: Прогресс, 1980. 10. Де Болт А.А. Теоретические и практические аспекты контаминации: дис. … канд. филол. наук. – Орел, 1998. 11. Девкин В.Д. Очерки по лексикографии. – М.: Прометей, 2000. 12. Заботкина В.И. Новая лексика современного английского языка. – М.: Высш. шк., 1989. 13. Заботкина В.И. Семантика и прагматика нового слова: дис. … д-ра филол. наук. –  М., 1991. 14. Заботкина В.И. Основные параметры прагматики нового слова // Проблемы семантики и прагматики. – Калининград, 1996. –  С. 83–91. 15. Ильченко Л.М. Компрессивное словообразование как один из способов реализации принципа языковой экономии (на примере современного английского языка): автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук. – Пятигорск, 1993. 16. Кобозева И.М. Лингвистическая семантика. – М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2004. 17. Котелова Н.3. Первый опыт лексикографического описания русских неологизмов // Новые слова и словари новых слов. – Л., 1978. – С. 8–9. 18. Кубрякова Е.С. Типы языковых значений. Семантика производного слова. – М.: Наука, 1981.

136

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

19. Кубрякова Е.С. Коммуникативно-прагматический аспект лексического значения слова // Коммуникативные аспекты значения: сб. науч. тр. ВГПИ им. А.С. Серафимовича. – Волгоград, 1990. – С. 15–29. 20. Кунин А.В. Курс фразеологии современного английского языка. – М.: Высш. шк., 1986. 21. Лаврова Н.А. О некоторых словообразовательных и семантических особенностях современного сленга // Актуальные проблемы английской лингвистики и лингводидактики. – М.: Прометей, 2010. – С. 41– 47. 22. Лейчик В.М. Люди и слова. – М.: Наука, 1982. 23. Лейчик В.М. Терминоведение: Предмет, методы, структура. – 4-е изд. – М.: ЛИБРОКОМ, 2009. 24. Лукьянова Н.А. Активные семантические модели английских производных прилагательных суффиксального и префиксального типов: автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук. – М., 1996. 25. Маковский М.М. Современный английский сленг: Онтология, структура, этимология. – 4-е изд. – М.: ЛИБРОКОМ, 2009. 26. Медникова Э.М. Значение слова и методы его описания. – М.: Высш. шк., 1974. 27. Никулина Е.А. Взаимодействие и взаимовлияние терминологии и фразеологии современного английского языка. – М.: Прометей, 2004. 28. Нухов С.Ж. Семиологические аспекты окказионального словообразования современного английского языка: дис. … канд. филол. наук. – М., 1987. 29. Нухов С.Ж. Языковая игра в словообразовании (на материале лексики английского языка): дис. ... д-ра филол. наук. – М., 1997. 30. Попова Т.В. Русская неология и неография: учеб. электронное текстовое издание: ГОУ ВПО УГТУ-УПИ. – Екатеринбург, 2005. 31. Санников В.З. Русский язык в зеркале языковой игры. – М.: Языки русской культуры, 1999. 32. Тер-Минасова С.Г. Язык и межкультурная коммуникация. – М.: Слово, 2000. 33. Тимошенко Т.Р. Телескопия в словообразовательной системе современного английского языка: автореф. дис. … канд. филол. наук. – Киев, 1976. 34. Тогоева С.И. Новое слово: подходы и проблемы // Психолингвистические проблемы функционирования слова в лексиконе человека: кол. монография / под общ. ред. А.А. Залевской. – Тверь, 1999. – С. 75– 101.

137

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

35. Уфимцева А.А. Лексическое значение: Принципы семиологического описания лексики / под ред. Ю.С. Степанова. – 2-е изд., стереотип. – М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2002. 36. Харитончик З.А. Проблемы словообразования в современном английском языке. – Минск, 1989. 37. Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка: учеб. пособие. – Минск: Высш. шк., 1992. 38. Шувалов В.И. Метафора в лексической системе немецкого языка: автореф. дис. … д-ра филол. наук. – М., 2006. 39. Abley M. The Prodigal Tongue. – L.: arrow books, 2009. 40. Algeo J. Blends, a structural and systemic view // American Speech. – Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1977. – № 52. – Р. 47–64. 41. Bauer L. English word-formation. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. 42. Bauer L. Introducing Linguistic Morphology. – Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988. 43. Bauer L. Is there a class of neoclassical compounds, and if so is it productive? // Linguistics. – 1998. – № 36. – P. 403–422. 44. Bryson B. Notes from a Small Island. – Reading: Black Swan, 1998. 45. Bryson B. The Life and Times of The Thunderbolt Kid. – L.: Black Swan, 2007. 46. Cambridge Objective Proficiency. Self-study Student’s Book. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 47. Carroll L. Through the Looking Glass. – M.: Progress, 1966. 48. Cussler C. Night Probe. – L.: Timewarner, 2003. 49. Danks D. Separating Blends: a Formal Investigation of the Blending Process and its Relationship to Associated Word Formation Processes. – Liverpool: University of Liverpool, 2003. 50. Erard M. Slips, Stumbles and Verbal Blunders and What They Mean. – N.Y.: Anchor Books. A Division of Random House, 2008. 51. Fielding H. Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason. – L.: Picador, 2000. 52. Fischer, R. Lexical Change in Present-Day English. A corpus-Based Study of the Motivation, Institutionalization, and Productivity of Creative Neologisms. – Tübingen, 1998. 53. Ford R. The Sportswriter. – N.Y.: Vintage Books. A Division of Random House, 1986. 54. Ford R. Independence Day. – N.Y.: Vintage Books. A Division of Random House, 1996. 55. Gaiman N. Neverwhere. – N.Y.: HarperTorch, 1997.

