A Comparative Review of Physical Education for Women in England and Germany With Special Emphasis Upon the Period From 1933 to 1940

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A COMPARATIVE W f i m Of PfHBXOAL EDUCATION FOR WOMEN M ENGLAND AND GERMANY WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS UPON THE PERIOD PROM 1933 TO 1940

Barbara Puna Gill

A dissertation submitted In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doetor of Philosophy, in the Department of Physical Education, in the Graduate College of the State University of Iowa August, 1930

State University o» lib r a r y

ProQuest Number: 10902164

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T\®>^o G r W b

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Amtommmwm The writer wishes to express hop sincere appreciation to Dr# Elizabeth Maleey tor hor kindly guidance and hor helpful suggestions throughout tho writing ot this study# Tho wrltor is also indebted to Mias Mary reaver tor hor kindness la securing naterlals la England and tor waking thaw available tor use in this ml»«. Other members ot the taeulty and library etaft ot the State University ot Iowa hare given generously ot their tins to aid in the procurement ot foreign publications*

r

a) 13

11

table o? contents Chapter I

page

INTRODUCTION Statement ot Problem Definition ot the Conoept ot the EoXo ot Women la Soelety . . . . . . . Contrast between the soolal Organization ot England and Germany . • * . *

XI

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 0? WOMEN’S PLACE IN ENGLISH S O O i m * . # * ................... 1 Feudal and Early Mod e m Period, to1770 « « Soolal Position and Economic Opportunities . . . . . . . Legal Status Education and PhysicalEduoation » • • Industrial Revolution to World War I, 1770*1914 • Soolal Position and Eeonomle Opportunities . . . . . . . Legal Status . . • • • • • • • . • • Eduoation and Physical Education . * « Itfeets ot World War I* 1914*1933 . * . . . Soolal Position and Eeonomle Opportunities . . . • • • • Legal Status . * « « » « . «.».. Eduoation and Physioal Eduoation * • •

Id 16 21 22 29 29 36 41 65 66 79 64

III PRE-WAR PERIOD OP IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICT, 1933*1940, IN ENGLAND.....................114 Soolal Position and Economic Opportunities ........... 123 Legal Status . . . ......... . . ♦ . . 130 Eduoation and Physioal Eduoation • • . . . 132 I? HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF WOMEN’S PLACE IN GERMAN SOCIETY. . ...................... 179

ill

TABLE 07 CONSENTS (oonVd) Chapter

page Feudal and Early M e d e w Period, to18X5 * • 179 Soolal Position and Eoonomle Opportunities 183 Legal Status 189 Education and Physical Eduoation *. * 192 Industrial Revolution to World War X, 1815*1914 • ♦ . . . 210 Soolal Position aad Economic Opportunities • ......... 218 Logal Status................. ...... 228 Eduoation aad Faysleal Education • » • 250 Effects of World War I, 1914*1955 .♦. . . 249 Soolal Position and Economic Opportunities . . . . . . . 254 Legal Status 259 Education aad Physical Education . • * 285

Y PRE-WAR PERIOD 07 IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICT, 1955*1940* xn am a m . . . . . . . . . . . .

300

Soolal Position and Economic Opportunities 304 Legal Status » • . ......... . . . . . . 312 Education and Physical Education . . . . * 316

YX SGGIBTY’S CONCEPT 07 THE ROLE 07 WOMEN AS A DETERMINANT 07 PHYSICAL KDHOATIGN

. . . . . .

358

Feudal and Early Modem Period . . . . . . 358 Industrial Revolution to World War I * . . 582 Effects of World War I* 1914-1933.. ...... 365

Pre-war Period of Ideological Conflict, 1935*1940 , ................. 367 VIX

IMPLICATIONS 07 THE STSJBY FOR PHYSICAL ESRJQAYION . ................

370

BIBLIOGRAPHY .

375

............. iv

1 Chapter I INTRODUCTION Jtj^tggggt of Pgob^g For thousands of years man lived largely according to an agricultural and trade economy*

Then came the Indus­

trial Revolution with its disturbances in all patterns of life*

Now we are living in a new revolutionary period#

Perhaps it is merely a speeding up of the old one, but, at least, it has a new label, in fact, many new labels, depend­ ing on the individualvs point of view*

To some it seems the

revolution of technology, to others the revolution of labor, or trust control*

Some have even labeled it, perhaps face­

tiously, the coming of the true matriarchy*

Be that as It

may, we can agree that it is a period in which all phases of living are in upheaval*

Religion, philosophy, law, educa­

tion, economic conditions, industry, warfare, and politics are seething with change* In this study two parts of the changing cultural pattern have been selected for emphasis:

first, the chang­

ing role of women, and secondly, that phase of women1s edu­ cation which is called Physical Education*

The study is

further narrowed by setting the place limits in England and Germany, and the time limits for intensive investigation in

2 the period of Hazi domination prior to World War XI, i#«», 1933-1940#

However, broader backgrounds in both time and

cultural pattern have been described in order to give mean­ ing to the whole#

In such a 'study, comparison may serve to

highlight and clarify social institutions more completely than is possible In a study of one country*

To make a com­

parison between the United States and a foreign country, in­ evitably, would allow ethnocentrism on the part of the au­ thor to color the picture, and destroy its objective reali­ ty#

therefore, two foreign countries were chosen for the

study#

England and Germany provided sharp contrasts in

general social organisation, the concept of the role of wom­ en,

and also in educational systems#

The fact that ma­

terial has been published in England and Germany relating to the problem of this study, and the fact, too, that much of this material is available in the United States or by pur­ chase from abroad were considered to be significant determi­ nants in the ohoice of the two nations# This study, then, is an attempt to analyse Just what roles two western societies have expected and allowed women to play in a part of the revolutionary period through which the world is moving#

It is, also, a« attempt to ana­

lyze the roles which women were being educated to fill*

An

attempt is made to discover how consistent each society was;

3 that is*. did it actually educate woman for the roles which It seemed to wish them to f ill?

Were women well educated*

poorly educated* or not educated at all to fill the expectations of their society?

Or was the society not quite

clear la tte goals for women* and therefore, not clear in its methods of eduoation? the study is centered*

These are problems around which

Both countries are treated in the

same maimer * In so far as is possible* The approach to these problems Is made through the specific field of Physical Education*

It would be

impossible* however* to understand their significance if considered entirely from such a narrow and intense point of view.

Whenever feasible* therefore* specific findings

are related to general cultural backgrounds* In its widest sense* education is to be thought of as thatpart of the enculturatlve experience that* through the learning process* equips an individual to take his place as an adult member of his society* *•*A much more restricted sense of the word teAwaation* limits its use to those processes of teaching and learning carried on at specific times* in particular places outside the home* for definite periods* by persons especially prepared or trained for the task* This assigns to education the meaning of schooling* 1 When the word* education* is used here It will mean the 1« Melville «T* Berskovits* Man and His Works* p* 310*

4 first definition, or education in its widest sense# Physical Education refers to that part of educa­ tion Which educates through vigorous physical activities toward the larger goal of education, l«e», "to equip an in­ dividual to take his place as an adult member of his society#"1 To answer the questions already stated, an his­ torical review of women *s place In the societies of England and Germany has been made as a background to the more inten­ sive study of the period from 1933-1040#

In the latter

study, the author has used primary sources, in so far as it was possible#

Official bulletins from the Ministries of

Education, Syllabi for the schools, announcements by the In­ ternational Labor Office, TJNESOG publications, various other governmental agency reports, magazines and newspapers of the period, and, of course, such documents as Mein Kampf have been studied intensively# Finally, the answers obtained to the questions and problems have been studied for their value as implications* as signposts, as danger signs, perhaps, to teachers of Phys­ ical Education*

The question was asked, "Can conclusions

be reached which will aid Physical Education planners?" 1. Ibid#

In

5 the United State* the goal* for Physical Education are in terns of human values, happier and more efficient living# Do Germany and England teach lessons as to the means of reaching their objectives?

Can we use these means, and do

we want to* in working toward our own goals?

Often we can

see ourselves more clearly when we have first gained per­ spective from understanding someone else’s point of view* A man or woman who travels abroad is supposed to return home with a more accurate evaluation of his own culture*

This

study tries to capture vicariously some of the benefits de­ rived from such travel#

In this revolutionary period we

need all the wisdom we can acquire in order to develop more significant goals, more efficient methods of attaining them, and a clearer appreciation of our virtues and weaknesses# Inevitably, the contrast between the eduoation of men and that of women becomes very apparent#

Since "educa­

tion « * « equips an individual to take his place as an adult member of his society”1, the question arises as to the nature of man*8 role in society* to fill the same roles?

Should men and women try

Should their education be the same?

Should Physical Education consider only the biological differences between the sexes? 1# Ibid#

These questions cannot be

6 answer** la any definitive manner, by tills study, but knowledge may be gained whloh can throw light on possible answers* Margaret Mead, In bar resent book, Male, and female* states the general problem in a succinct fashion* lack sax must be made to feel it Is a whole human being* Society should net deny to one sex that which both sexes are able to do, but should embark on a program of aetUAlly rearing both men and women to make their full and special contributions in all the oomplex processes of civiliantion— medicine and law, eduoation and religion* the arts and selenees— the task will be very difficult*! If we once accept the premise that we can build a better world by using the different gifts of each sex, we shall have two kinds of freedom, freedom to use untapped gifts of each sex, and freedom to admit freely and cultivate in each sex their special superiorities*2 The oruoial question, then, becomes, "Does Physioal Eduoation fulfill its possibilities in educating each sex to use its own gifts, its special superiorities?” What can we learn from reviewing the course of recent educational history in two western societies, which will help us to answer this question, so Important to women’s Physical Education? 1* Margaret Mead, Male and female* p* 376* ibid** p* jd2*

7

ot m

mm&M.

mm&

Any society regulates the behavior of its members by law*

abatements of law, and records of legal action

describe society** direct methods of defining the status of individuals*

Indirect mathads of defining and controlling

statu* may be found la economic relationship* , usually mere flexible, mere quick to change than law, and la social traditions aad conventions whioh are sloe to change*

By

such institutions as education aad the family a society seeka the adaptation of successive generations to Its established op changing patterns* Wherefore, la studying the role of woman la two contrasting BoeletlOB at different periods, these phaaea will he eoneldered la turns

social positton, economic

opportunities, legal status, education and Physical Education,

Hone of these phases of women*s existence,

however* have meaning except in relation to the general pattern of social and political organisation of their respective countries* f© illustrate:

a quick glance at England and

Jfanl Germany in this pre-war period reveals a striking differ­ ence in women*s roles,

the English woman continued in the

direction set by the early "Women's Movement*, toward an

8 established place as a person in her own right#

The German

woman was faced about abruptly and given one goal, "continu­ ation of our country", i«e*, the production of children for the purposes of the State#

This contrast is clarified by

comparing the two societies# sxssiSM & S S f t S S o c ia l

fig England

£~m « I S S S The period between 1933 and 1940 marks for Eng­ land and Germany a striking contrast in national ideologies, and consequently, a study of any walk of life reveals tre­ mendous differences between the two countries# Adolf Hitler was named Chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933, and came to absolute power when the Reich­ stag, on March 24, 1933, passed an Enabling Act setting aside the provisions of the Weimar Constitution and giving Hitler full dictatorial authority*

By this act, a short­

lived experiment in democracy was ended and the national So­ cialist Government obtained complete control of all activi­ ties throughout the country, political economic, industrial, commercial, and cultural*

Every phase of living for each

individual German was rigidly defined and decreed, because, in the Nasi State, the individual belonged to the State* His existence had meaning only as it served the State#

The

9 familiar pattern of a totalitarian national government mov­ ing toward International conquest was quickly established* The period under consideration ends on September 1, 1939, when war broke out with Hitler9a entrance into Poland*

It

was for Germany a period of intense military preparation for that very event* In England the period from 1933 to 1940 was one of slow development of a continuing democratic society*

The

effects of the severe economic depression were being gradu­ ally overcome*

It was a period of dogged determination on

the part of the English people to get back on their feet* It became, also* a period of ever increasing fear and a corresponding intensification of national feeling# war clouds were hanging heavy over Europe*

Hitler's

Unwillingly, but

realizing the necessity for action, England adopted military conscription In preparation for the seemingly inevitable second defense of democracy* It should profit to have here a short re\*iew of the forces which had shaped such different societal patterns for England and Germany prior to 1933* History is very largely the story of the struggle of men to gain first, safety from outside attack, and then freedom to live their own lives as they see fit* was lucky In being an easily defensible Island*

England Ho foreign

10 power has Invaded the country since the Harman Conquest of 1066#

Thus, she Has able to build up the safeguards of

freedom at home#

Piece by piece the English molded a con­

stitution to protect their freedoms and democracy, a const!** tution which has no single source, but is instead an accumu­ lation of common and written laws, won by the people from their monarohs in a slow, relatively undramatic fashion# Within one hundred years after the Borman Conquest in 1066, regular courts were held all over

tho country, and

in 1215 the Magna Carta, thefoundation of

the English con­

stitution, was won from King John by tho organized power of his feudal barons#

With It were won the rights of justice

and property to all free men, and the king from that date had to govern according to law and not according to his will#

In 1295 Edward I called together a Parliament, or

conference of nobles and citizens, quite representative of the nation as a whole, which was given considerable powers of decision under the king* By the end of

the sixteenth

century the House of Commonswas becoming more important than the House of Lords and was beginning to gain practical supremacy over the king*

The growth of the power of the

House of Commons was the central theme in the growth of Bri­ tish democracy*

Englandfs only civil war, which came during

the middle of the seventeenth century, was caused by the

11 struggle tor power between H a g and Parliament*

King Charles

X was tried and executed. and then followed eleven year* ot Cromwellian dictatorship*

Charles I* a eon was brought back,

after this. an* a compromise agree* upon*

The monarchy

remained . a symbol of poXltleaX unity. bat Parliament now ruled*

This wee a taraing point, therefore, in B&gllsh

history* Proa this tlae on. the XegaX bases for democracy slowly grew froa precedent to precedent*

By the Habeas

Corpus Act of 1879 no laprlaonaent without trial we* allowed* The Bill of Bights of 1689 grants* rights sialXar to those the Baited States set up in 1791. abolished in the British Empire*

In 1807 slave trade was In 1841 the Cabinet system

was set up by whioh the ministry had to be supported by the Boose of Commons, i.e.. representative of the views of the majority*

freedom of religion earns in 1829 with the

Catholie Emancipation Act*

In 1823 there were abolished many

small constituencies where the vote could be controlled by influential people*

By this bill and by the Reform Act of

1887 the franchise was extended*

The Ballot Act of 1872

secured the secret ballot, and complete adult suffrage for oitisens was attained in 19X8 when women were given the vote at the age of thirty*

later, in 1928. the voting age for

women was made the same as for men. l*e.. twenty-one years*

12 In 1911

House of Lord* wad deprived of its power of

final veto on legislation*

And finally in 1931# by the

Statute of Westminster* equal partnership was granted to various member nations in tbs British Commonwealth. Byadually* atop by step, Britain developed Its constitution* protected by peace * aided by economic prosperity* and aaouro In bar faltb la England and Its Church* a faltb which defined these two groat institutions aa powers for good If not simply as good la themselves* Contributing to this political development were many keen thinkers whose writings and Interpretations of "the good" spurred England on to notion*

Einhard Booker#

1533*1600# is* perhaps* one of the most Influential* The importance of Blehard Hooker and his Ecclesi­ astical Polity, for our understanding of the unique 'character of British democratic culture can hardly be overemphasized* His philosophy defines the Idea of the good of the Ohurch of England* But since the Church of England la the symbol for all Englishmen* Conformists and Hen-Conformist* alike mid even for all Britons of the divinely sanctified community of all Britons to which sen­ timent and religious devotion are attached and personal sacrifice worth the making* Hooker fs theological polity is the key to a fundamental portion of British political thought and action as well as to its Anglican religious doctrine*1 The Conservatives in England base their political 1* 7. B* C. Eorthrup* The Meeting of East and West, p« 171,

u philosophy on Richard Hooker and M s theologically grounded, anii*laIoae*i *faire oonoo.ptIon of tho good state, and believe In tho need tow a fins national control#

*Thus it happened

that in England tho development of individualistic business enterprise and tho inauguration of governmental control wont hand in hand# tho latter making tho former possible#** There are other philosophies which also affected English democracy#

The Liberal party stemmed from Hume#

Benthem# and Mill who believed the good was Identified with the greatest pleasure for the greatest number of people and that laws should be applied so as to secure this ideal* John Looks, of the HHilg party* believed that the good was centered in the utmost freedom for the individual* that ver­ dict by the majority was democracy, and that toleration to* ward minority parties was a positive good* valued M a m Smith1s laisses-fairs principle*

Locke, also, These other

philosophies, though aiding England*s development did not have the real influence of Richard Hooker*® ♦

In contrast to England, Germany was not an Island, and therefore, had a much greater problem in protecting her­ self from outside attack* 1. Ibid*, p* 177* 2. Ibid#, p# 173*

Her1a is largely a history of

14 preparing for war, engaging in war* and recovering from war* In the Hanseatle League* a commercial union of the Northern cities, trading and guild manufacturing flourished for a time* hut the devastating ware eventually ruined the economy of the entire country*

The nucleus of a prosperous middle

class had‘developed* hut it* too* was wiped out in the gen* eral disintegration of institutions brought on by the con* tlnual wars* In 1789 there were over three-hundred states orig­ inally developed around feudal strongholds or powerful mer­ cantile city centers*

It was a slow and uneven process by

Which these states became a nation*

Napoleon helped by

abolishing the Holy Homan Btaplr* in 1806 and reducing the number of states to thirty-eight, which were formed into a Germanic Confederation in 1813*

From that date until 1848

Metternlch’s policies were ascendant in central Europe, and political or intellectual liberalism existed, if at all, in underground organisations*

In 1843 Liberalism did break out

all over Europe and existed for a short while in Germany* Frederick William IV had a liberal ministry in Prussia for a brief period but, as the minority of Liberals lost prestige, he displayed his military force and frightened them complete­ ly#

The next Hohensellern ruler, William I, undertook by

military power and Bismarck1® diplomacy, to unify Germany

15 under Fyuealft*

Bismarck sent his army in victory against

the Banes* $ae 4Ki8te8iaa8.iT and the French*

By 1871 the "Iron

Chancellor* had completed the unification of the German em­ pire* and made the King of Frussia emperor*

For the next

nineteen years Chancellor Bismarck dominated European pell* tie** hut* fearful of a ear of revenge with France* he kept hie armies strong* preached nationalism* and built up mili­ tarism*

In 1086 William IX became l&nperor and in 1890 he

dismissed Biamarok#

William IX enlarged the army* developed

a navy rivalling Sfcgla»d,e* preached pon-Germanlsm, and above all* militarism* trophe*

Then came World War X and catas­

Op to the time of 1919 Germany had had a history of

almost complete militaristic* autocratic, rule by force* Democracy was foreign to her way of thinking*

Her oltlsens

had not been trained to rule themselves« They had accepted* respected* and depended upon the panoply of w*|r, authority, order* obedience* and commands*

It was completely unrealis­

tic to attempt the liberal democracy of the Weimar Republic, with no preparation for self-government* chance to succeed*

Democracy had no

Its failure is written in the history of

Hitler1a rise to power* Just as Britain can trace her rise as a democracy in the philosophies which her thli&ers developed* so Germany can trace her rise as a military power in the writings of

10 suoh m m as Kant, Fichte,. Hletsohe, and Hegel*

Bach adds a

partial explanation to the question, wHftiat made Germany into a Haul state4?* Kant •act up morality and religion as subjects having no connection with empirical or scientific knowledge*** Fichte eald that *the justification not merely for our ethieal and religious beliefs but also even for our belief in an external world, rests upon moral rather than scientific grounds as given by the needs and inescapable demands of the practical reason*1,2 He *identifies the good life not with the fact that man is a man and all men are metaphysically and politically equal, but with the degree to which the i«dividual gives expression to his own will *

Hegel,

Fichtefs follower, refers to men as historically great who have willeds A World-historical individual is not so unwise as to indulge a variety of wishes to divide his re­ gards* He is devoted to the one aim, regardless of all else* It is even possible that such men may treat other great, even sacred interests, in­ considerately % conduct which Is indeed obnoxious to moral reprehension* But so mighty a form must ** Ibid*, p* SOI. £« Ibid*, p* SOS* 3* Ibid*

17 tranplo down many an innooont flowor~~erttah ho 9U 1M M n | an efejoot in its path** Hitlor, a kooa follow** of Bogol* a m himself as tho groat hiatorioal fig ore who would ohango tho course of history for tho noxt two thousand years.

tho Gorman people,

schooled in Kant, Fichte, and Bagel, were ready to worship Hitler*

Bo waa to giro expression to tho "divine spirit"

of tho German people# this brief and dlagranatte sfceteh of backgrounds foreshadow* tho contrasts hotwo on Snglaad and Germany in tho period of thio study* turn.

X. m d o

p, 207«

Booh country la now atudiod in

18 taupe** ii

HIStdRICAI, BACBIROUHD OP WGHM»S PIACB IS KKSU3H S0CZEZ7 W m hietertoal review of wooien** 3*03* In JSngliih Society la divided Into fear tla* period*, each one limited toy rather conventional and eaetly reeognlead aignpoate*

the

first period precede* 1770 ana include* the Middle Agee, the Bemaiaeane#* and the Information#

Who second treat* the &**

duatrial Revolution from It* beginning around 1770, through lta ewift acceleration to World Wap X, thus covering a period of revolutionary change In the live* ot women*

the third

period include* World War X and lta aftermath whan women won ao many of tbair long sought goal*#

Who final period, 1938*

1940, la ttoa core of thia study, offering, aa It does, a striking contrast between ttoo women of multiple interest* In England azid the women of Oermany, whoa* primary occupation we* to hear future aoldiera for HitX*y»a armies#

This glance

backward eeem* necessary to prevent falao evaluation* and ale* take* in later judgments* Feudal and Early Modern Feriod* to 1770 mwwmwwi m m wnssai maraswas wsmusasar one aiWMBa

m M . a n a m a m awMPia t H r w u i Staring tno early part of the Middle Ages there were three etatle levels of society* tty, and the lower elaeeea*

the clergy, tb| notoll*

It wee not until the latter part

19 of the Middle Ag«s * the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, that to# (ppoitt of commerce and the rise of town* made possible a middle olaaa of merchants, traders, and craftsmen. the women of theae three classes of society varied greatly la social and economic standing*

la the Church,

women could flad groat opportunity for advancement.

"W©

Institution la Kurope has over woo for tho lady tho freedom ot development that oho enjoyed la the convent la the early days*

...The lady-ebbess.«.was part of tho two groat

soolal forces of her time, feudalism aad tho Church***1 Often, high spirited and rebellious daughters of the nobility turned to the convent for the freedom they oould not have la the patriarchy at hone* non of her class*

The abbess was treated as an equal by She night control great wealth and

property» even, at times9 having the right to coin money for her domain.

She was wont to travel about the country

uncoafined by vestments such as nuns nowdays wear, but rather* bedecked as richly as the nobility.

Thousands of

women entered the service not only for religious seal but also to gain an outlet for mental and physical energies. The lady of nobility who stayed in the manor lived in complete subordination to her husband* but she shared what­ ever glory his position might carry. 1. Mmily Putnam, Th© lady, p. 71.

When he went off to the

m W i

of on a Crusade, ohshad to manage tho manor# no smell

wiisNNtitiyig#

Although the romantic ideals of ehivslry put

on. a pedestal of worship*. it seem* that marriages were made for oenwenienoe* and ofton lews was bestowed outside its bonds# fchi feudal system ra^iiyed the payment be an ewerlard of mil­ itary ssnriees* wad sines single women would not furnish these* they needed husbands for tho survival of tho manor* $h* position of tho deughtor of a peasant was not very seeure*

She w o not free# hut hound to the land no aero

her parent*#

Ohe beaam* a form or household drudge* unless

her overlord sheet her for service in tho- manor* Suoh Conditions continued until tho twelfth and thirteenth centuries when wdtevsl guilds emerged* ran the lord** manor''ths; saXC' economic •.unit*

Ho longer

A'groat upswing

in ecwaeree followed tho Crusades* and trader* who were froo

m n established towns along rivers and in harbors#

Barter

traffio gar# wap to purchase* and coins# Instoad of land* be* came the symbol of wealth#

$he beginnings of tho middle

elasses eould be seen in this urban population*

Girls as well

as beys were being apprenticed and learned trades* Slowly guilds gave way In the sixteenth and seven* teenth centuries to tbs ^domestic syctem%

According to this

practice merchants bought raw materials as cheaply as they would and hired draftsmen to finish the goods in their homes#

Z1 then the merchant paid the workman bp the piece as Lew a price as he could# sad sold tbs finished article at as high a prise as possible*

Women shared tbis domestic piece work

wltb men ana continued at tbs drudgery until they entered tbs factories or tbe Industrial Revolution. The woman ot tbs growing middle classes gradually escaped tbe manual work of tbe lower class lire and moved toward tbe privileges or nobility*

tbis movement took many

forms# but was tbe seed rroa wbiob grew mush or tbe later agitation for greater opportunities for women. In tbe meantime feudalism was disintegrating and court life became ratber decadent#

A woman assumed herself

to be tbe property of man# and as such, tried to marry tbe most favored one she could rind and than serve bim as an ornament and sexual complement#

Queen Bllsabeth stands out

as a striking contrast to tbe ladles or bar contemporary court life#

There were other exceptions# of course# but

probably few# Legal Status tbe lady*abbess and tbe nuns or tbe convent were backed by tbe power or tbe Church# least free from civil control#

They were free agents# at

dll other women of tbis entire

period were dwellers in a strict patriarchy#

Their privileges

m enid dabiao were given them by pamnte#- wmelm*$ or brother*# d.wem wo» avowed. bo boot hi* wife# bub waa not allowed by law to mote barf

*®» moat mot# cor inotanee# destroy on eye or

brook a bone#**

Mtile els* tan bo said for the legal petition

of women during tfci* period* (fer they virtually bad no logal right**

What powar tboy woro ablo to wield maat havo earn*

from- aMllfttl bimbo* or a sharp tongue# Bduaatlon and fffryaleal Education In the eonwemb tbo girl could l o a m to road# write# do arithmetic# conduct dterob rituals# understand Ghwrefc biotory and road It in lot in# and alao do elaborate needle*work#

In addition aba acquired tbe skills neeeesary Cor tbe

management of a powerful organisation#.

She might l o a m to

teach it tbe oonvont served ae a school Cor nobility# or aba mteit l o a m to nwre* 1C It were a hospital# fh* young girl or tbo noblo class waa taught either In the eoavwnt school or by private tutors# the social accom­ plishments of denting# singing# and playing a musical instru~ meat#

She might receive instruction in religious doctrines

and eeremenie* aa well a* the inevitable sewing# weaving# and handcrafts neeeaaery Cor all women*

She might be taught# too#

to manage tbe servants# Cor the wife wae often in eharge of

1* Emily Putnam# |bnte# P« ltd#

23 the- manor while hi>r husband wan absent*

Perhaps she learned

to read and write* and keep books JUCf such skill* war* needed in her position*

Often ska went to to a lady* in-waiting at

the overlord's court to learn tbs refined social graocs.

la

general'she Aid receive a dlraot and practical training for tka meeds of.kar adult life* The girl kora to a vassal received kar training either at home or In tka manor and it was specif ically determined by tka rola kar parents or overlord sat for kar* Xn all aasas it was menial and practical*

As towns grow up during tka twalftk and thirteenth aanturias otkar akangas followed*

According to Butts* "There

seams to ka sons evidence* too* tkat at least a few oppor­ tunities for sokooling for girls outside of tka soar ants and aourts began to appear lata in tka thirteenth century* •'* Paring tka Bemalsaaaec* principally tka fourteenth and fiftaantk aanturias* there was a growth in secularism and in centralisation of political authority in England* The Tudor kings* particularly* weakened tka power of tka nobles and gained tka loyalty of tka merchant class ky aiding commerce and industry* Tka new middle class was growing powerful and 1» B. freeman Butts* A Cultural History of Education* p* 17d*

m «*«Ithy#

ttomf wstttod to *»nd tholr oi&iuirfti* to m h m % to ii*»

j p w tho'latter** Q i m w m ifc "imMim** and *o*i#ty#

la 14©ft

iihg diehard 11 inawrod fey a .royal adJat *io every maa lifeor* ty to ;iNtoAto felt ohildren of feotb ***** wfc*p*if»r bo might OftM®®***

$h&* atom* to- fe*. tt* fir** atotuto of Baglaa® *ff**t*

lag adaoation.

too «*jfc »i*at that p*r*at* oowld **ad thair

eMidrim (feotu feoy* ami girls) to aohool or eould apprentice them i^ywfc*r* la tho **«afcry la. aay ocoup*tion« $*mght*r* of ib* low** *!«*** meanwhile# w*r* taught at bompi while tboy helped Midi th* many oboroo of tho houut** held#

Or If their parent* bod goelal Aitfeitloa* for tbom^ they

100NI •‘piaood^oat* with a weliuto*do family where they might 'h a m ah oppertiwiity to loara warn thorn tbolr humble beak* ground oould provide*.. in towns the guild* M M f t t a M .paid the pipiafc:; prie»t to eondu© t ft aeheol for the town children# or .a* tbft holft of tbo Qfcanoh weakened* more frequently lay fo/nVl**■>«♦;**»H,Wai**

• m F W F r^W ^*

w v w

qp

w w w

w

wHTW P w w

wr-

Staring thift HenAieeimee period education for the upper end wealthy elae***#

aa

was

mainly

could be expected*

the

Church taught children for the purpose of filling its peat* with ftfel* clergy# and the court required trained advlaer* la governmental position*#

hot "towarde the olo*e of the flf*

teanth century the whole atmosphere become* for women a» it h

Dorothy aardiner* Ingileft tirlbood §& School, p« 85*

*0 were charged with hepefiilmeas and promises'w r y slowly bet surely1their; outlook is about to bt fcyaiutfarmed# *i II:' is interesting tc note that in lead Jieimrd Hjyde 'made- the 'first plea printed in English f or the higher. education of women*

111 said

# * * alee reading and studying of bools so occupleth the mind* tbit it can have no leisure to m o o or do* tight in other fantasies* wherein all handiwork* that men oop be mere m o t for o woman* the body may bo busy in o m plea*# and the mind walking in another ! end while they tit sowing sod spinning with their fingers* m y east and compass many pooirish fancies in their minds* which m t bo occupied oithor in good or bad! so long as they bo waking* And thoso that bo evil disposed will find the m a n s to bo nought* though they can (bus) never a letter in the booh* and Oho that will bo good* learning shall cense her to bo m e h the bettor#* Another advanced educational thinker was Juan inis Wives* 1408*1540* a Spaniard who taught Catherine of Aragon and went to Bngland with her to teaeh in the court of Saury Wlil* girls*

Vivos emphasised the importance of education for

His aim for them m m the development through letters

and moral teaching of a noble lady* wife and mother Who eonld be tbe intelligent companion and mistress of the household* At tbe end of the fifteenth century £edy Margaret* mother of ling Henry VXJ* was probably the most accomplished 1* Dorothy Gardiner# IMd* p* SI*

2 . F ester Watson* ffltw fi fo r Woman, p* v H *

M I Jffid Bmaissenae ©£ M u o a tlo n

m SI..**. .^.jSl 'MSttak 4 «4k 4klk A HTd A 44*^fc JWMiy Am eeeosmio lQiowieaga in siagisna during this %siaai# Age ml.

*394

1

jft MMi

Jgriod*

*Mitefe.4ll

M

Jfe* fft« * gPSSt pttferoi* Of higher Od*

m otion ff*rasm end prosed a substantial benefactress both to OjdfoH, so* to O’ SnWiAgii;*

I** i07dj Omferd aeeepied its first

college for women end, * l ^ % riiiinod it. lady M*a*garei Ball#* Boring tbs Rofwnatfen too Catholic Church woo attached 09* Bsmry fXXI*

Monastic school* with other proper*

tie* were oonfiaeabsd#

She ©harsh of England gained control

of education, twit sines too King was the hood of the otaareh# fc* could and did tatnodue* stats control* bsy

lliBebeth followed

load in this and had the universities inspected

and* in ltd® had ail teacher* take an oath of loyalty to tho aoiaiwohy#

Slowly the state was entering education* but there

was still a hugs gap loft by tbs death of tbs monastic schools which was mot filled for many years* Parent* taught their ©hildren by tutor* or tbs par* lsh priest* standards*

Sams wars sent to M aas schools* of doubtful fha mar* fortimate wars entered in potty sohools

and grammar sehoola*

As tbs msro.hant alassos grow in wealth

and maabera mar* parent* could afford education sad so os* tabllsbsd many grammar schools gush as tiisshester* Eton, Westminster, and Merehaat tailors*

Some women felt tbs do*

sirs for greater opportunities 1 in 1**7, Mary Astell proposed

1. oemma Bailey* lady Margaret Mali* p* as*

m tmr le&ies% two-. hundred years before She first m > was established* Although formal education did mot reach tut lower classes to any considerable extent# some free instruction m m given by charity schools for poor children*

fhese tort spot**

sored* for the m o t part* by religious organisations*

In

IdtB Anglican Church mesibsys of tbe wealthy middle classes contributed bo tbe foundation of tbe eeeiety for tbe Promotion off Christian Knowledge which eat up dozens of charity schools aft ft part of It# activity*

these* on occasion* taught farm*

lug* navigation* and such household arte as spinning and a*** lag*

the parish worfchousea# set up for poor children# also

Offorded some sort of vocational education in addition to the eyetom of apprenticeship#

lotto in tbe seventeenth century tbe

court* 210 longer required elementary school teachers to bo licensed by tbe bishop* and dissenting Puritan schools flours lahed openly*

these schools* actually, made tbe greatest

advances of this late Reformation period# Starting a* Zntln schools tbey aeon began to pay more attention to arr!age and divorce law reforms were also sought

by the women of the Labor Party#

Murserles and pre-school

institutions were suggested, all as possible aids, not only for the child, but also for the working mothers*

Agitation

for the betterment of women9s economic life took many forms* Great strides were made, too, for in 1924 the Labor Party won a majority In Parliament and took over the Government# Margaret Bondfleld, who had won her spurs as organiser for her fellow shop assistants, and risen to be a leading figure in the Labor Party, was made Parliamentary Secre­ tary to the Ministry of Labor; in 1929, * • • she became Minister of Labor— the first woman in Bri­ tain to be made a member of the Privy Council and of the Cabinet*! 1« Women in Britain* British Information Service, p* 9#

74 Labor1s victory grew directly out of economic con** sequences of the war*

When the soldiers came hack from the

battlefields unemployment caused some turmoil*

British em­

ployers were reaping huge profits from a world long starved for her manufactured goods*

Profits were made larger hy

paying small wages and giving few social benefits*

The

Trade Boards Aot of 1918 permitted some reforms hy allowing the Ministry of labor to set up Boards wherever

wages were

sweated, and by such benefits as workers* representation to Government offices*

But the Government actually did little

to meet the varied needs of a dangerously disturbed national economy*

Strikes broke out all over the country, while the

Liberal Government under Lloyd George evaded, temporised, and disregarded its promises to the Trade Unions*

Labor

wanted better working conditions, higher wages, better in­ surance benefits, shorter hours and fairer trade practices* Strikes shook the country; unemployment grew swiftly; the cost of living rose; and speculation soared wildly.

