A Concise Old Irish Grammar and Reader. Part 1. Grammar

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A CONCISE OLD IRISH GRAMMAR AND READER BY

JULIUS POKORNY,

PART

I:

Ph.D., LL.D. (Vienna)

GRAMMAR

HALLE a. S. MAX NIEMEYER DUBLIN HODGES, FIGGIS AND 1914

§, CO.,

LTD.

f

%tf

A CONCISE OLD IRISH

GRAMMAR AND READER BY

JULIUS POKORNY,

PART

I:

Ph.D., LL.D. (Vienna)

GRAMMAR

HALLE a. S. MAX NIEMEYER DUBLIN HODGES, FIGGIS AND 1914

CO.,

LTD.

ERNST WINDISCH ZUM

SIEBZIGSTEN GEBURTSTAGE

CONTENTS

....... ..... ....... .......

Preface

List of Abbreviations

.

(The numbers refer

A. B.

ORTHOGRAPHY PHONOLOGY

Sounds Aspiration

.

Eclipsis

.

.

.

.

.

to the

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

...... ........ ...

Syllables Stress

Working of the Accent in Stressed Syllables Working of the'Accent in Enclitic Syllables

.

Shortening of Long Vowels, 56. unstressed non-final Vowels, 57-58.

Syncope, 55.

Development

of

3

1

2-131 2-4

.5-19

.... .

Consonants Doubling of Consonants Quality Glide-Vowels Old Final Syllables Influence of Lost Vowels in Final Syllables on the Preceding Consonants Development of Secondary Vowels after the Loss of Final of Initial

1

„

paragraphs.)

.

.

page

20-33

34 35 36-41

42-46 47-49

5a 51-53

54

55-58(-76)

.

Quality of

Secondary Vowels in Syncopated Syllables

.

59

Quality of Final Consonants preceded by an Epenthetic

60

Vowel Bounded Quality

Consonants in Enclitic Syllables of Consonants in Enclitic Syllables Depalatalisation Quality of Consonants in Syncopated Syllables, which of

.

.

developed an Epenthetic Vowel before them Voicing of Spirants in Unstressed Syllables

Unvoicing of Final Aspirated g De-aspiration of Final Consonants

.

.

61-64

.

65

have .

.... .

.

.

.

.

.

66-71

72-74

75

76

A CONCISE OLD IRISH GRAMMAR

vi

Working of

Changes

in

77-83

the Accent in Proclitic Syllables

84-88

Consonant-Groups resulting from Syncope

De-aspiration, 84. Voicing of Consonants, 85. Unvoicing Influence of of Consonants, 86. Assimilation, 87. aspirated

s,

88.

Unvoicing of Initial Aspirated Double Consonants

89 90

b

of Old Consonants

.... ....

Genealogical History not resulting

Sonants

and Consonant-Group. 91-104

from Syncope

105-106

107-109

Compensatory Lengthening of Vowels Haplology Semi- Vowels Vowels and Diphthongs

110 111-112

.

113-124

Vowels, 113-117. Long Vowels, 118-120. Short Diphthongs, 121-122. Long Diphthongs, 123-124.

Short

125-126

Vowel-Contraction /.

C.

E. Voicel-Gradation

...... ....... ...... ....... ......

ACCIDENCE

The Definite Article The Noun The Adjective

.

Declension, 149-153.

.

.

Comparison, 154.

Pronouns,

Infixed

158.

133-148 149-155

Adverbs, 155.

Numerals Pronouns and Adjectives connected therewith Personal Pronouns Independent

132-212

.132

.

.

127-131

.

Pronouns,

.

156-157 158-172

158-160

159.

Suffixed Pronouns, 160.

Possessive Pronouns and Adjectives

.

Interrogative Pronouns and Adjectives Interrogative Particles Relative Pronouns .

.

.

.

.

Emphatic Particles Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives Definitive Pronouns and Adjectives Indefinitivc Pronouns and Adjectives .

.

.

.

.

.

161-162

.

.

.

163-164

.

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.165 .166 .167 168 .169 .

.

170-171

CONTENTS

vii

.......