138

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

56. Gries St. Th. (b) Shouldn’t it be breakfunch? A quantitative analysis of blend structure in English // Linguistics. – Antwerp: Mouton de Groyter – 2004. № 42. – P. 639–667. 57. Harrison M. Word Perfect. Vocabulary for Fluency. – Edinburgh: Nelson, 1990. 58. Hornby N. Slam. – London: Penguin Books, 2007. 59. Jackson H., Zé Amvela E. Words, Meaning and Vocabulary. An Introduction to Modern English Lexicology. – L.: continuum, 2010. 60. King S. Wizard and Glass. – N.Y.: A Signet Book, 2003. 61. Lakoff G., Johnson M. Metaphors We Live By. – Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. 62. Lessing D. No Witchcraft for Sale. – M.: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1956. 63. Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present Day English Word Formation. – Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1960. 64. McCarthy M., O’Dell F. English Phrasal Verbs in Use. Advanced. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 65. McEwan I. The Innocent. – N.Y.: Anchor Books. A Division of Random House, 1999. 66. McFedries P. Word Spy: The Word Lover’s Guide to Modern Culture. – Crown Publishing Group, 2004. 67. Metcalf A. Predicting new words: the secrets of their success. – Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 68. Morozova N.N. The Last Word on Words. Lectures on English Lexicolo­ gy. – М.: Университетская книга, 2010. 69. Mortimer I. The Time Traveller’s Guide to Medieval England. – L.: Vintage Books, 2009. 70. Pinker S. The Language Instinct. – L.: Penguin Books, 1995. 71. Pound L. Blends: Their Relation to English Word Formation. – Heidelberg, 1914. 72. Power, Influence and Persuasion. Harvard Business Essentials. – Boston; Massachussetts: Harvard Business School Press, 2005. 73. Smith W. The Burning Shore. – L.: Pan Books, 1997. 74. Sornig K. Lexical Innovation. A Study of Slang, Colloquialisms and Casual Speech. – Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V., 1981. 75. Steinmetz S., Kipfer B.A. The Life of Language. The fascinating ways the words are born, live and die. – N.Y.; Toronto; L.: Random House Reference, 2006.

139

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

76. Stockwell R., Minkova D. English Words: History and Structure. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. 77. Tolkien J.R.R. The Lord of the Rings. Part Two. The Two Towers. – L.: Harper Collins Publishers, 1994. 78. Weis M., Hickman T. The Dark Sword Trilogy. Volume II. Doom of the Darksword. – L.; N.Y.; Toronto: Bantam Books, 1988. 79. Zandvoort R.W. A Handbook of English Grammar. – L.: Longmans, 1962. Dictionaries and Encyclopedias 80. Англо-русский словарь по лингвистике и семиотике (АРСЛС). – М.: Азбуковник, 2001. 81. Ахманова О.С. Словарь лингвистических терминов. – М.: Советская энциклопедия, 1966. 82. Лаврова Н.А. Англо-русский словарь. Современные тенденции в словообразовании. Контаминанты. М.: Флинта: Наука, 2009. 83. Лингвистический энциклопедический словарь (ЛЭС) под ред. В.Н. Ярцевой.– М.: Большая Российская энциклопедия, 2002. 84. Никулина Е.А. Англо-русский словарь терминологизмов. – М.: Прометей, 2005. 85. Палажченко П. Мой несистематический словарь. – М.: Р. Валент, 2003. 86. Abbyy Lingvo 12. Электронный словарь. Выпуск 12.0.0.413 ABBYY ® Lingvo® 12© 2006 Abbyy Software 87. Academic American Encyclopaedia. – Danbury: Grolier Inc., 1994. 88. Algeo J. Fifty Years among the New Words. A Dictionary of Neologisms. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 89. Banister J. Addictionary. Brave New Words. N.Y.: Abrams Image, 2008. 90. Barnhart C. L., Steinmetz S., Barnhart R. K. The Barnhart Dictionary of New English. – L.: Longman, 1973. 91. Barnhart C. L., Steinmetz S., Barnhart R. K. The Third Barnhart Dictionary of New English. – L.: HarperCollins, 1990. 92. Chamber’s Encyclopaedia. – L.: International Learning System inc., 1973. 93. Collins English Dictionary (Revised Third Edition). – Glasgow: Harper Collins, 1994. 94. Collins English Dictionary. – Birmingham, 2007.

140

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

95. Collins Cobuild Dictionary (CCD). – М.: Астрель, 2006. – Т. 1. 96. Collins Cobuild Dictionary (CCD). – М.: Астрель, 2006. – Т. 2. 97. Concise Oxford Dictionary (tenth Edition) (COD). – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. 98. Cullen R. The Little Hiptionary. – N.Y.: Peter Pauper Press, 2007. 99. Dictionary of Computer and Internet Terms. – N.Y.: Barron’s Educational Series, 2006. 100. Dick Thurner’s Portmanteau Dictionary (PD). Blend Words in the English Language, Including Trademarks and Brand Names. – Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 1993. 101. Encyclopaedia Americana. – Danbury: Grolier Inc., 1995. – P. 23 102. Grant B. The Official Dictionary of Unofficial English. – N.Y., Chicago, L.: McGraw Hill, 2006. 103. Bird C.S. Grandiloquent Dictionary, 2006. 104. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE). – L.: Longman Group Ltd., 1995. 105. Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. – L.: Longman, 1993. 106. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. – N.Y.: Merriam Webster, 2008. 107. Oxford Concise Dictionary of English Etymology (OCDEE). – Oxford, N.Y., 1996. 108. Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang. – N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2005. 109. Peckham A. Urban Dictionary: Fularious Street Slang Defined. – Kansas City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC, 2005. 110. Peckham A. Urban Dictionary: Ridonkulous Street Slang Defined. – Kansas City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Publishing House, LLC, 2007. 111. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. – N.Y.: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2000. 112. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Second edition. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. 113. The Chambers Dictionary. – L.: Chambers, 2003. 114. The Fun-to-Learn Picture Dictionary. – L.: Grandreams Limited, 1992. 115. The Hutchinson Encyclopaedia. – L.: Hutchinson, 1988. 116. The New Oxford Picture Dictionary. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

141

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

117. The New Penguin English Dictionary (NPED). – L.: Penguin Books, 2000. 118. The Oxford English Dictionary (Second Edition) (OED). – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. Electronic sources: PseudoDictionary [electronic source] // URL: http://pseudodictionary.com/ (date of reference: 20.11.2009)