As the

foreign markets became filled, and as Europe suffered with the impractlcalities of the Versailles Treaty, British cap­ italism

lost many of her markets and also became depressed*

In 1919, three hundred and fifty-three thousand ex-soldiers were unemployed*

In May, 1921 there were two million and

five hundred thousand out of work*

The number unemployed

then fell gradually to one million and four hundred thousand

75 in 1922, and about one million and two hundred thousand a | W J later,

Until 1939 the number rarely fell below the

million level.

He Ither the liberal nor the labour

government had any remedy for thla disaster.

The provisions

of Unemployment Xasuranee were being continually altered during this period.

The dole, as it was called, lessened

the worst hardships, but made men bitter and rebellious. In 1924, when Ramsay MacDonald became Prime Minister with the baching of the labour Party and Asquith9# liberal group, he failed to support effectively the worleers9 demands for higher wages and for improved conditions.

The

first labour Government fell after only a few months* power, and the conflict between workers and employers continued without effective national guidance or assistance.

On May

3, 1926 a strike was called of all transport workers, the whole printing trade, Iron and steel workers, metal workers and chemical workers, building workers, electrical and gas workers.

In the end it gained little.

The Governmental

premises by which It was ended proved empty. labour was back In power.

Again in 1929,

During this second MacDonald

government the American credit structure collapsed, and Europe was also dragged into economic depression.

Hard hit,

1. George D. H. Gole and Raymond Postgate, The British Beople, 1746-1946. p. 471.

76 Italy and Germany turned to extreme remedies*

Fascism and

Has ism t England* faced with disastrous poverty, began gov­ ernmental

measures on a large scales

an extension of unem-

ployment insurance* a big housing and alum-clearance project under the Housing Act of 1930, and an agricultural program* In 1931 about two million and nine hundred thousand persona were out of work, and there the number stayed until the la­ ter months of 1933, when It began falling*^ Such were the economic developments which gave wom­ en

so many changes in outlook, freedoms, and privileges*

England was upset, old traditions everywhere were being attacked, revolt was in the air, and fair practices were be­ ing demanded by all classes of workers, not merely by women* They were violent years, requiring adjustments and solutions to difficult and complex problems* Women shared the economic sacrifices this period imposed* ployed*

Thousands who had dependents to support were unem­ Since they were hired at lower wages than men, it

was sometimes easier for women to find work, but the wages they received were very low*

Married women fared worse than

single women, for public opinion demanded that they should stay home and let men with families have their jobs* 1* Ibid*, p* 500*

Double

77 earn Inga within one family were seriously fought, even though the Joint earnings might barely keep a large family from starvation#

Professional women whose education had

taken years and cost much money knew that marriage usually meant the end of their careers* These were some of the economic problems left by the years which solved for women the questions of franchise and educational opportunities*

Any great economic upheaval

brings in its wake a period of cultural change* in this case*

So it was

Cultural changes moved at uneven rates in the

various fields of life*

Dislocations and enigmas faced the

people which tradition and custom could not ease* ,Inequali­ ties continued among all social classes* Feminist organizations gradually redirected their aims In line with changing conditions, turning their atten­ tion to the marrlage-bar (which prevented a woman’s keeping her job after marriage), differential pay, the nationality of married women, and property rights of married women* The war brought great social changes for women, many permanent and some rather temporary*

Glass barriers

relaxed to a great extent and were rebuilt at a much lower level in the following peacetime*

Moral standards declined,

as they do in such a period of cultural change*

Unmarried

girls assumed new liberties in sex regulations, and birthcontrol knowledge spread*

Women travelled alone and

78 unohaperoneA, worked away from homo, and became financially Independent*

They spent money for liquor and cigarettes as

they had not done before the war*

It was no longer fash­

ionable to have fainting spells or to shun physical exer­ cise*

Long skirts and tight lacings were shed as unhealth­

ful fetters on personal freedom*

Traditions melted away,

and the new generation more easily accepted change, more eagerly plunged Into new occupations, and more studiously prepared for ambitious c a r e e r s T h e war had killed nine hundred thousand and wounded over two million of England's able-bodied men, thus forcing thousands of women to face the future knowing there would be little chance for them to be­ come wives and mothers* the world for them*

That outlook changed the picture of

They took It for granted they must work

In a competitive world and find satisfaction In that work* Fathers saw the need for educating their daughters to meet these changing needs*

It was a difficult period, requiring

many adjustments from everyone*

The old security of pre-war

traditions and moral codes was gone, and new codes had not yet been formed to meet the needs of the times* Organisations for women developed in response to the need for security and group solidarity*

1* Ibid*, pp* 448-456*

The Women's

79 Institute movement arose* from an attempt to help the food'* production campaign#

It grew to offer peacetime opportuni­

ties for recreation* education, and public service to women in rural regions*

It has played an important role in broad­

ening the interests of thousands of women, enriching their lives and extending their education* In towns, organisations similar in function to the Institute, sprang up, such as the Townswomen’s Guilds, to provide a non-political, non-sectarian program#

The Nation­

al Council of Social Service opened women’s social service clubs in the areas moat severely hit by unemployment and poverty during the depression*

These clubs have continued

and are Important In the function of bettering the condi­ tions under which women work and play*

Other voluntary

groups organised for the continued betterment of their sex as wives, mothers, and workers*^

in the period of common

anxiety during the war and during the simp which followed, such organisations did much to unite women in England and to maintain a morale whioh prevented such extreme doctrines as Fascism or Nazism from becoming very popular# Legal Status Broadly speaking, women emerged as Independent 1. Women In Britain» British Information Service, p. 10#

80 personalities between 1914 and 1933#

While this resulted in

pert from changes in the general attitude and public opinion, nevertheless, some significant changes were also made In the actual statutes# The most notable change in women1s legal status came with the Bepreaentafclon of the People Bill of February 7, 1918#

By a clause in this Act women over thirty years of

age who were householders, owned property, or were the wives of male local government electors, were allowed to vote for members of parliament#

Men could vote at twenty-one, but

had women been given the vote at that age too, they would have far outnumbered the male voters#

Hot until March, 1988

were they finally enfranchised on the same terms as men# The hard work and notable achievements of women during the war had justified their rights to fall citizenship, at least in the eyes of most men# By the Parliamentary Act of 1918, Qualification of Women, women beeame eligiblle for election to the House of Commons#

A year later, in 1919, Viscountess Astor became

the first woman member of Parliament* The Sex disqualification Eemoval Act of 1919 pro­ vided that, A person shall not be disqualified by sex or marriage from the exercise of any public function, or from being appointed to or holding any civil or Judicial office or post, or from entering or

81 assuming or carrying on any civil profession or vocation* or for admission to any Incorporated so­ ciety and a person shall not he exempted by m x or marriage from the liability to serve as a j u ro r* ! In the interpretation of the Act* however, the scales were sometimes tipped by prejudice*

Women were still barred from

the House of Lords, and* at the other end of the social seals* women workers were unable to find Jobs because of this same prejudice* ening,

But the field of opportunity was wid­

and bad as some temporary and local conditions were*

they were not so restricted as they had been before the war* The International Council of Women and the Inter­ national Women1s Suffrage Alliance were ready to act when peace was declared#

They sent delegates to the Peace Con­

ference and helped secure in the Covenant of the League of Nations the eligibility of women to all posts In the League and the Secretariat*^ During the Twenties women worked to gain admit­ tance to Civil Service, and, having won the right in 1921, worked on to remove the prejudices which were more of a barrier than the laws*

However, In such times of economic

chaos as the 1930fe men were selected for almost all appointments, and very few women obtained important posts* 1* Florence Bareagey, mop* p# 1?*

Leaal and Economic Status of JJfe-

2* Mrs# Bachel Straohey, T^e Cause. p« 379*

BZ The teachers failed*

their plea for equal pay hat

Resolutions were framed by Governmental Committees

in 1920, 1921, and 1936 la favor of the principle of equal pay for equal work, but action was always put off, and nothing has yet actually been enforced*! Many women for decades had objected to the aot by which British women lost their citizenship by marriage to an alien*

In 1914* soma relief from this was secured by the

British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act*

By this a

British born woman was no longer deprived of her nationality unless she acquired another nationality by her marriage* During this period between the wars, many laws were passed and many court cases decided whioh resulted in the improvement of womenfs legal status*

Customs changed*

More and more women, particularly those in professions, kept their maiden names after marriage*

The great surplus of

women in the country led inevitably to a general acceptance of unmarried women, not as unmarriageable women, but as women who had to saorlf ice the pleasures of marriage through no fault of their own*

The large majority of these women

turned to careers, and many filled high positions*

Cicely

Basilton said: If a woman is destined to go through life unwed, 1* Florence Earengey, oju oit., p. 15*

35 my country of Bngland has many advantages as a dom­ icile; ; there are, I Imagine, few parts of the world where the cnee traditional contempt for the spinster is more thoroughly a thing of the past# * * * we have too many unmarried women successful in business or professional life, distinguished in literature, science, and art, to be able to keep up that joke** It is interesting to note that during these years men were occasionally protesting against the Inequalities of the sexes which they found burdensome#

By the Income Tax

Act of 1913, the Incomes of husband and wife were totaled and taxed as a unit*

If the tax were not paid on the wife’s

income the husband was punished, and after the husband had paid the wife’s tax he could not recoup himself from her assets*

Naturally, men saw this as unfair* It had been customary for the husband to be held

liable for any crime his wife committed In his presence# The theory held that she was under his coercion while in his presence#

The Criminal Justice Act of 1995 abolished this

liability, but it still was a good defense for the wife to prove her crime was committed In the presence of her husband#

o

Such cases as this shed a more comprehensive light

on the. problem of equalizing the privileges and duties of the sexes*

While women still felt greatly hampered by

1* Cicely Hamilton, The Kn&iiahwoman. p* 27*

2# Florence Karengey, Q£* oit», p* 10*

84 existing conditions, particularly those in the economic and professional worlds, there was cause for complaint on the men1a side as well*

This gradual shifting and balancing

process was to oontlnue past 1958*

The widespread question-*

lng of values continues today* Education And Physical Education The war years had a great effect on Education in England*

As quoted by Isaac Kandel, the Board of Education

for 1915-1916 reportedi The war is giving new impetus and vigor to many movements for national reform and is enabling them to gain an amount of support which unde&conditlons could only have been won after many years of slow progress| and one of the most significant manifestations of its influence is the great de­ velopment of public Interest in education The movement was brought about by the lay public rather than by educational organizations*

Representatives of labor and

the Workers* Educational Association had been advocating a comprehensive reform of the educational system, not so much for the training of better workers as for the training of better citizens*

England seemed to recognize that a sound

educational system was the best foundation for the social and political reconstruction made necessary by the war* Since the keynote of this reconstruction is the 1* Isaac L* Kandel, Education in Great Britain and Ireland, pp* 6-7.

85 Improvement of the position end opportunities of every man and woman aa an individual and as a cit­ izen, the educational reforms must he considered as a contribution toward the further development of the aspirations of democracy and humanity** World War I had riddled England*s schools*

Many

teachers left their work In exchange for military service, and many schools were taken over as quarters for soldiers* the compulsory attendance laws were not enforced, partly in an effort to supply more workers*

Discipline in the

sohools became rather lax because of the use of poorly trained teachers, and because of the growing lack of home discipline*

the universities were depleted, and work done

In them was directed largely toward war research*

Repairs

could not be made on existing facilities, and new buildings could not be erected*

The need to remedy these conditions,

and also, the clear recognition that wars could be won only by intelligent and educated citizens, brought about the passage in 1918 of the Fisher Act which aimed to correct ex­ isting defects and provide for progress In the educational system* In general the Act of 1918 makes the follow­ ing provisionsi 1* Extension of the age of compulsory attendance, without exemption, to 14j or to 15 and even 16 by local by-laws*

I* Ibid*, p* 3*

86

8*

Provision for medical Inspection end treat­ ment and physical welfare before and through school to 18* 3* Establishment of nursery schools for children between 2 and 5 or 6# 4# Establishment of compulsory continuation school attendance from 14 to 16 and ultimately to 18 # 5* Promotion and support of poor but able pupils* with free tuition, scholarships, and mainten­ ance grants* 6* Concentration of supervision over the activi­ ties and welfare of children and adolescents in the hands of education authorities, e*g#, child labor and employment, labor bureaus, rec­ reation and health* 7* Inspection and supervision of private schools* 8* Preservation of the independence of looal au­ thorities, extension of their functions and powers, and insistence on minimum standards with encouragement through grants to advance as far as possible* 9* Equal distribution of the cost of education between local rates and national taxes*1 The Fisher Act was intended to add to the existing

provisions for education, but it actually made only a few changes*

Xt did abolish fees for tax-supported elementary

schools and raised the upper age of compulsory attendance to the end of the term in which the pupil reached his four­ teenth birthday*

The law required looal educational au­

thorities to provide, in senior departments or central schools, advanced instruction and practical subjects for ol­ der children*

The provision for part-time comj>ulsory

attendance at day continuation schools, for boys and girls between fourteen and eighteen who were not In full-time

1* Xbld*, pp» 4-6#

#7 schools, was postponed due to lb* p©et*crar financial depression. fhe Act did encourage some local education authorities to experiment with pest-primary education. Before till# time, the elementary schools had been intended to provide terminal education for the masses.

itoor seme

authorities n t up courses of advanced work ip elementary schools, and aoao developed senior schools to which aXX children from the elementary schools of the district came oa reaching the ago of eleven.

These separata schools

taiood the question as to whether the Board of Education should provide free secondary education on a wide acale. XU 1926, this growing question concerning secon­ dary education waa reviewed by a Consultative Committee of the Board of Education under the direction of Sir Henry Bedew.

like question the Committee attempted to answer waac

2a it possible so to organise education that the first stage may lead naturally and generally to the second, to ensure that all normal children may pursue some kind of post-primary course for a period of not less than three, and preferably four, years from the age of 11 plus; and to devise curricula calculated to develop more fully than Is always the case at the present the powers, not merely of children of exceptional capacity, but of the great mass of boys and girls, whose character and intelligence will determine the quality of aatieaal life during the coming quarter of a century?* 1. fho Education of the Adolescent, Board of Education, EHgland, p.36. — .

88

This report greatly Influenced the organization of the schoola hy proposing a complete break for all children at the age of eleven, and their transfer to separate school®, built, equipped, and staffed to meet the needs of older children*

Xt recommended, also, the raising of the leaving

age to fifteen, but this was to wait for some time before being considered practical*

All education beyond eleven

years should be called secondary education, and there should be several different types of secondary schools among which pupils could transfer if their aptitudes made such measures advisable*

Under the guidance of this report most authori­

ties set to work to provide appropriate eduoation for chil­ dren over eleven*

More central and senior schools were built

and gradually the leaving age was raised*

Financial ob­

stacles made the provisions uneven throughout the country, however, and since the new schools still ranked as elemen­ tary schools there were inadequacies in size of classes, staff, salaries, equipment, and book supply*

But gradually

improvements were being made and progress was apparent* England had before this time seemed to consider elementary education as terminal for the masses and secondary education as available only for those who could afford it*

In other

words, a dual system for the two classes had previously been accepted, but was now to give way to broader opportunities

89 for all* The Kadow Investigation and report bad been great­ ly needed.

During the war and In the years immediately

following It there had been a very rapid expansion In educa­ tion, partly due to the improvement of the economic condi­ tion of the wage-earning classes*

They could pay the re­

quired fees for educating their children, and they realised as never before the advantages gained by an education*

The

1917 system of examinations set up under the Secondary School Examination Council did much to standardize and in some cases raise the level of instruction, but it made the passing of the examination absolutely required of all who wished to enter a university, the civil service, or even a semi-professional Job*

Parents realized this and did their

beet to provide their children with the coveted “School Cer­ tificate1*• Despite the economic difficulties of the de­ pression, the number of children whose parents wished to keep them in school grew steadily#

Perhaps this was because

jobs were hard to find, and, perhaps, because a good train­ ing gave one the best chance for a job# The "outburst of demand" led to much over-crowding of school facilities built before the war and even to the exclusion at the beginning of 1919-1980 of 10,000 applicants for admission as fee-paying scholars, and of a further 10,000 who would have

90 been qualified for admission as free-place scholars*1 Girls In particular benefited from the setting-up of a atate-supported secondary educational system* In 1902 an elementary school girl1a chance of secondary education was practically nil, and there were altogether only about 33,000 girls in grantaided secondary schools* In 1938 there were near­ ly a quarter of a million, most of whom came from elementary schools*2 England*a new policy, that there should be ©quality of edu­ cational opportunity where there was ©quality of capacity to profit by it, was extending to include girls as well as boys* Other fields of education also expanded during the first quarter of the twentieth centdry*

Of England1s eleven

degree-granting universities, only five had existed before 1900*

Birmingham was founded In 1900, Manchester and Liver­

pool obtained separate charters in 1903, Leeds in 1904, Sheffield in 1905, Bristol in 1909, and

Heading in 1926*

These provincial universities were open to women as well as men, and by this time the older universities also had colleges for women* The University Extension movement and the spread 1, George A* Loundee, Tbte Silent SocialRevolution, p# 118*

2* Harold C* Bent, British Education, p* 21*

01 ©f County libraries.had widened the circle of Informed people*

The Women's Institutes and such societies as the

British Steam* t*eague and the Workers * Educational Assoelatlon had worked with all classes, helping enrich leisure time for young and old*

Many technical and business insti­

tutes sprang up, museums were opened, all helping to answer the public’s growing urge for intellectual and economic betterment* Progress did not take place at a steady rate* There were economy campaigns In 1901 and 1931 which slowed down the advance, but the demand for reform and more wide­ spread opportunities was accelerating*

England did not yet

believe that she could afford free secondary education for all youth as the United States did, but she was leading Eu­ rope toward changes In that direction * The years between 1914 and 1933 In the field of Physical Education for women were marked by the Introduction of many new theories, by revolt against the hold obtained by Swedish gymnastics, and by extensive development in a varie­ ty of programs rather than a unification and improvement of familiar content*

This variety was Increased by schools,

industrial organisations and recreational groups, all of sfalch saw, perhaps, different benefits in physical training for their members*

The spreading and changing of methods of

physical training was a reflection and also, partly a cause, of the changing attitudes toward women*

The English author,

Orlo Williams wrote in 1900 * * * * it has been left, one might almost say, to our generation to see women playing games involving strength and agility of body in the same sense in which men play the$ as real trials of skill and endurance# « * « Ho longer do we tolerate the merely ladylike player who is afraid to perspire or get blisters on her bands| # « * pretty incom­ petence may still attract a certain kind of man in the drawing room, but it is shunned on the field and on the lawn *2. Boring the war years there was a great increase in juvenile delinquency caused partly by the unstable home con­ ditions and the lack of usual parental controls, and partly by the lack of constructive recreational opportunities#

The

Board of Education took steps to encourage the development of play and reoreational centers, and granted financial aid for this purpose#

The Home Office appointed a Juvenile Or­

ganisations Committee to consider, among other things, how to attract boys and girls to become members of brigades and clubs*

Tl|e Report of the Board of Education for the Year

1916-1916 stated In detail the attitude of the Government toward the welfare of children# Any steps which may be taken to provide improved educational facilities will lose much of their 1* Orlo Williams, The Good Snailshyranan, pp, 019-200.

93 value if the need for improving the health and physical fitness of scholars and pupils is overlooked# The importance of the physical side of education is heing increasingly recognised and much has been done during the last nine years to remedy or avert physical defect® which may prevent the ohild from taking full advantage of the In­ struction provided for it or of its future oppor­ tunities in life in whatever direction they may lie* It is not, however, enough to remedy de­ fect®} it is essential also to take steps to im­ prove the physical condition of the rising genera­ tion as a whole# The number of rejections for the army on the grounds of physical unfitness ha® em­ phasised the need for action# Upon the education­ al system must rest a large part of the responsi­ bility for securing that the children of the coun­ try grow up healthy and strong# In February 1917 the Board was able to announce that funds had been placed at their disposal to enable them to pay grants In aid of expenditure Incurred by Local Education Authorities on the employment of compe­ tent persons to organise and supervise the physi­ cal training of children in Public Elementary School®# It is hoped that these grants will lead to a great improvement in the organisation and methods of the physical training whioh is given in the Public Elementary Schools, and thereby to an improvement in the health and physical efficiency of the child #3Regardless of the restrictions necessarily imposed by the war, the Board established grants in aid for salaries of organisers of Physical Training in Public Elementary Schools#

Men could not be obtained, but a number of well

qualified women were available#

In July 1918 the Board of

Education held a conference in London of all recognised 1# "Education and Health Work". Report of the Board of Education £ o £ j& e Xs & £ 191S-19i6Tm P . ~ n . - T 7 -----------

94 women organisers for the purpose of discussing problems and Interchanging Ideas• In 1918 also, the Board, cooperating with the Ministry of Labor, Issued a report, urging Local Education when

Authorities to supervise young persons1 education

they leftschool after

physical fitness#

the war, and to consider their

Much attention was being paid this sub­

ject by both local and national policymakers* The Fisher Act of 1918 (page 85) was quite speci­ fic concerning Physieal Education# 17*

For the purpose of supplementing and rein­ forcing the instruction and social and physi­ cal training provided by the public system of education, and without prejudice to any other powers, a local education authority * # « may, with the approval of the Board of Education, make arrangements to supply or maintain or aid the supply or maintenance of— (a) Holiday or school camps, especially for young persons attending continuation schools| lb) Centers and equipment for physical training, playing fields (other than the ordinary playgrounds of public elementary schools not provided by the looal education authority), school baths, school swimming baths; (c) Other facilities for social and physical training in the day or evening*1 Following this Parliamentary Act, the Board of

Education issued in 1919 A Syllabus of Physical Training for Schools. following generally the 1909 Syllabus but with some major changes* 1* Isaac L# Kandel, Education in 8reat Britain and Ireland* Bureau*of Education, Washington,!). C., p. 101.

95 As far as pas?ibis, tbs formal nature of the las* sons has bean reduced to a minimum and every effort has been made to render them enjoyable and recreative* It is suggested that not leas than half the lesson should be devoted to active free movements, including games and dancing* The tables or Exercise#11 have been remodelled in such a way as to place increased responsibility upon the class teacher and to allow scope for personal Initiative, freedom and enterprise*1 The Syllabus further emphasised the fact that education should concurrently develop a healthy physique, keen Intelllgenes and sound character*

It recognised that healthy phys­

ical- growth was essential to intellectual growth, and that a scientific system of physical training was needed, not merely indiscriminate exercise*

Furthermore, It pointed out

that physical training in school should form the groundwork for healthy exercise and recreation after schooling is finished* Sir George Hewman, Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, reported in 1921t In all districts, with hardly an exception, the Official Syllabus of 1919 of the Board of Educa­ tion ’Is 'followed* That syllabus places the prac­ tice of physical exercise on the broadest basis— posture, attention, elementary and advanced exer­ cises for limbs and trunk, breathing exercises, games, dancing, swimming, etc*^ 1, Syllabus of Physical Training for Schools. 1919. Board of Education, HM. oit., p. 526.

126 factories reopened, the unemployed numbers decreased, 1remen also found it easier to secure jobs,

X& January,

1919, however, there were registered as unemployed still a total of 2,039,026 workers of whom 464,&4& wars women and girls,*

In 1939 during tfce flrat atagaa of conversion

to war produotion thara was large-scale unemployment of women,

Hew war faotories entered produotIon, beware?, at

the sane time tbat tba available reserve of unemployed persons was raduead to a low level, Witb a total population of only 46 million, tba British ware attempting to muster and equip an army of 4 million at tba and of 1940 * the way to meat tba pressing labor needs was prepared by redue lag to a minimum all prod uot ion not essential to tba war or to vital oivilian needs and by easeting a legal basis for tbe wider emergeney powers of tba Government, Only after these steps bad been taken was oompttlsery mobilisation of women introduced* 2 On May 22, 1940 tbe Bmergeney Powers dot required persons to place themselves, their services, and their property at tbe disposal of His Majesty and gave to tbe Ministry of Labor and national Service tbe control and use of all labor ,3

fhe aloud of unemployment was rolling away before

1, British Policies and Methods in Employing women in

wm m nrrs;rv*m7 bTi£i§f7>rt5r

2, Ibid,, p, 16, 3 , Ibid,, p. 39.

----

*

w the blacker cloud* of 1940# the tomato of activity la preparation for a survival battle. The social conditions of women la these eight years passed through ao dramatic changes.

Gradually the

olaaa barriers were Doing lowered as working clans

womb

aoro and more frequently chose independent work instead of domestic service* groat leveller.

Muoation was doing its bit as the

Middle clans woman* through lack of

employment* often found themselves below the economic level of sons of the lowar classes.

The "blaok~ooatw or sarvloa

occupations wara increasing while manual bat productive jabs wara decreasing daring the sloap.

the high taxes bit

severely into the wealth of the upper classes* though the many consumer taxes hit hardest at the poorer people* forces ware at work among all classes to lower the barriers which separated one from another. the last few years before the war were ones of all-out preparation for battle*

Woaen joined voluntary

service groups* the woman's auxiliaries to the armed forces* and part-time aid units* working before 1941*

Most of these organisations wears

She Wrens, Women's Eoyal naval Berrios,

originated in 1917* was reactivated early in 1939*

The

1* T. S. * auxiliary Territorial Service* was the women's branch of the Army.

The W. A* A. f»v women's Auxiliary Air

126 three* was organised as a branch of the Royal Air Force in tune* 1939•*

la these three service units *000 x1 of all

Classes joined efforts aa equals.

The largest single

organisation for voluntary work among civilians waa the W« V. S. .Women's Voluntary Bcrvioe.

It waa organised in

If)# under the Direction of Sir Sanual Hoare, Bona Secretary* Oy tha Dowager Marchioness of Reading.

Their

uniform bora no badge of rank* and tha hierarchy waa baaed aolaly on tha power of tha individual to serve. 2

Tha

Women's Land Army* tha Field Auxiliary Nursing Yeomanry* tha Meohanissd Transport Corps* and many other organizations served with great honor daring tha war*

women worked aide

by aide with men in anti-aircraft batteries* transported big bombers from factory to airfield.

As has bean said

before* custom and public opinion are the strongest influences on tha economic and social position of woman. The work dona by women for the war* not only made victory possible* but also greatly changed society's regard for woman.

As F. B* Priestly said whan considering England's

forty-five million standing up to Germany's eighty and ninety million* "Our survival as a free people depended upon our adequate use of man power.

Unless we made the very

1. Margaret diddle* The Woman of England * passim. 2. Mrs. Mary D. Cox* British women at War* p. 47.

129 M»«t of what we had, we could not hop# to survive. had seventeen million adult women 1a this island,

w# It was

urgently necessary that women ahould play their part la the war effort. 1*1

from the beginning their cooperation

wasgladly given.

Necessities of war wiped out all excuses

whloh had previously kept women from various occupations, training, and privileges. reversed.

The 1935 conditions were

WOaea wears he lag oonsoripted Into work whloh had

formerly been denied them.

Public opinions changed slowly,

but change they did as proof was obtained of women's adaptability and capability. One other factor should be given credit for helping to break down olass barriers.

In 1935 the Left

Book Club was founded and answered by rightist sentiment in the Penguin books.

These small, inexpensive editions

were bought in astronomical numbers by the working classes, who found them,usually, to be good reading.

The books were

educative, on the whole, and contributed a form of education eagerly sought and well enjoyed.

Aimed at the lower classes,

they, naturally, pictured working class or middle class heroes.

Reverence for the aristocrat was breaking down.

1. John B. Priestly, British Women Co to War, p. 7.

130

flam

women's Movement during these eight years,

particularly through tba efforts of tba educated middle elaaa women, continued to agitata tor equality for woman. Whey fought tba marriag©~bar where It operated: In Civil Sara lea | In tba schools, and In some occupations. Paring tba sltuap years, tba soaroity of jobs helped maintain this restriction.

However, as men wara recruited

into tba services in increasing numbers, married women were needed and filtered into these occupations, at least for tbe duration of tba war. In 1934 tbe Government reviewed women's plea to be admitted to tbe Diplomatic and Consular Service.

Six

men and two women were on tbe investigating committee. Only tbe two women recommended tbat women be admitted to these services. Ve are concerned only with tbe situation as it is today, and we are satisfied tbat in tbe present state of public opinion, both in this country and abroad, tbe admission of women to tbe Consular Service would result in barm to tbe efficiency of tbe State. We think tbat it would also tend to prejudice the position which tbe women's sooieties wish to advance. 36* On tbe other band, if tbe women's movement should continue to gain ground, classes of tbe population as yet unaffected will become accustomed to tbe Idea of tbe employment of women in spheres at present closed to them.

131 la that event the natter oan he reconsidered la the light of the circumstances then existing** Thus* did public opinion dictate to the Government at leant to the men on that particular committee. Da 1936 a resolution waa panned by the Government in favor of equal pay for equal work, and members of the Houne of Commons spoke In favor of it*

She final decision*

however* wan always that the principle was fine* but* In effect* It might cause Inflation*

The right time never

name to put the principle Into operation* In the Personal Injuries (Emergency Provisions) hot of 1939* the economic equality principle was not followed*

Injury allowances to gainfully occupied Civil

Defence Volunteers due to the war were: married men In a hospital* 33s Od; single men 24* 6 d; and women 17* 6d regardless of marital status. 2 Other than economic considerations Influenced the movement for legal equality.

By the Matrimonial

Causes Act of 1937 a woman* whose husband had deserted her or who had been deported from the United Kingdom under law* was allowed legally to be domiciled where she lived

1* Documents Belating to the Admission of Women to the w r a a w 'g r a w r t m ^

mix vmrowz y:0.---------

2* Beport froa the Select Committee on Bqual Compensation, 1943* hMSd* pm 3* iriir""1

132 and not with her husband,

A woman could keep bar maiden name when married i

or change bar name though not married.

An unmarried

woman could and did change sometimes to the name of a married man who had a legal wife.

Some liberties could

lead to confusion. On the whole, however, the greatest changes la women’s legal status whloh occurred during these eight pears were the results of war efforts. were entrusted to the Government,

Women's liberties

like men, they wears

conscripted for work or military service.

As happened

with the outbreak of the first World war, so again with the second World War, the Women's Movement postponed its official work until the return of peace. ^ ^ a t ^ m and J||gyigal Education In 1933 the public educational system was continuing the gradual reorganisation plan advocated by the Hadow Report of 1926*

The 1931 Education Act, some­

times called the Gsddes Axe, had emphasised economy and had cancelled much governmental financial support originally intended to help build new buildings. Revertheless, by 193d, there were sixty-three and a half

m par sent of the pupils over the reorganised schools.*

or eleven in

The principle of a oomplete break

from tha primary school at age eleven-plus waa spreading throughout tha nation, although tha strain on tha Looal Education Authorities waa sometimes wary great. Pinally, in 1926, an Education Act waa paaaad to solve some or tha reorganisetional problems.

The aohool

leaving ago waa intandad hy thia law to ha raised to rirteea aa or September let, 1939, with an exemption allowance for beneflolal employment.

The outbreak or war,

however, postponed the enactment of this measure.

This

Education Aot empowered looal Education Authorities to make grants of not less than fifty per sent, nor more than seventy*flve per eent of the eost of aohool buildings for senior age children.

The Importance of this ean he judged

•when it is realised that even in 193d only about 10 per eent of children in England and Wales gained admission to secondary schools." 2 Xn 1930 the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education, under the chairmanship of Sir Will Spans 1, Howard 0. Barnard, A Short History of English Education, p. 279. ~ 2. Harold G. Dent, British Education, p. 21 .

