A cinematographic technique for analyzing movements in sports activities

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A CINEMATOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE FOR ANALYZING MOVEMENTS IN SPORTS ACTIVITIES

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education University of Southern California

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Education

by James Ross Donachle August 1950

UMI Number: EP56176

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' r/ T h is thesis, w r i t t e n u n d e r the d ir e c t io n o f the C h a ir m a n o f th e c a n d id a te ’s G u id a n c e C o m m itte e a n d a p p r o v e d by a l l m em bers o f th e C o m m itte e , has been p resen ted to a n d accep ted by the F a c u lt y o f the S c h o o l o f E d u c a t io n o f the U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the re q u ire m e n ts f o r the degree o f M a s t e r o f Science in E d u c a tio n .

n„,„

^ Dean

Guidance Committee

Vu 'hairman

/

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.

PAGE

THE PRESENTATION OF THE PROB L E M............ The p r o b l e m .............................

1

Statement of the p r o b l e m ..............

1

Importance of the s t u d y ................

2

Scope of the p r o b l e m ..................

2

Definitions of terms used ................

3

B l o w - u p s .......................

3

Camera set-ups

3

.......................

E d i t i n g .......................

3

Inframe...............................

4

Mo v i o l a...............

4

Negative

4

......................

Slating c o d e .........................

4

Sound s t a g e ...........................

3

Splicer . . .

3

Synchronizer

........................ .........................

Organization of the remainder of the thesis II.

1

REVIEW OF THE L I T E R A T U R E ............. Literature on the analysis of

sports

6 6 7

. .

9

education .

12

Literature dealing with the production and use of film in physical

s'

ill CHAPTER III.

PAGE

THE PROCEDURE OF PRE-PRODUCTION

AND

PRODUCTION OF THE F I L M ..................

19

Technique involved prior tophotography .

20

Selection of the subjects..............

20

Preparation of a s cript................

21

Slating code

. * * .............

Shooting interiors on the soundstage . . .

23

The handball sequence ..................

23

Camera and lighting set-ups

.........

23

Using an exposure m e t e r ................

24

Rehearsing the subject

29

• • • • • • • • •

Problems encountered in shooting

........

29

Covering the s u b j e c t ..................

29

Lenses u s e d .........

30 ................

30

......................

33

Speed of the camera . Shooting exteriors

IV.

23

The tennis sequence.............

33

The baseball sequence ..................

34

POST-PRODUCTION TECHNIQUE ..................

36

Laboratory procedure

..................

36

Editing the work p r i n t ................

37

How the film was analyzed..............

Q38

How blow-ups are m a d e ..................

39

iv CHAPTER V.

PAGE

A SAMPLE TECHNIQUE OP HOW TO ANALYZE MOVE­ MENTS IN SPORTS .. .•......................

45

Analysis of the preliminary movements in three sports

. . . . . .

..............

Stance and baekswing in baseball Stance and baekswing in tennis Stance and baekswing in handball

48

....

48

........

50

....

51

Analysis of the forward movement leading to contact with the b a l l ..................

65

Forward movement and contact with the ball in baseball..........................

65

Forward movement and contact with the ball in tennis .................. . . . . .

66

Forward movement and contact with the ball in handball.......................... Analysis of the follow-through

..........

77

............

77

..............

78

............

78

DISCUSSION OF VARIOUS CAMERA A N G L E S ........

88

Follow-through in baseball Follow-through in tennis Follow-through in handball VI.

67

Down s h o t .............................

88

Front s h o t ...................

89

Side s h o t .............................

90

Reverse side s h o t ......................

90

V

CHAPTER VII.

PAGE

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS....................

93

Summary...............................

93

Conclusions.....................

97

BIBLIOGRAPHY

...................................

A P P E N D I X ...................................

99 102

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ILLUSTRATION 1.

Stance, Down Shot, in Baseball, Handball, and Preliminary Readiness

2.

Position in Tennis . .

Stance, Front Shot, in Baseball, Preliminary Readiness

3.

PAGE

53

Handball, and

Position in Tennis . .

54

Stance, Reverse Side Shot, in Baseball, Hand­ ball, and Preliminary Readiness Position in T e n n i s ...................................

4.

55

Stance, Side Shot, in Baseball, Handball, and Preliminary Readiness

Position in Tennis . .