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Answer Key 2. Stylistic Stratification of English Vocabulary. Slang. Barbarisms Ex. II monkey – a person associated with a particular kind of activity, used as a derogatory nomination. Air monkey – an air-brake repairman;wheel monkey – a driver. -happy – inclined to do a specific activity excessively, as a result being slightly obssessed with it; abusing smth.; being slightly deranged. Car-happy – tending to overuse one’s car; dough-happy – loving money; power-happy – abusing one’s power. Dog – an unpleasant, contemptible, or wicked man; used to refer to a person of a specified kind in a tone of playful reproof, commiseration, or congratulation; used to refer to someone who is abject or miserable, especially because they have been treated harshly. Mean dog – a miser; penny dog – a person working for a small, usually fixed salary; smart dog – a clever person. Ex. III Beano – a festive entertainment usually ending in rowdyism; Blotto – intoxicated, drunk; Cheapo – inexpensive and often of inferior quality; Combo – a white man who lives with an Aboriginal woman;combination, partnership; a small instrumental band, esp. playing jazz; Compo – compensation, esp. as paid for an injury received while working; Daddy-o – daddy; Doggo – motionless or hidden (to lie doggo); Fatso – fatty; Limo – limousine; Milko – milkman; Nutso – a crazy person; Rabbito – a travelling seller of rabit meat; Salvo – a member of the Salvation Army. 143

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Ex. IV – one who cooks; one who waits; one who kisses; one who forgets; one who ends a relationship with smb.; one who is awarer of smth.; one who reads in bed. Ex. V Money;face;pissed (drunk, intoxicated); Greek;row;boots; telephone; Jew; stage; chief; stop, thief!;newspaper; eye;gin;time;tie; stink; feet; old man;talk; shilling; trousers; diamond; sister; jewellery; glove;state. Ex. VI Queensland (from the abundance of bananas grown in the state);the south-east coast of Spain, as used by several British criminals as a bolthole to escape British justice; a costal area with a large residential population of old and retired people, esp. the south coast of England. Ex. VII A state of extreme fear or terror; a loud and alarming noise;a soldier or the Army; to flatter; a drug consisting of heroin diluted with caffeine and strychnine; a type of Italian hand grenade; rough, strong whisky (or a drink of beer mixed with tomato guice, or tomato ketchup); passionate, lively (or unfair, unreasonable, or a hot dog); a coward. Ex. VIII A difficult or unscrupulous person (or a tough customer); a mule, esp. an old one; bad luck; the head of an organization of criminals or any important person; an honourable or incorruptible politician; a person who does everything correctly; to remove one’s trousers; to remove one’s bunny ears; to remove a hidden electronic device, such as a microphone (or to make (a hidden microphone, for example) ineffective, or to search for and eliminate malfunctioning elements or errors, or to remove insects from, as with a pesticide). Ex. IX created or done for a particular purpose as necessary; relating to or associated with a particular person (or directed against a person rather than 144

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

the position they are maintaining); used to express a conclusion for which there is stronger evidence than for a previously accepted one; relating to or denoting reasoning or knowledge which proceeds from theoretical deduction rather than from observation or experience (or based on theoretical deduction rather than empirical observation); relating to or denoting reasoning or knowledge which proceeds from observations or experiences to the deduction of probable causes (or based on reasoning from known facts or past events rather than by making assumptions or predictions, with hindsight, as an afterthought); the university, school, or college that one formerly attended; genuine, real; with distinction; a brief account of a person's education, qualifications, and previous occupations, typically sent with a job application; out of many, one; is used in books and journals to indicate that a piece of text taken from somewhere else is from the same source as the previous piece of text; among other things; making necessary alterations while not affecting the main point at issue; by or in itself or themselves, intrinsically; based on the first impression, accepted as correct until proved otherwise; a favour or advantage granted in return for something; (with reference to business or proceedings that have been adjourned) with no appointed date for resumption; an essential condition; a thing that is absolutely necessary; unique; (in a restaurant) referring to food that can be ordered as separate items, rather than part of a set meal; a sense of one's own worth, self-respect; if you refer to someone or something as your béte noire, you mean that you have a particular dislike for them or that they annoy you a great deal; used to express good wishes to someone about to set off on a journey; complete freedom to act as one wishes; a final blow or shot given to kill a wounded person or animal; a feeling of having already experienced the present situation; a person who behaves in an unconventional or controversial way; an embarrassing or tactless act or remark in a social situation; the policy of leaving things to take their own course, without interfering; an assumed name used by a writer instead of their real name, a pen-name; people who have recently acquired wealth, typically those perceived as ostentatious or lacking in good taste; better or more than all others of the same kind; a performance or achievement that has been accomplished or managed with great skill. 145

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

3. Etymology Ex. I late 16th cent.: from Latin belligerant- “waging war”, from the verb belligerare, from bellum “war”; mid 16th cent.: from Italian carnevale, carnovale, from medieval Latin carnelevamen, carnelevarium, from Latin caro, carn- “flesh” + levare “put away”; late 17th cent. (as a noun): alteration of obsolete haemorrhagy, via Latin from Greek haimorrhagia, from haima “blood” + the stem of rhēgnunai “burst”; Old English: via Latin from Greek hōroskopos, from hōra “time” + skopos “observer”; late 19th cent.: from French, from Latin manus “hand” + cura “care”; Old English nēahgebūr, from nēah "nigh, near" + gebūr "inhabitant, peasant, farmer" (compare with boor); Middle English: from Old French pome grenate, from pome “apple” + grenate “pomegranate” (from Latin (malum) granatum “(apple) having many seeds”, from granum “seed”); early 20th cent.: modern Latin, from Greek skhizein “to split” + “phrēn” “mind”; late Middle English: via Old French from Latin benedictio(n-), from benedicere “wish well, bless”, from bene “well” + dicere “say”; Old English gārlēac, from gār "spear" (because the shape of a clove resembles the head of a spear) + lēac "leek"; Middle English: from Old French herbergere, from herbergier “provide lodging for”, from herberge “lodging”, from Old Saxon heriberga “shelter for an army, lodging” (from heri “army” + a Germanic base meaning “fortified place”), related to harbour. The term originally denoted a person who provided lodging, later one who went ahead to find lodgings for an army or for a nobleman and his retinue, hence, a herald (mid 16th cent.); Middle English iuparti, from Old French ieu parti “(evenly) divided game”. The term was originally used in chess and other games to denote a problem, or a position in which the chances of winning or losing were evenly balanced, hence “a dangerous situation”; 146