134 Issued • report on Secondary Bduoatlon. this 47* page report contains eleven chapters whose titles are noted Here te shew the wide range of topics covered* Chapter Chapter

Chapter

Chapter Chapter Chapter

Chapter Obapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

X Sketch of toe Development of the Traditional Curriculum la Secondary Sohools XX The Present Position la Respect of Provision for Secondary and Junior Technical Education la Ragland and Wales 111 A Brief Outline of tbe Here Salient features la tbe Dips leal and Rental Development of OHlldrea between tbe Ages of 11 plus and 16 plus X? Tbe Curriculum of tbeGrammarSobool V scripture VI Certain Other Sub jests inWhloh the Committee Bare Recommended substantial Changes, Ramelyt English; Glassies; ifi&thematies; General seleaoe VII The School Certificate inanimation VIII Technical High Schools and Other Technical Schools IX Administrative Problems X Welsh Problems XX summary of Principal Conclusions, Suggestions and Recommendations

This report advocated a wider variety In school curricula, not so great Importance attached to examinations, and the development of technical secondary schools*

The

committee felt that all children's curricula should provide a liberal education of eoual status up to the age of about thirteen*plus, after which time specialisation might be desirable*

At thlrteea~plua age transfer among

Schools laterally should be possible without disadvantage

135 to any PUpil*

It particularly called attention to

individual 4 Ifforenoon la needs* abilities, ana Interests of children* incorporating m o b of tbe material secured for tbo Report of 1923 on Different let Ion of Curricula between tbo Sexes in Secondary Schools* Ragland was trying to solve tbo problem of giving education to aXX children*

for tbis attempt tbo

traditional grammar sobool was not salted, slnoo it only prepared for University work*

Provision should be made

for tbe vast majority of youngsters who weren*t intending to go to college*

tbe Spans Report advoeated "streams"

or areas of Interest set up from wbleb boys and girls would choose*

d sobool algbt contain several "streams" or

only one depending on tbe Looal Rduoatlon Authority* but in a child's distrlet or made available through other means should be tbe "stream** of bis interest*

Bash area

was to be of equal status* in an effort to overeome the discriminatory effect of tbe grammar school* the Spans Report was a very significant dooument* dealing with all phases of Secondary Iduoatlon for boys and girls* and aafctng over 169 Suggestions and Recommendations • The general purpose of education as formulated by tbis committee is found in tbe following statement;

136 In our fiet a school fulfills Its proper purposes la so far aa it fosters that growth, helping itiiy bey and girl to achieve the highest degree of individual development of whloh he or she is eapablei and all that we say about the curriculum ef the school is to be applied in the light of this declaration. 1 The results of research in the field of causation were mahlng educationists mere eager for scientifically proven facts and less eager to hold to time worn tradition in educational methods.

The Dalton plan, the project

method, extensive intelligence and aptitude testing were among the new devices or aids which educators were using. The emphasis became attached to the individual, his needs, his abilities, and his Interests,

HO longer were groups

as "boys*, "girls", the upper class, etc., considered to be so homogeneous as formerly.

The Government on both a

national and local seals was faced with meeting these varying needs.

The more children who attended school,

and the longer they stayed in school, the wider was the range of variance with whloh the schools had to cope.

The

problem of public education was becoming more complex, and its solution more expensive. On Psbruary 15, 1939 a motion was proposed in the House of Commons tentatively suggesting that the Board 1. Secondary Bdueatloa, Board of Iducation, England,

a ro r'pp, iira w r:.

X37 #r JMiAamifttou silould consult with Local jgduoatlon Authorities and other educational interests to determine haw tar tha recommendations of tha Spans Report should ha earrlad into effect.!

When war broke out la tar that year

Xaglaad waa seriously considering widespread educational refera measures*

It la to her groat credit that war aid

not postpone thaaa deliberations*

tha Education hat or

1944 aaa one or tha graataat wartime victories ror tha

Bnglleh people.

Bat England waa awake not only to tha needs or har youth who wara la aahooXa but also to tha needs or har youngsters who wara no longer la schools • Xa 1939 the Britiah government, mindful or the grata physical, mentaX and moral deterioration which aaaurad among adolescent youths during tha X9X4-XB war, oaXXad upon tha XooaX education authorities ror higher aduaatloa sod the voluntary aoolatlaa to co-operate, in rraa and e# elt,, p. 77 ,

U7 During the Heformatioa Luther9s word carried great weight, and hie views on the statue of women; were very realistic ones.

He felt that all men and women should

marry, aid that marriage was not a holy sacrament but a natural act. When Luther declared the satisfaction of sensual desire to be a law of nature, he openly expressed what his . contemporaries thought and what the men olalmea as their privilege. By the reformation, whloh did away with the oelibaoy of the clergy and abolished the monasteries in the Protestant countries, he gave to hundreds of thousands of men and women the possibility to seek legitimate satisfaction of their natural desires.* He longer was woman the temptress of man to sinful pleasures, rather they were equals In natural human emotions.

The

tolerance of the Middle Ages toward sensuality, however, changed under Protestantism to a strict Intolerance for waywardness. The religious wars whloh decimated Germany made the condition of women even more difficult, as one army after another ravaged the country, living off the land as it went.

The nobility did nothing to ease the common peoples9

burdens, aad usually they took advantage of the confusion to acquire what property they could.

i* Ibid.i p. 02.

188 At the « m

of the seventeenth century women

excluded from the trades*

The eeenomlo deoline of

the sixteenth centuries wiped out the eoonomlo and social privileges the burgher women bad previously won for themselves* Court life in Germany during the eighteenth century waa famous for ita Tulgarity and sensuality*

The

two chief eltiea9 Berlin and Vienna, seemed to he the worst, although Maria Theresa tried without success in Vienna to reform the aorals of her court*

Among the

nobility the women were the pawns of non, who often had several legal wives at one tine.

The nobility who ruled

the eourta were aeoustoned to keeping standing armies and living extravagantly*

All this meant that the lower elasses

were heavily taxed and eeonomioally burdened* Bur log the eighteenth century* muoh of western Surope was advancing in oonneree and industry*

Around

1770 England was well started in the Industrial Revolution* but Germany* of all these oountries in western Surope* was the nost retarded as a result of the religious wars and its political disunity* Many German states made it difficult for people to marry lest more beggars and wanderers should spread over the oountry*

Buoh restrlotions only increased immorality

1*9 and lowered tii« dignity of marriage*

Qaly in Prussia as*

Saxony war* marriage laws rather liberal. This, was the scene la Germany when the French Revolution occurred.

Some of it* ideas influenced education

la Germany ft* In other countries*

Nat long after that

revolution Napoleon swept across Surope.

Hie rule mstfl

mash that waa el* an* decrepit aad entiled the flame that had began to hurt ter national unity, national prIda, and reform of old disgraces*

fht prosperity of other natlona

more advanced than Germany in indue try gate the Germane an example to follow*

In the yearn after Napoleon1a defeat

great ehangea took plane in Germany's eeonony and noelal life*

With the Induetrial Revolution a new era opened for

wanaa* legal Statue The legal poeltien of women in Germany prior to the Industrial Revolution was perhaps meet advantageous among the ancient German tribes • Her power was based not on any legal arrangement, hut was found in the religious ideas of the people. She was endowed with that mysterious and awe* cit*, p* 219*

*• Ibld*»

22*-226«

19? The Reformation period in Korop* covers mainly the sixteenth end seventeenth centuries.

It Is

characterised bp « growing spirit of natlonallsm, sonstaut religious wars* growing use of tbs vernacular languages, tba desire for eeoaosLie gain assisted and protested bp tbs state, growing seeularisation of education, and, above all and partially tbs eause of all, a revolt from tbe controls and abuses of tbe Gatbolio Church. Martin Luther, tbe spearhead of tbe attack upon tbe Gatbolio Gburob in Germany, was originally a monk and university professor wbo objected so vo©ally to tbe Gburob vises that be was exeomsiunleated by tbe rope.

Although

bis preachings touobed off tbe religious wars wbleb ruined (formamp’s eoonoay and edusational system, still bis doetrines bad aany good Influences on education as well. The Reformation sew tbe rise of doubt and skeptic ism.

Tbe

great destruction perpetrated in tbe name of religion led sen to seek new truths and question tbe authority of religion. There spread over Europe, also, after the Reformation and because of it, a growing respect for science and for tbe scientific spirit.

This growing reliance upon human reason

and science bad tremendous implications for education at all levels.

19* Luther did naeh for general education,

Be

translated the Bible Into vernacular Berman and wrote much else which was used by school* for instruction la tba eeanoa tongue*

Although this aided education's sproa4 among the

masses It further divided tba uppar classes who studied ,1a Latin from tba lower classes.

Hit aarllar statements

argot all ablldraa} rlab and poor, bays aad girla, to bases* edueated, bat there should be oaa fora for tba lower alaaaaa and another form of education for tba uppar alaaaaa. la a part of bla ganaral conception of universal education for rallgloua and polltloal porpoaaa, ba urged tbat girla ba educated,

Bader bla stimulus tba Protestant rolara were

urged to a tody tbair schools and to reform them by civil authority.

Several of tba Berman atataa and fraa oltiaa

issued civil oodaa for tba conduct of aoboola.

"tba aohool

cede of wurttaaburg la 1959 was oaa of tba most far-reaching, prevld lag for tba establishment of vernacular elementary aoboola to taaob boya and girla reading, writing, arithmetic, muala and religion,

These aoboola wara to ba established

la every village and to ba taught by tba eburob sexton, lb general, the Haformatlon began to emphasise tba lmportaxkce of wall prepared taaebara.

1# Ibid.. p. 259.

Luther hoped for a teach log

199 profession that would be w e H trained, respected, and licensed by tbe government,

Student fees and tuition,

often supplemented by funds from the government or church treasury paid the teachers* salaries* Luther emphasised the family as an educative institution to encourage moral and religious discussion and training the child in a trade,

Be felt that all

children should be educated as good Ohrlstians for the €hurch and also as good workers for the state, The upper classes established new academies and widened the curriculum to include the sciences, vernacular schools included new subjects tooi

The the Bible,

Lutheran hymns, history, writing, reading, arithmetic, and Physical Education.

Germany led Europe in vocational

education emphasis,

Luther felt every child should be

taught a trade, but that this should be done in the home. The commercial cities taught commercial arithmetic and bookkeeping, and the guilds maintained their Influence in many places, training youth in vocations and sometimes also in guild schools.

Thus the Reformation at least

expressed the doctrine that education should fit the children for the active pursuits of life. As has been mentioned before, Luther felt that the Latin secondary school was the prime eduoatlonal agency

200 far the proastlon of tbe Reformation la Germany*

HI*

faithful *!**, Melanehthoa, who had charge of reorganizing secondary education la Lutheran Germany wa* very aotlT* la establishing olassleal sohools which laid tha foundations for Germany9* modern Gymnasium* There wara many Lutheran universities la Germany, (not open to woman), whloh served tha rulers* and ohuroh9* aaada for scholars*

Wittenberg, Leipzig, Frankfurt,

Tubingen, Rostock, Marburg, Jena, Strasbourg, and Konigsberg aaintalnad Lutheran unlvers ities • Actually Luthar had many fine Ideas on oduoation quite advanced for hla time*

Ha believed elementary adueatloa

should ba adapted to tha capacities of tha 1 earners and should ba made pleasant and interesting to tha pupils by studying things as wall as words, and softening tha discipline*

Advenes* wara mads in teaching methods long

after his death whloh may be traced In part to his beliefs and preachings •*> The early modern period before 1015 traced tha rise of Prussia, under the Hohenzollern kings, to be the leading state in Germany, under Frederick tha Great and his suoeessors.

Butts terms this period as viewed culturally

1* Ibid*t p# 270.

201 the TOmllghtean»at,,« the Halighteiimsat was a reaction against the abselutlstio and authoritarian regimes of the Reformation. Xt was a protest against absolute monarchy* against authoritarian eooaomie systems* against rigid soolsX stratification* against reXigious authoritarianism* against an unscientific world view* against the doctrine of original sin in human nature* and against the domination of InteXXeetuaX life by aneieat end medieval oonoeptions of truth and knowledge. Underlying these protests was a growing faith in the eommon man* in soienoe* and in human reason.* Prussia during this period serried national eontrol of eeueation further than any other European eountry. At Halle, Hermann Franeke estahllshed a variety of edneational institutions whloh Prederiok William X copied in several hundred sohools.

One of these at Halle was the

grasceum. the first modern sehool for girls.

Sohools for

girls were improving and the status of women was rising. Frederick William X* also* Issued sohool laws in 1713 and 1717 making it oompulsory for all parents to send their children to sohool* and in 1737 a general sohool eode provided government aid to build sohools and to pay teachers.

In 1763 Prederiok XX drew up the Prussian sohool

Code whloh laid the basis for the national Prussian system of elementary education and* among other things* made

^

P* 3*6.

202 attendance compulsory for all children between five and thirteen years of age.

In 1727 the final step was taken

la establishing state authority over sohools when Prederiok William XI took tha supervision of sohools out of the hands of the clergy and put it in the hands of the state ministry of education.

Basedow* who was famous for his school* the

Pkllanthroplum* helped create a demand for secular control of sohools.

He felt children of all religions were entitled

to access to public sohools.

thus* developed the dual

system of education in Germany.

These public schools were

for the masses* while the private* fee-charging* olasaioal schools were for the upper classes There were some outstanding women figures during this period* and even some men who were cooperating for the advancement of women.

As German literature rose to new

heights with Slopstook, Lessing* and Kent* women became more and more interested in writing. Self--express ion was a growing need* and it came to be the slogan of the later decades* when emotion was more esteemed than logic* The women of the eighteenth century felt this urge as well as men. ...They first found this* very naturally* in a literary way. What other field was open to them but that which had been accepted before as the respectable pastime for ladles.* 1. Ibid.. p. 327. 2. Hugh W. Puckett* Germany*a Women Go forward, p. 21,

203 Gottsshed published s ladles' home journal, Dio vernunstigen Tadlcrlnaen In 172 $, the first one of its kind in Germany, Out to bo followed soon by many others* This journal encouraged women writers and printed their contributions.

In 1733 the University of Wittenberg

crowned Mariana Ziegler as a poetess, the first honor a Osman university had ever extended to a woman* In 1734 Dorothea Christiana Hrxleben was granted the Doctor of Mediolne Degree, having been taught by her father*

frederiQk the Croat became interested in her and

requested the University of Halle to give her the examinatIon, whloh she passed with honors*

Hot for another

generation did a woman in Germany receive a university degree* The whole period was full of surprises* As more and more of these talents were discovered, the public came to feel that possibilities had been overlooked in the fweaker sex1, and this recognition was accompanied by a sort of sense of equality of the sexes* It is not recorded how the majority of the women felt toward their more prominent sisters* The men, at least, seemed to think well of them, and cooperated with them, a real test of their approval* Sophie La Boehe is easily the most important feminine figure In the eighteenth century* In the early part of her life she wrote as a pastime} later*..she made a profession of it* ...She demonstrated what the women of the next century proclaimed-*-that womanliness Is not lost when a

204 woman hhlnfcs and ache as an indlvidua1 instead of merely aa a member of the ’other tex1 ;1 Sophie La Hoohe was tha first woman of her country to write a novel, g|e fleaohlchta dee Traulelns von sternholsu and it oaa Tory wall received,

fhe tide of feminine literature

gained strength durlmg tha century and waa soon taken for granted, tha question of feminism was spread lag from JSaglamd and Trance,

tha first article on the subject

appeared in 1792t Pabar d^c burgerliohc Terbeaacrung der Wicber, Civil Improvement of toman» by a man named von Hlppel, woman,

It waa an earnest appeal for the emancipation of "this sincerity in his last work— he died in

l?96~*beapeaka the beginnings of a new epoch, and a new treatment of the woman question, "2 Hippal believed woman Should receive tha same education aa boys with tha addition of instruction in housewifely duties, and he believed in coeducation to tha time of adolescence,

Ha believed women were capable of all

occupations that provided no sex hindrance.

He relt

competition between the sexes would be good for both sexes, It Hugh W, Puckett, * clt*> pp. 49*56.

206 Physical Education,

tha great masses of lower class women

ware trained at home for the physioal labors of the hone e? farm, as were the women of the ancient German tribes. What few women there were of the potential middle class learned their physical work either at home or In the guilds to which they belonged.

The ladles of the nobility had a

few sports as falconry, horseback-riding, dancing, and sometimes hunting.

They are known to have hunted with dogs,

to have ridden mounted astride, and to have killed quarry with bow and arrow. The feudal ladies seem to have been well practised in the use of the bow. ••.There was another way of taking rabbits, whloh appears to have been a favourite among the ladles, that of drawing them out of their burrows with ferrets. ...The ladies were, mo doubt, fond of their dogs; but they were no less attached to their hawks or falcons. . . 1 later one read that ladles fished "with the angle" as another form of amusement. All classes had their own forms of dancing.

The

courtly dances might have been refined and modeled after the Frenoh, but the folk dances of the common people were also very popular. The ladles of the feudal ages were passionately fond of dancing. They danced in the chambers, and in the gardens, and they even wandered into the fields to dance. The favourite dance was the oarole, 1. Thomas Wright, C£. cit., pp. 229-230.

207 la which those who Joined la It danced la a ring and accompanied their movement with sloping, and this dance waa so universally used, that the common word far, to dance, waa oajoler--*to carol** Men, of course, had always had their sports, particularly daring tha day* of feudalism whan knighthood eat tha style*

As tha aaoatlolam of Christianity became

popular, tha body waa naglaotad and healthful exercise waa disregardad.

The Reformation and tha spread of Humanism

turned attention to the value of the body and renewed Interest la tha Creek ideal of a healthy mind In a healthy body. "In Germany, Martin Luther (1432*1546) realized tha recreative and moral value of bodily exercise, and recommends especially sports as fencing and wrestling* * 2 Re did not seam to be Interested In physioal activity for girls for tha sake of their physical development or pleasure, but recognised its value for boys* from this time on, it Is not difficult to find evidence of Physical Education for boys in schools* Joachim Gamerarlum (1500*1547), who taught in Nuremberg, Tubengen, and the University of Leipzig, wrote Dialogue da Oyanaaila encouraging boys to take part In various sports !♦ Thomas Wright, Womankind In Western Kurope, p» 139* 2* Frederick R* Leonard, A quids to the History of Physioal Bducatlon* p* 53*

206 and gymnastics.

Johann Amos Oomeaiua (1592-1671)# a

Moravian pastor ana teacher, wrote of tbe benefits of physioal exercise.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1773)

believed that Sophie should have the same exercises as Smile hut only for the purpose of being strong enough to do with grace whatever were her duties*

John Locke,

(1632-1704)# advocated physioal exercises for all children* frledrloh Hoffmann, (1660-1742), a distinguished German physician wrote an essay "On Motion, the Best Medicine for the Body**

Joseph friedrich fcuokert, (1737*1776), and

Simon Andre Tissot, (1726-1797) are other educators who encouraged physioal exercise for bodily development* asceticism of the Middle Ages was gone*

$he

People were

becoming more and more eager to develop healthy bodies as well as Christian souls.* Johann Bernhard Basedow, (1723*1790), established In Dessau a progressive school called the Phllanthroplum* Although he remained with the school only from 1774 to 1776 his ideas continued for many years*

Physioal Education was

one of the prinoiples in whloh Basedow believed, and special teachers continued to Invent apparatus and organize games*

1* Frederick E* Leonard, oj>* olt., passim*

209 Similar schools ware established in other c it log* one of which was Sohnepfenthal Educational Institute*

GutsMutha

went there to teaoh Physical Education in 1736 and stayed for nearly fifty years.

He Invented more apparatus, kept

aecurate account of students1 progress, and wrote two classice. Gymnastics for the

and Games, which, in

translation, were soon spread over Europe* The last great figure of this period who was concerned with Physical Education was Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1776-1653) who became the father of German gymnastics and the leader of the playground movement.

His importance to

the field of women's Physical Education lies in the fact that the great popularity of physical activity spread from men to women.

As hundreds of Turnplaetze opened for men

throughout Germany, one in 1632 was opened for women by Brast Slseln in Berlin.

Jahn's book. Die Peutsohe Turnkunst,

served as a manual for Physical Education for all those interested, which included women as well as men.

From this

period on, women were in the field of Physical Education and steadily Increased their interest. Jahn's Interest was not in Physical Education as an end in Itself,

He was an ardent patriot and was deeply

grieved by Hapo Icon's defeat of Prussia,

He determined to

210

help the coming War of Liberation by developing strong man through bla gymnastics and ardent patriots through his example and teachings.

Ba was vary successful in

aooompllshing those aims* W i l ^ l

to World War I, 1815*1914

After tha fall of Napoleon in 1815 representatives of tha European powers convened at tha Congress of Vienna to remake tha map of Europe.

Prinoe Clemens Metternloh,

tha Austrian Ohanoallor and Foreign Minister,, ruled tha convention through skillful diplomacy and the popularity of his reactionary poliolas*

His ideas so dominated central

Europe that the 1815-1830 period is sometimes called tha "Era of Hetternich”. He supported political absolutism, suppressed nationalism, fought liberal political tendencies, and pushed tha map of Europe back to much the same shape it had had before Napoleon's rise,

The Germanise were

organised into a loose confederation with Austria the most important member.

Prussia received part of saxony and

come land along the Rhine. After the Vienna conference two political alliances were formed to preserve the settlement.

The Holy Alliance

was composed of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, while the

2XX Quadruple Alliance was formed of Austria, Groat Britain, Prussia, and Russia*

This lattor group under Metternloh*a

op# suppressed aXX liberal tendencies whloh appeared, including the activities of German secret soolotlos*

Tha

ideas of tha freach Revolution, expressed in "Liberty, Equality, and fraternity", had sproad throughout Central Europe and smoldered in many places despite Metternloh*a decrees*

The new middle classes wanted constitutional

governments and social reforms*

Discontent was spreading.

By 1830 Metternloh*a ideas were less strongly enforced,

England dropped out of the Quadruple Alliance

and later Joined with Russia in helping Greece win her independence*

A middle class revolt broke out in 1830 and

set up a constitutional government in francs under Louis Phillips*

This proved the spark which touched off explosions

in many other countries*

Belgium won her independence*

Italy challenged the power of the Pope*

But Metternloh*a

power served to crush the revolts In central Europe, at least for the time being* Xn Germany the Industrial Revolution was just beginning to get under way and had not yet developed a strong middle class*

The power of the landed aristocracy

was still very strong, especially that of the Junker class in Eastern Germany, where feudalistlo rule had endured until

212 tsry ? W « U y ,

Among the intclligensia, however, the ideal*

of liberalism were spreading, and the universities, especially, were becoming oenters of discontent, Following the example of the French liberals, German liberals in I848 instigated a series of uprisings* liest of the &eraan states wanted a constitutional monarchy, a free press, and a mere strongly unified Germany.

Many of

the princes who ruled these small states or independent cities complied by installing liberal ministries and by premising to consider constitutions*

Xn Berlin the rioting

was so serious that Frederick William 17 of Prussia felt it wise to appoint a liberal ministry and call together an assembly to consider a constitution. In 1846 an assembly of leaders from all the German states met at Frankfurt to draw up a constitution for the entire G o m a n confederation.

She crown of this united

Germany was offered to Frederick William XV of Prussia.

But

the fire was dying out of the liberal movement, and Frederick William's hatred of constitutional governments led him to decline the offer.

She Frankfurt Assembly broke up,

having accomplished little, and many of Its leaders fled the country. Frederick William saw the reactionary tide return and dismissed his liberal ministry.

She constitution whloh

2XJ wasgrants, be himself drew up* and It contained little at a liberal nature.

tha Prussian troops easily scattered

tha remaining liberal agitators, and many poXltlaaX refugees fled to tha United states.

Many more wara jailed.

Thus

ended another attempt at tha unification of tha Gasman states. Germany waa atlXX only a loose confederation. But la 1861 William X earns to tha throne of Prussia and Brought with him a keen desire for Prussian supremacy in a strongly united Germany.

So built up his army until tha

Prussian Parliament objected to his militarism.

Almost at

ansa William called on Bismarck to subdue Parliament and te carry on the enlargement of the army.

The king allowed

Bismarck to rule as a dictator* and the army grew and grew. Tha reign of the "Iron Chancellor* had begun>and *blood and iron" became his motto. In 1864 Bismarck went to war against Denmark.

In

this ha had the help of Austria* and so he had to divide the spoils with her after the nulek victory.

But this

division of the spoils allowed Bismarck just the excuse he had wanted of challenging Austria for the leadership la Germany.

In seven weeks Austria was defeated* and Prussia

was the dominant force to lead Germanyfs future. from that time on was outside of *the Germanics*.

Austria

214 Prussia was the leader* and so one goal had been reached. '-It was next her plan to unite Germany. In 1867 at the end of the war with Austria* Prussia joined all the German states in the north into a Berth German Confederation.

The king of Prussia was the

president* and the legislature consisted of a Bundesratj made up of the princes of the states, and a Reichstag vClooted by universal manhood suffrage.

The southern states which

did not join the confederation had a close economic bond with Bismarck's Prussia through the gollverela, a oommeroial union whloh had served since 1834 as a Customs Union beneficial to the interests of the commercial people in those states whloh belonged to It. Bismarck's military successes made him so popular that he was then supported by the national Liberal Party* which favored a strong central government* militarism* and free trade.

But still Bismarck wanted to unite the southern

states within his Germany.

He felt that a war against their

traditional enemy* franee* might accomplish his purpose. X&1870 Prance and Germany did go to war against each other* supposedly over matters related to the Spanish crown.

After

a four month ielge of Paris* the city fell)and Bismarck’s second goal was fulfilled.

The war allied the southern

German states with Prussia during the fighting.

A common

aid bead ©f pride la victory increased the power of nationalism 1,8 the people enough tooveroeme the separate wishes of the

ruling princes*

On January 18, 1871, the King of Prussia

became the Bmperor of Germany.

At last there waa tut oaa

Germany* from 1871 to 1914 Germany 9s Industrial Revolution made tar tha most advanced taohaloal nation la tha world. factories sprang up; railroads wara built; ships wara launahad; coal and iron produo tion was increased tremendously* Along with this growth in productivity want tha strong military tradition*

A hugs navy was developed, and by

1914 8 amany had tha most powerful fighting machine in tha world*

All of Sura pa was an armed camp, but in Germany

military afflolanoy was at a paak and military officers wialdad great power ovar tha alvll government* Bismarck was opposed to damooratlo movements, and yet tha rising middle olass did not resent him*

Ha gave

them a strong government, efficiently run, and a cause of pride*

William I was succeeded by Broderick III, and three

months later, after his father9© death, William XI came to tha throne*

Bismarck was not favored by the new Smperor,

and in 1890 was asked to resign* The growth of Germany during this period was tremendous*

Germany9* manufactured products ware spreading

zu over

the world, and tor industry and commerce wars thriving.

Golonles wars saourad in tto m e if la, and German capital was invested in many lands«

It was a powerful and completely

united Germany whloh entered the first World War. Sooial Position and So ononis Opportunities fhe German woman9a position, socially and economically, was determined for her by tor closest or eldest male relative*

"On the whole, tto German believes

that the woman*s province is within the limits of the household*

He wants her to be a homemaker, and in Germany

what •he9 wants her to do still fixes the standard*wi

this

was written in 190 $ and was even more true toward 1$1 $, the early limit of this period* Individual women had become outstanding for their chasm, wit, or beauty, and a few even for their intellect* These few usually rose to fame through the support of their talents by interested and influential gentlemen.

An example

of such a woman is Hahel, who maintained a colon of the Semantic literary figures in Berlin from around 1$00 until 1$33, except for the period of turmoil during the Napoleonic conquest*

She gathered around her many great men of her era*

But Hahel was tto wife of Varohagee von hnse who was quite 1* Mrs* Alfred Sidgwick, Home Life in Germany, p. 71*

21? *11 Important person In diplomatic circles,

He? salon was

aside possible through the support of others, not by her efforts alone** the period of the 1030*1 and 1840 *s witnessed crewing political unrest*

the liberals who wanted refores

in the government, at the sane tine; had an influence on the status of women.

A

certain element advocated ”the

emanolpation of the flesh19 and also "the emancipation of women”, the combination made the cause of feminism suffer and gave the German anti-feminists much fuel for debate* the phrase ”aew women” and the phrase "emancipation of women” became very unpopular, so much so that later feminist leaders avoided their usage if possible,

the example of

George Sand in France allowed room for much criticism, even though there were none such vulnerable and famous German women, who affected msn9s clothing and enjoyed married life without benefit of the wedding ceremony* Gradually the literary world turned its attention to the great masses of German women*

Although this period

saw the spread of liberalism in many states of Germany, the idea was not applied to woman in a broad sense*

There were

many German women who were unmarried and many other married

1* Hugh W* Puckett, oj)« oit.. pp. 97-99.

218 M M ito had to earn a living,

fhese thousands of workers

watt la groat need of training for jobs whloh would pay a living wags, and also la need of a wider range of available vocations.

As the Industrial Bevoiutioa slowly developed,

more and more middle elass women realized this need and sought its solution.

Where previously individuals had stood

out as lone champions of women’s rights» now women began to think and not collectively, and muoh was written on the eubjeot. Before the fifties, the woman question was still a philosophic, not to say an aeadeole one. It had been treated, abstractly, by one writer or another— seldom a woman. By the fifth decade eeonomlo conditions injected an element which altered this for all time. ...It Is customarily said that the Bevoiutioa of l&k$ was a failure, but a glance into the use and growth of socialism will convince one that while the idealists of fortyweight were killed off or driven to cover, the workingman lost nothing and gained quite steadily from that time on. $he women of the working elass, however, were much longer in getting a hearing. Louise Otto included them in her program and thus became in every sense of the word the first woman of the real woman’s movement.1 Louise Otto, (1819-1895) was born and reared in Saxony at the time when the introduction of machinery first began to replace hand labor.

All the social evils which

had come to England during the first part of her Industrial

1. Ibid., pp. 127-128.

219 Revolution, visited* Germany, also*

Louise Otto saw bow the

laboring alaaaaa wara being exploited and took up bar pan to protest*

She was grouped with tbe "forty-elghtera*

because of bar idealistic interest in liberalism and social reforms*

Her novel, Louis tbe Waiter, published in 1642

is sometimes called Qermany*s first sociological novel* Her particular objective was to raise tbe condition of working women*

She argued for women*s emancipation in those

newspapers liberal enough to print her ideas*

She advocated

that women should be allowed a share in state duties, that they should be given a good education regardless of class levels, and that they should be guaranteed greater Opportunities for economic independence* A reactionary period followed the Revolution of 1646 , and Fraulein Otto+s liberal views became unpopular

to the authorities* suppressed*

In 1652 her feminist newspaper was

Hot until the 1860*3 did the woman question

come to the surface again* In 1863 Joseph Heinrichs wrote fhe Emancipation of Women, emphasising the two goals women wears seeking, education and an economic footing*

At

that time women were

not even considering the political privileges*

The economic

question was uppermost in their minds, and they needed an education so that they might be self-supporting*

220 |fc October, 186$ Xoulse Otto, then Mrs. Qtto-Peters, called together the first women fs convention in Leipzig. Thesaall Association for Women’s Education, founded in March, 1865 with Mrs. Otto~Peters as President spearheaded the contention and merged into the new and greater National Association of German Women,

the right to work and the

right to an education were the two main objectives of this new group.

Branch societies were organized and New Paths

became their common newspaper in 1866* In the meantime another organization was founded In Berlin in 1865*

Dr. Adolf Lette, an eminent philan­

thropist, called a meeting then, whloh resulted in the Society for the Promotion of the Employment of Women.

In

1889 its name was changed to the Lett© sooiety, after its founder.

Dr. Letts

proved, by the aid of statistics, that a large body of women were forced to earn their own livlihood, and that marriage— since females outnumbered males in Prussia, and also because of certain economic reasons— was not always possible. He called attention to the precarious situation of the daughters of poor government employes when, on the death of their father, they are thrown upon the world wholly unprepared for the struggle of life. He spoke of the few pursuits open to women, of the overcrowding of those not shut against them, and of the low pay resulting from this state of things; and, in conclusion, he predicted fatal results If the sphere of their activity were not enlarged...* 1. the Woman Question in Europe, Theodore Stanton, ed •, p. TXT*

221 9h**a- Ideas forma the basis of the Letts Society's place foir•reform,

The main goal was to discover new occupations

fitted for women* toprotect their economic interests, and to educate them for further employment,

Thus, there arose

two strong women's rights organizations in Germany having approximately the same major goals.

Perhaps the Louise Otto

group had a feroader and more thorough view of the whole question of the women's movement, while the Letts group's aim was more immediate and definite.

Dr. Letts had

announced from the beginning that, "'What we do net want, and never, even in the most distant centuries, wish nor aim for, is emancipation and equal rights for women.,wl this may have won Letts some followers who distrusted emancipation, but it never could win the national Association of Louise Otto. The national Association lectured to public meetings, wrote articles in newspapers and journals, presented resolutions to various policy making groups, and generally put its claims before the public. groups were founded to spread its propaganda.

Local branch Of specific

value were the girls* industrial and professional schools, created in many cities where working women could benefit

1. Hugh W. Puckett, 0£. olt., pp. 142-143.

222 by farther training, aad where some introduction to higher education and "culture" could ha obtained« The Lotto Society did even more educationally than the national Association.

in

1884 it maintained in

Berlin a commercial school, a drawing and modeling school, and a cooking school, while it also girts instruction la washing, ironing, cutting, dressmaking, hand and machine sewing, the manufacture of artificial flowers, and many other hinds of manual and art work* the pupils of these various schools are prepared for the State examinations for drawing teaohers and instructors in mechanic arts, and subsequently find employment in boarding, private, and girls* grammar schools* In another building is a printing offloe, where women are taught to set type* She society also conducts a boarding-house for women (Das Victorias11ft), and in connection with it a women*a restaurant* A shop for the sale of female handiwork, known as the Victoria Bazaar, a free intelligence office, and a bank where women may make on easy terms small loans, or to buy sewing machines, are some of the admirable features of the Letts Society** The first great enthusiasm for a women*s movement waned during the period when Bismarck turned reactionary In the 1330*s and curbed the Socialists and the mere advanced liberals*

By that time, too, the men were beginning to take

seriously the new movement, and they didn’t like its portents* In 1370 Jenny Hlraeh had translated John Stuart Mill’s 1* The Woman question in Europe* Theodore Stanton, ed*, p. 1U .

223 subjection jgf «Mi|*

Sines she was the editor of the

Letts Society's journal* |gft Woman's Advooate. liar name carried with it son# of the strength of the organisation. A Volley of articles waa published ia the last part of the century for and against the woman's movement.

Aa the

proponents baoaoa united and stronger their opponents struok task with ridicule and contempt* fanny Lewald* one of the heat known and heat liked of the women’s movement leaders wrote in 1870, "Even to my own sisters my father made a secret of the fact that 1 waa supporting myself* because it seemed unfitting to him that one of hie daughters was self-supporting.Men of those days who wished to he considered of the refined classes considered it a point of honor to have their daughters idle and dependent upon the home* and they were very hitter toward the entire idea of women’s emancipation.