Adverbs of Place The Verb General remarks

Preverbal particles

On

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

the Formation of the

Moods and Tenses

...

.

172 173-210 173 174 175-181

Hiatus verbs, 181.

Use

..... ..... ..... .......

of the Subjunctive Mood of Weak Verbs

Paradigm

.

.

.

.

.

182 183-202

scaraimm, Ucimm, suidigur.

Paradigm

of Radical

melid

Verbs

guidid, 205.

canid, 204. {berid), 203. gainithir, 207.

203-207

renaid, 20C.

The Substantive Verb The Copula

Miscellaneous Paradigms of Radical and Irregular Verbs

.

208 209 210

ad-ci, ad-fet, aingid, benaid, berid, bongid, con-ice, -cuirethar,

do-beir, do-gni, do-icc, do-te(i)t, do-tuit, fo-ceird, fo-gaib,

midithir, ro-cluinethar, ro-fitir, saigid,

The Preposition

.

.

.

Preverbal and Simple Prepositions, 211. positions, 212.

.

text,

tongid.

.211-212

.

Compound

Pre-

PREFACE This little book has been written in order to serve as an easy introduction to the scientific study of Old Irish. There is need for such a book for the Manuals of Strachan and Thurneysen, ;

excellent as they are, are not very well suited for beginners. Though the Old Irish literary remains that have been preserved in contemporary MSS. consist almost exclusively of

Glosses and Scholia, a great number of fine stories and poems, going back to Old Irish times, have been preserved in later MSS., often corrupt and modernised by the mediaeval scribes, but not so much changed that it would not be possible to restore the original text with some certainty. In the Reader I have endeavoured to give representative examples of the chief literary subjects saga, religion, law both in prose and poetry and some also of the more interest-

—

:

—

ing glosses. The critical Old Irish texts are accompanied by notes with constant references to the respective paragraphs of the grammar. For the use of beginners who have not the

full

a short text with a copious and has been included. commentary The grammar is built up in accordance with the strictest scientific principles, though with regard to the arrangement of the paragraphs the practical point of view has been considered in the first instance. It is quite evident that this part especially of the assistance

of a

teacher,

elaborate

book must be deeply indebted to the grammars of Thurneysen and Pedersen. Strachan's publications also have been of great value to me, and some rules have been literally taken over from his Selections from the Old Irish Glosses. But that A

OLD IRISH GRAMMAR AND READER

2

is no mere extract from the works of my predeand that I have made my own way, where necessary, become apparent in considering e.g. the chapter on the

my grammar cessors will

problems of palatalisation. wish to state here my deep indebtedness to the kindness

difficult

I

of Professor

Kuno Meyer, who kindly

me

most

in the

liberal

read the proofs and assisted

way by frequent

gifts

of books

and

pamphlets.

But

my

chief thanks

are due

to

the

'

Gesellschaft fur

Forderung deutscher Wissenschaft, Kunst und Literatur in Bohmen,' whose most generous financial assistance enabled me to revisit Ireland and Wales in order to complete my dialectal studies and to collect new material for further publications.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS = accusative. act. = active. = adjective. adj. adv. = adverb. arch. = archaic. art. = article. cf = compare. compar. = comparative. = conjunction. conj. = compound. cpd. dat. = dative. = deponent. dep. der. — derived. = for instance. e.g. encl. = enclitic. f. = feminine. Fel. = Felire Oengusso

Lith.

ace.

Mod.

= future. = genitive. = gloss or glosses. gl. Got. = Gothic. i.e. = that is. I.E. = Indo-European. = imperfect. impf. ind. = indicative. inf. = infinitive. infix. = infixed. = imperative. ipv. Lat. = Latin. = read. leg. lit. = literally.

fut.

gen.

I.

= Modern

cent.).

Irish.

= neuter. = negative. nom. = nominative. 0. C. = Old Celtic. 0. Ir. = Old Irish. = page. p. = participle. part. = participle of necessity. part. nee. = passive. pass. = perfect. perf. = plural. pi. = possessive. poss. Pr. Ir. = Prehistoric Irish (5th cent.). = preposition. prep. = present. pres. = proclitic. procl. = pronoun. pron. rel. = relative. s. = see. sec. = secondary. = St. Gall Glosses (middle of 9th Sg.

n.

neg.