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

late 15th cent. (as marchpane): from Italian marzapane, perhaps from Arabic. The form marchpane (influenced by March and obsolete pain “bread”) was more usual until the late 19th cent., when marzipan (influenced by German Marzipan) displaced it; late 18th cent. (in the sense “acute homesickness”): modern Latin (translating German Heimweh “homesickness”), from Greek nostos “return home” + algos “pain”; mid 16th cent.: from French portemanteau, from porter “carry” + manteau “mantle”; late Middle English: from Old French porc espin, from Provençal porc espi(n), from Latin porcus “pig” + spina “thorn”. Ex. II The words are derived from the Latin verb permittere “allow”: permission – the action of officially allowing someone to do a particular thing; consent or authorization; permissiveness – allowing or tolerating things which other people disapprove of; The words are derived from Latin aggredi “to attack”, from ad- “towards” + gradi “proceed, walk”: aggression – feelings of anger or antipathy resulting in hostile or violent behaviour; aggressiveness – readiness or likelihood to attack or confront; The words are derived from Old French, from agreer “make agreeable to”: agreement – harmony or accordance in opinion or feeling; agreeableness – the quality of being enjoyable and pleasurable; the willingness to agree to something; acceptability; The words are derived via Old French from Latin vitium “physical or other defect, fault: vice – immoral or wicked behaviour; viciousness – cruelty, violence; The words are derived from Latin legalis, from lex, leg- “law”: legality – the quality or state of being in accordance with the law; legalization – the process of making smth. legal; The words are derived from late Middle English humaine, from Old French humain(e), from Latin humanus, from homo “man, human being”: human – relating to or characteristic of humankind; humane – having or showing compassion or benevolence; 147

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

The words are derived from Latin miseria, literally “wretched”: miser – a person who hoards wealth and spends as little money as possible; misery – a state or feeling of great physical or mental distress or discomfort; The words are of Germanic origin; related to Dutch and German lang: longevity – long life, long existence or service; longitude – the angular distance of a place east or west of the Greenwich meridian, or west of the standard meridian of a celestial object, usually expressed in degrees; oblong – a rectangular object or flat figure with unequal adjacent sides; The words are derived from Old French clos (as noun and adjective), from Latin clausum “enclosure” and clausus “closed”, past participle of claudere: closeness – the state of being near; an act or process of closing something, especially an institution, thoroughfare, or frontier, or of being closed; enclosure – an area that is surrounded by a barrier; cloister – a convent, monastery; The words are derived from Latin sanitas “health”, from sanus “healthy”: sanity – the ability to think and behave in a normal and rational manner; sound mental health; sanitation –- conditions relating to public health, especially the provision of clean drinking water and adequate sewage disposal; sanitarian – an official responsible for public health or a person in favour of public health reform; The words are derived via Old French from late Latin minuta, feminine (used as a noun) of minutus “made small”: minute – a period of time equal to sixty seconds or a sixtieth of an hour; minutiae – the small, precise, or trivial details of something; minuet – a slow, stately ballroom dance for two in triple time, popular especially in the 18th century. Ex. III Derby – “village where there are deer”; Suffolk – “southern people”; Essex – territory of the East Saxons; Kent – “land on the border”; Surrey – “southern district”; Sussex – “territory of the South Saxons”; Buckingham – “riverside land of Bucca’s people”; Oxford – “ford used by oxen”; Dorset – “territory of the settlers around Dorn (Dorchester)”; Cornwall – “territory of Britons of the Cornovii (promontory people)”; Avon – “river”; Gwent – “favoured place”; Warwick – “dwellings by a weir”; Stafford – “ford beside a landing-place”; Cheshire – “county of Chester (Roman “fort”); Manchester – “Roman fort at Mamucium”; Man – “land of Mananan (an Irish God). 148

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Ex. IV “-by” means “dwelling”, “farm”; “-thorpe” means “dwelling”, “farm”; “-thwaite” means “field”, “clearing”. Ex. V Cradle – Old English cradol, of uncertain origin; perhaps related to German Kratte “basket”; perhaps of Celtic origin Curse – Old English, of unknown origin Loch – late Middle English: from Scottish Gaelic “an arm of the sea” Camp – early 16th cent.: from French camp, champ, from Italian campo, from Latin campus “level ground”, specifically applied to the Campus Martius in Rome, used for games, athletic practice, and military drill Linen – Old English līnen (as an adjective in the sense “made of flax”), of West Germanic origin; related to Dutch linnen, German Leinen, also to obsolete line “flax” Gem – Old English gim, from Latin gemma “bud, jewel”; influenced in Middle English by Old French gemme Devil – Old English dēofol (related to Dutch duivel and German Teufel), via late Latin from Greek diabolos “accuser, slanderer” (used in the Septuagint to translate Hebrew śāṭān “Satan”), from diaballein “to slander”, from dia “across” + ballein “to throw” Disciple – Old English, from Latin discipulus “learner”, from discere “learn”; reinforced by Old French deciple Martyr – Old English martir, via ecclesiastical Latin from Greek martur “witness” Mass – from Latin missa – a verbal substantive from the verb mittere “send, send away” Offer – Old English offrian “sacrifice something to a deity”, of Germanic origin, from Latin offerre “bestow, present” (in ecclesiastical Latin “offer to God”), reinforced by French offrir. The noun (late Middle English) is from French offre Alphabet – from Greek alpha, bēta, the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, ultimately from Phoenician “bull” and “house”, respectively Fever – Old English fēfor, from Latin febris; reinforced in Middle English by Old French fievre, also from febris 149