Miss Lewald

further described the period. •••a girl could not undertake the smallest journey alone; a girl could not decently go into a strange house in order to give an order to a workman; and to exhibit an independent opinion or Interest la general matters* that was absolutely not maidenly* not even womanly. We were not supposed to have any opinion of our own and it was a recognised rule of womanliness to be sure to begin every sentence

1. Ibid.. pp. 143-149.

with *J belleve* or 'they say1 in order thus to put away f r o m us every eemblaaoe of independence, which .•in itself was regarded as presumptuous.* The debate continued#

Men used ridicule, the

fasts of history, ths scientific proofs of physical inferiority, all as had been done previously In England• The mere favorable conditions in Bog land and America encouraged German women to further efforts.

And at this

tine, particularly, English opinion carried great weight in Germany. Before World War X the women1a rights movement was primarily interested in securing a llvllhood for working woman, and this effort absorbed most of its energy. In 1912 Dr. Kaethe Sohlrmacher described the woman's position in Germany. About 50 women doctors are practicing in Germany; as yet there are no women preachers, but there are 5 women lawyers,.. .women are now permitted to aot as counsel for the defendant, there being 60 such women counselors in Bavaria. Becently (1906) even Bavaria refused women admission to the civil service. ...Within the last five years many new callings have been opened to womens they are librarians, ...they are assistants in laboratories, clinics, and hospitals; they make scientific drawings, and some have specialized in microscopic drawing; during the season for the manufacture of beet sugar, women are employed as chemists in the sugar factories; there is a woman architect in Berlin,

and a woman engineer In Hamburg. Woman factory inspectors have performed satisfactory service la all the states of the Empire. Bat the future flaid of work for the German women la the sociological field. 1 Guardians of the poor, nurses, juvenile court assistants, probation offloors, woman police matrons, woman doctors were to bo found where shortly before there had boon none* By 1912 tharo wara 24*000 mambara of tha trade union. Commercial and Benevolent Society for Woman Employees.2 Slowly but steadily through this period woman In Germany won many of tha economic gains which tha English woman had already made*

The German movement concentrated

on tha economic aapaota of women’s needs.

Socially, woman

found themselves still considered to be the class whose first duty waa to serve men.

Those who remained unmarried

were becoming better off economically, but those who married found themselves pretty much in the same social position they had been in before the Industrial Bevolutlon. One characteristic of the German women’s movement which contrasted with that in England was the denominational grouping of the societies.

There were Catholic and Jewish

Women’s societies as wall as Protestant groups.

Another

1* Dr* Xhethe Sohlrmaeher, The Modern woman’s Bights Movement, pp. 148-149*

226 difference* too, was the elate grouping of the organisations. She movement, so far described, waa that of the middle class. Around 1690 the Socialist women formed oluha of the "lower classes" and declared themselves in opposition to cooperation with the "middle classes" as part of their olass war#

Without a doubt, if these hundreds of olubs could

hare resolved their minor differences and amalgamated into one strong federation, the women*a movement in Germany would have made greater strides.

But Germany's previous

history was one of division, not one of compromise leading to united action.

Wot even political union in 1670 could

provide a solid basis for unity in aims for the women*s movement. Legal Status The legal status of women in the early part of this period was very low.

The man as head of the family

was all-important, and the woman as servant of the family of no importance at all.

The married woman belonged to her

husband, and his word was her law.

The unmarried woman was

not supposed to have a career but should live with relatives and work for them, or she might live in a Stift. A Stlft was a home for unmarried middle olass women, often founded by philanthropic organisations or persons.

Here the women

227 061*34 m

an orphanage, 6 school, or be idle depending on

the nature of the gtiftw "But at any rata the German St 1ft eaves many a woman from the tragic struggle with old age and poverty to which the penniless Incapable spinster Is condemned In our country*

It stay not be a paradise* but It

Is a haven."1 This was the general picture in the Germanise of the nineteenth century.

If a woman had board, lodging, and

clothing, according to the means of her male relatives, she had all she could expect of life*

Her place was the hitches,

the nursery, and church If she belonged to the upper or middle classes*

Among tbs lower classes she was expected to

worn where she could be of most service to the men, as in the fields If she were of the peasantry* Locally throughout the Germanics there may have been some legal protection for women, but the 1900 Civil Code defined the farthest limit of such legal advances* la 1910 Puckett wrote, She absence of male representatives has In general thrust legal capability Into the hands of women more and more, so that the culmination of German civil law codification, the civil code of 1900, as far as written law goes...The spirit of these laws Is oontalned in the Introductory clause: fTbe hosband has the right of decision in all matters

1* Mrs* Alfred Sidgwiok, 0£. oit., p» 71*

228 affecting the « m i married lit*. 9 Bines there la nothing which tha wife oan do which nay not ho interpreted m affecting tha common life of tha pair* it ia evident that tha wife la legally dependent on the hue hand at every turn* This despite the clauses which appear to safeguard her interests. It is for this reason that the civil eode is culturally so interesting a document. Xt glees evidence of the straggle of its makers to reoonelle an ana lent tradition with a modern society, ,..The framers of the civil code of 1900 were cons clous of the changed conditions of m o d e m life and sought to do justice to the change by lifting woman out of the class of minors and the feeble-minded and making her legally responsible. But in the case of the married woman they could not bring themselves to make the complete break with tradition, With one hand they gave her rights as an individual, with the other they took them away again by the husband ys veto.* In 1908 women were admitted to political organ* isatlona and meetings by Imperial law. Thereby the German women were admitted to political life, The Woman9s Suffrage Society— founded in 1902, and in 1904 converted into a league— was able previous to 1908 to expand only in the South German states, ».,Slnee 1908 the political woman*s rights movements has been of first importance in Germany, ds the women taxpayers in a number of states can exercise municipal suffrage by proxy, and the women Owners of large estates in Saxony and Prussia can exercise the suffrage in elections for the Piet of the Circle by proxy, an effort Is being made to attract these women to the cause of woman9s suffrage, 2 Although the first suffrage society was not formed until 1902 , the first organised effort to secure the vote 1. Hugh W, Puckett, oj>. clt,, pp. 254-255.

2. Dr. Khethe Sohlrm&oher, oj>. clt,, pp. 156-157*

229 vat made by tha Socialists.

But tha Socialists never

separated this principle from their general demands, and so they art not generally considered a suffrage group. One othar organisation should ha mentioned because af Its work in raising tha lava! of laws concerning woisan and also for raising tha morals of tha country,

The

Huttarsohutg movement attacked tha problem of tha unwed mother.

Katharine Anthony stated in 1915 that in Germany

ana out of ovary twelve babies was illegitimate, and that 110,000 sueh babies wara horn yearly in Germany according to known records whioh wara probably lower than actual facts.

Ellen Kay, of Sweden, wrote much in Germany concern*

lag this problem and advocated a New Ethics of sexual morality and the protection of all motherhood.

Volitional

motherhood, and the equal sanctity of all motherhood were part of the New Ethics program.

In general it strove to

rid the moral code of hypocrisy and needless suffering. 1 "la the field of Legislation the Bund fuer Mutterschut* has been continuously active.

By helping to shape the

legislation for tha protection of mothers in industry and also the development of the maternity insurance system, 1. Katharine Anthony, feminism in Germany and Scandinavia, PP* 03^24• —

230 they have rendered a far-reaching and solid service to millions of women.**'

in part tha organization has been

philanthropic and la part a crusade for a haalthlar end more raallstlo attitude toward the subject of sex. Toward the end of this period women had been completely awakened to the possibility of general emanclpation.

There were thousands of women's clubs eaeh with

Its one specific goal or with a general aim of helping to lift the burdens women had borne for so many years.

By

19fo there were sixty societies in Germany concerned specifically with the Protection of women's Legal Bights. 2 the Germany of 1913 presented a completely different picture for woman than it had one hundred years before.

Women were

organised and, little by little, were gaining their desired privileges. Bdueatlon and Physical Education for Women In any country, the development of education for women closely parallels the evolution of their social position.

As women in Germany rose in general esteem from

1615 to 1914 * so also did they gradually acquire better

educational opportunities •

The problem became acute as

fold.* P* X15* 2. Hugh W. Puckett, oj>. clt.. p. 255*

231 women of the middle classes sought economic security and training for worthwhile careers* t

And men, in turn* added

their usual scorn for woman's intellectual abilities,

a new amotion, that of fear of the potential competition women night offer nan in the buelneas world*

Men felt

that they had enough eonpetition from other non without adding women to the lint of applicant® for good jobe. Karl ron fiaumer in 1061 wrote an enlightening Bdueatlon of CHrls which described in auoh detail hie opinlono on euitahle inatruetion for young ladlee*

He

scornfully admitted that a great many parenta brought up their glrla in auoh a way that they might aoon get married, and were educated merely to attract and please men*

women

should hare been trained instead in all the household arts* girls belong to their own families; family life la their sohool. •♦ .The older girls, in assisting their mothers in housekeeping, in teaching the younger children, etc*, learn in the simplest and moat natural way what they will subsequently need to know, as housewives; without being pedantically and coarsely instructed about their future duties as mothers, and only made into governesses after all* Bor nothing but governesses can be formed by such a seminary as we have made mention of; stiff governesses who will bring their husbands no dowry ereept a system of education* 1 Ton Baumer was referring to teacher training schools;

1* Karl von Baumer, Education of Qlrls, p« 307*

232 *1* has even been suggested that teachers» seminaries for girls should Ha established* ”1

This quotation may bo but

out Individual1* opinion, but there were many other Germans oho felt that women oould be educated adequately in the homo. do the numbers of middle olass women increased, and as it was more clearly realised that women outnumbered aeat the demand for better schools for girls grew more insistent*

There had always been a few intellectual women

of the upper elasses who privately acquired a fine education* But now, the middle classes wanted not mere intellectual food but vocational training*

Marriage could no longer be

expected as the normal and inevitable result of growing up* In the field of elementary education, girls had, in the Volhssohule* been offered the same education as the boys*

In fact these schools were coeducational*

The

compulsory education law affected every child from the age of six to fourteen, and of all classes*

Many of the upper

and middle olass children went to private elementary schools, following the dual system of German education*

"But the

fact that a little over 90 per cent, of all school-going children attend the people's school, lYolfcsaehule)* mafces

I. Ibid,

m

these institutions the most important factors in the educational activity of the state."*

The aims of the

people *s school reflooted the philosophy of a citizen1a duty to the state. #... to sow the seeds of patriotic , religiously morel sentiment in children, so that they will beoome citizens whose inner worth can secure the welfare and preserration of the State. f But side by side with this exalted ideal, the requirements of practical life hare not been left out of sight. Xa school children learn how to perform duties, they are to be habituated to work;, gain pleasure in work, and thus become efficient for future industrial pursuits. This had been the aim from the earliest times of popular education in Brass la 5 and to this day it is plainly understood by all State and local administrative officers, as well as by all teachers and the majority of the parents, that the school has more to do than merely teach the vehicles of culture-reading, writing, and arithmetic ^-namely, the preparation of citizens who can, and cheerfully will serve their Qod and their native country as well as themselves. 2 Around the middle of the nineteenth century some real attention was given by the authorities to an improvement of the secondary schools for girls.

Women teachers in

various states had formed teachers organizations.for the purpose of raising the level of the teachers and of the schools.

During the liberal period around 1B4&, Schornstein,

1* Louis K. Klcmm, Public Education in Germany and in the United States, p. 43*

2. Ibid*, pp. 49*50.

234 i llrntor of schools in Ilbarf iold, called a conference of girls* high school teachers in the Interest of reforming these Schools.

The reactionary turn of events, which soon

followed , erased all hopes for improvement* ,different spirit brooded over the famous oonferenoe that was called in Weimar in 1372. Not liberality, but smugness, marked the gathering which solemnly affirmedt 'It Is a question of making possible for women an education which in the generalness of its nature and its interests will be the equal of the intellectual training of men, so that the German man at his fireside shall not be bored by the narrowness and shortsightedness of his wife and be crippled in his devotion to higher Interests, but rather that his wife shall assist him with her understanding of these Interests and the warmth of her feeling for them'.* A

The higher schools for girls, general throughout Germany, were Hoehcrc Toohtersohulaa higher daughter school* mostly private in nature*

The officials who had charge of the

excellent secondary schools for boys had nothing to do with these girls1 secondary schools.

They were left, instead,

to the elementary school inspectors*

Alt

these schools

girls could learn history, geography, elementary arithmetic, two m o d e m languages, much mythology, household arts, and religion.

The Latin and Greek, needed for entrance to a

university, was considered as far too difficult for girls to understand, despite the fact that in past history, Roman

1. Hugh W* Puckett, op. pit., p. 171*

235 «»A Greek women were able to command their own languages. The Weimar conference of 1872 8 Id define tha girls* secondary school to be one with a tan year course, a scientifically trained director, a teaching faculty of nan and a curriculum daoidad by tha State* tittle general reform waa carried oat*

fhere

were a few women leaders who led the way, bat the overfall pietore was atill bad*

In 1899 It waa written,

In Prussia there are 568 higher schools for boys and only 128 for girls* •*.there is little uniformity in respeet either to curriculum or methods* Moreover, uniformity has been unnecessary, sines no spedal privileges have been attached to graduation from a girls9 higher school* Women are net wanted in the university; henoe there is no need of a gymnasial oourse of study* they are worthless as soldiers; henoe no advantage in a specified curriculum that grants the privilege of one year of voluntary service in the army** Advances were being made, however, on a small seals and seattered throughout the country,

the first

school to prepare graduates of the girls9 secondary schools for entrance to the university was opened in Berlin, in 1893, under the direction of Helene hangs*

She had before

this time organised a strong teachers9 association*

She

was the president of the national Association for German women, and in 1889 she had opened a school, Real-Kurae fuer 1* fames B* Russell, German Higher Schools* p* 129*

zn Mhsdchcm and Frauen. offering classical stud lee*

it was

this school which became, In 1893 # the Qyanastalkursc, preparing glrle for university study*

The experiment led

to the opening of many other similar private schools throughout Germany* In 1894 a ministerial decree fixed the curriculum for Hoohsrc Masdohsnaohulca♦

It also provided for the

appointment of women to any petition In the upper grades, and it required that a woman he assistant principal in ease a man was principal*

This was the first real concession

made to women teachers by the Prussian government*

But the

course of reform was slow* Vp to 1897 only thirty-nine girls9 schools had been placed under the jurisdiction of the Prussian provincial school-boards, and thus given equal rank with the higher schools for boys* By far the larger part of girls9 schools are thereby relegated to the rank of jUttclaohulcn* or high grade elementary schools•* '' 1... .. rr By the turn of the century German middle class girls had an opportunity to enter the Maedchenschule at six years of age, follow this course for nine or ten years, and then, if they had the ability, the funds, and the parental consent, they might prepare for the university at a four year Gymnasium such as Helene Lange had opened*

If Ibid*# P* 130*

237 graduation t m m thane last named schools might require a fiVying number of years9 training* but, la the end* the girls had reached the level of the boys graduating from a atatweupported gymnasium.

fhe girls9 secondary school

education wee largely la the eare of private institutions whereas the hope9 wea at state expense*

$his was tuite

eons Isteat with the philosophy that a hoy was to be a servant of the state* sad the girl was only the earstaker of gsa’s heme. About the only respectable vocation open to wooes was teaoh lag.

But women were not admitted early to

the universities and so could not secure good jobs* Seminaries* like those mentioned by von Batimer, (p. 231), were established to prepare women as teachers in the elementary schools* the Tolkasehulca. or for the low~ standard Hoeherc Tochtarsehulen. this training was of a weak, dilated nature and did not permit entrance to good positions.

Slnoe women received less pay than men for eutial

work* they eould* however* get the lower school jobs in seme number. Swiss universities were opened to women very early.

"Zurich was the first* in 1&63; then followed

230 Geneva*' Bern* and Meufshatel**!

German woman* who could

afford to* had prepared privately for admission to these Swiss universities* in 1009# a school was established in Berlin for the purpose of preparing young women for the Swiss universities* At last* stimulated doubtless by the example of its Swiss neighbors* the University of Hftlftelberg began to admit women as *o~oalled ’Hseherinnen* in 1091 * In 1901 * the universities of M e n * Heidelberg* and frelburg gave women all the rights of full matriculation* and in 1903 the teehnieal schools of Baden admitted them* In 1903 * the universities of Bavaria were opened; In 1904* the University of wurtemberg; in 1909* the teehnieal schools of Bavaria} in 1900* Saxony*...in 1900* Prussia* RelohsXand* and Hessen} and in 1909* Mecklenburg* Registered in the O s m a n universities in the summer semester of 1914 were 4*117 women students* There are ho spooled universities for women; and there are no universities which may legally refuse to aoeept properly qualified women students*2 Ih

seareely twenty years time all the German universities

had fallen into line*

The goal for educational opportunities*

was thus won first at the university level*

The campaign

haft been oarried on by the middle olass women who had been wealthy enough to have prepared privately for the university* first a foreign one* and later any in Germany* There was a great variety of schools In Germany* leading to very complicated administrative responsibilities* 1* Helen Lange, Higher Bdueatlon of Women |n Jjurgge, p. 113*

2* Katharine Anthony* oj>* ait** pp* 31~32.

239 there ware many different denominational schools at all l w l i , for boys 004 for girls, op to the university level* Thcrewere publio schools and private schools. beys* schools and girls* schools*

There were

There were schools for

the lower olaasea, called Tolfesschulay and there wara ttlttclcchulcnand industrial schools for tha middle classes. There were the various type* of gyiaaaslea for tha uppar classes and ambitiously rising middle classes.

Above all

these, there wara tha universities for tha aristocracy, tha technical colleges for tha middle classes, and the eontlnuatlon aohooXa for tha Xowar classes* Although program waa alow it waa steady* waa tha period of aexmaay’e great academic glory.

This Teachers

from all over tha world came to study tha aduoational system arranged for hoys.

Xta high academic standards « w »

the envy and tha pattern of auoh aountriaa aa the United States and England.

The woman of Germany had these same

schools aa their examples for thorough and efflelent ■ahooXiskg and administration*

By 19X4 women had secured

the beginnings of a system which closely resembled that far tha boys*

On tha whole, however, women warn still

considered fittingly educated whan they left school around the age of fourteen or sixteen and had learned the shills necessary for being a good wife, mother, and housekeeper*

240 Physical Bdueatlon la Germany dates from the development of Jaha+s gymnastics, or Turnon. aa they were celled.

JmHn'a

principle assistant, Irast Blaela, {1793~1#46)

la Berlin probably the first gymnasium for girls la U32*

There, teaohera war# trained, who later opened

auoh halls for women throughout tha country, especially ahara tha reactionary movement waa not strong.

Since Jahn’s

•fforta had boon for tha purpose of fostering healthy, llbarty loving, nationalistic Germans, tha Metteraloh philosophy of stamping out nationalism oast dark shadows of suspicion over all Turnon. But Its popularity spread as tha power of itottemloh waned. Adolf Spless (1810-1828) was tha next groat figure In German Physical Bdueatlon.

Spless had an

opportunity In his youth to study thoroughly the gymnastics of OutsMuths, Blseln, and John, and to bocome very profiolant In than.

Because of the ban on Turnon. Spless

taught In Switzerland from 1S33 to 1S4S under the direetlon of Friedrich Froobelf the famous educational philosopher. fhera9 Spless worked out gymnastic exercises for girls end boys, men end women*

Some he called "free exercises”

because they required no apparatus or only hand apparatus la contrast to exercises using tha boom, belanoe^Thjpes, horse, parallel bars, and horizontal bar.

Be also worked

241 out a m i m w i i t i by w h i c h % 1a*** number of persons *14 the same exercise to command* group marching*

Later, too, ho developed

Shoes innovations wore very important fp*

they *1 1 0 **6 *** t*aoh*r to instruct * large *!*** of pupils, each *0116 receiving cm equal amount of attention* He ***** to Incorporate Ilia inventions into a book* Systems of gymnastics, whloh was finally completed and published 1* 1646*

In 1642 Spleaa found a teaching poaitlon

in Basel, which inoluded Inatrnotln* a publle girls' school In gymnastics#

While then* be started a practical manual

for teachers containing a graded series of *x*reis*a for boys and glrla from six to sixteen* Xa 1646 Spleaa "accepted an offer fro* Minister ton Oagena of Hesse, and moved to Darmstadt, the capital of the grand Duchy, to undertake the task of introducing gymnastics Into the schools of that state, beginning with the higher schools and the common schools of auoh communities as were prepared to take the step at once*"3* Thus, began gpelss* work in Germany which made him famous as the father ef school gymnastics in Germany and of gymnastics for girls in particular*

there he constructed a playground with

1* Frederick g* Leonard* 4 Guide to the History of Physical Education, p. 116. -----

242 various equipment, taught classes of boys and glrla, and trained1 teachers la his system*

Another contribution waa

hi* adaptation of axarolaaa to music* The chief service which he rendered to physical training la Ocmany, and wherever German influence haa been felt, waa the attempt to mafce It a part of the aohool life* The Turnplatz waa not to exist aide hy aide with tSeVSBSST, aa a counter* poise to the exclusively mental training of the latter, and in oharge of aone independent individual or societyj but the school should concern itself with the whole life of the young, physical aa well aa mental, and gymnastics, recognised by the state as a means of education, should be thoroughly incorporated and treated on an equality with other branches of instruction and discipline, enjoying the same rights and conforming to the same pedagogic principles* It should there* fere be made a required exercise, from which nothing exeept a physiclan*s certificate of defect or illness would excuse any pupil* In addition to the open-air gymnasium and the playground the community or the state would have to provide and equip closed halls, in or near the schoolbuilding, so that instruction need not be interrupted by season or weather* Elementary classes require an hour each day for gymnastics and games* Xnss time might suffice for the older children, but the lesson periods, in either case, should be included within the school hours, or stand in immediate proximity to them* Periodical examinations in gymnastics coming at the same time with general examinations, and annually recurring exhibitions or Turnfeste were to be held* Those who teach the subject must be eduoators by profession, and closely identified with the life of the school, receiving their training in this branch, as in all others, at the normal schools and the universities, or in part at institutions intended for that purpose exclusively— the normal schools of gymnastics* In elementary schools instruction would be in the hands of the grade- or olass-teacher, and in higher schools there should be special teachers of gymnastics, just

as la tbs ease of mathematics or laaguages or so lottos* Th» exercise-material must bo arranged ia progressive stops suitable for the different conditions and needs in country and city schools, in common schools* higher schools for boys and schools for girls** the Prussian cabinet in 1842 recognized formally that gymnastics wore a necessary part of a boy’s education* Ston though this decree did not affect girls directly, still Physical Bdueatlon had entered the schools, and girls often reoeleed its benefits* Ling gymnastics were introduced in various places in Germany during this period*

although there was a

spirited debate concerning the relative merits of the Swedish and the German systems which resulted in uncooperative reactions among some Physical Sducation groups, this foreign influence did increase the variety of activities from which a teacher might choose suitable movements for her class* in 1846 Br. Carl Phillip Buler (1828*1901) conducted private classes in Berlin for women who wished to become teachers of gymnastics, and in 1880 regular state courses were organized to meet their needs, the one for women covering sin months* In 1889 state examinations for both men and women were set up ia many of the larger cities, those passing the

1. Ibid*, pp. 117-118.

244 examinations receiving a certificate as a Physical Education teacher* la general* the VolksaehulOi where the boys and glrla of the lower olaaaea studied from sir to fourteen yearn of age* required none kind of physical exercises. Zn eaeh graded eehool of eitiea and large towna there la generally a roan well f itted-up with apparatus, and devoted exclusively to physical exerclsea* the pupils of eaoh grade or room aaaenhle for exercises in this room at leant twioe a week* eaoh lee eon laatlng about fifty minutes* •••there are special teaohere of gymnastics, but the euatom ia very general for eaeh regular teacher to ooaduot the physical exercises of his own class* •••there is an evident system in them all, planned by experts whose object is to proceed from the simplest movements to movements more and more difficult, with the view of developing strength and healthfulaess of the body* In the free gymnastics there is little of what is called plays hut generally the exercises are rigidly severe, with no elements of attraction to children except the natural pleasure derived from bodily movements, and an element of competition attending them*1 Physical Education seemed to be directed toward physical health and not at a multiple goal of character, recreation, and enjoyment as well as health. ir« H« Winch in Hotes on O s m a n Schools described in 1904 a class in Physical Education for girls in Hamburg. 1. John T* Prince, Methods of Instruction and Organlaatlon of the Schools of &eSaaavT pp. 'ivS-XW#

345 I h U i ware about one hundred girls in the class of about too or eleven years eld undo? the direction of two teachers* Whe discipline and order wara everything that could ba desired* 4 number of simple arm and lag movements wara wall done. and I waa particularly interested la tha faat that tha glrla leapt togathar la thalr marching and haltad together, and oa tha aamo foot, without tha aolay atamplag which la ao aotloaabla la many of our primary glrla' aohoola, and la aoma German schools* la thla standard Rcigan, which tha unsophisticated might blilY"lane lag. waa commenced* forwards and sideways movements, with dance steps, and tha formation of simple figures* ware of Interest to me and a source of pleasure to tha glrla* But it waa not well done, and tha head teachers told me that this class was only Just beginning, and that tha glrla found the Relgen very difficult* X had been told this before, and should certainly have thought myself that, If brilliant worfc could not be obtained under such discipline, tha trouble must lie in tha nature of the worfc Itself* *** In thla school drill-hall X saw little apparatus* there were, indeed, four sets of swinging rings, but their actual use by individual children must have bean small la amount*! Physical exercise of this or similar nature was obligatory In most German Volfcasohulanaround 1900* Xt was not until the ministerial order of May 31 , 1094 , that instruction in gymnastics became a required subject In higher schools for girls* two lessons a weefc ware given, and by women teachers• An order of March 30, 1905, extended the requirement 1* William H. Winch, Rotas on German Schools, pp* 240-249*

246 to elementary (Volga-) and intermediate (Mittal-) schools la citiifaid large towns and recoliMl&sd that teas hers encourage also the play lag of games after school hours • The manual of 1895 was to form tha basis of instruction* A furthsr stop was taken on July 11 * 1911, whan the time allotted to gyaaaatlas mas increased. to three hours a wash for the upper grades, and all elementary aehools not severed by foimer orders ware urged to add the subject to their curriculum* An official *Manual far the Physical training of Girls la Prussian Schools' was published la 1913** Toward the and of the nineteenth century many man felt that the schools were keeping hoys too much engaged in sedentary activities for the good of their health* The Kaiser's experience in sohool had shown him how excessive school work had Increased the need for eye glasses among his school mates*

The unification of Germany had

ended all royal antagonism to the Turnon groups, Turnvereins, and so they flourished throughout Germany, enjoying great popularity and conducting great national and local Turnfsste* Mot only did the Kaiser favor an increase In physical activity, but other men tried to gain for German boys the benefits which English boys seemed to derive from their sports and games*

August Hermann (1835*1906) and

Seared Kieeh (1846*1911) were Instrumental in introducing and encouraging such games as football, cricket, and American baseball*

Playgrounds were constructed, rule

1* frederlck S* Leonard, o£. cit*, p. 130*

247 boohs and instruction manuals war# published, and boys and girls were introduced to sports*

"At the sixth national

fasafost off the German furnerschaft•, in Dresden, July 19-21, 1665 * there was am exhibition of games by schoolboys and

girls* " 1

*.••other ministerial orders and announcements*• .

touch upon every phase of gymnastics sad genes 9 and for girls as well as for boys sad young men* *3 Ton Schenokendorff was another leading figure in this movement to popularise games*

Groups were formed to

encourage outdoor sports, and August Hermann beanos the chairman of the sub-committee on games for girlsf of the Oeatral Committee for the Promotion of Games in Germany, which worked hard after 1691 for this purpose* m e r e were the following sub-committees in 19121 (1 ) teohnioal, (2 ) on public exhibitions of games, (3) on the German universities, (4) on continuations! and professional schools, (3 ) on promotion of national defense through education, (6 ) on country children and youth, (7 ) on excursions and winter exeroises in the openair, and (6 ) on measures for increasing the physical fitness of girls and women*3 Although this review may present a rather bright picture, one must remember

that theGerman often resented

the importation of foreign sports*

3514-» P* •W7# 2. Ibid*, P. 139 3* Ibid*, p* 144*

He was intensely

nationalistic antd clung t© his national gymnastic Turnvsrclne rather than aooept games ana play them*

$he

school authorities, trained to be thorough and intellectual, often dlsoouragad outdoor games as a waste of time.

The

Oer&an generally loved water aporta suoh as sailing, rowing and swimming, and suoh land sports as hiking, mountain slinking, skiing and skating whloh showed him and made use of his ha loved countryside.

He did not taka easily to the

team games, and his natural enthusiasm lay Instead In Individual activities*

The scion of the titled family, the

Prussian bunkers especially, had valued fencing and riding as the appropriate sports for his class*

She Prussian

authorities desired good health, discipline, order and group cooperation in their future Osman citizenry, and so advocated strongly much bodily activity in the period before World War X. Concerning the advances made by and for women, it is well to remember the general role the Prussian ministry saw for women* At present, however, the government is engaged in checking the growth of the Gymnasium for girls* In April, 1*98, a petition from Breslau for permission to establish such a sohool was curtly refused by the Prussian Ministry. When the government was interpellated in the Diet by the member from Breslau, the minister of publlo instruction gave, as his chief reason for denying the petition, the answer that the

249 proper function of women was to be Intelligent helpmates to men, that equal rights involved the sharing of burdens as well as privileges, and that until women were ready to enter the army and serve In Beserve and landwehr the government could not consistently advocateunrestricted competition of the semes. •••In short, they are in aecord with the emperor's dictum that woman's province is Kueohe, ^Kinder und Klrohe»~oooklng. children and All reports of advances in Physical Education must be viewed with the perspective o4T this general view of women's duties and privileges.

And what the ministry

decreed was all-important, for like many others, education was a highly centralised system in Germany • gffccts of world War |, 1914-1913 The first world War drained Germany of men and materials.

In 1913 she was exhausted and disillusioned.

Bar emperor had fled the country; her people were starving; she had a huge reparations debt; her colonies were gone; the bitter hatred which the allied countries turned on her meant the Io s b of former markets; and she was so powerless she could not protest against the vengeful terms of the Versailles Treaty. At Weimar, German leaders drew up a federal republic government in 1919.

It provided for such

1. lames S. Bussell, German higher Schools, pp. 419*420.

250 democratic privileges as universal suffrage, the initiative, referendum, a hill of rights, and proportional representation* But Germany was not a two-party country, as were England and the United States*

In 1919 she was divided by many factions;

the strongest were the Socialists, hut even they were not a majority,

The Socialists, themselves, were made up of many

sub-groups, such as the German Democratic Party, the German national Peoples Party, the German Peoples Party, and the Christian German Peoples Party.

These many factions had to

cooperate if Germany were to function effectively as a democratic country.

The Republic had from the start

tremendous difficulties to overcome In addition to this political complexity:

economic collapse, the bitter

disillusionment of the people, and the loss of great numbers of her ablest men. For five years Germany, under the presidency of friedrich Ebert, struggled desperately to solve these problems.

Most of all, she needed world markets so that

economic stability could be achieved.

But her colonies were

gone, and foreign nations would not trade with her.

She

could not pay her reparations, could not provide employment for her workers, could not prevent widespread suffering among her people, and, in the face of this dissatisfaction, she could not unite her people.

Private armies arose with

aju. t U U t*a tio n * f fo re .fu lJ jr quailing th . Separatist w t m i t wbioh appaara4 to bo rip a to r dividing aanunjr agoia la to h i U a tataa.

Through logoi •n ta lla a n ta , th .

hogo ooto too raoaiaod io tha bongo of tfao ariotooroojr.

r

t o u t sold lira had bean promised land for farming purposes, u i farm produets vara badly needed*

Tha upper elass who

owned the laud* hoverar9 controlled tha law, too, and so, la Its eleven pears tha Bepublio broke up hut oaa aetata* In X92> tha government printed huge amounts of paper nonap whose value tobogganed steadllp until It beeane praetieallp worthless*

Xn this situation of

Instahllltp the morals of the people also fell verp lew* Barter became the eonventlonal spstem of trade* spread*

Starvation

State governments fell and tried all hinds of

party rule, even of the Communists* declared their ladependenoe*

Bavaria and Saxony

Economy, morale, and the State

broke up* then, from the outside* not from within Germany, help ease*

Eha Saves plan of 1924 aimed at restablllzing

Germany’a economy*

Actually the Bepublie fell at this

time* for von Scheoht was allowed the title of delator given the legal and armed power to hold Germany together* Authority rested with the strength of the army*

the

Socialists and Bbert no longer sontrolled the government.

and

252 then Bbert died la 1925* Baal von Bindenburg, the Kaiser's Field ilarahal, took o m

the poult Ion as president and

nominally held power from 1925 to 1934 * Germany haA made an economic agreement with Russia la 1922, and the United States feared Germany's bond* with Russia might bcoome very strong*

The Dawes Plan was aa effort to prevent this from

happening, and the Toting Flan of 1929 was a continued attempt by the United ate tea to stabilize Germany's economy without Russia's aid* from 1924 to 1929 real advances were made in Germany*

py, Gustav Stresemann ably bandied ber foreign

affaire during this period and seeurdd France's evacuation ef tbe Ruhr; favorable eoonomie agreements with Belgium, France and Great Britain; and Germany's admission to tbe league of Nations la 1926*

Her currency was bolsteredj and

international credit was established* In 1929 tbe United States collapsed financially, and the rest of tbe world followed in its downward path. In that year the Young Flan set up tbe amount Germany was to pay as reparations and gave ber fifty-eight years to pay* Having faith in tbe acceptance of these obligations by Germany, tbe Allies withdrew their troops from tbe Rhineland* But by Fane 1931, Germany faced financial collapse*

Hoover's

moratorium postponed payment on tbe debts, and after that,

253 she meter made a payment*

With the rise of the Nasi

dictatorship, all hope of payment ended. Between 191# and 1934 • numerous international teaferenoes ware held la the attempt to ensure world peace and security*

Tha Locarno Conference of 1923 aritas«4

several treaties la which various countries agreed never to go to mar with each otH«v in violation of tha treaties# Stresemann of Germany was one of the leaders of this conference*

Bar tha Paris Pease Past of 192B, sixty~two

states renounced war as am instrument of national policy. Naval conferences In 19221 1927# 193Qr and 1936 tried to arrange for decreases In naval power*

Hie Geneva Oonferenoe

on Disarmament tried to limit armaments from 1932 until 1934 and then gave up a failure*

from tha oonferenoe*

Germany then withdrew

By that time the idealism which filled

the air at the end of World War I had teen smothered in intrigue* revenge, and selfish national or personal motives* Xh its place a new atmosphere of mutual distrust filled the air, and an armaments race began toward World War XI* Against this unsettled background Hitler’s opportunistic policies succeeded*

He rose from the position

of an obscure ex-corporal, by the magnetism of his speeches, by his flamboyant promises, and by astute political strategy, to lead the national Socialist German Workers Party*

254 gradually the national Socialist party became stronger until* In the election of 1932* Hitler received over thirteen

i

million.