.

century). fr. = from.

= Lithuanian.

m. = masculine. Mid. I. = Middle Irish. Ml. = Milan Glosses (early 9th

(early

9th

"century

;

from other partly copied

sources).

= singular. = Sanskrit. st. = stem.

sg.

Skr.

subj.= subjunctive. suff.

= suffixed.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS = Turin glosses (early 9th verb = verbal.

Tur.

= Wurzburg glosses (2nd half of 8th century). / e.g. b6 is used as mark of length in Old Irish words. (Written over "Wb.

I.E.

consonants

it

e.g.

dobcir

word which

denotes palatal

e.g.

-tabair signifies that a proclitic

preverb (§ 53, note 2), has been left out before the respective verbal form. *

e.g.

*viros denotes reconstructed or

postulated forms.

quality.)

\

the

e.g.

= vocative.

voc.

arn indicates that

eclipses a following consonant is capable of eclipse.

1

cent.).

denotes

the

accented

>

= I.E.

sh'iva (see p.

45 footnote.)

syllable.

less

[Only the chief rules and exceptions are given in the following grammar important matter will be discussed in the notes.]

;

A— ORTHOGRAPHY As the orthography varies at different periods, most of § 1. the orthographical peculiarities will be explained in the notes to the respective texts. Here I shall only remark that In the interior of a word, or in final position, the voiced stops g are represented by p, t, c (or bb, del, gg) regularly after vowels and occasionally after consonants 1.

b, d,

:

'

e.g. 2.

epir

say,'

art (also ardd, ard)

The voiced stop g, e.g. moircc (Wb)

if '

preceded by

woe

r or

'

high/ ecen

I,

'

necessity.'

appears sometimes as

cc

:

' !

3. The voiced stop g (sporadically also 6, d) resulting from the assimilation of a consonant group may be written cc (also pp, tt) after a vowel, but mostly only in intervocalic position. = con-ad-gab) 'he kept/ appriscc ( = ade.g. condc(c)ab ( '

brisc) brittle.' 4. The voiceless stop c is often represented by cc, vowels, but occasionally also after consonants.

by

Also the voiceless stop this doubling tt, but

t

is

in analogous positions

much

less

common.

mostly after

may be

represented

The doubling

of

p

occurs only sporadically. e.g.

-died '

(I.E.

*ad-k v is-et)

'

he

sees,'

airdircc (*pre-derfci-)

conspicuous,' attach (*ad-tekom)

'

praying,' corpp

(fr.

'

body.' For the explanation of these orthographical peculiarities, Note. It cannot be doubted, however, that double see § 90. consonants are often written on]y in order to show that Lat.)

—

the respective consonant was not aspirated 5.

Words beginning with

(§ 5).

a vowel take often a (merely graphic)

h before them. '

e.g. (h)umae (fr. *omijo-) brass.' It is doubtful whether such a h can

have represented

some

in

instances an actual pronunciation. e.g.

in (h)uisse

(fr. *justijo-)

'fitting,' or (h)il (fr. *pelu)

'much.' 5

A CONCISE OLD

IEISH

GRAMMAR

B.-PHONOLOGY §

2 Phonetic Table of Irish Consonants

For the Name

different

qualities

of

the

consonants, and the difference beDentals,

.

tween aspirated and unaspirated n,

35.

I,

r,

see §§ 7,

PHONOLOGY

7

§ 6. Forms ending formerly in a vowel aspirate the consonant of a closely connected following word.

initial

§ 7. The stops b, d, g,p, t, c, when aspirated, are converted into the corresponding spirants becomes a voiced nasal spirant s is converted into a voiceless breathing h (if s goes back to an old sv or sp, its aspirated form is /, e.g. siur sister fr. *svesor, but mofiur my sister.') aspirated / is silent, and consecjuently ;

m

;

'

'

'

;

sometimes omitted in writing; aspirated I, n, r have a much less intensive articulation than the corresponding unaspirated sounds. § 8.