56

5 . Baekswing, Start of, Down Shot in Baseball, Tennis, Handball ..........................

57

6 . Baekswing, Start of, Front Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, Handball.............

58

7 . Baekswing, Start of, Reverse Side Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball ........... 8.

59

Baekswing, Start of, Side Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, Handball ..........................

60

9 . Baekswing, End of, Down Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, Handball.................. 10.

.. . .

Baekswing, End of, Front Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball......................

11.

61

62

Baekswing, End of, Reverse Side Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball ...........

63

vii ILLUSTRATION 12.

PAGE

Baekswing, End of, Side Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball...............

13.

Forward Motion, Middle of, Down Shot, in BaseBall, Tennis, and Handball................

14.

64

69

Forward Motion, Middle of, Front Shot, in Base­ ball, Tennis, and Handball................

70

15. Forward Motion, Middle of, Reverse Side Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball 16.

........

Forward Motion, Middle of, Side Shot, in Base­ ball, Tennis, and Handball................

17.

73

Contact with Ball, Front Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball......................

19.

72

Contact with Ball, Down Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball......................

18.

71

74

Contact with Ball, Reverse Side Shot, in Base­ ball, Tennis, and Handball................

75

20. .Contact with Ball, Side Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball...................... 21.

Follow-through, Middle of, Down Shot, in Base­ ball, Tennis, and Handball................

22.

80

Follow-through, Middle of, Front Shot, in Base­ ball, Tennis, and Handball

23.

76

..........

81

Follow-through, Middle of, Reverse Side, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball ............

82

vlii ILLUSTRATION 24.

PAGE

Follow-through, Middle of, Side Shot, in Base­ ball, Tennis, and Handball...........

83

25. Follow-through, End of, Down Shot, in Base­ ball, Tennis, and Handball 26.

........

84

Follow-through, End of, Front Shot, in Base­ ball, Tennis, and Handball................

85

27. Follow-through, End of, Reverse Side Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball ............ 28.

Follow-through, End of, Side Shot, in Baseball, Tennis, and Handball.................

29.

86

87

Special Shot of Handball, Showing the Serve in Medium C l o s e - u p .............

91

LIST OF TABLES TABLE I.

PAGE

The Lights Used in Filming Sports Activities for This Study . . . . . . . . . .

II.

........

25

Data on the Filming of Sports Activities for This Study

..........................

31

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE A,

PAGE

Example of the Camera Set-up in the Front S h o t .....................................

26

CHAPTER I THE PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM Motion pictures have brought not only mass entertain­ ment to the American public, but they have also introduced another excellent teaching medium to the school system by means of audio-visual education*

For many years motion

pictures have been used in the physical education field. Cqaches in the high schools and colleges utilize motion pictures as a teaching device in aiding the students to improve their sports skills.

Motion pictures have also been

used to analyze skilled movements in sports activities.

For

the amateur cinematographer this presents many new problems. The author will attempt to solve some of the problems that are encountered in making a film for the purposes of analysis as well as to present a technique for analyzing films.

Three sports activities will be photographed in

order to present a method for shooting motion pictures for analytical purposes.

I.

THE PROBLEM

Statement of the problem.

It was the purpose of this

study to present a cinematographic technique that may be used to analyze movements in sports activities.

It was felt

2 that this could be accomplished by shooting slow motion picture films. Importance of the study.

This study was written to

aid anyone who has an interest in analyzing sports activities.

The techniques that were used in filming the

three.sports activities were presented in hopes that they might be of help to others who are planning to take motion pictures of sports activities.

When the reader has

completed a study of this thesis, he should have some concept of the pre-production, actual production, and post­ production techniques that are necessary for filming a study of sports activities.

Also, he should have some knowledge

of the types of equipment used in filming a motion picture. This information should be of benefit to the student who is interested in analyzing the movements of various sports. Scope of the problem.

The presentation of the use

of motion pictures as a technique for analyzing the movements of athletes performing certain skills was divided into five phases.

The first phase was to choose three sports that

could be used as examples. tennis, and handball.

The sports chosen were baseball,

The second phase was to delimit the

activity to one particular action.

This was accomplished

by restricting the analysis that was to be used to (l) the forehand drive in tennis, (2) the side arm serve in

3 handball, and (3) the batting in baseball.

The third phase

was to take motion pictures of the athletes performing the selected skills.