U U

oa

w t n and ran Bindenburg some over nineteen

Hut the cabinets which ran Bindenburg triad to

establJmh under Dr. Heinrich Bruning and then under General Itot van Schleicher tailed to control the Heal la the Bslehstag*

Ton Hindenburg was forced to invite Hitler to

become Chancellor.

Tha new election* which followed at

ernes* gave. Hitler a majority rote.

Tha new Be iohatag met

ea Harch 23* 1933 and a day later paaaad an Baubling let* which gate Hitler absolute power and sat aside the Weimar constitution.

Hitler's reign had begun!

Social aPosition and Bcoaomic cAwm^w(maepi»iewewiiiwwm#iwspaiicm Opportunities w w w p a a w M g M M mmmU*

mmmmmmmmm

There m s no resolution in tha general sooial and economic status of women following the war.

women did

receive tha freaehlse on Hovember 1 2 * 191d» but that did not saoura for them automatleally sooial or eoonomle privileges*

Woman had worked hard during the war, doing

their work and men's too* and they had endured the sane starvation conditions which war brought to both saxes. Baonomia conditions in Germany wars vary unsettled. The country struggled to get back on its feat financially and to make reparations payments.

Tha Dawes Plan of 1924

255 and tli* Young flan of 1929 helped to stabilize tha national economy hut never fully lifted tha burden of debt. Against this background of insecurity and unemployment, woman stood out as competitors for the jobs man might have*

Many young man emigrated rather than face

the bleak prospects of a future in Germany, and many women leftt too, for the same reason*

the government supplied

a dole for the unemployed 9 but it could not meet the needs of normal living*

nevertheless, the Hepubllo did gradually

make a recovery from its worst conditions.

Toward the end

of this period, markets were more numerous, and so there were fewer among the unemployed.

Some housing developments

were beginning to relieve the congested conditions so aggravating in the immediate post-war period. Trade unionism, after the war, underwent a marked development, and women’s membership increased. Whereas in 1914 the number of women organized in the German ’free’ trade unions was only 210,314 or 10 per oent of the total membership, in 1922 it had grown to 1,753,576, or over 21 per oent of the total membership of the 'free1 trade unions, women form a similar proportion of the other trade union organizations•I In general, women received lower wages than men,

1* women of 1924* International. Women's News Service, Inc.,

■KTTciSiTKT!244!'.............

m sometimes approximated at twof-thirdsof 000*0 wages.

Tha

General Toleration of Trade Unions opposed this la theory* but the flnanolal difficulties of tha tloa prevented practical application; of the priseipl© of equal pay for equal work. Tha German worn00*0 movement, a0 hafora tha War* triad to reform, tha double standard of morale.

laws were

propoaad by woman in tha Eelohstag to combat venereal dlaeaees and wipe out prostitution.

They were particularly

ineanaad by tha Trench authorities who allowed systematic prostitution in tha areas of Germany still occupied by troops. As tha years want byv more and more occupations ware thrown open to women.

Soma man felt that tha War would

hare bean more efficiently waged had there bean at home able and educated woman who could hare maintained order and administrated local affairs. All professions are now open to women in Germany* even stoofc-brofcing* and already tha first woman has bean admitted to deal on tha exchange, only tha pulpit is still closed to her and here it is not tha state but tha ecclesiastical courts that refuse to permit women to taka Holy Orders. In July* 1922 * all barriers against woman ware reacted and tha first woman advocate was called to the bar in that year. A new law permits women to serve on juries.

1. Ibid*i p« 266.

2ff fief©m » were gradually Introduced for all elasses of society*

laws vara introduced la tha Helohstag to

regulate la datall tha ooadltloaa under which domestic aartaata might ha expected to work* fha feminists campaigned to remove tha marriage* har aa teachers*

As la &nglandk women taaohara automatically

resigned thalr poaltloaa wham thay married*

A toUA was

propoaad for tha Balehatag ooaoaralag thla matter9 too, hat tha praotiaa continued* The foot that wonaa outnumbered man la larga numbers* daa to emigration aad war deaths* waa a partial aaaaa of tha morals problem*

The women's movement gained

tha right for any mother* married or unmarried* to ha .

;

aaiiad frau, or Mrs* and to heap har offlolal position* Blrth-oontrol knowledge waa aprsad9 not to increase licentiousness 9 hat to reduce aoffaring aad perhaps* hy lowering tha birth rata9 gala soma railaf from congastIon aad aaaaploymant* Sooial walfara afforta olalmad tha attention and efforts of many woman's organizations'

Xt waa In this

field that outstanding reforms oaisa during this period* The hardest struggles for equal treatment hare generally some on issues whloh involve the eommereiaX competition of the two sexes* the government’s measures for easing its budget In the inflation

m period sometimes struok directly at women, aa tar example the decree at October 27, 1923* whereby married woman officials la hitherto permanent positions a cold be dismissed oa a month's aotiaa aad without monetary compensation. However disappointing such aotloa waa to those affected, it could aot be latarpratad aa due to a hostile attitude at the government toward women. Theories of sex equality were of secondary consideration la the attempt to raatora a disturbed economic balance, aad the assumption that the married woman could afford the loss of income battar tbaa Che married man or unmarried woman aaaaad sufficiently Justified la tha emergency.& Married woman continued to bar# pro tty mush tha aaaa standing la tha middle alas* household whloh they had had bafora tha war*

Shay wara at H I wary wary much tha

servants of thalr husbands, aad tha husband's ward waa law* Managing tha hoaei baarlag aad training tha children; aad enabling tha husbands to enjoy tha home wara a till women9a paramount dutlas.

if among tha upper classes, aduaatad

woman wara aeetarlag some recognition by man as almost-equals, still tha large masses of married woman did aot receive •ttoh esteem.

As bafora tha war, so now, they followed

thalr conservative paths#

Puckett asorlbad this to a

eartain quality in thalr naturess At tha outbreak of tha War, tha woman suffrage movement In Germany had musterad soma twelve thousand woman to its standard# That was a small proportion of tha population and speaks rather plainly for tha fast that suffrage was not ardently desired by most German woman# The deterring factor was not so much

1# Hugh w* Puckett, oj>. olt*> pp. 273*274*

259 •oo»t«r-«cltatiaa f r o m ish. cl«rgy, antl-faainl»t organisation* aad the like, aa a certain lack of veataraaoaeaeas la tha woaan'a nature.1 laaal Statue The women of aormaoyt

as

did tha woman of England,

put aside thalr emancipation requests for the duration of tha war* ...they agreed among themselves to observe a truce with tha man-made world without by leaving the question of woman suffrage in abeyance until the war was over, woman suffrage hibernated but not for long* At no time in their national life had the women of Germany felt that they were eo valuable to the state, so nearly equal to the task of eltisenship ae now: they, like the men, were bearing the burden of the war, they were doing men*a work and their own as well. When they saw, then, polltioal benefits aooruing to men from whloh they were excluded, the trues naturally oame to an end.2 the m i s e r in 191? sailed on his Chancellor for suggestions which might lead to a more powerful and representative Reichstag*

These plans did not include

women, and immediately the German federation of Women*a Associations undertook a vigorous protest campaign*

As a

result, universal suffrage was proclaimed November 12, 191$. In such a manner did German women win the franchise, quite a victory la view of the fact that at the start of the war, 1. Ibid.* pp. 240*241. 2. Ibid.. p. 234.

260 as mentioned before, the woman suffrage movement had only twelve thousand members* fa# tot# was one of the last things to whloh the German woman's movement aspired* The difference between this attitude end that of the American feminists h#s often teen pointed out end the reasons for the dlfferene# er# obvious* Pieeafranohis eaent wee almost the only disquali­ fication under whloh the American women suffered* ,«*Certainly they hate never experienced the oppress ive eond it lone obtaining in Germany; otherwise they would have proeeeded as did the German women in attacking the problem first from the sooial and industrial angle* 1 This comparison earn b# made between the English and German women with nearly the same oanalusions. A law | oalled the Verslpgeastg, had prevented women from being members of political societies or present at political meetings*

This law had been replaced in 1908,

and so by the end of the war there had been little time for women to gain political experience*

Women were, nevertheless,

thrown into political life and with it acquired responsi­ bilities as well as privileges* "The election of January, 1919, to the national assembly in Weimar oalled forth 310 women candidates. Thirty-seven were elected and seated, 4 more came in later as alternates, making the total 41-"2 Women were

1* Ibid.. p. 244* i« ibid*, p* 245•

261 representatives of tha regular parties, Independent Soeialiata, Majority Socialists, Democrats, Centrists, People*s Party, aad Nationalists• Among tha members wara many famous womens

Kaethe Sohirmaoher, foundar of tha

German Federation of Woman*a Associations} Marla Baum, director of a. sooial service aebool In Hamburg; Gertrud Bauoiar, writer and for nlna years head of tha German Fadera* tien of Woman's Aaaoolationa; and Marie-Bllsabeth Luders, teacher and direotor of woman*a work during tha war* four woman wara doetors of philosophy*

These

The foot that

almost a third of tha delegates wara taaehara Illustrates tha fast that teaching waa one of the Tory few fields open to educated woman bafora tha war* Almost at once, woman wara treated as equals in tha republican governmental circles*

They served as

chairman of committees, lad debates, and functioned generally as capable members of the Helohstag*

Many others

ware elected to state and local governments* It is Interesting to note that the women who helped bring about the winning of the franchise were revolutionary, but when all woman had the vote and used it, the great majority were rather conservative* If the vote were the last thing the German women*s movement wanted, there were many other legal privileges they

262 414 desire.

they wished In particular, r e f o r m lathe

family law and la tha criminal law, hoping to secure greater protection for women aad ohildrea. Za 1923 the Children's Welfare Act was passed, aad Dr. Gertrud Baumar waa appointed Bead of tha Child Welfare Department of the Ministry of Interior. ...it la stated to represent toy far the most complete aad carefully thought out attempt of any nation to hr lag shout the moral, mental aad physical welfare of its children, this Act is aa Immense effort to halt together all the puhlio aad private activities dealing with child life— the care aad supervision of all children whose parents are unfit, children who have lost their parents, or who are in institutions, or who come into the juvenile court.* 9hle law is one of the host examples of the reforms which the women's movement had advocated for many years.

In

social welfare was a field for much careful study, aad there women felt they could do much good. Za 1924 the women members of the Belehstag were successful in having passed the Social Hygiene Bill, which did away with prostitution as a legalized profession. advocated free treatment for venereal diseases.

They

In general,

they were striking out against the double standard

of

morale which was very strong la Germany. In 1922 women gained entrance into the field of

1» Women of 1924. International, p. 263*

263 law, on* of tbe last strongholds of men*

After that, women

lawyers and jurists became a commonplace, and gave much aid* also, to the sooial welfare program advooated by

women* Women were allowed more legal oontrol of their children.

Divorce laws heoame more lenient*

areater

flaanolal benefits were given by the government to needy aethers.

The fi&uttersohutg movement still oarried on its

benefits to all mothers. By 1933 the women of Germany had achieved many of their goals concerning legal and political privileges. Bat one mast still remember the conservative nature of the German,

la the middle class home the wife was not her

husband*s equal.

Aa was written in 1929$

Until well into the eighteenth century, there was no escaping the masMmade criterionj that is, the ideal that a woman should approximate as nearly as possible what man conceived and desired her to bet was the greatest determinative factor in feminine culture and was rarely disputed. Far from being extinct, it is still today the actuating principle of the majority of men aad women.* Iducatioa and Physical gdueatlon The Constitution of Weimar, which went into effect in August, 1919$ not only laid the basis for the Bepublio

1. Hugh W. Puckett, o£. cit., p. 30#♦

264 of Germany, but it specified in some detail the requirements fop tbe education of girls and boys.

These regulations were

followed generally by all seventeen German states , so that there wee a oertain uniformity throughout the country, but alee auoh variation from state to state.

Prussia, being

the largest and strongest, often set the example that the ether states followed, and it is the Prussian sohool reforms whloh were most often described. The theories of reform went far beyond their praotloe*

This was due to many factors; the teachers were

largely trained in the old Empire’s educational methods; there was little money for reforms which required financial espenditures; the academic glory of the Empire was still such an object of pride that many resisted change for fear standards would be lowered; and, as time went on, the reform spirit gave way to conservatism.

Nevertheless, the Republic

did attempt to democratise the schools and fit them better for the needs of modern industrial conditions. The Constitution made certain regulations concerning elementary education. Artlole 145--Education is compulsory. In principle, It is given in primary grades having a minimum curriculum of eight years9 duration, and in the continuation schools extending this programme and admitting pupils up to 16 years of age. Tuition in

m these schools aa well as all school supplies arc free** This frss sohool was called tha Yolksaohalc and was divided into two parts, a iowsr four yaar Qruadaphale

a t which ail children must attend, aad the Qbsratufo, aa upper four years where children went who could not afford

a fee-requiring school,

hoys ana girls had the suae

courses there and sometimes went to the same schools.

More

often, however, hoys and girls were not taught in the same classes*

Mo private schools were allowed to teaoh the

first four years of school* Tbe Yolkssohule was still the school for the lower classes*

A girl attending it learned the fundamental

shills during the first four years and then, in the Oberstufe. or nest four years, acquired a general education with emphasis on household management and care of iafqqts* Should the girl leave school at the age of fourteen of* graduating from the Yolksschulo* she was required to attend a continuation school on a part-time basis until eighteen years old*

At this continuation school a girl could learn

a vocation aad secure more general education* If a girl from the Yolfcssohulc showed unusual ability she might attend an Aufbauschule at the end of her 1* The German Educational System, Deutsche Fadagogisohe

roiIadiyeiTe7Tr,Y:‘''^

-----

m seventh year in the Tolksschule. This, in theory, would he possible for all boys and girls through scholarships, but, In practice, its benefits were not always available* The Aufbauaohulo would prepare a girl in six years for the university*

This institution was a reform measure, designed

to sake possible for eapable youngsters of the lower classes a preparation for the university*

Until this school was

provided a child in the Oberstufe could not make the transfer to secondary school and higher education* . The middle class girl often went to the Mlttclsehulo after the Orundschule* There the standard of work was higher than in the elementary sohool but not nearly so high as in the secondary school*

The Mlttclsohalc

offered a six year program whose last three years only were of a specialised nature*

This last part could offer a

general program; a program with special consideration to trade and commerce, domestic economy, or sooial service; or a program of secondary studies whloh might lead to a secondary school*

The itlttolaohule was very popular during

the Republic period and offered, probably, Germany** closest approach to the American High School*

It was not free but

did not charge so high a fee as the secondary school* Coeducation was not common In any of these schools» except Ids qrandsohulc.

267 for girls* ft««ooAft»]r education waa not identical with I K I offarad to the teyii

There wara several different

blade of secondary schools, Ant tha first three years la each was pretty much tha same and included oaa foreign language.

The classical type school, comparable to tha boys1

Gymnasium was tbs Gymnaslalc atudlcaaaatalt, whloh required six yaars of latln, four of Greek aad french.

Tbe

Bealymnaa laie«StudlaaaastaXt compared to tha boys* Bcalgymaaalun aad required Latin aad two foralga Xaaguagas bat aot Greek.

Students plana lag to aatar a university, If

they wara able, usually attaadad oaa of thasa two saooadary sohoois. Othar typas of nine year saooadary schools wara thas

(X) Deutsche Obcrachule. a alas year oourse whloh

taught two foralga Xaaguagas but emphasised German culture aad stressed German history and literature more than any othar school, (2) Oberlyaeum, whloh emphasised modera foralga languages* (3) Qberiyzeum of tha "real" type, whloh emphasised one foralga language, mathematics aad science. Than, six typas of secondary schools could prepare a girl far higher study.

Besides these, there ware the Lyseen,

six year courses designed for tha elevation of the cultural abilities of girls of slightly more than average capacity.

26a Abeve the lygcen were tbe Fraucnaohulc and I t m i K l i m h t t l i » allloli la three year courses trained woman la tha theory aad practise of household arts, aoolaX work, or kindergarten teaching) all considered particularly woaaaly subjects. A Lyaaan graduate might also go oa to a technical sohool of various kinds to propara for a specialised occupation. for adults there were tha adult education courses at various "peoples* high schools”* This was a vary complicated sohool system and suffered waste and inefficiency because of Its complexity* There existed during this period a movement for an glnheltschule where several systems might exist in one building.

There was a movementt too* for a community school

whloh taught academic courses from a non^denominational viewpoint so that all religions might feel equally treated in the school.

But these schools were few.

Most private

schools were of the denominational type, and the public schools, particularly in the larger cities, were church related. Although Intended to open a way for the capable children of the lower classes to reach the university, the new educational system was still very selective socially

m and economically*

The lower classes went through the

VolkSSOhule AA before, Sad the Upper ClASSCS WOSt tp the

secondary schools*

The old system had not been entirely

reorganised, and reforms wara scattered rather than general* On tha whole, education dor lag tha Republic was aero liberal, progressive, aad democratic than bafora tha war, and tha ourrioula more naarXy mat tha naada of tha modern world• An ever growing tendency of education waa ita attention to d a m a n culture and aatlonaX prIda*

ArtiaXa

ltd of tha Constitution stated, The education given in aXX schools of tha Reich ahaXl aim at developing moral advancement, tha spirit of eitisenship, and individual as. wall as profaasionaX qualification, in tha spirit of German oultura and tha raaonoiliation of nations* Gars shall ha exercised to ensure that the tuition git an in tha schools plaaad under offioial control shall not offend tha conviction* of those professing another faith* Givio instruction and Annual work form part of tha programme* On leaving school, each pupil shall receive a printed copy of tha text of tha Constitution** In 1925 the Ministry of Prussia published Maw Regulations of the Secondary Schools> intended for both boys9 aad girls9 schools*

In them one could find evidence

ef tha usual attention tha German educator paid to

3?0 differences between the sexes.

*The organization of tha

educational work on the bast* of adolescent psychology demands in education and in inatarnation a oonatant consideration of the differences between the sexes and a consideration of the stapa In thalr development and of thalr characteristic peculiarities."* Another description of tha Prussian educational system ooatalni thin same note*

"Within tha limits of tha

common educational ohjeotlve of tha higher school, however, the special eharaoterlstlee and life purposes of girls must receive special consideration."2 When women teachers in continuation schools complained of being on a lower salary scale than men teachers they were told that they ware only making house* wives, whereas the men were training workmen.*

Obviously,

tha aim behind women's education was not the same, generally, as that for boys'* At the university level, women did receive the same curricula as men, for there coeducation did exist* 1* Isaac 2#* Kaadel and Thomas Alexander, The Reorganisation of gduoatlom In Prussia, p* 316* 2. Ibid** p, 541. 3* Hugh w* Puckett, op* clt., p. 199*

271 At the beginning or the war* 6 percent or the students at the universities war# woman (4*124) | by 1917 the proportion was 15 percent. It was Heidelberg which lad all the other universities with the remarkable figure of $2 percent. ...with the return or the men from the trenches* the proportion or women students in the universities slipped iron 3$ paraant to a more normal figure**around 10 percent-~wkere it atill atays. This waa not due to an aotual tailing off in attandanaa* however i the number of women at German universities oontlaued to mount until it.reached in the summer of 1923 the peak of 8,763** Another interesting ehange was the introduction of women to the faculties of the universities* One of the real reforms of this period had to do with teacher training.

Under the system of the Imp ire an

elementary aohool teacher went to an elementary school and a teacher training institute, while the secondary school teacher went through the secondary school and the university• this dual system lad to social, economic, and educational disadvantages for the elementary aohool teacher,

the reform

of the teacher training system waa of great benefit to the elementary school teacher. The Constitution provided that such teachers should reoelve their preliminary education in a secondary school, leading up to the graduation certificate that entitled to admission to the universities, The professional preparation has been placed on university level in institutions variously organized in different States; in Prussia, elementary school teachers are

1« Ibid*, PP* 200"*201.

2?a prepared in Pedagogical Academies, giving a two-year course entirely independent of the universities* in Saxony ana other States, the Pedagogioal institutes art affiliated with the universities and givo a three-year eourseg in Hamburg the teachers are prepared in a three-yoar course in the Waivers Ity of Hamburg.X Hot only were these academic changes made, but there were also some important educational advances made vlilon woro of a loan academic nature*

The Youth Movomont

served a vary important purpoao during thin period*

This

waa not a oontlnuatlon of the Hatlonaliatio movomont which grow up in the oariy part of the alnotooatn oontury witn Jahn’a doairo for liberation from French rule.

This now

Youth Movomont began in 1S96, when Marl Fischer, a aooondary school student in Berlin, organiaod the firat group of wandorora aa a protoot agalnat the intellcctualiam of the students' life.

It preached the goapol of a return to

natural almple0 oloan living; and a rejection of urban conventions, of the oontrol of parents, and of the dlaoipiino of aotools.

The youths wandered around Germany

with self-elected leaders, cultivating the ability to think independently, and cooperating as a social group with their own disciplines*

When the War was over, education took a

lesson from the movement.

To foster love for Oermany aa

w e H aa to teaeh lea sons in a realistic setting, aetools 1, Xaaao 1, Handel, History of Secondary Mueation, p« 266*

273 organised trips into the oountry under the guidance of a teacher*

Sometimee a trip might extend over several weeks*

•eastloos only for an afternoon*

Through them physioal

stamina was built up* sadly leaking in many youngsters due to the food shortages of the War period*

A

new relationship

between teaeher and pupil was developed whereby friendship as well as respeot could be fostered*

A

few schools,

particularly those in the aities established damps where, perhaps, a class at a time could spend a period in the country while it also held some study periods* There were many experimental schools which gave this period a aharaeterlstie of vigor and stimulation in educational matters*

Old bonds were being broken; new and

better teaching methods were sought; the value of existing curricula was questioned*

Much good resulted, as well as

some praotiess of doubtful value*

But the period had life

and a spirit of intellectual adventuring, new in Germany’s educational system* Several outstanding experimental schools should be mentioned as representative of the search for new and better teaching methods* The Llehtwardsohule at Hamburg was one of the best known of these experimental schools*

Xt was a peutsohe

Obersohule which put much emphasis on German civilisation

2?4 as the core of its curriculum, bat also stressed Bnglish i«d thesoienoes.

Xt waa a coeducational school of a very

progressive % ype* The pupils1 Ideas ape grouped round the idea at the development at mankind* Instead at a heterogeneous collection of faets grouped around no oentraX idea, the boy or girl leaves sehooX with some systematic knowledge grouped round the history and meaning of life* The sehooX regards the present as the starting point of aXX enquiry and examines the past only to explain the present*1 The boys and girls had much outdoor exeroise in Sohlagball, athletios and free gymnastics* popular with boys and girls*

Dances and folk~danoes were Much importance was attaehed

to init latire, and sports were used as an ageney in its cultivation*

There was no formal planning of a lesson, and

yet students and teachers seemed to work together so that really worthwhile materials were studied* At Wickersdorf was a boarding sehool for boys and girls which was an offshoot of the Lists group of private experimental schools, a movement for the return to a simple pure way of living*

The school was international and

attraeted boys and girls from many countries*

Xt believed

in much formal sport, outdoor field and garden work and productive physical labor*

The aohool was a democracy in

1* Alfred W* yietoher, Education in Germany, p, 32.

275 whioh all members, whether staff or students, bad an equal vote*

The sohool was divided into families of five to ten

toys and girls who had a group feeling under a master or mistress of responsibility for each other*s welfare* Education for a profession is important, but muoh more Important is the training of good oitissena* So in all teaching the present is stressed, the past being s imply an introd notion. Ho religious dogma is taught, but the history and Ideals of the ohlef religions are carefully treated* ...Athletics are well taught and likely to improve still more under Dr* Peltser* All swim and have a sold shower every morning* Also in the afternoons, garden— and field work take place, and at harvest-time all help* Z saw road-making, wall-building, and several other bits of work in progress* Borne faming is done by most, and a good deal of useful carpentry* there are two general aohool outings a year, on whioh the sehool does its own cooking, sleeps in b a m s and lives as simply as possible*1 Many other experimental schools sprang up, a number patterned after the lists schools, of which Wlckersdorf was a member*

Some were coeducational, some

segregated• The general plan seemed a balance of study, creative work, physical exercise and artistic training. The "whole* student was considered as an individual with his own special abilities and interests which he should develop for the good of the community as well as for his own benefit*

1* Ibid., pp. Ad-49*

276 During the Nepublie a now and progress ive movement in Physical Bdueation swept through Germany. Above ail the attest la being made on every hand to combine with the schooling of the intellect an even development of the soul and the body and thus to train harmonious and well-balanced personalities* No over-emphasis of athletics, no predominance of religious* artistic* emotional or social elements* and above all no exclusive training of the Intellect| but all these things combined and carefully balanced with one another} for the development of human beings who will appreciate not only the advantages of knowledge and d e a r thinking* but also the gifts of religion* of art and organised human society* as well as the blessings of a well-trained body* sound and handsome.1 thus spoke Dr* C. B. Becker* Prussian Minister of Bduoation during the Bepubllc. Physical Bduoation was used as a means of revitalising the nation bled to weakness by the war. Compulsory military service was gone* and something was needed in its place to give youth a common bond of physical discipline and experience.

No single guiding figure* like

Jahn* emerged to shape the pattern of physical activity* Instead* all youth seemed to turn eagerly from the depression and despondency of post-war conditions to a romantic search for fundamental values* to the experience gained in close contacts with nature* to a haunting* restless urge for 1. Dr* Oarl ft* Becker* "Our New Ideals*" the Survey* P.tetuurjr, 1929, Vol. LEE, So. 9, p.

277 activity as a mean* of developing new strength and beauty* There was a heightened interest, generally, la all types of physical activity, and Physical Kduoation experimented widely for new methods, more dynamic, more self-expressivc9 and more emotionally rewarding experleanes* Political parties counted athlctio clubs aa essential parts of their organisation**

Oitlea built great

stadia, playing fields, gymnasiums, and swimming pools, all for public use at snail expense*

Thousands of young people,

boys and girls, separately or together, hiked over the roads of the country*

Bicycling and swimming became a alna qua

non of every child*

the many lakes and rivers were covered

with shells, canoes, and sport boats of all kinds*

Youth

hostels were established in old castles, in river steamers, or in lowly bams*

Thousands of voluntary organisations

sprang up, Interested exclusively In sports, while many of the already existing groups added a new program to deal with athletics* Women shared this athletic activity as was never before possible* Xt is now quite impossible for the German woman that men shall rule the economic and political life) that only he shall determine the content of the laws, the rights and duties of women* Many men, too, are now quite reconciled to the fact that their sole dominance is past, formally and practically) that henceforth woman stands and will stand* both in

.

Bffitirtgjfceggaas*-**ukb-M*.

This statement was made by Dr. Elisabeth luders, one of the women members of the first Reichatag of the Republic.

She

continued, Women’* influence has changed profoundly the whole atmosphere of approach to problems of German politics, economics and culture. Especially strong has it affected those subjects which naturally are nearest to the life and Interests of women— such as education and teaching, welfare of mothers and children, , dwellings and housekeeping, professional and vocation­ al training, marriage, cltlsenship* etc. The women are especially eager to keep the rights which the new Constitution has given to them, and they are very eager too that these rights shall be exercised in the most loyal sense* Also in self-defense, because in some matters— such for instance as questions of equal conditions for women in the public service— men still try to evict them or exclude them* so also in matters of wages and salaries*•• They are determined to keep what they have gained) to conquer that they do not yet possess, with the great will to keep their rights and to do their duty to the whole people.2 Such a spirit the girls had, and it carried them wherever the boys went in sports and athletics* In 1926 Rtudloarat Walter Kuhn wrote in pie leiboauebungsn, It is a truism that woman today, in the family, in business, in society, and in every day life generally, is playing a different role than she did before the war. The woman in the present day may, 1. Pr. Marie I. luders, "The German Woman*s Place," The Survey. February 1929, Vol. 1XX, Mo* 9, P* 557* 2. Ibid.

279 without arousing any astonishment, do muoh whioh previously waa considered uafemlnine. X aa referring here mainly to the athletic activity of women. ... Previous to about twenty, years ago they* wara hat few of our wooan who had the oouragc to indulge in winter sports, tennis or hockey. The Intellectual and professional women and even those engaged in physical work had at that time no thought and no time for participation in sports. That condition has today been changed. The physical education of the woman now begins during the early school years. ... After leaving school, women have the opportunity to join clubs of all kinds. In addition to the independent women9s sport and rowing clubs, all large societies have ladies9 sections or divisions which in many oases are taught by women instructors* Xt is amazing to note hew, In the short period which has elapsed since the war, the great sport and play movement has not only caught hold of woman but has actually carried her away with it. Already we are reading of great gymnastic and athletic meets in whioh the women participate; already, in wonder, we behold them active in oontests and see them strive for the honors of vlotory, demonstrate exceptional ability, and even set up records.1 Xt is interesting to review the physical activities which were considered in Geraasy as best suited for women. Xt was reported in Pie Lslbsaucbungcn that an Inglish Commission sent a questionnaire to several hundred German experts, to obtain their opinions as to the sports best suited for the physical training of girls. 1. Walter Kuhn."Where Does the Way Lead?" Mind and Body, January 1927, Vol. 33, Wo. 355, p. 355*

2$0 the following li a summary of the opinions expressed toy physicians ana teachers* tennis and Basketball received general endorsement* Hockey is too strenuous far girls and women* Cricket is characterized as useless or of little value* football entirely condemned * Swimming is an excellent exercise for the health of girls and women, hut not suitable for all on account of the great strain upon the heart* The same opinion is entertained in regard to rowing. Hearly every physician recommended that rowing contests should be eliminated* Bicycle riding is favorably mentioned whan practised with care and discretion. *.. ♦Bodily training, consisting of gymnastics, plays and sports is equally as important for men and women as for boys and girls. However, a physical examination: toy a physician is essential to deoide the choice of exercise and the proper type of training in each individual case.1! Physical Education in the schools changed after the war*

Ho longer were exercises an end in themselves,

to toe performed as tests or demonstrations of skill*

They

became, instead, a means to an end, a working through the physical to the education of the whole child* the growth-energy of organs, muscles, and joints shall with consideration of the laws of circulation of the blood, and fatigue, be loosed in a form suitable to the age and interests of the pupils* the necessary skill and knowledge will be brought about through instruction in exercises whioh correspond to the natural need for exercises and the talents of the pupils* through this and through Instruction in Hygiene of the body, of the home. 1* "Which Sports are Most Suitable for Women?" Mind and Body, January 1927# Vol. 33# Ho* 355, p* 92*

231 of the community * the youth will bo brought to sound H r lag and proparod for a vocation. 1 The gymnasium halls* abandoned during the war* ware taken over for many years In the ensuing pease for use of the unemployed and of the military groups. Gradually they were returned to educational organisations* and men and women Physical Education teachers often gave unselfishly of their time* organising the recreational use of these buildings and serving as leaders on play­ grounds and in swimming pools. Conditions and practices varied greatly among the German states* but the system of Physical Education in Prussia was probably copied as a model by most of the other States.

Its methods seem to have been discussed widely and

in much detail. X*

*** Volksschule of Berlin* four teaching hours

were allotted to Physical Education* and in 1925 another hour was granted the pupils from the fourth year on in school*

Three of these were for play and two for

gymnastics.

In 1924 the Prussian Ministry for Solance*

Education* and Popular Enlightenment* by a regulation* established four hours of Physical Education for the higher 1. "Beport on Physical Education in the Berlin Schools ** Hr# Elizabeth Halsey* translator from the German* private materials* p. 1.

2*3 schools* Republican Germany has recognised tint a chain la merely aa etrongaa lta weakest link, and that link, In a M i l a n as fragal and aa foreseeing aa Germany, la the housewife. Shall aha ha Ignored by leaders of education, or developed into an Intelligent, finely-trained woman, mentally and physically e*ual to all demands of bar n o d a m status? These changes of attitude have lad to a great deal of thought on the matter, aulnlnatlng in the Suggestions for Physical Education la Sao ondary ''Beaooia rorTJIrls

v^a

^

Ilff3X

In the preface to thla publication Dr* D. Ottendorf, the Secretary for Physical Education in the Prussian Ministry, explained that the suggestions rare only the beginning of a program of work especially adapted for girls whleh waa to be as rich and varied aa the program for boys, and the material waa only to serve the need af the Prussian teachers for help and advice* Before that time the only bulletin which had been developed waa that of Spiesa which had been in effect between 1913 and 191*.

Before Spiesa, the only available

sources of material for gymnastic instruction were of John and OutaMutha, largely dominated by the Physical Education program for boys* 1* Virginia Bath and Thomas Alexander, "The hew Program of Physical Education for Girls in Prussian Secondary Schools,11 Teachers College Rcoord, June 1927, Vol. XXVXII, Ho. 10, p. #83.

203 the Suggestions were based on experiments in various sehooIs, conferences in Berlin and Lcipsig dealing with Physical Education for women, and on speoial courses offered to women by the German national Committee for Physical Training.