Only in the case of

in writing

(ch,

ph, th)

;

c, p, t is aspiration regularly expressed in later O. Ir. the aspiration of / and

marked by putting a dot over them

b, d, g, m, I, (s, /) the or the represent aspirated unaspirated sounds. But while the aspirated sounds cannot be doubled in writing, this is done frequently with the unaspirated sounds; mostly after vowels, but sometimes also after consonants. See § 90, § 34 and § 1 note.

s is

n, r

On

the doubling of initial unaspirated consonants, see § 34.

Principal Rules for Syntactical Aspiration. § 9.

The

and

m., in

(Cf. § 6.)

and the adjectives each, nach, alaile, indala, aspirate a noun in the nom. sg. f. and nom. the dat. sg. of all genders, and in the gen. sg. m.

uile, cetnae, pi.

;

may

article,

inonn

n. e.g.

do-n chorp 'to the body.'

§ 10. An adjective or a dependent genitive, when closely connected with the foregoing word, is very often aspirated, if the preceding noun is (a) a dat. sg. (of all genders.)

a nom. sg. f., or voc. sg. of all genders. a (c) gen. sg. of a masc. or n. o or jo stem, or a nom. masc. o or jo stem. (6)

(d)

nom. or

voc. pi. n.

pi.

of a

A CONCISE OLD IRISH GRAMMAR

8

'

ho thoil cholno as to the desire of the flesh (a) tol cholnide carnal desire (6) ind folaid chitnai of the same substance (c). '

e.g.

;

'

'

'

;

'

After the poss. pron. m(o), do, t\ a (m. and n.), the infixed 2 sg. and 3 sg. n., si she,' the neuters alaill and the interrogative pronouns ced, cid (§ 22, Exc. d.), ci-si aspiration § 11.

'

and

pron. 1

takes place.

a

e.g.

'

ehenel

am

pre-

no and fa

(6a),

'

his tribe,'

for-dom-chomaither

I

served.'

the § 12. The voc. particle a, and the prepositions amal, ar, {iia), 6s (lias), tre (tri)

conj. ocas (acus),

im(m), is, 6 of immediately follow-

cen, di, do, fiad, fo,

aspirate the initial

ing nouns. e.g. fo chosmuilius

' .

.

.

after the fashion

After the nom. ace. gen. dual m. and

§ 13.

f.

of

.

.

.

aspiration takes

place. '

di chetbuid

e.g.

two

senses.'

The conjunctions rna, cia (ce), co, 6, and the negatives § 14. nicon, nacon aspirate the initials of the following verbs, e.g. 6 chretsit since they have believed.' '

§ 15.

found after some forms of the copula, and after relative forms always nech bed char(a)e any one that was a friend.'

Aspiration

e.g.

is

after the imperative

:

'

§ 16.

— place

In the interior of nominal compounds aspiration takes

:

(a) after nouns, adjectives,

and numerals.

'

a good testimony.' (6) after the prefixes so- (su-) do- (du)-, mi-, neb- (neph-). e.g. ml-thoimtiu a false opinion.' e.g.

dag-theist

y

'

(c)

after prepositions ending originally in a vowel; also after other prepositions.

e.g.

§ 17.

airchenn

v

(fr.

'

*pre-k engnom)

In compound verbs

all

later

head, end.'

preverbal prepositions, the nega-

PHONOLOGY

9

tive nad and the particles no-, ro- (if no infixed pronoun follows) aspirate the initial of the following syllable, if the verb is used relatively (§ 159, b m.).

inti for-chain 'he

e.g.

'

chairigur

it is

this

that teaches,

which

I

is

lied

inso

no-

reprimand.'

When

the relative form expresses an accusative relation, either eclipsis or aspiration may take place, that is what thou desirest,' or is ed e.g. is ed ad-chobrai-siu

Exception

a.

'

ad-cobrai-siu (with eclipsed

c, i.e.

g).

not aspirated after na and

Exception

b.

The copula

Exception

c.

After nad eclipsis takes place in the cases mentioned

is

ro-.

in § 28.

and § 18. In compound verbs aspiration takes place after rothe other preverbal prepositions originally ending in a vowel, when they are stressed (later also after other prepositions, e.g. com-, etar-, for-, etc.) e.g. ni im-thesid (fr. *mbhi-{s)teigh-s-ete) ye should not '

walk.'