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Giant – Middle English geant (with the first syllable later influenced by Latin gigant-), from Old French, via Latin from Greek gigas, gigantMount – Middle English: from Old French munter, based on Latin mons, mont- “mountain” Polite – late Middle English (in the Latin sense): from Latin politus “polished, made smooth”, past participle of polire Radish – Old English rædic, from Latin radix, radic- “root” Air – Middle English from Old French air, from Latin aer, from Greek aēr, denoting the gas Beast – Middle English: from Old French beste, based on Latin bestia Beauty – Middle English: from Old French beaute, based on Latin bellus “beautiful, fine” Colour – Middle English: from Old French colour (noun), colourer (verb), from Latin color (noun), colorare (verb) Diet – Middle English: from Old French diete (noun), dieter (verb), via Latin from Greek diaita “a way of life” Fest – from German Fest “festival” Flower – Middle English flour, from Old French flour, flor, from Latin flos, flor-. The original spelling was no longer in use by the late 17th cent. except in its specialized sense “ground grain” Journey – Middle English: from Old French jornee “day, a day's travel, a day's work” (the earliest senses in English), based on Latin diurnum “daily portion”, from diurnus Judge – Middle English: from Old French juge (noun), juger (verb), from Latin judex, judic-, from jus “law” + dicere “to say” Oil – Middle English: from Old Northern French olie, Old French oile, from Latin oleum “(olive) oil”; compare with olea “olive” Soil – late Middle English: from Anglo-Norman French, perhaps representing Latin solium “seat”, by association with solum “ground” Tender – Middle English: from Old French tendre, from Latin tener “tender, delicate” Literature – late Middle English (in the sense “knowledge of books”): via French from Latin litteratura, from littera Art- Middle English: via Old French from Latin ars, artMedicine – Middle English: via Old French from Latin medicina, from medicus “physician” 150

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Figure – Middle English (in the senses “distinctive shape of a person or thing”, “representation of something material or immaterial”, and “numerical symbol”, among others): from Old French figure (noun), figurer (verb), from Latin figura “shape, figure, form”; related to fingere “form, contrive” Grammar – late Middle English: from Old French gramaire, via Latin from Greek grammatikē (tekhnē) “(art) of letters”, from gramma, grammat- “letter of the alphabet, thing written” Remedy – Middle English: from Anglo-Norman French remedie, from Latin remedium, from re- “back” (also expressing intensive force) + mederi “heal” Romance – Middle English: from Romance, originally denoting a composition in the vernacular as opposed to works in Latin. Early use denoted vernacular verse on the theme of chivalry; the sense “genre centred on romantic love” dates from the mid 17th century Surgeon – Middle English: from Anglo-Norman French surgien, contraction of Old French serurgien, based on Latin chirurgia, from Greek kheirourgia “handiwork, surgery”, from kheir “hand” + ergon “work” Fragrant – late Middle English: from French, or from Latin fragrant“smelling sweet”, from the verb fragrare Elegance – late 15th cent.: from French, or from Latin elegans, elegant-, related to eligere “choose, select” Baton – early 16th cent. (denoting a staff or cudgel): from French bâton, earlier baston, from late Latin bastum “stick” Accent – late Middle English (in the sense “intonation”): from Latin accentus “tone, signal, or intensity” (from ad- “to” + cantus “song”), translating Greek prosōidia “a song sung to music, intonation” Adverb – late Middle English: from Latin adverbium, from ad- “to” (expressing addition) + verbum “word, verb” Amplitude – mid 16th cent. (in the senses “physical extent” and “grandeur”): from Latin amplitudo, from amplus “large, abundant” Demolish – mid 16th cent.: from French démoliss-, lengthened stem of démolir, from Latin demoliri, from de- (expressing reversal) + moliri “construct” (from moles “mass”) Admire – late 16th cent.: from Latin admirari, from ad- “at” + mirari “wonder” 151

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Avenue – early 17th cent.: from French, feminine past participle of avenir “arrive, approach”, from Latin advenire, from ad- “towards” + venire “come” Balcony – early 17th cent.: from Italian balcone, probably ultimately of Germanic origin Opera – mid 17th cent.: from Italian, from Latin, literally “labour, work”. Ex. VI In slow time; at a fairly brisk speed; in a moderately slow tempo; a medium-length narrative piece of music for voices with instrumental accompaniment, typically with solos, chorus, and orchestra; the concluding passage of a piece or movement, typically forming an addition to the basic structure; a musical composition for a solo instrument or instruments accompanied by an orchestra, especially one conceived on a relatively large scale; a light and entertaining composition, typically one in the form of a suite for chamber orchestra; a method of voice production used by male singers, especially tenors, to sing notes higher than their normal range; a person who organizes and often finances concerts, plays, or operas; at a moderate pace; a large-scale, usually narrative musical work for orchestra and voices, typically on a sacred theme, performed without costume, scenery, or action. Well-known examples include Bach's Christmas Oratorio, Handel's Messiah, and Haydn's The Creation; very soft or softly; in a quiet voice. Ex. VIII Bully – probably from Middle Dutch boele “lover”. Original use was as a term of endearment applied to either sex; it later became a familiar form of address to a male friend. The current sense dates from the late 17th cent. Cookie – early 18th cent.: from Dutch koekje “little cake”, diminutive of koek Kit – from Middle Dutch kitte “wooden vessel” Ogle – late 17th cent.: probably from Low German or Dutch “to look at” Scoop – from Middle Dutch, Middle Low German schōpe “waterwheel bucket”; from a West Germanic base meaning “draw water” 152