They were put la use at Easter time in

192*, and plans were made at once for review and future revision. The Suggestions allowed much freedom to the individual teacher in the selection and organisation of material, but they were quite specific and detailed. The Suggestions are divided into two parts) the first, taking up principles and method; the second, elaborating the subject matter. The content of the Suggestions and the older militaristic system of German gymnastics is striking. The most noticeable difference is the enrichment of the program to include— besides formal gymnastics— games, sports, corrective exercises, folk dancing, stunts, and 1 extra curricular activities, such as hikes, rowing clubs, winter sports, and camping. Another significant feature is the relaxing of the formal discipline which characterised the old system of instruction; and along with this, a recognition of individual differences and the encouragement of initiative and leadership. In the new plans for physical education work in Prussia, the pupils are allowed in some oases to select their own exercises* Theoretically and practically the plan of activity is based on the modern grouping of children into age periods according to their physical growth, Interests and activities. In the aim of the program is included a twofold obligation on the part of the teachers first, to provide for the practical oare of health whioh the

284 the growing girl needs especially, second, to ’assist in the formation of character and personality, to develop courage and strength of resolution, self* control* adaptability and subordination*. The combination of theae two efiofiii m d ^ girls healthy In mind and body, strong willed and joyful. On closer analysis, these are interpreted to mean a preparation for future household and vocational activities which demand correct use asd control of the body, the acquisition of good posture and a cultured personality in the physical sense; an appreciation of a natural healthy life in and out of doors and of the ’stimulating and healing effects of air, light, water and exercisev; and finally, a carry-over of these appreciations and health habits into adult life,1 The Prussian school aimed to correlate Physical Education with other school subjects, such as the natural sciences, history, art, and music. The program of activities occupied four class hours each we eh, two for class work and two for supervised outdoor games.

Besides this class time, it was general

practice to allow one day a month to each class for an all-day trip into the country.

The two class hours a week

were themselves each divided into two parts, one of ten to fifteen minutes in exercises for strengthening muscles and vital organs, gocrperaofaulc, and the second of thirty minutes for "performance exercises1* when indoors or "light athletics*1 when outdoors.

The Koerperaohule or body

training was made up of exercises for strengthening muscles

1, Ibid., pp, 985-986-

205 and developing organs*

They were ©specially designed to

mid posture, encourage deep breathing, strengthen the heart, and produce a graocfully light and easy walk.

the

Maintenance of such formal work seemed to prove that the German physical educators were not convinced that sports and games were sufficient to satisfy their new aims.

As a

matter of fact, the United states is the only oountry which has* in effect* abandoned gymnastics as an essential pert of its Physical education program. The "performance exercises" were what the Germans often called "sports", or "light athletics"*

They paralled

rather closely the activities an American knows as track and field events, but many were in exercise form*

Banning,

junplng, throwing, climbing, hanging, and light track work made up the Majority of these "performance exercises". When indoors, exercises were done on the parallel bars, horisontal bar, the rings, and the tumbling mat*

The

influence of the Turnvsrclnc called for skill and thorough­ ness in this work, in which the German gymnasts had taken pride for many years*

Skill, judgment, and courage were

required, but difficulty varied for the various classes* All of these activities were called "performance exercises" because many schools had established a point-basis for

2£6 grading achievement, and intersohool competition centered around these events* Intensive interaoholastio athletic competition withvarsity teams and firad schedules as practiced in the United States were unknown in Germany as in the rest of the world, but there were opportunities for Intersohool athletics• The competition was arranged more on an Invitational basis and led to the annual Rclehsj ugcndwettkamjpfo. which was a variety of athletic eon teste among local schools and athletie groups*

Some of these eon tests

were open to all persons between eleven and eighteen years of age*

Local athletie groups, eity associations, and

schools all competed together in those events*

Other events

might be limited to a certain kind of organisation*

The

purpose was to involve as many young persons as possible* The most popular events were running, jumping, throwing, gymnastics on the parallel and horizontal bars, and, where possible, swimming*

A

specific grading system was evolved

by whioh the best ten percent of boys and of girls at the national Relohajugeadwottkanpfe received a certificate of honor from the President of the Republic and was known then as a Sieger* viotor, if a boy, or a Slegerin, if a girl* Only simple awards were given,and no semi-professional atmosphere entered the picture*

At

these Rational youth

287 contests mass exercises were performed by huge numbers,of gymnasts* a practice which seems to characterize German events* l*e*, a love o f ,mass movement to command, excellent discipline and control. 1 Jn addition to the National contest a there wave the hundreds of preliminary local sport festivals and exhibitions.

All types of activities were represented*

bat the fundamental movements of running* Jumping* and throwing were most popular* The third type of activity offered in the schools was games* singing dances* and folk dancing*

The games

consisted of tag and ball games* such as volleyball* basket* ball* and baseball* of the girls*

They were graded to the age and abilities

The pupils of the upper school years were

particularly encouraged to become proficient In sports with carry-over value*

Swimming was required onoe a week

of all students where the facilities were available* until a test was passed*

Diving and life saving were offered la

the upper grades; rowing was encouraged where possibles winter sports were emphasized on the play afternoons* Boating* hiking* team competition were made as Interesting 1. Frederick H. Wohlers* "The New Physical Education in Germany*" The Journal of Health and Physical Education* October 19507 Vol* I* Bo. 8, p. $•

2** as possible eo that a girl would enjoy those activities by whioh she could aa intain health*

Competition for a

girl below seventeen years was frowned upon* but later on the girl was guided into athletie clubs whioh would keep her interest in sports and health after she left school. the program of orthopedic gymnastics was very important during this period*

The blockade of Germany

during the war had produced food shortages and dietary defleleaoles whioh generally weakened youth to such an extent that Physical sensation was not enough to rebuild their strength*

The school doctor examined the children and

set aside two groups9 one for special work with the physical educator* and the other to be under a doctor *s care.

A great deal of instruction was given in the

prevention of ill health and bad posture* but need for corrective work was ever present*

Many large cities

maintained schools outside the city where children could go daily to study and play out of doors*

Some schools offered

additional food for the undernourished and furnished free bathing facilities*

Muoh was done to restore the health

of children* but much more was needed*

The war had levied

a heavy toll on the health of the entire nation* not merely on its soldiers*

3*9 The Youth Movomont ho* originated wandering around the country, living a simple life, and glorifying rural, rather than city, methods of living*

Schools and

organisations whioh had been established by adults for the welfare of children took over the idea*

About ten tines

a year each child had an opportunity to go with her school group on a "waader-day".

Youngsters might start with

half-day trips, but the oldest often spent several days at a time, with their teachers, in the country*

they

learned the history and geography of their nation, but they also lived healthy, happy days*

If a child could not

afford the cost of the trip, the government paid for It* Incorporated with this idea, was the "school* land-home" where students, particularly from the city, went for varying lengths of tlmet to study as usual, but in the light and air of the country*

The more sickly ones might

stay there for indefinite periods* An

observer of German Physical Education wrote

in 1931, the work of girls and women is very similar in character and amount to that for boys and men* There is perhaps more rhythmic work or dancing, but otherwise the exercises and games are very much alike for both sexes* In one High School for Girls we saw* a marvellous display of gymnastics and athletic ability by a class of girls that far

290 surpassed the performance of many men ana boys.^ In the universities, Physical Education received mere and more emphasis.

In the beginning, Physloa!

SdneatIon was on a voluntary basis,

inter on, the university

authorities tried to introduce ooapuXsory exercises. Prussia did make it compulsory tor every student oho was a candidate tor a teaching position In the secondary school, and tor students of the Poly technical Institute. (c) at least during the second semester one has to practice exercises and take part In the university gymnastics and sport instruction, and during an equally long time to listen to leotures on the conduct of physical education. ... ♦ for the feminine students there are special requirements which are to be borne in mind in the arrangement of physical education for the development of young girls. The useful exeroises for the feminine students are separated from those of young men students and are directed toward the accomplishment of the potentialities under the skill of a woman teacher. 2 The example of Prussia was followed by many other universities.

Although this may seem a low requirement,

still it was difficult to find teachers, gymnasiums, and playgrounds at first.

Gradually this requirement developed

a Physical Education Institute or department as the 1. H. G. Buck, "Physical Education in Some European Countries," Physical Education, 1931» Vol. VI, No. 7# p.99* 2. "Esquired Physical Education la the University," Decree of the Ministry of Education. Germany. Die Lelbosuebungen. 192$, Vol. I, p. 246.

m grouping of tli# m y steal Education teachers ana facilities at a university became labeled* Bating the winter semester (one~halftha school year) of 1926~1927 tan Prussian Universities provided twenty-seven prof®as ora ana assistant professors for the purpose af lecturing on the a ifferent branches of science whioh apply to physical education* finally * the University Administrators appointed speoial professors for th© field of physical education* fhe practical res alt of ibis organisation is that one-fourth of all the candidates for positions in the secondary sohools possess University diplomas of physleal education in addition to diplomas in soma other speoial subject of teaching* this percentage is bound to increase as the organisation baooaas more and more effective through the enforcement of the new regulations*I Speoial institutions for Physical Education training ware also developed at this time*

In 1920* by

private initiative* the German College of Physical Education was opened in Berlin*

Its graduates* not recognised by

the State education authorities* filled the need* particularly* for leaders in d u b s and athletic associations* In Spandau* a two years* course was organised at the Institute of Spandau to train secondary aohool Physical Education teachers*

fhls later became the Prussian College

of Physical Education*

Private schools as those of Bode*

Xensendleek* and Laban were opened during this period* or 1* Eugene Piaseeki* "Physical Education in European Universities*" $he Journal of Health and Physics Education* October I W ^ 'ToIT J T W 7 W T

m else became increasingly popular, all availing the general national emphasis on physical activity. The Deutsche Belohaausschuaa fuer Deibcauebun&en must to mentioned hare.

The German National Committee for

Physioal Training, aa its title indicated, waa a most powerful influence in the German recreation movement*

It

was semi-official, state subsidized, and headed the various athletie societies of the country*

It centralized all

sports, clubs, playground efforts, controlled the Physical Education College in Berlin, gave out the badges to the "Victor" youths at the national oonteets, and, thus, generally promoted Physical Education and reoreation In Germany*

It sponsored Die Lelbesucbuagen. among its

publications.

Dr. Carl Diem served at its head and was

the leading figure of this period in the German field of Physical Education.

This National Committee had

incorporated with It nearly all the athletic groups of the country, and there were many.

Class-consciousness was

strong In Germany and resulted in separate clubs for each social class, also special clubs for each Church denomination.

These divisions were very complex, but over

them all ruled the National Committee. A particularly strong sub-group was the geatralfcomnlsslon ffuer aport und Kfrsrperpflege (Central

m Commission tor Sport and Physical Development), reported to have £00•000 adult members in 1926 , end It served es thf hoed organisation of all Booiallst workers1 sports federations. 1 The Wandcrvoegcl movement captured all of young Germany during the Republic period, but its character in 1931 *** very different from that of the period directly after the war*

Originally, it was Just for boys and was

a searching for the simple life of pure Ideals and the beauty of nature*

These youths made their own campfires,

cooked and ate very simple foods, slept in barns, and generally lived a rustic, primitive life*

Gradually girls

entered the movement, sometimes in unchaperoned groups with boys.

The spirit of revolt against city life spread

to a revolt against many ethical codes including that which governed the relations of the semes.

A certain pseudo-

sophistication developed among many groups of youths which led to immorality and sexual irregularities.

The Catholic

Church, especially, condemned the Wandering Youths for their license.

But still another development took place.

Adult groups saw that there was much good In the spirit of 1. Herbert X». May and Dorothy Petgen, leisure and its Use,

294 the original Wandervoegel movement.

Schools* Churches, and

social service organizations gradually modified the move­ ment by assisting It and at the same time controlling It. These organisation* aided in the eatabllahment of fine tenth Noe tele, in the formation of a better code of ethics, and in the provision of chaperonege*

There always could

be found, of course, seme wandering groups whose, behavior was regrettable, but, as the years went by, the movement lest its spontaneity*

It became highly organized,

subsidized through state support, and unite well controlled* Doubtless, some of the original free spirit was lost, but probably more was gained than was lost in this latter developmental change in the movement* The same desire for a physical renaissance and greater spiritual freedom which led to the Wandering Movement, led also to the movement for rhythmic gymnastics* The new gymnastloa were especially popular with women but also found favor with a large number of men*

Although

there were many different schools, they all had certain common characteristics,

1* Exercises were performed out

of doers and in the sun if possible, 2* Participants wore a minimum of clothing, if any, 3* Rhythm was emphasized as a mystical quality, soul searching and introspective, 4* Gymnastics were considered a< means of free self-expression*

295 the two earliest school* of some pretension woro conducted by Jacques Balorbms and by Prau Bees Mehsehdlecfc# The Daloroac School at Hellerau, although not in Germany, spread its influence widely there,

it began aa purely

musloal training ana gradually evolved aa a aysten, of general education.

In the aohool’ 3 early stages, bodily

movementwas controlled by and made dependent upon the music, bat it later af footed the music to such an extent aa to be almost independent of it,

tom-toms and drams

became the usual accompaniment to an attempt by dancers to express their internal rhythm patterns. At Hellerau, it was found that in the course of gymnastic practices, the rhythms of the individual pupils gradually developed into a collective group rhythm whioh is sought and found in this new type ef ballet, a ballet not necessarily designed for public performance* but a thing sufficient to itself, a common aot of the community, like church ritual or the social dance. 1 Bess Menaendlech was concerned with the correct bodily movement of women more than with a theory of gymnastics. The necessity of a complete renovation of women's gymnastics is today a generally recognised fact. With Bess Hens end leek for the first time the feminine being is moving ahead And is demanding its 1. Eolf Gardiner, "Bhythmlo Gymnastics in Germany,** Journal of School Hygiene and Physical Education, 1924-1925•

mrira, ptik.

------

296 privileges in the open light* Her first hook wee the expression of a deeply felt need and made a deep lmpression* In spite of its ono-aldedness the system found many supporters and called forth the awakening of a movement in the women9a world which is putting itself to the task of creating for women a physical education, which will he directed entirely at the woman's individuality. The place of the woman in oulture, politics, and housekeeping was characterised hy a strong dependency on man* The pressure which awakened the women's movement, should place the duties of women in the frame of the German oulture and explain them, and hy fulfilling these duties should win for her a needed independence.1 Thus enthusiastically did Erich Harte write in 1925 in Pie heIhesuehuagen» Bess Menseadieek taught the oorreot way of movement, beginning with simple actions as walking, sitting, running, or heading down*

She based her theories on the study of

anatomy making her work a corrective or re-education, and aiming to seoure for women their maximum energy and beauty# Dr. Hudolf Bode, of Munich, made rhythmic sensitivity a central emphasis of his system of gymnastics# Ibe task of Physical Education is the maintenance of the organic unity of life and the natural rhythm of the life movement against the opposing powers inimical to life through their mental and mechanical alms internally and externally* * 1# Erich Harte, "1925, A Tear of Important Decisions in the Bodily Training of Women, * Die Lelbesuebungen, 1925, Vol. X, Ho. 1, p* 16.

2. Rudolf Bode, Expression Gymnastics, p# 25*

297 later in his book, J&presslom-aymnastios, Dr. Bods stated, There is one aim in view* namely, to bring the organism into a psychophysical aend it ion which will make possible a free development and a complete control of its motor powers* The method of Expression gymnastics is to formulate ffefiniTJe natural movements through which this purpose may be attained* The simplest move­ ments like walking, striding, swinging, pushing or beating of the arms, bending of the body, etc., are ohosen* .*.As soon as these movements are performed organically, a peculiar elementary feeling arises out of the unity which is characteristic only to this process of movement, and is called the feeling of plasticity. ...There Is no pure physical rhythm, each real rhythm arises out of organlo unity and the more the class grows together, the more this unconscious inter­ change arises to which each pupil owes his individual rhythm*I Rudolf von Laban established in Hamburg a rhythmic gymnastics school which emphasized also the internal rhythm of the individual which, coming together in a mass of dancers, gave a new group-unity rhythm* music was used.

Little

It aimed to serve as the basis of a

general education, and to have emotional and intellectual content, going beyond bodily exercise* Two schools centered around rhythmic breathing* The Sehlaffhorst school in Rothenburg bai Fulda developed a minor science of breathing* 1* Ibid., p.

•

29* It is precisely In this vital question of breathing* that relation of body with the X quantity is most closely touched, and at the same time in intimate ooaaeotion with that other excelling phenomenon of rhythm* To control one's breathing rightly is to be master of one's passions and impulses** The second group, the Loheland school at Dirlos, equally emphasised breathing* The movloe must learn to let the movements of hie limbs harmonise with the natural movement of breathing* so that he comes to be aware of the alternating centrifugal and centripetal power of his own body* and is thus able to overcome the sense of weight In his limbs and attain perfect repose* even in the quichest movement *2 There were other schools* many of which were more conservative* adapting rather than originating programs*

The Alice Bloch School at Stuttgart was an

example of this group*

In her book* Harmonious Development

of Women’s Bodies* Alice Bloch wrote* "I do not claim to be the originator of these exercises*

Borne are new creations*

others are the work of former teachers* changed to meet my standards and tastes* and a considerable number are taken from the good old Swedish system*"3 1* Bolf Gardiner* "Rhythmic Gymnastics in Germany," Journal of School Hygiene and Physical Education,

1525=17237 ToTrivTT7'p“ l5jr

---------

2« Ibid.* p* 146* 3. Alice Bloch* Harmonious Development of Women’s Bodies* p. vil*

299 The gymnastics of Jahn and Spless had beam known throughout tho world as "the German Gymnastics".

the mew

techniques in this period offered a growing contrast to the former system.

At the Olympics of 1928, the German

men and women gave a demonstration of the new methods* grass t liajor of Bogland wrote, "The technique of the work shown hy representatives of other countries adhered more or less closely to the usually accepted Idea of German gymnastics, and served to mark a contrast to the demonstra­ tion already given hy the Germans themselves. *3* Germany had changed a great deal.

She was

breaking old fetters, freeing her spirit and imagination. Strange experiments resulted in some cases, but the vigor and breadth of the movement was widely recognized.

1. Brnest Major, "The Ninth Olympiad," Journal of School Hygiene and Physical Education. 1928-1929# W t i I x l, Hoi 61, p. Iff. .

m

Chapter T FRB-WAR PERIOD OF 10101*00ICAL OOHF0IGT, 1933^1940, IN GERMAN? Adolf Hitler became Chancellor Of Germany on January 30, 1933*

Immediately be began a radical revlaIon

of domeatie and foreign policies and programs#

In March,

1933 00 Enabling Aet was passed which gate him dictatorial powers#

This Aet was legally possible under the Weimar

Constitution which was nominally in effect throughout Hitlercs dictatorship# With complete control in his hands, Hitler turned on his enemies within the Belch#

All parties except the

National Socialists were outlawed#

The Jews were economi-

sally, socially, and politically boycotted#

Concentration

camps became numerous and were established as permanent institutions all over Germany# allowed in the elections#

only Nasi candidates were

The Belch became a police state

completely unified by the Gestapo under Nazi control#

All

media of communication were Nazi-dominated, and from that time on the German people learned only what the Party wished them to know# more severe#

In 1934 Hitler's purge of his enemies became Jews, liberals, Marxists, Freemasons, and

301 sens dissenters within the Party war# persecuted*

All

Germany became Nazi or 111# la terror It# differing belief#. These fie# who #1# not be lie*e or wish to hi##. Haring united th# country, terrorist## hie enemies, on# consolidated the economic strength of the nation. Hitler next turned to rearmament plane*

since the treaty

of Versailles and ite makers forbade reaming, Germany dropped oat of the league of Hattons and withdrew from the disarmament conference. i&trodueed in 1935* fortified in 1936*

Universal military training wae

The Rhineland wae oeoupled and Ooeriag area ted a formidable air force*

Britain permitted Germany to build a nary up to thirty-fire per sent of her own strength*

In an atmosphere of secrecy

Hitler built up hie armed femes before the rest of the world realized their proportions. Where Germany in 1933 had been a defenseless, eeonoaieally depressed nation, in 193# Abe was the leading power in Burope, as recognized at the Conference of Munloh. In 1934 Germany signed a non-aggression treaty with Poland, seeming to Indiesto the truth of Hitler1# declaration that he wished world peace.

In 1936*1937, the Rome-Berlin Axis

was established, making Germany and Italy allies in military strength.

Japan and Germany a igned an amti-oomintera paet

in 1936 which Italy joined in 1937*

Economic agreements

302 were signed with Rusala, the Tery nation against whieh the Amti»oomlntera pact seemed to be directed,

the Saar region

voted overwhelmingly to rejoin Germany la 1933 * •eat aid to franco la Spain*

The Basis

Thus* Hitler was gradually

gathering together hie strength, and foreign nations ware raaogniaing his power with friendly treaties. Although Hitler bad loudly proclaimed that ha hoped to make more saoura a lasting peace in the world* still his great rearmament drive made the Western demoera* alas fear war was possible*

Britain* with Anthony Sden as

Foreign Secretary, maintained a polloy of "collective security", which aimed to resist, hy joint action la the league of Rations , the militarism of Italy and Germany, this policy failed to prerent Mussolini from talcing Kthlopia, and also it failed to gain a united Sngllah support against Franco in Spain*

In 193A HAan resigned and

Chamberlain** policy of "appeasement* became popular*

This

change allowed Hitler to gain control in Kurope. The "appeasement" policy meant that Bngland was so determined to keep the peace that, if necessary, she weald give in to the demands of the dictators*

In theory,

the injustices of the Versailles Treaty had caused the dissatisfaction of Germany*

Ferhaps, some measures of

recompense for these injustices might satisfy Cermany enough

m to prevent war.

This seemed to be the approach of the

"appeasement* advocates. In 1932 Hitler forced the Austrian government, under Kurt Sohusohnlgg, to resign, and Immediately after this, a German army marohed into the country,

A popular

vote of the Christian Austrian* approved the union of their country with Germany,

Great Britain objected to this move,

especially to the brutal methods used by the Basis, but no action was taken*

Hitler*a power end prestige was greatly

enhanced by this success * Hitler*s next move was against Czechoslovakia. Be demanded that the German minority in the sudetan area of that country be given the right of self-determination, or else he threatened to take the area by force. precipitated a grave crisis in Europe,

This

The country that

controlled this area controlled central Europe.

A conference

was oalled in Munich of Hitler, Chamberlain, Mussolini, and France9* Deladier*

Chamberlain9* determination to prevent

war made him persuade Delad ier to repudiate France9s alliance with Gseehoslovakia*

In September, 1932 Germany was granted

Sudetenland on the promise that the rest of Czechoslovakia would be respected and that no more territorial demands would be made by Germany in continental Europe, was completely empty.

But this promise

By March, 1939 Hitler had added

304 Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia to the third Reich. Czechoslovakia was no more.

Germany and France had made

in December* 193* the Parls-Berlin Peace Pact agreeing to promote good* neighborXy relatione between the two countries. Bat all thia waa done in the vain hope of peaee through negotiatioaa.

Hitler waa atill on the maroh.

Danzig and rights in the Polish Corridor.

He wanted

Great Britain

promised military aid to Poland, but the Fuehrer probably felt the "appeasement* policy waa still in fores., and besides, the western democracies were far behind Germany in their armaments programs.

Furthermore, the might of

Russia was neutralised by an August, 1939 Russo-German Past of non-aggression against each other.

Xt seemed as though

Hitler might take over Poland in comparative safety as he had done Czechoslovakia. On September 1, 1939 German troops crossed the border into Poland.

Two days later France and England

declared war on Germany.

The Second World War had begun.

Sgeia^ Position and £gonog| 2 £SKm£mwmm£«m Xf one says that man** world is the State, his struggle, his readiness to devote his powers to the service of the oommunity, one might be tempted to say that the world of woman is a smaller world. For her world is her husband, her family, her

m children, and her house# But where would the greater world be if there were no one to care for the small world? Hew ooaid the greater world survive if there were none to make the earee of the smaller world the content of their live*? ***Providence has entrusted to woman the earea of that world whieh la peculiarly her own, and only on the baa la of thla smaller world dan the man's world be formed and built up# These two worlds are never In conflict* They are complementary to eaeh other# they belong together aa man and woman belong together. ...Kvery child that a woman brings Into the world ia a battle, a battle waged for the existence of her people. Han and woman must therefore mutually value and reapeet eaeh other when they see that eaeh performs the task whieh Mature and Providence have ordained. And from this separation of the functions of eaoh there will necessarily result this mutual reapeet. It is not true, as Jewish intellectuals assert, that respeet depends upon the overlapping of the spheres of activity of the sexes: thla respect demands that neither sex should try to do that which belongs to the other's sphere. Bespeot lies in the last resort in this: that eaoh knows that the other ia doing everything which ia necessary to maintain the whole community .1 These were the words of Adolf Hitler delivered to women at the Nuremberg Party day on September 8, 1934. later in the same speech he declared, «Tbe programme of oar national Sooialist Women's Movement has in truth but one single point, and that point is The Child— that tiny creature which must be born and should grow strong, for in the child alone the whole lifc-struggle gains its meaning."2 1. The Speeches of Adolf Hitler. April 1922 - August 1939#

8^ r i:^yi8h7^,in n ,pp.528-529.

2 . Ibid.. p. 530 .

m Three years later on September 10, 1937 Hitler •aid again to German women at a Party Day In Burambeyg almost the same thoughts. resort for the child*

"All.that we do is in the last

Often we think we are oaring for

ourselves, for the folk of our own day, yet the deepest meaning of all our work and of our life is only this:

that

we may safeguard the life of our people* In general, Hitler viewed women from this single point of view, as the potential mothers of the German Volk* Their duties seemed to consist of reproduotion, womanly work, and a strengthening of the home* Point twenty-one of the Bazl program stated. The state must oare for the improvement of the people*s health through the protection of mother and child, through the forbidding of child-labor, through development of physical capability by means of legislative provision of a gymnastic and sports duty add through the support of all assooiatioas engaged in physioal education of youth.2 In summing up his view of the Hazi literature dealing with women, Kirkpatrick said in Nazi Germanys

Its

Women and family Life, The distillation of all this into a single statement would be as follows] women should be guardians of the germ-plasm, cherish the German tradition, be 1* Ibid** pp. $32-533. 2* The Hitler Decrees, James K* Pollock and Barlow J. HelnemanT^eds., pp• 2-3.

m comrades rather than oojjypetltors, bear healthy o U W m , unite the family with the folk* areata a pleasant home atmosphere , handle aeh taotfully, guard morality, practise domestic economy, educate the younger generation, nurse the weak and helpless, carry an the artistic tradition, be the guardians of the life process, be the custodians of spiritual values, strengthen themselves by exercise for motherhood, nourish patriotism and be thoroughly womanly women. 1 women were organised as thoroughly as were the men in Germany,

Boys at six years of age joined the Plmpf

and graduated at ten into the fungvolk. At fourteen they became members of the Hitler yagcnfl, from which they went, if worthy, into Party membership.

Better than average

members might become part of the gtnraabtelluag group, and the very best were organised as the elite guard, or Schutz Staffel. Every Nasi from age six up had his rank and attendant duties and privileges,

Girls at age ten were able

to become Jungaaedel, and at fourteen became members of the Bund Pcutschsr Maedel which corresponded to the Hitler Jugond for boys.

At twenty-one they became members of the

Deutsches frauenwcrk. or German Women's Association, which had many sub-divisions and was a part of the ffrauenaohaft, which controlled all women's groups, the first Heal women's group was the fraucaordea, established in 1926,

this became the fraucnaohaft in 1931

1, Clifford Kirkpatrick, Baal Germany! life, p, 12$.

Its women and Pamily

308 and was put under the control of Dydla Gottsqhewski.

She

forced the existing women** groups to either Join the yreaensohaft or dissolve,

Many took the seoond alternative,

mad only a few Cathollo women1s groups were able to resist her efforts successfully.

By the end of 1933, with

hitler9* coming to full power, the victory ©f the Frauenaohaft wae virtually complete.

In 1934 Frau SohoIts*

Slink was appointed the woman leader of Germany and head of the women9* groups,

Frau Soholtz-Kllnk described the

organisation of the German women as follows: We have now co-ordinated the previously existing women9s associations and thus created the German. Women’s Association, (Deutsches Frauenwerk), which is subdivided into sect'i&as along 'the 'lines laid down by the N. S. ffrauensohaft. The Deutsches Frauenwerk consists, apart from the Mothersv Be'arvice a'X^ady mentioned, of the following sections! National and domestic economy; cultural and educational matters; assistance, and a foreign section. Ia addition, there are four large administrative departments, viz., general administration; finances, organisation and staff; the Frees and propaganda matters, which latter also deals with the radio, films, and exhibitions.& Feminine youth, also, were organized in labor service and in student groups.

There was, In addition, a

women*a bureau in the German Work Front, Intended to protect the interests of women workers. 1. Dr. Wilhelm Frick, et.al., Germany gpeaks. p. 94*

309 It ia Interesting to study the effects on women *a child hearers and as workers outside the home, which this strong Hazi organisation was able to produce.

As

soon as Hitler came into power he began a vigorous campaign to raise the birth rate., dingle men and women were taxed for being unmarried.

Marriage loans were made easily

accessible to pure Aryans.

JSaoh birth reduced by one-fourth

this marriage loan in the nature of payment.

Birth-control

information was almost unprocurable and contraceptives were illegal. the State.

Abortions were a very serious offense against

Bronze,, silver, and gold medals were given for

producing four, six, and eight children respectively.

The

length of the education period waa cut down, so that marriage was possible at an earlier age for soms youths. Housing facilities were made more available for young married couples.

All these actions, and many others, too,

were intended to raise the birth rate, and up it went. From 18.0 in 1934 it had reached an estimated 19.1 in 1936.*

It seemed that women were responding to their

primary duty, that of bearing children. In the economic world the Hazls changed their policy concerning women and their right to work.

At first

1. Clifford Kirkpatrick, "Recent Changes in the Status of Women and the Family in Germany," American sociological Review, October 1937* Vol. 2, Ho. 57"$'. 554•

310 the pelloy seemed to be that of relieving the unemployment situation hy replacing employe# married women by unemployed men*

Paring 1933 an# 1934* there was a strong opposition

among the Nasi policy makers against "double earnings'* in the same family.

Women were barre# from civil service

if husbands or fathers were employe#. from political office.

Women were barred

Many others in professional life

found their livlihoo# out off.

It was particularly true

that women in administrative positions were put out* whereas women in the rank an# file of labor were force# to stay at work against their wishes.

This latter group often

hoped In vain for the husband who would be the excuse for their leaving factory work* but the great business of production In preparation for war was increasing the demand for labor.

Regardless of the Kami glorification of the

mother* there s t U l remained many at work* and many in heavy physical labor. The clash of theory with economic forces was a complete defeat for the theory* since the absolute number of women workers increased steadily from 1933 through 1936* Moreover* the theory of man as a natural wage earner was promptly altered by the improvement of business to the view that women not only had a right but a duty to contribute to economic production outside of the home.l

i« Ibid♦* p. 656*

311 As mere an* more mem were recruited into the armed forces, tftl as Industrial pro* notion an* rearmament factories needed more laborers, women were require* to work, whether the? were mothers or unmarried. It was the professional woman who suffers* most* Opportunities were limits**

Women *00 tore were relegate*

only to women's an* children's diseases*

women lawyers

were suppose* to confine their work to juvenile an* domestic problems*

Perhaps only the profession of the midwife

receive* real encouragement among those open to women. As a part of woman's economic life under the Basis the Labor Service should be mentioned.

Between the

ages of eighteen an* twenty*flva, all women were suppose* to contribute from three months9 to a year's service on some farm, helping the peasant family an* learning the value of physical labor.

All classes of girls live*

together In camps throughout Germany,

there they receive*

Physical Education, political Indoctrination, study of the Basl race theories, an* training In the skills necessary for a wife an* mother.

Many of these young women became

physically fit, enthusiastic Bazls, an* eager to become mothers.

They became, also, well discipline* an* willing

to sacrifice themselves for their fuehrer an* their country.

313

A new o Ii m structure developed which depended •t the purity of one*# blood,

fine lowest Glass was the

Jew, and the highest elass was the blonde, blue-eyed, pare Aryan*

A girl’s vales to he* fuehrer depended on the

purity of he* blood, and the number of pure Aryan children she produced*

The old social Glass distinctions were gone,

end gone, too, was a superiority derived from Intellectual attainments.

The individual was nothing, the Volk

community was all* legal Status Zn an interview with Anne O'Hara McCormick, reported in The Hew Tines for July 10, 1913, Hitler said; "Women always have been ay staunchest supporters* feel that ay victory is their victory*

They

They know I serve

their cause in working to redean O s m a n youth, to create a social order, to restore hope and health.**1 In the 1932 election the vote showed that about half the Haul votes were cast by women*

It may appear

strange that the german women were so greatly in favor of a movement which seeaed to offer them so little*

But Hitler

1* Anne O'Hare McCormick, "Hitler Seeks Jobs for All germane,” New York Times* July 10, 1933, P* 6«

313 promised them husbands an# Jobs for the husbands go that women need not work outside the home. motherhood and the family*

He glorified

He spoke a non-intellectual,

common speech which they could understand.

He promised

them something to be proud of, in. belonging to the Oerman people, *the superior race".

He gate them scapegoats for

their past misery such as the Jews, the Versailles Treaty, the Republic, the Communists, and the allies who had defeated Germany in World war I*

So women turned to Hitler

as their savior and helped bring him to power. When a delegation of national Woman’s organisations questioned Hitler in 1932 concerning his views on the legal equality of the sexes which the Weimar Constitution had made possible, his reply was; 1916 done for women?