Syntactical Aspiration does not take place § 19.

ends in e.g.

word beginning with

(a) in a n, or

I,

d,

t

if

the preceding word

s.

cen tossach

'

without beginning.'

(b) In a word beginning with a stop or spirant, ing word ends in a homorganic consonant, e.g. each cloine every iniquity (cf. § 9.) bad treuin be ye strenuous (cf. § 15.)

— — The

the preced-

'

'

'

'

Note Note

if

sometimes aspirated and sometimes not. the adjective each (cech), the emphasising pronouns -sa, -se, -su, etc., and the affixed demonstrative parhence ') and ticles so, sin (except after prepositions, e.g. di-sin the possessive pronoun mo are never aspirated. = tiagu-sa) 'I go' (cf. § 8), ind libuirse 'of e.g. tiagussa ( 1.

2.

Initial

p

is

initials of

'

this book.'

A CONCISE OLD IRISH GRAMMAR

10

Eclipsis

Words ending

originally in -n may eclipse the initial consonant of a closely connected following word. (Cf. § 22, note 2.) § 20.

When eclipsed the voiceless stops c, t, p are g changed into mb, nd, ng (pronounced comes a voiced spirant v (written b) s, r, I, n, § 21.

b, d,

m

become m, n, seem

rj)

voiced, ;

/

be-

remain 34 them. while vowels an nbefore take (cf. note), unchanged § It is only in the case of b, d, g and of initial vowels that eclipsis ;

to

regularly expressed in writing.

is

Rules for Eclipsis § 22. Eclipsis takes place after the gen. pi. and ace. sg. of all genders and the nom. and ace. sg. neuter of all declinable

words. e.g.

nert n-irisse 'strength of till the end of the year.'

cenn m-bliadnae

faith,' co

1

Exception a. If the word following the eclipsing form is a dependent genitive or a preposition with suffixed personal pronoun, eclipsis may take place or not. e.g. Ida m-bratha or Ida brdtha day of doom.' '

Exception b. Unstressed words (§ 51) or syllables (§ 53, 3) cannot be eclipsed as a rule, though in later O. I. proclitic words are occasionally eclipsed. e.g. torbae do neuch (not

'

:

torbae n-do) a profit for any one.'

Exception c. As n may be thrown out between certain consonants 1 eclipsis is often given up when the eclipsing n (m) would stand between two consonants. e.g.

nach dichlith

(or

nach n-dichlith)

'

any concealment

'

(ace).

Exception d. The neuters aill), na any (probably also '

*

1

e.g.

m

l

another

'

anything

')

'

(probably also

ced, cid

'

what

'

?

'promise,' scrib(n)did scribe' also other consonants may be forgaire or forng aire instead of *forcngaire (=for-con-gaire)

e.g. tair(n)gire

thrown out * command.'

alaill

'

;

PHONOLOGY

11

(probably also ed it '), and the infixed neuter personal pronoun of the 3 sg. do not cause eclipsis (cf. § 11). *

na galar any '

e.g.

Note

sickness.'

— The

nominal prepositions dbchim 'to,' i n-degaid, place of,' which cause eclipsis, are likewise subject to the exceptions a, b and c. Note 2. Eclipsis takes place after the nominative and accusative singular neuter, even if the form did not originally end 1.

and

'after'

tar-esi 'in

in -n. e.g. bir

The numeral

§ 23.

and ('

se in

their

n-umai

')

(fr. i.e.

v *g eru omijl) 'a spit of brass.'

adjectives secht, ocht, noi, deich (also coic

the genitive case), the possessive pronouns ar, far, a and the interrogative particle in cause eclipsis.

Eclipsis takes place after the neuter dual forms all genders of the numeral 2.

§ 24.

and the

dative dual of e.g. i

n-dib n-uarib deac 'in twelve hours.'

takes place after the conjunctions a when,' ara in order that,' co, con so that diet if,' 6 (ua) since and the prepositions co (' with '), i, iar, re (ria). On dochum, i n-degaid, '

§ 25. Eclipsis

'

'

'

tar-esi, see § 22, § 26.

note

'

'

'

1.