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Scuffle – late 16th cent. (as a verb): probably of Scandinavian origin; compare with Swedish skuffa “to push”; related to shove and shuffle Snufle – late 16th cent.: probably from Low German and Dutch snuffelen Track – late 15th cent. (in the sense “trail, marks left behind”): from Low German or Dutch trek “draught, drawing” Albino – early 18th cent.: from Portuguese (originally denoting albinos among African blacks) and Spanish, from albo (from Latin albus “white”) + the suffix -ino Cocoa – mid 16th cent.: via Spanish from Nahuatl cacaua Hacienda – Spanish, from Latin facienda “things to be done”, from facere “make, do” Jerk – early 18th cent.: from Latin American Spanish charquear, from charqui, from Quechua echarqui “dried flesh” Palaver – mid 18th cent. (in the sense “a talk between tribespeople and traders”): from Portuguese palavra “word”, from Latin parabola “comparison” Mantilla – Spanish, diminutive of manta “mantle” Torero – Spanish, from toro “bull”. 4. Word-building Ex. V Milkman - endocentric Blindfold – appositional Straphanger – exocentric Longlegs – exocentric White-collar – exocentric Bullfinch – endocentric Backstage – endocentric Backlog – exocentric Backdrop – endocentric Tadpole – exocentric Pinpoint – endocentric Greenback – exocentric 153

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Tall-boy – exocentric High-brow – exocentric Sweetmeats – endocentric Sweetheart – exocentric Headache – endocentric Backpack – endocentric Ladybird – exocentric Treadmill – exocentric Dough-nut – exocentric Nightmare – endocentric Pigtail – exocentric There are no copulative compounds. Ex. VI Pigeonhole; saltcellar; free-for-all; deadpan; dumbbell; field day; jaywalk; landmark; lounge lizard; naysay; plaything; waylay. Ex. VII 1. c, 2. a, 3. a, 4. b, 5. a, 6. a, 7. a Ex. XVII talk rapidly and continuously in a foolish, excited, or incomprehensible way; talk foolishly or mindlessly; to talk at length; to give a loud shout or cry; talk in a rapid, excited, and often incomprehensible way; talk casually, especially on unimportant matters; to talk with continued involuntary repetition of sounds, especially initial consonants; to make a soft rustling sound, whisper, murmur; to gossip idly; to give or make a long, high-pitched complaining cry or sound; and so on and so forth; to give a sharp, shrill bark; to wash one's mouth and throat with a liquid that is kept in motion by breathing through it with a gurgling sound; make a hollow bubbling sound like that made by water running out of a bottle; howl or wail as an expression of strong emotion, typically grief; move or cause to move suddenly and rapidly; to make a hissing sound when frying or cooking; to breathe with a whistling or rattling sound in the chest, as a result of obstruction in the air passages; move quickly through the 154

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

air with a whistling or whooshing sound; to move slowly making regular muffled explosive sounds, as of an engine running slowly; to cut off a thing or part of a thing with shears or scissors; move with a flapping sound or motion or a light sandal, typically of plastic or rubber, with a thong between the big and second toe. Ex. XVIII The doer of the action: absentee, escapee, retiree, returnee. The remaining words belong to the group “the recipient of the action”. Ex. XX a child’s word for a railway train or locomotive; a child’s word for excrement, used euphemistically in other contexts; a child’s word for an act of urinating (mostly used by little children or their care-takers) an intimate endearment; very small, tiny; very small, tiny; very affectionate or romantic, especially excessively so (used by lovers or people when feeling affection for smth./smb.) waste time through aimless wandering or indecision; nonsensical or insincere talk; mix socially, especially with those of perceived higher social status; to fail to act resolutely or decisively; weak, watery, feeble or insipid in quality or character; a style of piano jazz using a dotted bass pattern, usually with eight notes in a bar and the harmonies of the 12bar blues; inconsequential conversation; a sound like that of quick light steps or taps; a long plank balanced in the middle on a fixed support, on each end of which children sit and swing up and down by pushing the ground alternately with their feet; a portable two-way radio; small worthless objects, especially household ornaments; a confused mixture; a confused mixture; in a confused, rushed or disorderly manner; disreputable or undesirable people; very old-fashioned and pompous; in disorderly haste or confusion; in confusion or disorder; the most important aspects or practical details of a subject or situation; having a round, plump appearance; very good; marvelous; very tiny; whether one likes it or not (as can be seen from the examples, many of the reduplicative words are either endearments or indicate a state of confusion, or a small size). 155

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

5. The Meaning of the Word. Semantic Transference. Metaphor and Metonymy. Euphemisms. Neologisms. Retronyms Ex. II Chronicle, growth, witness, ancestors, street, host, they, sky, chair, table, transferred, renamed, feature, under the guidance, installments, assistance, yuppies, with, blazoned, cryptic, editorial, change, on the wing, flux, scruple, nonce, stunt, the band, customarily, attested, xerographically. Ex. III If you were less impulsive, you would not have made such a snap decision. I don’t like people who crawl to their superiors. He is a very inhibited person, making a speech for him is an insurmountable task. It is obvious that you have taken the wrong decision. Why are being so pig-headed? When the child saw an array of various toys displayed in the shop-window, he threw a tantrum. When we saw the price of the article, we had reservations about buying it. He failed to explain to me properly what I was supposed to do, I was muddled by his vague instructions. The elderly man said he was no longer keen on working out. He has a chip on his shoulder because he is not as assertive as his brother. I feel flustered because of the workload I am facing now. He will split hairs. His colleagues took the mickey out of him because he stumbled over the word several times and was never able to get it the right way. The government is trying to play down the crisis. We are quite comfortable financially. She has a flair for cooking. As he was top of the class, it was a foregone conclusion that he would pass the exam. 156

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Ex. IV 1. b, 2. c, 3. c, 4. d, 5. d, 6. b, 7. a, 8. c, 9. a, 10. b, 11. а. Ex. VI To top up – to make full again when part of it has been used To double up – to bend one’s body quickly or violently, for example because one is laughing a lot or because one is feeling a lot of pain To pep up – to try to make smth. more lively, more interesting or stronger To wrap up – to finish, to end To put down (some animal or pet) – to kill an animal because it is dangerous or seriously ill To pin down – to force smb. to make a decision or to tell you what their decision is, esp. when they have been trying to avoid doing this To go down – to break down (of some device) To pitch in – vigorously join in to help with a task or activity To cut in – to interrupt someone while they are speaking To usher in – if one thing ushers in another thing, it indicates that the other thing is about to begin To jut out – to protrude Count out – if you tell someone to count you out, you mean that you do not want to be included in an activity Lash out (at smb.) – hit or kick out at someone or something; to address someone angrily To draw out – to deliberately make longer Want out – if you want out, you no longer want to be involved in a plan, project, or situation that you are part of Switch around – to exchange Potter around – to do pleasant but unimportant things Skirt around – to evade To shake off – to manage to get away from smb., for example by running faster than them To work off – to get rid of some unpleasant feeling or emotion by doing something that requires a lot of physical effort To cut off – to stop providing smth. 157