The fourth step was to arrange the film

in the most convenient manner in order to facilitate analysis.

The fifth and final step was to study the film

of each sports activity by viewing it in a Moviola machine.

II.

DEFINITIONS OF TEEMS USED

Blow-ups. The term blow-ups as used in this thesis is interpreted to mean the enlarging of a frame of sixteen millimeter film to the size of a 2 1/4 x 3 1/4 inch picture. These pictures are included in this thesis and show the action as it appears in the motion picture. Camera set-ups.

The term camera set-ups is

interpreted to mean the various positions that are needed in order to cover the subject adequately.

The term set-up

may be considered to be the placing of the camera and equipment in position to shoot the scene, and after the shooting, to arrange the camera in a different way in order to photograph another type of position or angle of the subject. Editing. The term editing as used in this thesis is interpreted to mean the arranging of the film in a

4 logical order of sequence with all the unnecessary action cut out. Inframe.

The term inframe as used in this thesis

is interpreted to mean the keeping of the subject who is being photographed within the limits of the film, in order that his action may be observed in its entirety. Moviola.

The term Moviola as used in this thesis

is interpreted to mean a mounted peep-sight projection machine in which the film is seen through a small glass window.

This machine was used in analyzing the actions of

the various sports.

It may be run at very low speed and can

be stopped at any desired position; this device was indeed helpful in viewing the actions of the various sports. Negative. The term negative as used in this thesis is interpreted to mean the original film on which the image is recorded in reverse values of light and dark and from which all positive or work print copies are made. Slating code.

The term slating code as used in this

thesis is interpreted to mean the different letters and numbers given to the sports and their particular angle of action as it is photographed.

To illustrate the value of a

slating code, it may be pointed out how readily the desired scene may be found on the film.

In the film used for this

thesis, “A11 represented handball, nBw represented baseball, "C," tennis; and the angles at which the subject was shot were numbered one to nine.

If the slate was marked C-5>

it would mean it was a reverse side shot full figure in tennis. Sound stage.

The term sound stage as used in this

thesis is interpreted to mean the site in the cinema department where the handball sequence was shot.

It has

the lights and equipment that are needed for indoor filming of motion pictures. Splicer. The term splicer as used in this thesis is interpreted to mean an instrument for putting two ends of film together.

It Is a simple but necessary tool for

connecting broken film and for cutting or reassembling certain scenes in the film. The entire splicing procedure is a simple operation involving only a few minutes.

First, cut the film with

the knife edge of the splicer; second, clean the emulsion off one end of the film with a knife blade or the special scraper provided; third, apply a small amount of film cement to the cleaned surface; fourth, place the other end of the film over the cemented area, and press the two ends of the film together.

After about thirty seconds of

e 6 pressure, the ends of the film are spliced. Synchronizer.

The term synchronizer as used in this

thesis means a machine whose function is to aid the finding of the same scene or a particular frame on the negative stock when that frame has been found on the work print. This machine has two reels opposite each other.

The work

print is placed on one end, and the negative on the other; when a knob is turned, the film goes around at the same rate of speed on each reel.

There is also a meter on this

machine that measures the length of the film in feet and frames.

(There are forty frames in a foot.)

III.

ORGANIZATION OP THE REMAINDER OP THE THESIS

This thesis consists of seven chapters.

Chapter Two

reviews the literature dealing with the analysis of sports and the planning and production of films.

Chapter Three

deals with the procedure of pre-production and production of the film that was needed for use as examples in this study.

Chapter Pour is concerned with the techniques

involved in the post-production of the film.

Chapter Five

deals specifically with a sample technique of how to analyze movements in sports. £

various camera angles. and conclusions.

Chapter Six gives a discussion of the Chapter Seven presents the summary

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE An investigation of the literature dealing with the problem of analyzing actions by the use of motion pictures was made.

The literature dealing directly with this sub­

ject is somewhat meager and scattered throughout many books and periodicals about physical education and cinema­ tography.

As a point of interest, it may be noted that

analyzing motion is not a new type of experimentation nor even one that was started in the twentieth century.

Aris­

totle was probably one of the first persons to analyze mo­ tion.1

The early Greek Olympic athletes studied form and

actions in hopes of attaining greater excellence in their activities. In 18859 Beaunis

p

presented one of the first studies

dealing with muscular contractions.