The

relative particle (s)a causes eclipsis. e.g. tressa m-bi bethu through which is '

life.'

27. Eclipsis takes place regularly after the infixed personal pronoun of the 3 sg. masc. and often after the infixed personal §

pronoun e.g.

s

of the 3 sg. fern, and 3 plur. 'he entrusts himself;

cot-n-erba

no-s-m-bered 'he

carried them.' 1 verbs the negative na, nad, § 28. In compound relative the preverbal prepositions and the particles ro-, no- (if no infixed pronoun follows) eclipse the initial of the following syllable under the following conditions a. If the relative form expresses an accusative relation, e.g. in nuall do-n-gni the shout which he makes.' :

'

See also

§ 17,

exception

a.

1

In the cases mentioned below under b (but not after adjectives), verb is not necessarily relative, and hence eclipsis is not obligatory.

c, e,

f,

g,

tho

A CONCISE OLD

12 b.

IRISH

GRAMMAR

After adverbs and adjectives of manner. maith do-m-beir 'it is well that he gives.' After substantives with the force of an oblique case of the

e.g. is c.

relative.

he was

laithe ro-n-genair the day on which d. In the so-called etymological figure. '

e.g.

e.g.

legend ro-llegusa

have e.

(

= ro-n-legus-sa)

'

born.'

the reading which I

5

read.

After certain nominal and pronominal conjunctions: ama(i)l, a (' when ') ore (liare), fo biih, deg.

cein, cene, inta(i)n, lasse, f.

In reported speech, as-beir nad-n-iba he says that he will not drink.' With a dependent subjunctive. na-n-da-tiberad dice unfaith, that God would e.g. amaires not give it.' After ol than and because.' because he searches out.' e.g. ol as-n-gleinn '

e.g.

g.

'

h.

'

'

'

'

In relative verbs which contain an infixed pronoun the eclipsing n is inserted immediately before the d of the pronoun, § 29.

e.g.

§ 30.

amal as-i-n-d-biur

sa (not *as-n-id-)

In simple relative verbs

same conditions

as in

compound

'

as I say

eclipsis takes place

it.'

under the

relative verbs (§ 28)

though a what eclipsis is regular. amal n-guidess as he prays,' is maith n-dsas it is well that it grows,' i.e. it grows well.'

not regularly.

Only

'

'

after

'

e.g.

'

'

Note.

— Absolute

copula forms are

not eclipsed but

cause

eclipsis of a following stressed word, * as long as he is alive.' e.g. c6in has m-bdo

§ 31.

In interrogative sentences absolute copula forms some-

times cause e.g. cit

A

eclipsis.

n-e

who

'

n

are they

'

?

found in nechtar n-ai either of them,' cechtar n-ai every one of them,' indala n-ai one of them,' and cechtar n-athar both of us.' § 32.

petrified '

'

is

'

'

PHONOLOGY

13

§ 33. The eclipsing n may be omitted in writing word begins with a (merely graphic) h (cf. § 1, 5.) e.g.

dochum

hirisse (or

dochum

'

unto

n-irisse)

if

the next

faith.'

Doubling of Initial Consonants § 34. As proclitic words are often written together with the following stressed word, the initial consonant of this word may be treated orthographically like a consonant in the interior of a word. Thus if the preceding proclitic word (ending in a vowel) does not cause aspiration (e.g. the prepositions a, co, fri, la, the neuter na 'any' etc.) the initial consonant may be doubled (§ 8), and the voiced stops b, d, g may be written p, t, c, etc. (§!)•

tiagussa ( = tiagu-sa) I go,' bacalar was sickness collda to the day '

e.g.

'

'

'

;

forms in

Wb. 5b

(

= ba

= co (

'

galar) it Ida both ;

4).

The same explanation holds good in the case of verbal compounds, where such doubling is found after the pretonic preverbal prepositions, after to-, no- and the negative particles ni, na, coni, cona, etc., provided the verb is not relative. e.g. nitenat (=ni denat) 'they do not do,' dommuinetar (

= do-muinetar)

'they believe.'