"What has the Hevolution of

dll It has done is to turn 50,000 of

them Into blue stockings and party officials*

Under the

Third Eeloh they might as well whistle for such things, Every woman then will get a husband for herself.*1 2h 1934 Hitler declared, We National Socialists have for many years protested against bringing women into political life; that life In our eyes was unworthy of her* A woman said to me once; You must see to it that women go into

1. The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, 0£. cit., pp. 527-526.

m Parliaments that* la the only way to raise the standard of Parliamentary life* X do sot believe, I answered, that man should try to raise the level of that whieh is bad ia itself* And the woman who eaters iato this business of Parliament will aot raise it* it will dishonour her* X would aot leave to woman what X intend to take away from, non* My opponents thought that in that ease we would never gain women for our Movements but in fast we gained more women than all the other parties together, and X know we should have won over the last German woman if she had only had the opportunity to study Parliament and the dishonouring role whloh women have played there*1 In 1935 the Puehrer added to his expressed views on the polltleal position of women* Woman has always respeoted the courageous, bold, determined man, and Man has always admired and been drawn towards the womanly woman* Whose are the two contrasts whloh attraot eaoh other, then there Is no longer any question of equality of rights, for nature supplies the answers It is not equality of rights, It is unity* Man and Woman represent two different characteristics! in Man the understanding is dominant, but mere stable than that is emotion whloh is the mark of Woman* * Mo law was passed preventing woman from attaining political office, but there was only one list of candidates, that of the sole political party, the Hasis, and no woman was ever on their lists* **

Mala KhftPf Hitler wrote, "The German girl is

a State subject and only becomes a State citizen when she

1. Ibid., P* 530* Ibid*, p* 531*

315 marries,

But citizenship can be conferred on those female

Ganaaa State subject* who are active ia economic lifc**l In general, the Nazi viewed woman ia public life as a sign of national decay, as a sign that the man were becoming weaker and not so dominant as they should he*

The

older women who had led the Woman's Movement of the Bepubllo period were forced to retire*

the women who did

acquire some degree of power within the Waal organisation were not intellectuals , but rather were young opportunist* and Was! zealots•

Their power lay only la the women**

world and dealt with women*s affairs* particularly in the yrauegwerk organization*

Hitler allowed no women to advise

on policy making boards*

Only men held such positions*

Buth WOodsmall pointed out in 1935 the inconsistency which existed in the political position of women* In its baek~t©~the-home policy for women the Third Belch has laid a heavy hand on their political activity* curtailing their service in government ministries and debarring them from the Belchstag which in 1933 had thirty five woman members* But although women have been deprived of the right to hold political office, the exercise of suffrage is not merely their right but theirsacred duty.2 1* Adolf Hitler, Mein

Kampf,p.

659*

2* Buth ?. Woodsmall, "Women In the HewGermany," The forum, 1935, Vol. 93* P- 300.

Woman were important to the Iferby aot because of their minds but because of their bodies.

They were to

comfort and assist men* bear children, ears for the young and the sick) but they were aot needed nor wanted la positions of public authority*

The Man dominated in legal

as well as social matters* and warn©** having helped Hitler oome to political power* lost through him all their political power,

This definition was stated and re-stated*

and so cleverly Invested with glamour that It had a strong emotional appeal. gducation and Bhrsloal Education

mSSSSESEBSSfSSSl 33CS5 3S&SS3S5S2» nS23nK53!X5S5

iThe philosophy of Nasi education was set forth ia some detail in Mela Kampf.\ Heveral excerpts from that famous book are presented here as partial explanation of the educational revolution which Hitler effected, German education before the war was afflicted with an extremely great number of weaknesses, its intention was out out* in a very one-sided manner* for the purpose of breeding pure 1k n o w l e d g e i t was orientated less towards 'abilities ♦, and far less emphasis was put on the cultivation of the character of the individual* very little on the promotion of the Joy of accepting responsibility* and none at all on the training of will power and determination,1 1. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, p, >22.

3X7 ...for trtte genius is always inborn and never acquired by education or, still less, by learning.1 If as the State’s first task ia the service and for the welfare of its nationality w e r e cognize the preservation, care and development of the raolaXXy boat elements, It ia natural that this care has to extend not only to the time of birth of tha young member of people and race, but that it has to educate tha young offspring towards becoming a valuable member In flaw of la tar propagation. Just as in gaaaral tha presumptions for spiritual achievements lias in tha raalal quality of tha given human material, thus also tha Individual** aduaation has to focus upon and to promote first of all physlaal health; for, within tha masses, a healthy» vigorous spirit will be found only in a healthy and powerful body. The fast that geniuses are sometimes physically badly formed, even siek beings, is no ob jest ion. They are the exceptions which— as everywhere--prove the role. But if the mass of a people consists of physical degenerates, then out of this swamp a really great spirit will arise only very rarely. His activity will in no case be rewarded with great success. The degraded rabble will either not understand him at all, or it will be so weakened in its will power that it will be unable to follow the soaring flight of suoh an eagle. S h e folklsh State, through this realisation, has to direst its entire education primarily not at pumping in mere knowledge, but at the breeding of absolutely healthy bodies. Of secondary importance is the training of the mental abilities.! But here again first of all the development of the character, especially, the promotion of will power and determination, connected with education for joyfully assuming responsibility and only as the last thing, scientific schooling. ... ^Ja the folklsh State physical training therefore is not the ooaeem of the individual, and also not an affair that concerns primarily the parents and the community only in the second or third Instance, but

1. Ibid.. P. 403.

m a requirement of the 8elf -preservation of the nationality, represented and protected by the Sta t e Q Just as the State, as far as the purely scientific training is concerned, intervenes even today in the right of self-determination of the individual and represents towards him the right of the community by subJeoting the child, without asking for the agreement or non-agreement of the parents, to oompulaory schooling, thus, in questions of the nationality's preservation, the national State will some day9 to a much higher degree, enforoe its authority against the ignorance or the non-understanding of the individual. It has to arrange its educational work in such manner that the young bodies, in their earliest childhood, are treated according to the purpose and that they receive the necessary steeling for later days. But above all it has to care that not a generation of stay-at-homes is brought up. ... < School as such, in a folklsh State, has to set fifpdrt infinitely more time for physical training, j It won't do to burden the young brains with a ballast which they retain, according to experience, only to a fraction, whereby in most cases instead of the essential the unnecessary trifles remain, as the young child is not in a position to carry out a sensible selection of the material that has been infiltrated in him. \Xf today, even in the curriculum of the middle schools, only two hours per week are devoted to gymnastics and the participation in it is optional with the individual, not compulsory, then this, is, compared with the purely intellectual training, a gross disparity...Not in the honest petty bourgeois or in"the virtuous old maid does it see its ideal of humanity, but in the robust incorporation of manly forces and in women who in their turn are able to bring men into the world .1 tfhe folklsh State has to carry through and to supervise the physical training not only during the official school years; it has to care also in post-school daya...\ This right is a duty, and as

1. Ibid. •§ p. bl2.

m such it Is permanently existent* The present State that has no interest ia healthy people has neglected this duty ia a criminal meaner* It lots tha present young generation degenerate In the streets and in brothels* instead of taking then hy the leash and training then physically further until one day a healthy nan and a healthy woman hare grown out of thls*l \Aaalogous with the education of the hoy, the folkihh State can also direct the education of the girl from the sane viewpoints* Mere toe the nain stress should be put on physieal training, and only after this on the promotion of spiritual and last of all, the intellectual values* The goal of female education has invariably to be the future mother* 2J> The subjects to be taught must be built up systematically according to these viewpoints| education must be arranged systematically in such a way as to make the young man upon leaving school not half a pacifist, democrat or something of that kind, but a genuine German*3 The folklsh State4s entire work of education and training has some day to find its culmination in branding, through instinct and reason, the race sense and race feeling into the hearts and brains of the youth with whom it is entrusted* Mo boy or girl must leave school without having been led to the ultimate knowledge of the necessity and the nature of the purity of the blood .4 Higher education must serve the German cause,••*5 1. Ibid* * P- 619 2* Ibid** P* 621 3* Ibid** P* 635 4* Ibid** P* 636 5. Ibid*, P* 692

320

\Iduoatloa and Physical Education are discussed * In a more Integratad manner for this than for previous periods because Hitler saw Physical Education as the main part of education, and, therefore, it cannot be separated easily from the general education picture} Bombard Bust, Minister of Science, Education, and Popular Enlightenment for Prussia and the Belch, described in some detail the Nazi school system in Germany Speaks* The first objective was strength* To be and to remain strong and healthy, has become the fundamental law governing Germany fs youth, and It is the first and foremost duty of educationists to give effect to it* Such strength and health, however, is unthinkable without racial purity and the striving after a perfect racial type.1 fell schools were adapted to Hazi political aims* In 1934 Hitler began his systematic reform of the schools

by establishing a national Department of Education.} It was this Department of which Bust was appointed head* teachers received a thorough Nazi indoctrination In

conjunction with membership in the national Socialist Association of Teachers• \Many courses, cusps, and working groups were arranged to give the necessary instruction in Mazi philosophy* 1* Dr. Wilhelm trick, et.al., Germany Speaks, p. 100.

321 *he uniform carrying-out of this work has boon entrusted by the Department to the Central Institute for Education ana Instruction. In the two training oamps maintained by the Institute, prominent educationists— both sen and women— are given such inatrnotion for several weeks at a tine; and on leaving the damps, they are commissioned to disseminate the newly-acquired knowledge among their oolleagues through the medium of working communities* In addition, the various educational authorities frequently arrange for conferences for the same purpose, whilst special camps organised by the JSm 3m Lchrbund provide instruction in the political aspects of National Socialism.

these arrangements are intended to enable the older generation of teachers to apply to their work the principles of national Socialism, the Government, of oourse, has also introduced fundamental alterations in the methods of training the younger teachers, momentary teachers are required to attend one of the training colleges (Bochschulea fuer Lehrcrblldung)» where they receive instruction in soicniiric andi eduoational subjects and where life is based on the principles of comrade­ ship. Attendance at these colleges— most of which are established outside the big towns— is also compulsory for teachers in intermediate and higher schools as a preliminary to their studies at other institutions where they receive the kind of special training of teachers of all kinds. It goes without saying that the courses of study and the regulations for the examination of teachers, more particularly those In the higher schools, have been revised on similar lines.1 tus, Hitler, very effectively for his purposes, indoctrinated the teachers with Nazi principles as a means of reaching the children, on whom his plans were based. Next, he turned his attention to the Internal structure of the school system and made some fundamental changes there. 1. Ibid.. pp. 101-102.

332 1933 it was i n r a d ttat all .aueattoa was to bs found** oa tbs prinolploB of blolo«ioal and raolal solanoa, wbloh all children moat 1m

taught.*] A law restricting enrollment

in german schools and colleges was passed April 25, X933* In aXX schools except obligatory schools, f Volkasohulc and Bsrufasehule 1. and in universities, thelfflRF’W * IBSUQTCBI ifudMftts is to as so limited that fundamental education Is assured and that the require* mentor the profess ions is satisfied# The state satinets are to determine at the beginning of every school year how many students eaeh sohooX ean enroll and how many students eaeh faouXty oan enroXXs • In the admission of new students attention is to he paid that the number of german students who are not of arian descent within the meaning of the Xaw for the restoration of professional officials April 7f 1933# way not exceed in each sohooX and faoulty the proportion of non~ariaa to the entire german population* That proportion will he uniformly determined for the entire nation*8 (?*> regulations were passed which decreased the time a ohild need spend in sohooX*

The customary sohooX

week was six days, but Hitler had this changed by an official decree* According to this* Sunday belongs entirely to the parents and the family9 while Saturday, as the state Youth Day, (Staatsluaendtag)* and in addition one evening a week are free from school«work and are devoted to the educational activities of the Hitler 1*

p* 102*

2* The Hitler Decrees, ^ames K. Pollock and Harlow J. Islnemant~eda.f PP* 54*35*

m Youth* the otto? week daye ere reserved unrestrictedly es schooldays In this way, the education ot the young generation in Germany has keen given a broad uniform basis. Ifo counteract the intellectual training given to the pupil in the school, the state Youth Day makes provision • for the phyaioal training and the stimulation of hie team »splrit*A j ^Ehe second decrease in sohooX tine wasjdescribed by Reich Minister Rust* ...the DepartAent9 after a carefuX study of the problem* decided to introduce a fundamental reorganisation of higher education at the Raster 1937 ten. affecting boys* as well as girls1 sohooXs * both of the grundstaend ige form and the Aufbauform. (types or aeoondaarjr schools). At the grundstaendige hoehere Sehule attendance has been rS'dScel 3Pi @ n m ^ ^ e r g r years^Uy combining its Xower and intermediary sections anadropping one of the six years formerly spent in them* whilst leaving the upper section's three years unchanged* This reduction of school time was n.o.s.ary for reason, of population poUoyj^J The structure of the school system was much

simplified*

Private schools were held in some distrust*

and many were forced to close. the State must therefore claim that its own institutions are entitled to receive unconditional preference over those established by individuals or by organisations! more especially so whenever there is a danger that the latter kind cannot be unconditionally relied upon to follow the lead given by the State. In view of the importance of education* the State must therefore maintain that 1. Theodor Wilhelm and Gerhard Oraefe, German Muoation Today, p. Id. 2. Dr* Wilhelm Prick* et.al.t Germany Speaks, p. Ill*

324 private schools and private teaching are justified only in those localities whose educational needs oannot be satisfied by public schools. Moreover, the denominational aspects being looked upon as a matter of secondary importance that must no longer be allowed to divide all Germans in their early youth and ever afterwards into two different camps, it has been the practice to impose restrictions upon private denominational schools wherever it Is seen that efficient provision has been made for publicly conducted schools.* al* ° *

N azi* * a » » uolfora « * oantrallz8a soh°o 1

system under their complete oontrol.

Private and

denominational schools were obstacles to this At the age of slat, children enter the elementary schools (Volksachulen), which generally speaking— are not organised on the co»edueatloaal principle, there they are taught, apart from general racial education, those theoretical and practical subjects which are required for all vocations. ♦•.Attendance at the elementary school is compulsory for eight years.* The four lower years were called the Qrus&achulc and children who Intended to go on to a higher school usually went from the Gruadaohule into that more advanced work.

But, at this

level, only the Tolksaohule was at state expense, and so most boys and girls went through its full eight year course. The aim of the arundsohule is gradually to transform the natural aptItudes of the child into a will to work. ...An attempt is made to penetrate into the world of childhood, to define its features by 1. Ibid., p. 107. 2. Ibid.. pp. 107-10$.

325 cultivating more particularly in children the expression of thought by the customary apeeeh and language of childhood, ana by teaehiagthem to use their eyes ana hands methodically* To this end, the children are taught to execute easy manual work and their attention is drawn to the manifestation of nature and human activity* Physical culture in the form of games, gymnastics, walks, etc« is, moreover, included in the ourrlculum** The last four years of the Volkasohule aimed to imbue the consciousness of German nationality* The subjects taught in the upper grade of the Volkasohule includes religion, German, history and c’ivies, tKe geography and history of the child's home**town or district, geography, biology, arithmetic, geometry, drawing, singing, gymnastics and, in the case of girls, needlework. The aim of the biology, geography and history-oourse is to introduce the pupil to the fundamental questions of ethnology, heredity, racial hygiene and geneologloal study*2 When a boy or girl completed his Volkasohule training he was supposed to spend nine months in the country in a camp* There, their physical health is to be promoted; they are to beoome familiar with every aspect of country life; their will-power Is to be strengthened; they are to be politically educated, and to experience the blessings derived from an unselfish corporate life* Upon completing the Landjahr course, the ohildren start upon their vocational training, or— if they prove especially gifted— they may be admitted to an Aufbausohule .3 1* Theodor Wilhelm and Gerhard Graefe, oju oit., p. 6* 2* Xbld.*} p. 9* 3, Dr* Wilhelm Frick, et.al., op-* oit., p, 106*

m When a girl left the Vollcsaohule and had completed the handiahr aha was required to spend the next three years at a vocational part-time school of the Berufsaohulc or faQheohale type miles a she were admitted to the Aufbauachule for the gifted.

The Berufaaohule had

no fee requirement. These sohools are not Intended, as a anile, to furnish a general education, although their courses of studies inolude some subjects dealing with national politics. Their principal function is to supplement the work of training the young persons for sons definite t o cation. They are of many different types, according to the trades or industries domiciled in the localities concerned.! Minister Bust went on to explain that there were few Oyaaaslen beoause no longer were ancient languages necessary for the majority of German boys.

The girls9 Oberschule

decreased the teaching of foreign languages to add subjects of special Importance to women.

There was little chance

for them to gain a Gymnasium training in preparation for university work.

Home economics was Intended to be the

most popular field In girls* schools. A "selection" decree limited, also, the oppor­ tunities of children to continue their education where they wished.

1. Ibid., p. 112.

32? The decree names the conditions that have to ho satisfied by the pupils of the higher schools at the time of their admission and la connection with their achievements. A strict control ie to he exercised to ensure that all those who, after completing their studies* are likely to rise to leading positions in life* are racially sound* valuable and efficient* Attention is paid to the physical! ethical* intellectual and racial aspects* and is not oonfined— as hitherto— to the Intelleotual aspects only* The demands now made on young persons ares increased intelleotual achievements; good physical health; a capacity for endurance; high ethical standards; a sense of community* and descent from pure German stock** This was the educational picture for girls below the university level* iGfune was the freedom of opportunity and spirit of experimentation which existed during the Bspubli
. oit., p. 26.

329 \®» $ z * M a M s a s£

the emphases of ■all Nazi

schools ware summarized very clearly by Isaac kandel. Accordingly the subjects of greatest importance will beCTlj the mothen-1 ooguejwith an emphasis on purity, w a in official correspondence, and a revival of German script; (2 )uustory based on the soil and racial determinlsmjand stressing in particular (a) the heroic struggle against a world of enemies; (b) unpatriotic forces at heme; (o) the disgrace of Versailles; (d) the collapse of the Liberal-Marxist philosophy and the dawn of national awakening at Potsdam; and (e) the fact that one-third of the Germans of the world live outside of Germany and must not and cannot be forgotten, wherever they may be, because they are vigorous representatives of German culture, trade, and industry; \(3 ) biology and race science]to bring out fundamentaophyslcal and spiritual character isties of races, the dangers of deterioration through inter­ marriage, the place and Importance of the Nordic races as shown in its energy in Germany, England, and Worth Aaerloa, and the value of eugenics and healthy reproduction to combat disease and mental disorders;U4) physical training to build a healthy and vigoroiiBrraonSas the best guarantee of the future of the Fatherland through Gelaendesport (Terrain sport) and military prephWdhbss "1 (Wehrhaftlghclt).* In his speech to Youth at the Nuremberg Party day on September 14, 1933, Hitler said; •••What we wish from our German youth is different from what past generations asked. In our eyes the German youth of the future must be slim and slender, swift as the greyhound, tough as leather, and hard as Krupp steel. ...We have undertaken to educate this people In a new school, to give it an education which begins in youth and shall never come to an end. ••.No one may say that for him there is

1. Isaac L. Kandel, The Making o£ Nazis, p. 44*

330 any parted of ate life whoa he can devote himself exclusively to ate own interests* Everyone te bound to serve ate people* everyone la bound to a n himself for taat service, to atoox ate body, to proparo and fortify ate mind, aad tao sooner taoao proparatloaa begin, tao better. Wo aaalX not te tao future neglect too or fifteen years te our German odueatloa and taon Xator bo forood to make good waat unfortunately baa previously beeeme bad* Xt te our intention and our will— ana taat will nono saaXX break— that to tao hearts of youth wo wlXX bring that spirit waiob wo wouXd like to rogard and aro determined to rogard te G n a t Germany as tao only posolbte spirit, tao spirit whioa aball sustain tao futuro* And that Is not morely our wlXX: wo wlXX make it a roallty* And you aro a soot ion from this development, much tauter, much sturd lor tban tbroo yoars ago* And te every auoooodteg yoar tboro will always bo an improvement, of that I an sure** This quotation oXoarXy revealed tbat^bo first duty of G o m a n youths was to strengtbon their bodies* BltXor intended that training to begin as soon after birth as was possible and never to stop*

naturally there bad

to be many organisations offering physical training to carry out this ate*

Shore were four organisations for women,

so arranged that women were never free from the Influence of at least one,

Who schools, Hitler youth, labor service,

and the Women*a Leagues those four offered Physical Education te their meafoera^aad so, Physical Education is separately discussed here, as presented by each of those groups* 1* The Speeches of Adolf Hitler* April 1922-August 1939, S o m ^ i •^ayiws7^rr» vSTT"!, pp* 342-543-

331 \»hysleal Sduoatloa in the sahools la here treated la four ilvtcloaii

for the elementary school* for the

secondary school* for tao college, and for tao Biyaieal Xdueatloa teacher training institute,

fa# highly

centralised educational ayotaa guaranteed through official decrees ttiat uniform programs of Physical Education wore offarad la aXX schools at eaeh level of instruction. through the efforts of QarX Kruemmcl* la charge of Physleal Education ia the Ministry of Education under Bust* Directions for Physical Education In Boys1 Schools was published la 1937«

Gomparable Directions for Physical

Education la Girls * Schools was not published until 1941* She four main purposes for girls* Physical Education whloh guided those Directions are given below j For the girls a wall ordered and planned physleal eduoation achieves the following* X* a healthy riew of physleal beauty» health and performance* on which the haowledge of the value of the race, and the responsibility for the preservation of their own group is based* (physleal eduoation to ears for the raee*) 2 * the physleal eoaditioas for the development of the spiritual forees of the good through a natural ‘movement* eduoation* whloh through Its developing forees of rhythm help the girls to the development of its value* (physleal eduoation as eduoation for movement.) 3 * basis for a healthy and aotual use of free time of the wife and mother-to^be* who Is also the first physleal trainer of her ehlldren* (physleal eduoation as a style of living.) 4 » the edueatlonal situation* and eonselentlous fitting Into the

m community through obtaining self-confidence and psychological resistance, ana at the same tint loss of over sensitivity and cMdllng# (physical eduoatloa as group education. J |fche mother actually was the first Physical Education instructor of the child.

Tbs Nasi trains* its

mothers and its future mother* bow to teaob babies under four years of age simple exercises for pbysloaX strength. from the age of four to six, eblXdren attended a nursery sebeeX if one were available.

There the girl was trained

early to Xoofc forward to her future role as a mother

*3

These nurseries were under the direction of the National Socialist Welfare Organisation which was a substitute for the Bed dross in the Women's league of Frau Scholtx-Klink. Boys and girls were separated even in the nurseries» for they were supposed to have nothing in common, and a boy was node to understand that he was a future soldier.

Xh

the nurseries physical activities were taught to ensure healthy growth. (la the elementary school, or Volkasohule. girls and boys were usually segregated after the first four years. The majority of girls entered at six and left at fourteen years of ageT^ The school hours were usually from 8 a.m. 1. W. «r. Ruttmann, Teaching Practices in the Blamntary School. p« 392*

m until la 855 p*m* ^Jfterneaae and Saturdays were free for Hitler Tooth activities and for athletics in general^ Svenlngs were largely fro© from homework, and several evenings a week might to© taken In Hitler Youth meetings* ^Y^i© village elementary sohooi Physical Bduoation program for girls)*as described in detail ia the book, 2* die Organlsoh-Volklaohc frorfsohulc, Qoaosrnlng jjfcg Qrganio~Natloaal Village School* a group of looturoo concerning German elementary schools*

The program^ncluded

physleal training daily for tooys and girls* particularly a return to "natural gymnastics*# Under natural gymnastics we understand a gymnastics whloh in it© oho lee as a medium of eduoation is related to the natural development of the child and is related to exercise* which stem from the village activities*^ As purposeful are regarded these ©reraises with the execution of whloh, a real purpose if fulfilled* This real purpose need not toe present, tout it must always toe thought of* The execution of the exercises must toeeoaa an event for the child* Pleasure and joy follow these exercises and create a purposeful action* X am thinking of the following exercises* Pursuit of the opponent, jump over the ditch, jump over the hedge and otostacle* The throwing of a stone or a ball against an opponent, the throwing of clubs* Imitation movement exercises s sowing, mowing, sutting wonTT"chopping, threshing, carrying light and heavy loads, pushing of wheelbarrows,***

m Conor*t* aovaaant axarolaaat falling o&4 atandihg w ithoux «u* of tha hande, lying on tha book and rolling ®P to touch tha floor, ju&plng with • eonplato turn around In tha air, allnblng with folded hands. *» SSSigS* ...Apparatua uaad as Qbstaoies, benik tf ?•!»«> rope as fence, box an sell, train, bloyeie, machines,.,. JSxerolse* with apparatus must not be neglected (belle and hand apparatua.) JBxerelse* on horizontal and parallel bare are of a more difficult nature, sines the problem of the group leader has to be solved# •*.The time of dally body training In the morning would be too abort to w'justice to apparatua gymnaatloso To do that we hate occasion la training hours, and sten better If the teaoher In the olube and youth organizations takes over further development of the eountry youths 1 These exercises followed tery eloeely the sug* gestlene given for elementary sehoel Physleal Education in Pie Deutsche Tolksaehalo im Orossdsutaohea Belch, the German Elementary school la the Great German Eeloh, a handbook of laws, decrees, and suggestions concerning the ToUcssehule#^ Speaking of the Tolkssohule girl student, Slamsr said, She had no texVbooks and no homework* The periods were forty«*ive minutes long, with fire minutes 1. Concerning the Prganio^Shtlonal Tillage Sehool, llB S f r m a T O e F T i^ J C t K

-------- ------------------

2* The German momentary Sehool In the Greater German Belch,

IT»®Err W *,p« IIJ*

335 intermission between classes. Recess, devoted to formal sports was thirty minutes. *«.Afternoons, usually until six o'clock, were devoted to organised sport at the sport fields, sometimes near the school, sometimes blocks away. Several evenings a week were taken up by the home evenings, with special instruction In sex, Ideology, and domestic science.! the middle and secondary schools, which included in their ranks girls of the same ages, the Physical Education program contained comparable activities.

The

middle sehool girl had dally Physical Education, however, while the secondary school girl had one period at least four times a week.

The type of activities offered for this

age group wasjbeseribed clearly In Rahmenlehrplan fuer Knabcn~und Maedohen-Mlttelsehulcn, Framework of Teaching Plan for the Boys1 and Girls * Middle Schools

The general

plan follows : Cciass 1 . Simple walking, running and jumping exercises, skipping rope, small ball throwing. Light athletics, 50 m. run, broad jumping, ball games, apparatus as obstacles, running and singing games. Class 2 . Walking, running and jumping exercises* Performance exercises. Light athletics, 50 m. run, high and broad jumping, ball games, putting the shot. Gymnastics. Hope skipping. Change from obstacle gymnastic exercises to performance exercises on the apparatus. Swimming.

1, Gregor Zlamer, Education for Death, pp.

336 (plans J* emitted* Eltier reduced school require* meat by X year.} Glass 4* Walking, running and jumping exercises* Performance exerolses. Light athletics, 73 *u run, high end broad jumping, distance throwing* BaXX games* Gymnastics, leaning, jumping, hanging, and ewinging exercises on apparatua* GXaaa 5* Gymnastics, body schooling with hand apparatua* Light athletics, 100 a* run, high and broad jumping, distance throwing, putting the shot* Performance gymnastlea on apparatua, ladder exercises* Netball. Polkdanclng* GXaaa 6* Gymnast ios with hand apparatua* Light athXetloa, 100 a* run, high and broad jumping, distance throwing, putting the shot, javelin throwing* Performance exercises with apparatus, ladder ~~1 exercises* BaXX games, flat ball* Polk daneiag.lj pio

doubt there were some variations in program

among the schools, but this general plan waa probably followed as well as the content of the work*

the light

athletics resembled very mush what the American oalla track and field events, and the running of obstacles, climbing walla, leaping ditches, etc* often are termed "terrain sports” or gelaendeeport * there waa a military focus to these exercises, comparable to ballistics in mathematics•) At the university level, Physical Education became required of all students in 1934*

She decree effect­

ing this requirement went into fores at Easter, 1933 and

m applied to ell district* of Germany.

decree

concerned

the

Section I of the

basic training program.

Booh Carman student (polo) and female la required to taka physical training for throe semesters, . The execution of this, aporta duty la done in the form of basic training which continues through three semesters, This requirement of throe semestors may be changed In special cases by country camp labor or similar services. The training consists of three or four hours weekly in two periods. Reduction (partly or fully) for reasons of health from the requirements of the institute can only be given by a medical certificate. ... The basic training requires that the following exerolses and performance tests must be passed— The proof of regular and successful participation in the basic training is required for admission to studies starling the fourth semester. On the record sheet, the participation in exercises is evaluated by points, one point for each hour performed, 1 5 -2 0 points for eaeh performance examination passed, nil together 200 points can be reached. The conditions of the record sheet are filled with 150 points. In that event an insignia is awarded, on whloh is the initial of the university and whloh is worn as a sports sign with sports uniform. Basic training includes in the first semester for womens general physical training, gymnastic dancing for women, a performance test, track, and track competition, Second semester includes for women the 100 a, run, high and broad Jumping, and putting the shot. The third semester includes handball, competi­ tive games, swimming, life saving, and speed swimming .1 1, *The hew Sports Decree for Universities," Leibeauebuagen und Koerperliche Kralebung, 1934, Vol. 53, ppV 455-BR>Vr:""'

Station XX dealt with the program for voluntary •porta participation by elder students of the fourth semester tad beyond •

To be allowed to participate in thla

program a girl had to show proof by her record card that aha had earned the required 150 palate and fulfilled the three aemeater baeio training requirement.

She muat alao

preaent a medical certificate proving her phyaieal fitneaa. Certificates were given for thla voluntary aporta partici­ pation and for any special accomplishmenta.

Each year a

student had te secure again permission for thla voluntary participation. Training for girls was offered ins

general body

training, gymnastics, fencing, light athletics, swimming, diving, waterball, rowing, tennis, handball, distance running, skiing, rifiery, sailing, hiking, and camping. If enough students enrolled, courses were offered in selfdefense tactics, gymnastic dancing, skating, and horseback riding.I Competitions were arranged between neighboring colleges, between universities by special contracts,for championship matches of the district, for university championships, and international competitions and

!♦ Ibid.

339 championships*

On© should remember that thla decree,

written la 1934 , anticipated tha 1936 Olympic Games to ba held la Berlin*

Plans were undap way for German

competition. it girl who wished to become a teaoher of Physleal Education had to complete tha requirements of a secondary sehool and pass the Rclfcprucfing examination*

Shea she

must spend at least six months In the country In the Labor Service, after whloh she returned to enter the $eachersf College for one year.

If she intended to teach in an

elementary school she might stay there one more year and then go out into the schools as an apprentice for two years, before being eligible for full status as a teaoher* If she preferred to prepare as a secondary school teacher she went to a university*

Luring her fourth and fifth

semesters she concentrated on Physical Eduoation almost exclusively, preparing herself during the other years for state examinations in two aeademle subjects?) By a ministerial decree of February 12, 1934* a woman could enter the academic training for a Physical Education teaoher, which began with the fourth semester at the university, only if she had completed successfully the basic training of the first three semesters*

She must have

participated in every one of the five groups of basic

training activities;

light athletics, apparatus gymnastics,

swimming and U f a saving, game®, and body building exercises# She m a t have earned a aporta insignia#

She m a t have

participated la camping activities, oaa glia las course, two rowing trips, ana have taJeon part la two hikes of several days* duration*

This decree, Minister Huat published ta

aaaura that only tha m a t highly skilled became Physical Education teachers «!> "Vlhe fourth and fifth aamatara, whloh wars devoted a i m at exclusively to Biysical Education included* lealaari, activities and practice teaching*

lectures,

The theoretical

examination Included questions on the following fields t structure of the body, function of the body, practical body knowledge as race and heredity, health rules in sports, massage, first aid, natural growth of the body according to age and sex, the organisation of Physical Education la Germany, the sports teaoher as an educator, the political aspects of Physical Education, and the Jfassl state, as to its development, Its leaders and their aeoompllshmnteJ^ 1* Dr# Kruammel, "Training of Gymnastics Teachers," Lelbcaucbungen and Xoerpcrllche Erziehung, 1934, Tel* 53, p p * 194*1957" 2* Minister of Education for Germany, {Decree, no title), pp* U l l X ana 1X* t *

5£E$s&EflL» w** ?©i. $3,

341 s'

,\The practical examination for women* according 4© the soioo decree of 1936* whloh determined the foregoing theoretical examination* required mastery of the fallowing fields: jsimpla movements of the Goman gymnastics* body training with hand apparatus* floor gymnastics* horizontal her exercises* parallel bar exercises; gymnastics on the horse* exercises on the ring** team organisation exercises as the 75 m* run, Indoor games* and summer oamp activities* the student* alee* had to demonstrate her ability to teach adult women* youths* and children lessons of gymnastics in a test session#^ ^En the elementary schools the elass room teaoher usually taught Physical Education for grades one through three*

for the grades four through eight* there was usually

a Physleal Bdueatlon teaoher who had had two years* training beyond the secondary school*

Most middle and secondary

sehool Physical Bdueatlon teachers were professionally pre­ pared teaehers of physleal Bdueatlon with university training* vTeachers were expected to tabs a two weeks* refresher course by a decree of November 25, 1937*

these

1* Ibid. 2* Jackson E» Sherman* "Professional Bdueatlon of Physical Mua«tlon T*»oh«r* in Q*«may,» fea w X of Hgalth anfl Physleal Education* January 1930* vex* j1* n o * I* p7jL2*

342 courses were offered free of charge at a university institute

Physical Bdueatlon flaring tha regular school

year as well as flurlng vacation periods#

Spa©ial emphasis

waa placed on a thorough introduction into the instructional and educational objectives of Physioel Education#

The

Ministry of Eduoation also intended these courses as a means of increasing the number of swimming instruotors^*\ Although the Deutsche Hoohaohule fuer lelbesuebungen affected women very little, it should be mentioned as another agency for the training of Physical Eduoation teaohers. This German Aeaflemy of Physleal Eduoation in Berlin was under the direction of Dr. Carl Diem and | through him of the Ministry of Eduoation#

It served

as a graduate sehool for men teachers of Physical Eduoation and also offered short-term courses# The one year courses were intended as training for private teachers in Physical Education, teachers in village schools, and recreation workers in the Eraft fluroh yreude association#

The K* D. jr., or Strength through Joy,

movement was an organisation of employers and employees concerned with their recreation* 1* Minister of Education for Germany, "Schooling and further Development of a Course of Instruction in the Area of Body Eduoation in the fiscal Tear of 1939

SHBftf8*s^i!fiaal•W9,

Courses whloh lasted only teo weeks were for group leaders of the Hitler Youth, the storm Troopers, the Women’s Union, and the Bund Deutsoher Maadelt these short courses were the only ones opea to women*

It wee

predominately a men1a academy for advanced training and research study* ^tjui Haxi Ministry of Education tinder Rust, and his assistant in charge of Physical Bdueatlon, Garl Kruemmel, had, indeed, changed and tremendously expanded the Physical Education program of Germany during the short period of 1933 to 1940*

Every school had built up

a strong emphasis on sports, physical activity, and health7) Hitler Youth movement was the main instrument by which the tfazl party indoctrinated youth In its ideals. Three influences, the family, school, and the Hitler Youth groups were expected by Hitler to train his future party members.