He recognized three

classes of intermuscular relation during contraction.

1 Laurence Morehouse and John Cooper, Kinesiology (St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Company, 1950), p. 1, citing Aristotle, Parts of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Progression of Animals (with English translations by A. L. #eck anH fi. S. Forster, Cambridge: Harvard Univer­ sity Press, 19^5)• 2 H. Beaunis, ,fRecherches sur la Contraction Sumultanie des Muscles Antagonistes,11 Gaz. Med, de Paris, 56:340, 1885. Same title In Arch, de Physiol. Norm, et Path., Series 5> 1:64, 1889-

Richer^ used this classification as a point of

departure for his work, as was exemplified in one of his papers which he published under the title “Locomotion,11 in 1901.

After making photographic studies, Richer

described the essential difference between slow movement and fast, or what he called "the Balistic movement." Richer1s classification was used by Stetson

ii

Later

in the

experimental work on rhythm in 1905. In a more recent paper 5 written by Stetson he classified movements in the following way: 1.

Fixation, with antagonistic muscles contracted

against each other. 2.

Slow movement, with antagonists contracted but

with uneven tension.

The movement which can be changed at

any point in its course. 3.

Rapid movement, two types— one with tension in

all opposing muscle groups throughout the movement, and the other in which the moving member is free of muscular tension in the middle of its course and is carried on by

3 p. Richer, "Locomotion Humaine," Traits de Physique Biologique (DfArsonval et Autres), 1:156, 1901. ^ R. H. Stetson, "A Motor Theory of Rhythm and Discrete Succession," Psychological Review, 12:261-62, 1905. ^ R. H. Stetson, "Mechanism of the Different Types of Movements," Psychological Monographs, 32:18-20, 1923*

9 momentum.

This was the movement that was named "Balistic"

by Richer. Literature on the analysis of sports. Cureton,

6

in

1939* did some extensive work in analyzing sports activities with the use of motion pictures.

He was a pioneer in this

field and devoted much time and research in that area. 7

Scott* and Hawley

Q

have written books about the

analysis of actions involved in sports.

Morehouse and

Cooper^ have written one of the latest books concerning analysis of actions.

These works are very comprehensive and

give a clear picture of the mechanical procedures that are undertaken by the body in performing certain activities. Slater-Hammel,10 in his study on the eontractionmovement relationships during the tennis forehand drive,

6 Thomas K. Cureton, Jr., "Elementary Principles and Techniques of Cinematographic Analysis as Aids in Athletic Research," Research Quarterly, 10:3-4>. 1939* York:

^ Gladys M. Scott, Analysis of Human Motion (New P. S. Crofts and Company, 19^7)» PP*

8 Gertrude Hawley, An Anatomical Analysis of Sports (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1940),191 PP* 9 Morehouse and Cooper, op. cit., 435 PPArthur T. Slater-Hammel, "An Action Current Study of Contraction-Movement Relationships in the Tennis Stroke," Research Quarterly, 20:424-31> December, 19^9 •

10 obtained objective data concerning these movements.

Slater-

Hammel obtained his data by having a regulation tennis ball suspended approximately four feet from the floor by means of an elastic cord.

Simultaneous records of arm

movements, contact of the tennis racket with the ball, and action currents were taken on a Teledeltos Polygraph.

The

movement of the arm during the forehand drive was recorded by attaching a light glass thread to the wrist.

The thread

carried a small stainless steel marker and was attached to a section of rubber band at the opposite end.

The recording

was mechanically reduced by inserting a length of rubber band between the subject and the marker.

Although the

system recorded only horizontal movements and thus gave simply a projection of the actual excursion, the recording clearly indicated the start of the back stroke, the end of the back stroke, the start of the drive, and the followthrough.

The details of the recording system have been

presented in an earlier study by Slater-Hammel.11

Recording

the contact of tennis racket with the ball was accomplished by covering the ball with fine copper screen wire.

When the

steel-strung racket came in contact with the ball an electric circuit was completed, activating the contact

11 Arthur T. Slater-Hammel, "An Action Current Study of Contraction-Movement Relationships in the Golf Stroke," Research Quarterly, 19:164-77* October, 1948.

11 marker.

Two action current channels were used throughout

the experiment. The action current apparatus and general 12 procedures have been described in studies by Brown, 10

ll|.