Perhaps this doubling is not in every case merely orthographical. Spontaneous doubling of initial consonants occurs also in Italian.

In the genitive of the article, the fern, possessive pronoun a and other words ending originally in -s, the aspirated final s = h) may have been assimilated to the following consonant. ( Note. The doubling of s, r, n, m after eclipsing pretonic

—

I,

words could be also explained by assuming assimilation to the eclipsing n.

On § 35.

the Quality of Consonants

Every consonant may be pronounced

in three different

ways. may possess a palatal (i) quality, a broad or neutral (a) quality, or a rounded (o and u) quality according to the point of contact of the tongue with the palate and the position It

A CONCISE OLD IRISH GRAMMAR

14

of the lips. A palatal consonant is followed by consonant by a, and a rounded one by o or u.

e or

i,

a broad

Glide-Vowels a palatal consonant at the end of a word or of a § 36. Before the diphthongs tie ai, 6e oi, ui) syllable (except after i, i, and

a glide-vowel e.g.

regularly inserted. toim-tiu sea (fr. *mori),

i is

muir

'

'

'

'

opinion

*to-

(fr.

mentjo). § 37.

a new

Before a vowel-flanked palatal consonant, which begins an i glide is likewise often inserted, though not

syllable,

regularly. e.g.

fla-thi or flai-thi

'

'

princes

(fr.

*vhtejes).

an u coloured consonant at the end of a word or | 38. Before of a syllable after short a, e, i, an u glide is regularly inserted ; only here and there an u glide appears also before a vowelflanked u coloured consonant.

'men

'

(ace. pi.). e.g.fiuss 'knowledge (fr. *vid-tus),firu There is a strong tendency in final consonants to give Note. up their u quality in favour of the more neutral a colour

—

(cf. §

§ 39.

No

Instead of -euch appears often

49).

glide- vowel

is

-eoch.

inserted before (originally) a or o

coloured consonants. '

e.g.

fer

man

Final § 40.

a,

*

'

(fr. o,

u

vivos).

preceded

by palatal consonants

are

regularly written -ea, -eo, -iu, sometimes only -a, -o, -a, if the is already indicated palatal quality of the preceding consonant an of i glide (§§ 36, 37). the insertion by

didiu or didu hence,' '

e.2f.

(ace. pi.)

fr.

fr.

di-suidiu.

aithrea

'

fathers

'

*aterds, I.E. *jpdterns.

e, preceded by non-palatal consonants or vowels are from the ninth century onwards regularly written -ae, -ai

§ 41. Final

i

;

later

they become -a. nda new e.g. nue, nilae, J

'

'

1

*

'

fr.

*novijo-

;

lobre, lobrae,

Before a closely connected word already in the 8th cent., of doom.' Cf. § 139, note 2.

day

lobra

weakness.' e.g. Ida

m-brdtha,

PHONOLOGY

15

Old Final Syllables In words of more than one syllable all final vowels and diphthongs have been dropped, except when preceded by j. On vowels preceded by v see § 112, 3. {Cf. § 46.) § 42.

e.g.

ttiath

'

'

fr.

people

*teutd, -biur I carry

*bhero.

fr.

and all consonant groups containing § 43. Final d, t, h, n, m, and s (except rs, rks, rts, rps, Is, Iks, Its, Ips) have been dropped, ri king fr. *re by the

t,

accent becomes

I.E.

in late

it

;

'

'

/repaid

healing

word

is

t(t).

'

'

e.g.

in the interior of a

t-t

t(t).

st, compounds becomes roth wheel fr. *rotos, Welsh rhod

treated like

cf.

Lat rota.

*vrt-bhutai (frith-buith), dat. sg.

fr.

oifrepaid. '

'

'

place fr. *pot1in\- cf. Skr. pathas place.' invaded fr. *-ret-tio-, past participle indrisse rethid runs.'

dit(t)

;

'

'

of

'

'

'

opposition

frit(t)obart '

tc

becomes '

e.g. 1

fr.

*vrt-to-bherta

;

cf.

berid

carries.'

frec(c)or

c(c), tg

becomes

cultivation

'

fr.

c (gg).