Of these three, the Hitler youth groups probably

had the greatest hold on the boys and girls, and required more time from them than the others*^ This organization was strong even before Hitler became Chancellor.

In October, 1932, 110,000 Hitler Boys

and Girls marched In Potsdam on the first Hitler Youth day. In 1933 Baldur von Sohirach was appointed by Chancellor Hitler as Jugendfuehrer dee Peutsohen Belches» and shortly

344 after that tha Hitler Youth an* 8und Doutaoher Maetel eaa reereaalaat.

By the end of 1934 there were alx million

aeabere la the organlaatloa.1 jgn December 1, 1936 a law waa passed ooneerning Hitler Youth whloh contained the following principles: !• The entire German youth within the territory of the Beieh is united in the Hitler Youth. 2. the entire Hitler Youth— apart from the eduoation within the hone and in school— is to he educated physically, mentally and morally in the spirit of national Socialism for the service of the people and for the community of the people The organisation consisted of four groupsj

the

Juagfolhe hoys from ten to fourteen} the Hitler Jugond, hoys from fourteen to eighteen} yuagaaodol, girls from tea to fourteeat and the Bund Deutsoher Handel, girls from fourteen to twenty^one • In 1936 a sub-group of the B. P. H» was formed for girls seventeen to twenty^one years old, sailed the B. P. M .«»«Worfc Glaaho and aehoenhelt, the Thlth and Beauty Society of the League of Oermaa Maidens^) At the same time, teachers of gymnastics and sports were thoroughly indoctrinated in Hazl Ideology so that they would he the modern Ideals of the Youth of faith and Beauty.

1* Th* Speeches of Adolf H l t W , April 1922-August 1939, W f . e d ., p. 535* 2. Ibid., p. 336.

m jjjft the work of these groups every offori woo made to train nod sift out the youths worthy for leadership la tho Naai party*

$ho most able became leaders in it,

and tho acceptable ones became only members *J much hao been written concerning tho Hitler Youth*

8oao authors made superficial Investigations of conditions, saw tha healthful activities whloh tho youth loved, saw tholr enthusiasm and comradeship, and labeled tho Hitler Youth organisations as good*

Other wrltoro looked hohlsd

tho activities to tholr purposos and pointed out tho compulsory nature of membership In tho group* tho military oharaotor of Its activities* tho thorough goal intoloranoo of aXX those not Aryan, and they condemned tho movement* Examples of both typos of descriptions aro elted hero* Yhe activities of tho Hitler Xugcad may ho oXasslflod under throe headings* fripa and Camping. The first, which means ha stoning at hone, is the wookXy mooting of tho smaXXost groups* Xt is oonduotod informaXXy to foster a friendly spirit* Yhe group sings, plays games, end discusses matters of educational nature, including topics related to Rational Socialist ideals* She trips may he for afternoon, all day, or for a fortnight* If the first two, they consist of marching, sports, or visits to factory or farm* Xf it is for a fortnight, cross* country hiking is done, with stops at Hostels on route* This Is inexpensive! however, if any individual cannot afford it, other members pay for him, or the oentral office pays* Camping experience of one or two weeks per year is required of all

m members. A moat important faature la that they learn to lira together as wall as to live simply aqd naturally.l This statement was made by Adelaide Miller after observing conditions la Germany ana particularly the outer appearances of health ana happiness.

Srika Mann, quits in

contrast, saw no good in the Bund peutschsr Maedel organisation*

She had lived among Its members and knew

its purposes* •Of course the B* M »» as the only German organisation for girls, takes active part in the education of the young* From now on, there will be close cooperation between the P. B* F* 1 * {German Reich Union for Physical IfMite'Siiohj and the B» p* lit As the header of the Reich Sport, (vooseSSaSttr und Os ten) emphasised, the B. ft. M. should be the model organisation for the physioai training of German girls and women* The first aim of the members of the newly organised classes should be to win the efficiency medals of the B* D. II*» as well as the German Sport Medal* **• And so the line of activity which has always been decisive for the B. p. M , sport department will from now on, be decisive1for the entire generation of German girls* The object of all sport~work in the , to bring up healthy women, conscious oFTBSfF bodies, ready to stake their lives, and with strong powers of resistance, is now completely attained, through the inclusion of all girls from seventeen to twenty-one* *3 1* Adelaide H« Miller, "The German Youth Movement,« Journal of Health and Physical Education, June 1937.

rsr r r m 7ssnrr

-----

2* Erika Mann, School for Barbarians, p* 137*

347 till* quotation Erika Mann chose fro* the Yolklaohor Icobaohtcr*

8«r own opinion she also gave la some detail*

Til# I» g» M »**Buad pouteeher Maodcl (league of GermaniBjJiB --b?tfcEeiS all aerlSSirgTrls between fourteen and twentypomC} these from tea to fourteen belong to the Jungaasdels (Yeung Girls). loth organisations Efiire Sat 4it to prepare the girls f w their too future professions, national Socialist motherhood and war-aachlnes, either aa nurses la the field op aa 'defenders of the homeland ** Ivorything about raoa and motherhood la taught them, aa well aa everything about «5jMg|Mrlehte (ene»pet to. uses or slops, how to%rlsk one's l W e f o r tha cause, and first aid*!

t

tmt,

\Both the boys' and the girls' sections of the Hitler Youth learned to execute neat marching tactics for demonstration purposes, as well aa to hike long distances carrying packs*

Prilling, singing, military order and

discipline vara taught hoys and glrXa hut always in separata groups*

the militaristic hide and seek games,

ahstaoXa races, and general "field" or "terrain* sports were popular with both sexei the girls' uniforms included marching shoes durable stockingst full blue skirts, white blouses and neckerchiefs with wooden rings bearing the group's Insignia* In rainy weather they were slacks and capes but usually went bareheaded* 1. Bid*, p. 133,

34* Aa

m

final indication of the activities of the

girls in the Hitler Youth organization* the following quotation It Tory apoolfloi *Yo«uag girl service is a duty and demands Hor unquestioning acceptance# Only illness* of which the Loader nnst Ho imforaad in advance can excuse the young girl from service* Absence which has not been notified In advance must Ho explained Hy a note froa the parent* 1* the duties of Young Girl Service oonolot of too hours a ween work at hone) participation la oxourolono twice a aenth* one laeting one day and one lasting Ifc days* 2. Special Services participation in Parents * evenings* in celebrations and holidays and their preparation* )» Duration* at 10 p.uu

special service oust finish

Marchings 10*11 12*14 14*16 16*1*

years* years* years* years*

not acre than 10 sot aero than 15 froa 15*20 km, a froa 20*25 ka* a

km* a day* ksu a day* day* day*

Packs 10*14 years* to weigh between 4 and 6 pounds 14*16 years* to weigh between $ and 12 pounds Might duty is forbidden girls of 10-12 years* and to be one hour for girls of 13 and 14* Yhls was copied froa instructions Issued by the Girls1 Reiohsleader* trade Buckner* fiaralag to the Physical Bduoation available for adults* the Labor Service* Athletic clubs* and the Kraft 1, Bduoatloa In Nazi Germany» (by two English investigators)* p* ~~

349 Doroh

k m r lnT«eti«»tlon. \ Hie Labor Servioe, sometimes called the

frauenarbeitsdleast (women's duty work), when referring to women only, developed more slowly than that for men.

for

a time the girls worked only In the camps of the men's Labor Service groups, cooking, washing, and sewing for then.

In 1934 Konstantin Hierl, the leader of the entire

Labor Service, appointed Jteau-Scheltz-Kllnk the leader of the women's work.

Women from eighteen to twenty-five years

old were eligible on a voluntary basis. The work of the Woman's Labor Service Includes (1) domestic and social service, (2) work in the country with peasants and (3) assistance to settlers who have been established as a part of the national Socialist land policy. ...In general the work with the hard-toiling settler folk is regarded as the most dramatic and important aspect of the woman's Labor Service. ... ...On July 2g, 1933* the national Labor Service Law was announced, proclaiming the obligation of both sexes to participate in the National Labor Service. ...The length of service was fixed as six months and the number of girls at about ten thousand in contrast to two hundred thousand of the men. ...The strength of the woman's labor force from April, 1937, to March, 1933, Is set at 25,000, This more than doubles the previous strength and means that some 50,000 German girls will pass through the labor camps in the course of a year. ... The average oamp or home accommodates about forty girls who lead a somewhat Spartan existence including six hours of hard work, gymnastics,

study courses, end patriotic rituals. The slogan of the labor servioe is 'Be true, Be pure, Be German'.* women who wished to go on and study at a university or higher academy by a decree of January 9, 1937 were forced to enter Labor Servioe before their study* (a) Graduates who have passed their 17th birthday and contemplate to study (in the university) must, if they are fit to woxk, participate in the'work service* before the beginning of the study. ... Sntranoe announcement...must be made* •.by means of an application foam which can be obtained in the particular police station. At the same time the following must be handed ins 1. 2. 3. 4» j* 6.

Birth certificate Proof of Aryan descent Certificate of proper conduct from the police Police certificate of appearanoe 2 photographs Certificate of school superintendent that the female candidate.has been admitted to the final examination and intends to study (at the university). 7. Certificate of parent or guardian for permission to study, (b) For female graduates who are not able to participate in the work-scrvlce of the National Socialist yoikawohlfahrt * speoial servioe will be provided.* 1. Clifford Kirkpatrick. Nasi Germany: Its women and Family Life, pp. 94-95:-----------------'-------2. Minister of Education for Germany, by Kruemmel, "Work Service of Women Secondary School Graduates,* Lelbesuebungen urnd Koerperliohe Brslehung. 1937. Vol. *-------

[iotualXjr tli* foraal Physloel Education wbiob WCMWB »•*!**« la tbasa oaap* was 1 isItad to oaliathanlc ezero laas auOjr In tb* morning bafore braakfaat.

Bat tba

work was inta&ded to atrangthan than physloally and ao aarrafl tb* purpoaa, In part at laast, of tha Baal Fhyeioal Bduoatlon idealgui {Adult women war# able to secure much physical training and many opportunities tor sports competition through tb# athletic oluba of Or#many On# of tb# first actions of Hitler as Germany*s dictator was to appoint won Tsehajamer und Oaten, S. A. nan (storm trooper) and bead of tb# large athletic association called the Deutsche Turnersohaft to the position of flelobshportkomalssar (national hport Commissioner) in bharge or rebrgcin* ising sport in Germany# He began by divldintfCall sport organizations ? t l into sixteen categories, including one for press, one for teachers in the field and one for sport doctors and the other thirteen for the different kinds of sport* for each category there is one central organisation at the head of all the clubs fostering the activities of the group* *«*A11 clubs carrying on these kinds of physical training are obliged to become part of this German ^ Athletic Association or cease to exist altogether** The latest coup is the agreement between ▼on Tschaamer und Ostend and Baldur von Schiraoh, the Belch Jugendfuehrer (National Youth Leader), , which unites the work of these two men. The sport youth and Hitler Youth are to merge, so that all young people may receive a physical education and a political and character education at the same time through a cooperative agency rather than from two separate and uncorrelated sources*

352 Minister of »daaatioa Dr* FFlok 2 m already warned the teachers that they would he wise to enter the Hitler Youth or the sport oluhs work and learn to knew the ohlld * Education does not go on exclusively within the four walls of the school In Germany today. Yhe ohlld oust he reaohed oonetantly everywhere. Physical edueation has come Into its own In Germany and Is destined* for some tine* at least* to play an Important role In the dally life of every German.* Ton tachammer und Oaten also created a Women's Oommlttee of Physical Education (Fraueaausaohuaz fuer die leihesuehuagen).

The purpose was to promote Physical

Education for women hy promoting festivals a wanderings* moving pietore films* press not lees * and Nasi pressure* Who Goamlttee also took charge of the women*a participation In the 1936 Olympic Games In Berlin* Not only was there this Committee especially for women hut there were opportunities for women In such sports as swimming* tennis* etc.

Xt was a completely centralised

program* arranged on the Fuehrer principle of absolute obedience to the person In command. through this organisation the'Belch poured money Into sports building and athletic programs.

It was a

broad and penetrating program. 1. Nary ?» Hunger?ord* "Remaking the Germans* Physical Education on a Broad Scale Is at the Gore of the Nani Program,* New York Times. February 25* 1934* p. 42PCX.

Ifihe German Labor Front, under the direction of Br* Bobert Ley, controlled the labor policies of the B«loh£3&* controlled, also, aa a subdivision of this Labor Front the Kraft duroh Freuds. Be described this organisation and its work in Germany Speaks# "Special mention should be made of a sub-organiaation of the 0* L* F. (German Labor Front) — styled strength through Joy'— which la mainly concerned with holiday and leisure*time arrangements;") Thanks to this branch of the 0# L* F., Germany*s social policy has been extended to the cultural sphere. The great popularity of the arrangements made by the ‘Strength through Foy‘ organisation is >ved by the large number of participants in them. lo section for travelling and hiking is perhaps m most popular onej/ its membership having trebled in the course of the past three years# Its pleasure cruises to foreign countries have attracted great attention, both at home and abroad. ••. Squally valuable results have been attained by the tours within Germany. ...In 1934* the number of persons taking part In these traveling and hiking arrangements amounted to some 2,000,000; but by the end of 193d# it had gone up to more than 6,000,000, whilst several more millions will be added during the current year. The ultimate object is to enable 14,000,000 persons of small means to benefit from these arrangements every year. ••» ther sections of the ‘Strength through loy* lew organisation deal with sporting, artistic and educational matters, all of which tend to promote the spirit of national solidarity .n. •• A few remarks must be added on the subject of sports. The ‘Strength through Joy* organisation has taken a remarkable Interest In furthering them. Even when it is remembered that physical education is one of the main planks of the reconstruction

354 programme of modern Germany* the foot that 6*000,000 persons took part Xaat poor in the apartlug arrange* ments made bp that organisation la aa achievement of no mean significance* The number of aporta instructors went up from 1*309 at the end of 1935 to 2*600 a twelvemonth later** ^ W o aporta aootloa of graft duroh freudo was/ the aolohabund fuer leibaauobuagoa* Jioloa league for Physical MueatienT] A detailed description of ita work waa given by Hams Habhols la 1936* The physical education oouraoa enjoy the greatest popularity aa oaa bo recognised readily from tho foot that tho oaroXXmont la XO tlmoa the also of aXX othor groups combined* from November 1933 until October 1936# 35*000 different individuals participated la 126*000 oXaaa aoaaloaa whieh were la ohargo of X0O competent volunteer Iaatruotora* w Gorman citizen la eligible for these courses* The only prerequisite eoaalata la a aport card which must be reaewed annually for the priee of 20 cents* Aa additional small fee le then charged for the Individual oouraoa* there are opea and closed eligible for the opea courses * are at liberty to miss as many and may drop out altogether at

courses* Any one la The participants classes aa they wish will*]

The closed courses are graded* Students enroll for the duration of the entire course and have to pay the tuition In advance* All classes meet during the day and at night* There are coeducational groups aa well aa classes for either men or women* Some elasaea are open only 1* Dr* Vilhelm yylok* at«al** Germany Speaks* pp* 167*169*

355 to persons 9VI? thirty-five years of age.l la tha same article Mr. Habhola listed£the courses

in Berlin during tha winter of 1934-1935.

Gross Country* open* nan only Track* Indoor* open* co-ed Swimming for Beglnaere* oioaad* co-ed* or aeparata Advanced Swimming* closed* eo*ed* or aeparata Introd notion to Jiu-Jitsu* eloaed* eo-ed Skiing* Indoors Preparatory Course * 12 hours* closed* co-ed Ski-Gymnastica, open* eo-ed Indoor Tennis* closed* eo-ed* 5i hours Ice-Skating for Beginners* closed* eo-ed* 7i hours Advanced lee Skating* closed* co-ed* 7i hours Bowling* open* women only Skl-Sand* open* eo-ed General Body Building for persons over 55* open* nan for persons over 35* open* women Si Joyful Gymnastics and Games* open* wemanfJ Boring the spring and summer of 1934 gymnastic

classes were o ffe re d in the systems o f Mensendleck* laban* leges* rhythmical gymnastics* rowing* fencing* and horseback riding. The fees were very small* enabling everyone who might desire to take part in the exercise. fihe K. D* F. is the culmination of Hitler*s effort to establish the German social system on a non­ economic basis with the military and Party system as the sole sources of advancement. Everything, in both physical education and in recreation* Is 1. Bans Habhola* "Some Unique Hecreational Programs in Germany.* Journal of Health and Physical Education, -------------1936, TOI. W , SoT-jrriTXstr 2. Ibid.. p. 151 ana p. 204.

m directed toward future or actual military service* which ie tho moot completely aon-eoonomio foundation for any social system* 1*7 this remark by Howard flack seems to sum up very wail tho piarpoao of the K* D* f » movement aa its originators visualised lt« ^

the field of rhythmic gymnastics and modern

tone lag there were no new developments/} flhe work that had been originated and had gained popularity before thin period continued in eome circles* particularly in the graft dureh frauds groups* ^E!he Individualistic quality of much of the rhythmic gymnastics wae frowned upon by the Stasis*

Since the work originated* in large part* during

the Weimar Hepublic period which was bitterly seemed by Hitler* there was a decline in the popularity of thin **aoiag7] T*. aLU ^ a grt, * U e * w « « w lO.al .port of the Hitler followers* was an entreat contrast to the Republic schools of the Banoe* Since these dance forma were described la the section concerned with the German Republic* they will not be treated here* &

Eleventh Olympic O&mss were held in Berlin

from July 24 to fuly 31. 1936*

this was a most important

1. Howard W* flack* Totalitarianism and Physical Education* p« 184*

•font for. all Nazis,* Professor Dr* Carl Kfuemmel, aa Minister laidirefctor, officiated at tho Games* Relchaminlster Hast delivered the official welcoming address. Rsioheaportfushrer won Sohammer and Os tan spoke on tha "Organization of Gorman Physical Moaation”, and Dr. Oarl M a m discussed "Principles of Physical Education". (j &o b X of tha important parsons in German Physical Education were, thus, represented on the list of speakers*

German

athletes were in their glory, although they were not tha victors.V Germany put on a splendid demonstration of hospitality*

She war clouds had not yet formed while the

Games were being played, but these were the last Olympic Gamas until the 194® Gamas at London*

War cancelled the

two which would hare coma in 1940 and 1944*

m

Chapter VI SOOXBTO’S CONCEPT OF THE KOLB OF WOMEN AS A DETERMINANT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Has the society’s concept of the role women should play determined the Physical Education they received In the two countries studied? Did the society define women9s position and contribution and try to train them to those ends? Did the society merely accept the changing status of women and modify their education in an attempt to keep pace with change? Or did the society appear to Ignore women’s roles and any formal training? Such questions may, perhaps, be answered by a brief comparative analysis of the preceding chapters* Feudal and Early Modern Period During the medieval period social conditions for women were very similar in England and Germany*

The status

of woman depended on the class to which they belonged* Peasant women worked in the fields as well as in the house, and shared In farm and home production chores* Child care was by tradition the responsibility of women* Training for the work women were to do as adults was

359 acquired on the job whoa they wore young.

Physical

m m t i o f t woo afforded only by dancing at folk festivals and on holidays.

Woman had no formal education, and non®

was needed la their dally work. wao practical and specific,

The education they received

Farm and household knowledges

and skills were taught by parents to their daughters because girls needed, these If they were to secure a living and help their husbands.

Education was limited for girls

by that one purpose. Middle class women, if a middle class could be said to exist, maintained some domestic manufacture and household economy.

Guilds were organised, trading thrived,

and cities grew In size.

For the women of these merchant

classes, life contained less drudgery than among the peasants, but their9% to. 423Hansen, F* Braal, "Gymnastics for Women," Journal of w i f y l f f m a l o a l aGgatejLmt. H . *0 . 32, I919 , p.“ e. Harte, Erich. "1925, A Tear of Important Decisions in the Bodily Training of Women,* Die helbesuebuanen. Germany, 1, Ho, 1, 1925, P* 16. Heyman, Curt L, , *The German God,* Current History. XLVI, April, 1937, pp* 63*68. Hoffa, Frau Br. Elisabeth, *Medlcal Problems in Physical

aaA-t a w s CTjriHB?***“ a**“l Kennedy, Major T* F,, "Some Aspects of Modern Systems of Physical Mueetlon In Eelatlon to Health and Mental Stimulation,* Physios! Education. England, XII, Ho. 4, 1937 , *. 60 . Kirkpatriok, Clifford, "Heeent Changes in the Status of Women and the Family in Germany.* American Sociological Review. Vol. 2, Bo. 5, Got., 1937, PP. 6"5'5-65f.

390 Kruamael, Or. Earl, "Training of Gymnaatio Taaehara,” a*zl Toi‘ Kuhn, Walter, "Where Does the Way load," Mind ana Body. Vol. 33, Ho. 355, Jan., 1927, pp. 35 3 -3 5 67 ^ Lindsay, Kannath, "Phyaleal Fitness and the Child,"

Luders, Dr. Marie E,# "The German Womans Place," LXI, Mo# 9, fab*, 1929, P* 5575 The Survey# Major, Ernest, "The Ninth Olympiad,* Journal of School Hygiene and J>hYsioal Muoatloa, XXI, I9f8-If297 ppV 17-18. Major, Srneat, ’’The Wider Aspects of Physical Education," a g U a -O T n' Marshall, Capt. P.J.G., "The Trend in Modern Physical Edueatioh as Exemplified by the 1933 Syllabus of Physical Training for Schools*? Physical Education* England. ---IX, No. 1 , April, 1934, p. 25'* Miller; Adelaide H*. "The German Youth Movement." Journal PP.^H-fs^ll-^if'?" *** ** * ** m i * Ko* 6* M r f . l w , Minister of Education for Germany Decree - (Mo Title) Leibeauebungen und Koerperllche Ersiehung, Vol. 55, 1936, pp* lxiil and laciv. Minister of Muoatlon for Germany, East, "New Order of Training of Gymnastic Teachers in Prussia for Girl Students," Die Lelbesuebunaen. Germany, Vol. 53, 1934, p* xadx (An official decree). Minister of Muoatlon for Germany, "Esquired Physical Mueetlon in the University," Die Lelbesuebungen. Germany, x, 1925 , p« 246 . Minister of Mueetlon for Germany, "Schooling and Further Development of a Gourse of Instruction in the Area of Body g a ; : S ? f . i; S i l i a s 1 a s . ; ; / i s and ixiv (Ah official decree)»

:

391 Minister of Muoatlon for Germany, Kruemmel, Dr. Karl, "Throe Semesters Required Sport for All Students," >hungen. Germany. Vol. 53, 1934, p. xxix (An . Decree). Minister of Mueetlon for Germany, Kruemmel, Dr, Karl, "Work Service of Women Secondary School Graduates," Lg|M||#hu^^en m d ^ e r | C 3 llohe Xrgiehunn. Germany, Tclal DecreeJ• Moorhouse, Mr. R,J,, "Physical Mueetlon as Applicable to Industrial Ufa," Physical Muoatlon. England. VIII, Ho, 2, Feb,, 1933, P. 22. Muenoh, Prof. R., "Physical Muoatlon In Germany," Inter* 'jlpnei Muoatlon Review. Germany, Vol. 7, 1938, pp. Nabhols, Bans, "Some Unique Recreational Programs In Germany," Ho. 3, Marc Naylor, Herbert E«, "The Trend pf Physical Muoatlon in England," Physical Muoatlon. England, I, No. 1, 1935* 1936, p, 3* "The New Sports Decree for Universities," (Die new Hoehsehulsoortornunft) Leibesuebunaen and Koerperliche trslehung. Vol. 53, "Notes on Preparatory Schools for Girls," Special Reports jariment of . Educational Subjects. Vol. 6, 1900, Depa: Muoatlon,^llngland, p. 519• "Notes on Some German Schools," Journal of Muoatlon. London, X, March, 1886, pp. 132*133. "’The Official Syllabus* A Plea for the Reconsideration of the Official Adoption of the Swedish System," lopnal jaf Scientific Physical Training. England, IX, No. 27, 191?» P* 70. "The Organisation of Games Out of School for the Children Attending Public Elementary Schools in the Large Industrial Centres as Voluntarily Undertaken by the Teachers," Speoial Keporta on Bduoetlonal 3ttbJ.pt.. Board of JSdttoatlon, England, vol. 2, 1898, pp. 163*165.

m

•Physical Education,” Journal of Muoatlon. London, LXVII, 1935, p.' 664# •Physical Education at Che Sheffield High School for

£;?£ •Physical Education Circular. Mo# 1445#• Physical Education England, X, Mo# 4, Feb#, 1936, pp# 60-62, — ---•Physical Education in Greet Britain,” School end Society. Mo# 45, April, 1937, pp* 522-523, •Physical Education in Schools.• Physical Muoatlon. England, X, Mo# 1, 1935*1936, p# 9 # •Physical Training,” Journal of Mueetlon. London, XXXIX, July, 1917, pp# 436*4397 •Physical Training for Girls,• Journal of Muoatlon. London, Vol. 33, 1911, p« 663 # •Physical Training in General.” Physical Education. England, X, no* 2, 1935*1936, p,22. •Physical Training - Mo Favoured Nation,” Journal of Muoatlon. London, XXXIX, 1917, p* 626. •Physical Training of the Scholars in Birmingham Board Sohools.” Special Rcnorts on Educational Subjects. Department'of loue^ 1^ ; ^nglalivol. tr?: 2o?. Plasechi, Eugene, "Physical Education in European Universities," The Journal of Health and Phjaioaj, iduc.att.9ja. I, Mo# 1, Oct., 1930, pp. 3*4# Hams bothan, H., "The Board of Education's Gall for Action,”

S » M f

246221 “

262- “ ‘1" a •

Rath, Virginia end Alexander, Thomas, "The Mew Program of Physical Iducation for Girls in Prussian Secondary Schools,• Teachers College Record. XXVIII# Ho. 1 0 , June, 1927, PP* 983*993# "Retire! of Sir George Newman," Journal of Physical Education and School Hygiene. England, XCTXi, Ho. so,

1935, P* 3.

393 Hop#r, R.S., nTh« British System of Physical Muoation," |QOrgsl of^olsntlfle ^plca,! Training. Englanfl, XXX, Bouoek, Joseph S.', "The Subjugation of German Physical Education to German Fascism," School and Society. 3Q£XVTII, Aug*, 1933, PP* 260-282# Sherman, Jackson E.. "Professional Muoatlon of Fhysioal Muoation Teaohora in Germany," Journal of Health end aX Education. IX, Ho* X, J a n T / W ^ T pp7To-TS?T Sheet®, Paul H., "Citizenship Training in Hew Germany," School end Sooletv. XLII, Dee*, 1935, pp. 833-835. Thorin, Keratin V*, "Professional Vacationing in Sweden and Denmark," Journal of Health and Physical Education. 1 i Ho* 5# 1930, pp* 24—25, 44#. Vardon, Warwick M.# "Systems of Muoatlon," Journal of Muoation; London, Vol. 27, 1905, P* 469* Wheeler, Prof. Olive, "Physical Mueetlon in the University," ia^fi*|oQ£9|hy.^flal &aUgtt» snglana, m *

"Which Sports Are Most Suitable for Women," Mind and Body. Vol. 33. Ho. 355. Jan., 1927, p. 92. Wohlers, Frederick H#, "The Hew Physical Muoation in r.'zfi.

» . ? « £

&

“ a,ttsa>

Woodsmall, Buth Frances, "Women in the New Germany," The Forum* Vol. 93, 1935, p p * 299-303. Government Documents and Reports oard of Muoatlon. England. Hla Majesty*& Stationery ffi oc. London * "Curriculum and Examinations In Secondary Schools, 1941* "Education, England and Wales," Social and Physical Training Grant Begulatlona, 1939*

394

"Muoatlon In 1934*" A Report ot the Board of Muoation and the Statistic* of Public Muoatlon for Ragland and Wales, 1933* "Muoatlon In 19351" 4 Report of the Board of Muoatlon and the Statistics of Futile Muoation for England and Wales* 1936. "the Muoation of the Adolescent," The Hadow Report* 1927* "Government Publication**,Ministry of Muoatlon, Ingland* 1949. "A Guide to the Muoational System of England and Wales," 1945. "Handbook of Suggestions tor Teachers *" 1937* "Health Education,* 1940. "The Health of the School Child," Annual Report of the Chief Medloal Officer of the Board of Muoatlon, 1921, 1922* 1923, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1938, "The Hew Secondary Muoatlon," Ministry of Mueetlon, 1947. "Physical Training," Series No. 8, 1929. "Physical Training and Recreation," rad. 3564, The White Paper, 3an., 1937* "Provision for facilities for Recreation and Social and Physical Training," Circular 51, 1945. "The Public Schools," 1944* "Recreation and Physical fitness for Girls and Women," 1937. "Regulations for Secondary Schools," 1904, 1909 different books),

(Two

"Report of the Board of Education," 1911-12, 1912~13, 1913-14, 1914-15, 1915-16, 1917-18.

"Secondary Muoatlon,* 1938.

395 "Special Reports on Educational Subjects," Department of Education, Englandv Vol# 2, 1898; Vol# 6, 1900.

"Statistica of Public Education in England and Wales" 19X3*19X4i 19X5*

"Suggestions In Regard to Games," 1924. "Syllabus of Physical Training for Schools, 1919," 1924* "Syllabus of Physical Training for Schools, 1933,” 1936, Other Agencies * England British Information BerViees, "Britain's Health in War and Peace, Hew York, 1948, British Information Services, "Education In Britain," York, 1948.

Hew

British Information Services, "Landmarks in Democracy," Hew York, 1949. British Information Services, "Social Services In Britain," Sew York, 1948# British Information Services."Special facilities for Research Workers and Specialists," Hew York, 1948# British Information Services, "The Story of the British Commonwealth and Empire," Hew York, 1947. British Information Services, "Women in Britain,” Hew York, 1943# British Medical Association, "Report of the Physical Education Committee,” London, 1938# Central Council of Physical Recreation, "Games and Games Training for Girls and Women," London, 1943. Central Council of Physical Recreation, "Physical Education in Industry," London, 1947.

396 Gentral Council of Recreative Physical Training. "Annual Report - 1937*3®»* London, 193®* Central Counoil of Recreative Physical Training,"Report of an Investigation Into Recreative Gymnastics for Older Women,” London, 1937* Central Offlee of Information London, 1947*

Something D o n e ,” H6580,

Child Guidance Council, "Report for the Tear 1937," London, 1937* "Documents Relating to the Admission of Women to the Diplomatic and Consular S e r v i c e s July 30 , 1934 * April, 1936, HMSC, London, 1936, larengey, Florence, ”The Legal and Economic Status of Women," Rational Council of Women of Great Britain, London, 1949* Industrial Health Research Board of the Medical Research Counoll, "Why is She Away, The Problem of Sickness Among Women in Industry," HUSO, London, 1945* International Labour Office of the League of Rations, "The Law and Womens Work," P.S* King and Son, Ltd,, London, 1939* Ling Physical Education Association, Wicksteed, Miss I.E., "The Early Days and Development of the Ling Physical Education Association,” Watford Printess, Ltd., Watford, 1939* Ling Physical Education Association,” Report of Rational Panel Committee's Meetings," Sat. 27th November, 194®, London, 194®* Ling Physical Education Association, "Report of the Second Conference on Athletics for School Children," London, 1939* Ling Physical Education Association, "Report on the InterAllied Open Conference on the Wide Aspects of Physical Education," London, 1942*

39?

loudon County Counoil, "Syllabus of Physical Training, tor Junior Schools,"London, 1949# The National Advisory Counoll and the Grants Committee tor Physical Training and Recreation," National Fitness, Tha First Stop," H2SS0, London, 1937. National Asaooiation of Organisers ot Physical Education, "Physical Education,"Essex, England, 1943. National Counoll ot Girls, "Annual Report, 1936-1937." London, 1937. National Counoll ot Girls9 Clubs, "Signpost," London, May, 1936. National Fitness Counoll for England and Wales, "Memorandum A.G.G* 11" London, May, 1936. "National Health Campaign,"The Prime Minister1a speech at the Inauguration of the Campaign at the London School of Hygiene, 30th Sept,, 1937. Open Boor Council, "The Married Womans Is She a Person 7" London, 1936, "Physical Training and Recreation Aot, 1937." BMSO, London, 1937. Research Board for the Correlation of Me&ioal Science end Physical Education, "Medical Science and Physical Education in Industry," Interim Report, London, 1946. Research Board for the Correlation of Medical Science and Physical Education, Roper, R.I., "Some Aspects of Physique in Boys and Girls," London, 1946, Royal Commission on Equal Pay, "Report, 1944-1946,” HM30, London, 1946, Select Committee on Equal Compensation, "Report#" HMSO, London, 1943. Select Committee on National Expenditure, "Health and Welfare of Women in War Factories," Third Report, HM30, London, 1942.

m

Miscellaneous Documents and Beoorts Hooka, Janet M., "British Policies and Methods in Employing Woman in Wartime," 0.S. Department of labor, D*S* Government Printing Office, Washington, D.O., 1944* Kendal, Xsaao L f, "Education in Great Britain and Ireland,1* Department of Interior, Bureau of Education, 0,3* Government Printing Of flee, Washington, D.0«, 1919* May, Mark A., and Boob, Leonard W*, "Competition and Cooperation", Social Science Hesearoh Counoll, Bulletin Ho, 24, Hew York, Sept,, 1936, Payne, Enoch C,, "The System in Carman Schools," Kentucky Department of Education, Frankfort, Kentucky, 1909. "Political Eights of Women," Department of Publlo Information, United Nations, Lake Success, Hew York, 1949# "The Status of Women," Department of Public Information, United hatIona, Lake Success, Hew York, 1949* "World Labor Standards," U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Standards, Washington, D