Hudgins, 3 Sperry, Fulton

16

ic

and Stetson and Bouman. ^

conducted an experiment concerning the use

of speed and accuracy in learning movements. consisted of two experiments.

Her study

One experiment used a

tracing movement (non-ballistic); the other used a striking movement (ballistic).

(See Appendix.)

The tracing

experiment was extended as an experiment in re-learning after a five-week interval. follows:

In general, the procedure was as

Initial status in speed and accuracy was determined

by trials in which the instructions stressed general procedure of performing the task but did not mention speed or accuracy.

The initial trials were followed by a

12 P. F. Brown, "Kymograph Action Current Recording," Journal of General Psychology, 20:511-17* 1939. c. V. Hudgins, "The Incidence of Muscular Contrac­ tion in Reciprocal Movements under Changing Loads,” Journal of General Psychology, 20:327-38, 1939• ^ R. Sperry, "Action Current Study in Motor Coordination," Journal of General Psychology, 20:295-313* 1939. ^ R. H. Stetson and H. D. Bouman, "The Coordina­ tion of Simple Skilled Movements," Research Quarterly, 20:179-25^* 1935. ^ R. E. Fulton, "Speed and Accuracy in Learning Movements," Archives of Psychology, 300:53, 19^5*

12 training period in which one group received instructions to stress speed and the other group to stress accuracy.

In

the post-training period both speed and accuracy were emphasized. Early emphasis on speed in learning a movement was found to be advantageous for ballistic and nonballistie movements in view of (l) the high degree of transfer of the speed-set, (2) the strong persistence of the speed-set transfer over a period of time, and (3) the relatively small acquisition of accuracy. Furthermore, in so far as the accumulation of momentum is essential to ballistic movements, early emphasis upon speed is further justified for ballistic move­ ments.1 * 18 An earlier study by Fulton was concerned with the speed and accuracy in learning ballistic movements. Literature dealing with the production and use of film in physical education.

Adams1^

has furnished a very

commendable study in the use of motion pictures in physical education.

He was concerned primarily with the film as a

teaching device and used it as an illustration in his study of learning how to serve in tennis.

However, he

devoted a great deal of his paper to the proper techniques

^ Fulton, loc. cit. lg R. E. Fulton, “Speed and Accuracy in Learning a Ballistic Movement,11 Research Quarterly, 13:30-36, 19^2. ^ Thurston Adams, Motion Pictures In Physical Education (New York: Teachers College, Columbia university, 1939), 5? PP.

13 and equipment that should be used in order to obtain the best results in filming the subject.

Although this study

was over ten years old, it may still be considered a very valuable and helpful piece of literature.

Relatively few

of the suggestions that were made by Adams are out-dated today.

It seems apparent, then, that more research is

needed in the area of motion pictures as a technique for use in physical education. 20 Fenn measured the work done by sprinters in running.

The measurements on which the calculations for

his study were based were taken from a series of cinemato­ graphic films of sprinters.

The films were run off with

exposures of 0.001 second duration at the rate of 120 exposures per second, and were, therefore, capable of rather exact analysis.

He determined the center of gravity

of the runners from the cinema films in the following manner: The angles of the upper and lower arms and legs are first measured from the films when projected on a screen, one measurement being made at every second frame. This was done simply by laying a protractor long the long axis of the limb and reading the angle by means of the plumb line. These angles are then plotted for each limb against the frame number (i.e., time) and smooth curves are drawn through the points in such a manner that they return to the

20 W. 0. Fenn, wWork against Gravity and Work Due to Velocity Changes in Running,n American Journal of Physiology, 93:^33-62, 1930,

14 pi

starting point at the end of the running cycle* 22 An earlier study of Ferm also utilized the medium of motion pictures as a device for the purposes of analyzing movements.

In this experiment the kinetic energy of the

limbs was calculated for every 0.033 second interval during 22 different sprints from measurements on moving picture film. per second.

The exposures were made at a rate of 120 The kinetic energy of each part (In relation

to the body) was plotted against time. 23 Elftman used motion picture films as the basis for this study in evaluating the work done by muscles in running.

The study was somewhat similar to the one carried

on by Fenn.

In fact, he used some of Fenns* films for

purposes of analysis.

However, he did take new motion

pictures and shot them at a rate of 150 exposures per second.

He projected every other frame of this film on

a sheet of paper and outlined the various parts of the body.