*vrt-korom (frith-cor).

I.E. ph, bh, th, etc. are not spirants, but stops

+ voiceless breathing

h.

A CONCISE OLD

34

GRAMMAR

IRISH

'

answer fr. *vrt-grja ( frith-gaire). ts becomes ss. inress that I should invade fr. *-ret-s-o. '

frecrae

'

'

e.g.

dh appear in

94. I.E. d,

§

On

0. Ir. as d.

Cf. §§ 7, 87.

dr, dl, dn, see § 109.

dc becomes e.g.

dg becomes

c(c),

-aicci

'

sees'

c(gg).

-dc-cjet, *ad-his-et.

fr.

fo-acaib 'leaves' fr. *-ad-gliabh-i-t. p (bb), ds becomes ss. d-t in the interior of a word

db becomes

becomes

ss,

in composition

see giall

d-tl,

'

fr.

apaig ripe -messur that

e.g.

On

t(t).

'

'

'

*ad-bhogis

cf.

;

should judge'

I

bongid fr.

§ 98, p.

3 F.

cuts.'

*med-s-or; midithir

'judges.'

mess 'judgment'

fr.

*med-tus but at(t)ach 'prayer,' }

*ad-tekom.

fr.

dm in

composition becomes mm. attempt fr. *ad-med-tus. immediately followed by the I.E. accent becomes

ammus

e.g.

dn

t

'

'

(dd). '

'

e.g. trot

fr.

quarrel

*trud-nb-

;

cf.

d(h)v becomes d. dorus door fr. *dhvorestu '

'

e.g.

Lat. trudo.

I.E. g, gh, g, gh, | 95.

g%

;

Lat.

cf.

forum.

initial g" before u, postvocalic

before j and before consonants in the interior of a word

g in 0.

v

g

become

Ir.

This g

usually preserved in 0. Ir. (cf. §§7, 86). v Lat. formus. grith heat fr. *g hrtus cf. gor heat v voice fr. utus cf. Greek ftorj. *g guth is

'

'

e.g.

'

'

;

;

'

'

;

nigid washes '

On

fr.

0. C. *nigeti, 1

Greek

vi^to.

gl, gn, gr, see § 109.

g"t

becomes cht gs (^s, ghs, etc.) becomes ss. he drove fr. *ad-ag-to pres. ad-aig drives.'

(gt, ght, etc.)

e.g.

;

'

'

ad-acht do-tias

gn

'

'

;

'

that I should

come

'

fr.

*to-(s)teigh-s-o.

immediately followed by the I.E. accent becomes c

e.g.

boc

'

buc

'

soft

fr.

*bhug-nb-, Skr. bhugnd-

;

cf.

'belly.' 1

Analogical transformation of I.E.

*nig"jeti.

(gg).

Anglo-Saxon

PHONOLOGY

35

v g (except before u) and g" in the interior of a word (except in the cases mentioned in § 95) become b in O. Ir. (see §§7, 86, 88, 89). Consonant groups beginning with such a b are treated like other b groups (§ 92).

96. Initial I.E.

§

e.g.

imb

'butter'

fr. *yg"n, Lat. unguen. v (gen. sg. of ben woman) fr. *bnas, I.E. *g nds;

mnd

woman

'

7,

§§

kh and

'

hundred '

sechur

cf. for, Id, fori,

'

Ir.

uniformly as

c

e.g.

ocht

cant, Lat. centum, *sekv or, Lat. seguor. v fr. O. C. *k ri-na-mi, Welsh prynaf;

fr.

buy 109.

§

appears as

cht,

'

'

fr.

eight '

'

Skr. krlndmi.

kht, etc.)

foot

'

*ofdo,

*koksa, Lat. coxa.

fr.

Hence

following media. e.g. ecal

'

afraid

ks (ks, khs, etc.) as ss Lat. octo.

Welsh wyth,

Before a media ks becomes

On

appear in O.

*kmtbm, Welsh

fr.

'

I

see

(Jet,

coss

'

I follow

crenaim

ht

k"

73, 85).

e.g. cet

On

*g end.

fr.

§ 97. I.E. k, kh, k,