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Cordon off – to prevent people from entering or leaving some area, usually by forming a line or ring Round off – to end some activity by doing something that provides a clear or satisfactory conclusion to it Switch off – to stop smth. working by operating a switch; to cease to pay attention. Ex. VII 1. In, off, 2. out, 3. through, away, 4. out, 5. down, 6. up, 7. over, 8. out, 9. over, 10. Over. Ex. X As special cases of metonymy (synecdoche) can be regarded the expressions “the cheek to ask for smth.” and “to hate smb.’s guts”. Ex. XI To neutralize – to kill, pro-life – anti-abortion, pro-choice – pro abortion, john – toilet, correction officer – prison guard, adult bookstore – a pornographic bookstore, grass – marijuana, lived-in – untidy, road apples – horse manure, the C-word – cancer, to but the farm – to die, sanitation engineers – garbage collectors, middlescence – elderly, senior moment – a lapse of memory, halitosis – bad breath. Ex. XIII Analog computer, analog watch, bar soap, black-and-white television, cloth diapers, corded drill, desktop computer, film camera, fountain pen, hard-cover book, horse polo, human-readable, human translation, impact printer, manual transmission, natural blonde, natural language, network television, optical microscope, optical telescope, print book, print journalist, propeller plane, rotary phone, shell egg, snow skiing, two-parent family, walk-in theatre, whole milk. Ex. XV the semi-affix “-head” has the general meaning of “a stupid person” or “one who is addicted to the substance indicated by the first component of the word”. The semi-affix “-buster” has the meaning of “a killer”, “a 158

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

fighter”, “one who undermines the activity indicated by the first component of the word”. 6. Synonyms. Antonyms. Paronyms. Hyperonyms and Hyponyms. Meronyms Ex. I 1. Infamous, disreputable; 2. Insensitive, callous; 3. Unfaithful, treacherous; 4. Improper, unsuitable; 5. Distrustful, suspicious; 6. Immoral, depraved; 7. Unsafe, dangerous; 8. Unwise, stupid (shallow); 9. Non-standard, unconventional; 10. Non-profitable, charitable; 11. Discontinuous, intermittent; 12. Unclear, vague; 13. Immaterial, unimportant. Ex. III remain; standing; permission; visiting; courtesies; superior; wander. contribution; shipwrecked; encounters; well-known; entered. input; development; learn; figure out; tend. Ex. V Gradable: light – dark; clever – stupid; early – late; pure – contaminated; Contradictory: to move – to stand; to leave – to arrive; Converse antonyms: to go – to come; a teacher – a pupil. Ex. VI 1. Forceps (or pincers), 2. women’s underwear, 3. door garments (outerwear), 4. Parts of clothes, 5. Patterns of fabric, 6. Football players. 159

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Ex. VII 1. Slide (the rest are devices characterized by a swaying motion), 2. Scaffolding (the rest are tools), 3. Sea horse (the rest are types of fish), 4. Rickets (the rest are types of minor injury), 5. Paper clips (the rest are in the singular), 6. Chestnuts (the rest are types of nuts). Ex. VIII A bale of turtles A bevy of quail A drove of oxen Exaltation of larks A parliament of owls A pride of tigers 7. Phraseology Ex. II 1. He that would eat the fruit must climb the tree. 2. Honesty is the best policy. 3. Hope is a good breakfast but a bad supper. 4. If you throw mud enough, some of it will stick. 5. It is a silly fish that is caught twice with the same bait. 6. A lazy sheep thinks its wool heavy. 7. A heavy purse makes a light heart. Ex. V 1. wings, 2. perform, 3. lion, 4. between, 5. tools, 6. herself, 7. sea 8. thanks, 9. roast, 10. lenders, 11. catches, 12. green, 13. nice, 14. oaks, 15. love, 16. candlestick. Ex. VI 1. I can smell a rat (to smell a rat is to start to believe that something is wrong about a situation, especially that someone is being dishonest) 2. I have cold feet (to have cold feet is to have a feeling of worry about something that is strong enough to make you reconsider your plan) 160

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

3. The land of nod (to go to the land of nod is to go to bed or to fall asleep) 4. I am full of beans (to be full of beans is to have a lot of energy and enthusiasm) 5. They fell off the back of a lorry (goods that fall off the back of a lorry are stolen goods) 6. He led me up the garden path (to lead smb. up the garden path is to mislead or to deceive them) 7. I (got) stuck in a rut (to get stuck in a rut is to live a boring lifestyle that never changes) 8. The man hit the ceiling (to hit the ceiling is to become very angry and to fly into a rage) 9. She tied a granny’s knot (to tie a granny’s knot is to tie a very bad, insecure knot that it not likely to hold two pieces together). Ex. VIII To be taken to task (to be reprimanded); against the grain (the wrong way); to lay it on thick (to flatter); to be like putty in smb.’s hands (to control smb. completely); run of the mill (average, middle of the road); to shoot the messenger (not to welcome bad news); bread and circuses (visual, sensual entertainment); the dog ate my homework (a childish excuse for not having your work done); to have the Midas touch (to be lucky, to bring profit); What’s the damage? (How much does it cost?); to keep smb. posted (to keep smb. informed); sinking feeling (a feeling caused by anxiety or apprehension); armed to the teeth (fully prepared); to have a chip on one’s shoulder (to bear a grudge, to be resentful); to pick up the gauntlet (to accept a challenge); to pass muster (to pass inspection); a shot in the dark (a wild guess); son of a gun (a rogue or rascal); flotsam and jetsam (odds and ends); to leave no stone unturned (to explore every possible way); a jaundiced eye (a prejudiced view, a critical or resentful manner); to be on the same wavelength (to understand smb. completely); the acid test (the ultimate proof of smth.); a sight for sore eyes (a person or thing that one is pleased or relieved to see); to keep one’s nose clean (trying to stay out of trouble by not getting involved in any sort of wrongdoing). 161