From this, positions of the joint axes and of the

Pi W. 0. Fenn, "Mechanical Energy Expenditure in Sprint Running as Measured by Moving Pictures," American Journal of Physiology, 90:343-44, 1929* 22

Loe. cit.

h . Elftman, "The Work Done by Muscles in Run­ ning," American Journal of Physiology, 129:672-84, 1940.

15 centers of gravity of the head, trunk, and feet were determined as accurately as possible, and lines representing the longitudinal axes of the limbs were drawn between adjacent joints.

The results of Elftmans1 investigation

seemed to lend complete support to the conclusions obtained by Penn in his study. 24 Lockhart also suggested in her study that motion pictures were a valuable device in the learning of motor skill.

She directed her study to the problem of teaching

girls to bowl.

With one group of girls she supplemented

their instruction by using motion pictures as a teaching device.

The experiment did prove successful, and the use

of the motion pictures was of considerable help in shortening the time needed to learn the skills involved in bowling. Dale and Ramseyer,

25

under the direction of the

Committee on Motion Pictures in Education, wrote a study concerning motion pictures in education.

The investigation

Aileen Lockhart, "Value of Motion Pictures as an Instructional Device in Learning a Motor Skill,” Research Quarterly, May, 1944. 25 ^ Edgar Dale and Lloyd Ramseyer, Teaching with Motion Pictures (American Council on Education Studies, Series il, Vol. I, No. 2. Wasnington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1937)*

16 m

dealt specifically with each of the major problems related to the use of motion pictures in the classroom.

It was

intended to develop a feeling of adequacy on the part of the in-service teachers and administrators in the use of the motion pictures as a medium of instruction.

26

Glassow

also viewed the values of motion pictures

as a teaching aid and presented a summary of the important studies that had been conducted up to the year 1942.

She

felt that leaders in the field should encourage and provide opportunity for the study of the motion pictures.

She felt

that new research was needed to answer the following questions: Do motion pictures add to teaching efficiency? What should be included in a film?

Would the picture of

individual execution offer greater returns in learning than does the "presentation11 film? The advantages of the slow motion picture as a j

coaching device were investigated by Priebe and Burton.

27

This investigation was designed to secure evidence of the value or the lack of value of slow-motion pictures as

26

Ruth B. Glassow, "Motion Pictures as Teaching Aids,” Journal of Health and Physical Education, 13:8* October"]! 19^2. 27 Roy E. Priebe and William H. Burton, “The Slow Motion Pictures as a Coaching Device,11 School Review, March, 1939> P* ^7-

17 a coaching device, with particular reference to the high jump*

The experiment involved twenty-six subjects and

covered a six-weektlearning period.

The conclusions

suggested that motion pictures evidently cut down greatly the initial trial and error period.

The evidence indicated

that “slow motion pictures are of great value in initial learning but nearly on a par with directions, demonstra­ tions, and verbal analysis of faults as the learning period progresses.” The latest publication that was of value to this study was found in Research Methods Applied to Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.

28

In this book,

Glassow, Hubbard, and Brown presented several points of view and suggested methods of utilizing photographs and motion picture films as research techniques. Only by means of the picture which can be "frozen" for unlimited study, can details be accurately related. The value of the photographic record is unquestioned. The student, who is considering the possibility of using photography as a means of studying movement, should consider: 1. Type of 2. Type of desired 3. Setting 5. How the

data the pictorial record can provide. photography that will best record the information. needed to emphasize desired details. desired information can be obtained

28 Ruth B. Glassow, and others, "Photographical and Cinematographical Research Methods," Research Methods Applied to Health, Physical Education and Recreation (Washington” D .C.: American Associationfor Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 19^9)*

* 18 2Q

from the photograph. ^ An Interesting fact concerning the historical development of the use of photography in movement was included in Glassows* study and it was as follows: To the student of movement, it is interesting to note that the motion picture developed from studies of movement. In 1873* Muybridge, working in Califor­ nia, set along one side of a race track a series of 24 cameras; on the other, screens marked into divisions. Strings leading to each camera were stretched across the track and as the horse broke each wire, the shutter of the corresponding camera opened. From the series of photographs, pictures were painted on glass discs and projected by a lantern. The study was conducted to settle a disagreement on the seauence in which the horse*s feet contacted the ground.30

29 Ibid., p. 204. 3° Ibid., p. 217.

CHAPTER III THE PROCEDURE OF PRE-PRODUCTION AND • PRODUCTION OF THE FILM Technique Involved prior to photography.