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Ex. IX 1. (to open) a can of worms 2. to keep the wolf from the door 3. to steal smb.’s thunder 4. a kangaroo court 5. cat’s paw 6. to toe the line 7. to bark up the wrong tree 8. when will pigs fly 9. to overegg the pudding 10. birds of a feather 11. to split hairs 12. an elephant in the room 13. an old chestnut 14. to lick into shape 15. making tea with your navel. Ex. XI 1. one cannot speak because of shyness or embarrassment 2. to have little room 3. there is more than one way of doing smth. 4. to become very angry 5. until very late, for a long time 6. everybody has a chance to succeed 7. to be in disgrace or in trouble 8. to dress or entertain in a luxurious and extravagant manner 9. to leave for some unmentioned purpose (often to go to the washroom) 10. a situation where a small part of something controls the whole thing 11. on foot 12. to begin to be humble and agreeable 13. to do things in the wrong order 14. to make someone look foolish said when someone copies something that someone else does a serious problem that stops someone from being successful at something very funny. 162

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Ex. XIII American dream: the ideals of freedom, equality and opportunity traditionally held to be obtainable to every American; a life of personal happiness and material comfort as traditionally sought by individuals in the US Lord of the flies: another name for Beelzebub Ants in the pants: to have ants in one’s pants is to be agitated and excited about smth. and not to be able to keep still Cakes and ale: the good things of life, worldly pleasures Blackboard jungle: the way of life and activities connected with schools, especially when considered as difficult and confusing Cat on a hot tin roof: to be like a cat on a hot tin roof is to be in a state of extreme nervous worry On dangerous ground: in a situation that might cause problems, especially if people disagree strongly about it Seventh heaven: to be on seventh heaven is to be very happy The Seventh Seal: the expression is taken from the Revelation of St. John, referring to God's book of secrets sealed by seven seals, the belief being that it is only after breaking the seventh seal that the secret of life will be revealed Time out of joint: in an unfavourable state, at an inauspicious moment Salad days: a time of youth, innocence and inexperience Mortal coil: the troubles of daily life and the strife and suffering of the world The asphalt jungle: a large city or an urban or inner-city area, especially when characterized as congested and crime-ridden. Ex. XIV 1. to smash/blow smth. to smithereens: the word is traced to Irish “smidirín”, which means “fragment”. 2. spick and span new: A spick is an obsolescent word meaning “nail”, “span” is an obsolescent word meaning “chip”. Originally the expression was used adjectivally in combination with the word “ship”. 3. to run amok (amuck): “Amok” or “amuck” is the Malay word “amoq” meaning “furious assault”. 163

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

4. sac and soc: “Sac” is Old English sacu “strife”, “contention”, “litigation”, and “soc” is Old English soc “inquiry”, “investigation”, “jurisdiction”. 5. of that ilk: “ilk” is Old English “ilca” meaning “same family”, “same kind”. Ex. XV bowels of mercy to break the mould to butter one’s bread on both sides canned laughter to hang in the balance to hang out one’s shingle to kiss the rod. Ex. XVI 1. In the kingdom of the blind 2. One man’s meat 3. The shoemaker’s son 4. All are not merry 5. Anger and haste 6. Between the cup and the lip 7. By doing nothing 8. Calamity 9. Every mother 10. First deserve 11. Fool 12. Friends 13. A wonder lasts nine days. 8. Some Regional Varieties of English Ex. I allowance; aluminum; hair-pin; bureau; carryall; cotton candy; diaper; dormitory; draft; drapes; French fries; intermission; squash; nail polish; 164

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

zero, nothing; shopping cart; sneakers; tick-tack-toe; pantyhose; scotch; lawyer; saltshaker; license plate; sidewalk. Ex. II 1. an American; 2. a Briton; 3. an American; 4. an American; 5. an American; 6. a Briton; 7. an American; 8. an American. Ex. III Alimony; arbitrator; arrest; blackmail; arson; manslaughter; defendant. Ex. IV a) You’ll knock a while out of it – It will last you for a while; He’d put the day astray on you – He would waste your day; He is the rest of myself – He is related to me b) As often as fingers and toes; as mean as get out; as fat in the forehead as a hen; as sharp a tongue as would shave the mouse. Ex. V South African English Words Words used in British and American English: Anteater Aardvark

Meaning

Apartheid

(in South Africa) the official government policy of racial segregation; officially renounced in 1992

Eland

a large spiral-horned antelope

Trek

a long and often difficult journey

Veld

elevated open grassland in Southern Africa

Words Restricted to South African English: Basin, container Bakkie Kloof

Ravine or mountain pass

165

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

South African English Words Lekker

Meaning Nice, enjoyable

Platteland

Area outside cities and main towns

Verkrampter

Conservative, narrow-minded

voorkamer

Front room

Words from African Languages that Have Entered South African English: Gogga

Insect

Indaba

Matter of concern or for discussion

Muti

Medicine

Sangoma Tsotsi

Witch doctor Violent young criminal

Words form English that are Peculiar to South Africa: Bioscope

Cinema

Bottle store

Off-license

Camp

Paddock

Robot

Traffic lights

Matchbox

Small standardized dwelling

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Учебное издание

Лаврова Наталия Александровна A Coursebook on English Lexicology Английская лексикология Учебное пособие

Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

Подписано в печать 28.02.2017. Электронное издание для распространения через Интернет. ООО «ФЛИНТА», 117342, г. Москва, ул. Бутлерова, д. 17-Б, комн. 324. Тел./факс: (495) 334-82-65; тел. (495) 336-03-11. E-mail: [email protected]; WebSite: www.flinta.ru