There are

several very Important steps that must be taken before one’s thoughts can be directed to filming motion pictures.

It is

the purpose of this chapter to make clear these steps.

The

information that is presented in this chapter was obtained prior to filming the three sports activities that were used as examples in this thesis. Selection of camera and film. Two 16 mm. cameras were used in filming the sports activities used in this study.

The Bell and Howell Filmo 70 DA and the Eastman

Kodak Cine Special cameras, that were stocked in the Univer­ sity of Southern California Cinema Department, were available for use by the author.

Both cameras have a speed

adjustment dial, and any one of seven speeds (8, 12, 16, 24, 32, 48, and 64 exposures per second) may be selected.

All

the film for this study was shot at 64 frames per second. It is the opinion of this author as well as of professional cinematographers that shooting sports activities at 128 frames per second results in better film for the purpose of analysis.

This, however, requires a special camera, and it

20 was not possible to obtain such a camera for this study. One camera that is capable of shooting at 128 frames a second is a Filmo 70-G camera. After the camera was decided upon, the choice of film was then considered* essential for good results.

The proper choice of film was The film used for this study

was 16 mm. Panchromatic negative background, and its cost was two dollars thirty-three cents per hundred feet.

Four

hundred feet of film were required for full coverage of the action.

Color film may be used for analytical purposes

but its cost Is prohibitive and it has a tendency to fade as it ages.

Color film requires two and a half times as

much light as is needed for black-and-white film.

From the

results acquired by the author in using various types of film, it seems that Panchromatic negative film is the best for all-around service. Selection of the subjects. When selecting subjects, be certain that they are the type that can perform the desired skills well enough to be considered valid subjects. It is important to have an adequate number of subjects in order that a true sampling of the action may be obtained. Not all athletes perform their skills in the same fashion. Each one has certain peculiarities.

If a large cross

section of athletes is photographed, this will minimize the

21 possibilities for erroneous assumptions regarding the proper technique that should be employed by athletes in per­ forming a certain skill. The subjects used in this thesis for filming the tennis and baseball sequences were members of the varsity teams at the University of Southern California.

The

university does not sponsor a handball team, but the subject selected for that sport had proven above-average skill and was considered a valid subject for use as an example of the serve in handball. Preparation of a script. A well-planned script is necessary to insure uniformity of action and adequate coverage of the desired action.

On this script is written

all the possible angles that are needed of the subject.

If

the person who is going to analyze the film is not the cameraman, then it is advisable for that person to discuss the various camera angles with the cameraman.

Then, too,

before the script can be properly prepared, a discussion with the cameraman concerning the camera angles is advisable.1

An accurate script will be a great time-saver

when the action is being actually photographed.

The script

* Lecture in Cinema by Michael Doyle, Jr., A.S.C., Associate Producer, Oriental-International Films, Hal Roach Studios, at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1950.

22 may be thought of as the blueprint from which the picture is to be constructed*

The instructor should first lay out

the general framework for the picture— *the environment, the performers, the skills to be presented, and the sequence in which they are to appear.

This framework is

governed by the specific objectives which the picture is expected to achieve.

It is exceedingly helpful to list

these objectives at the very outset.

Forethought in

planning the picture insures its usefulness.2 In this study, nine different camera set-ups or camera angles were used. 1*

These are as follows:

Down shot, full figure of the complete swing in

normal speed. 2.

Down shot, full figure in slow motion, 64 frames

per second. 3.

Front shot, full figure in slow motion.

4.

Side shot, full figure in slow motion.

5.

Reverse side shot, full figure in slow motion.

6*

Side angle, medium close-up, waist up, including

full arm swing. 7*

Front angle, medium close-up, waist up, including

full arm swing.

2 Thurston Adams, Motion Pictures in Physical Education (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1939), P. 15-

8.

Side angle, medium close-up, waist down to feet.

9.

Front angle, medium close-up, waist down to

feet. Slating code.

To provide for easy identification a

slating code was used to differentiate one angle from the other.

Before each new angle was shot, the number of the

angle was marked on a small blackboard and photographed. This provides a permanent record on the film.

I.

SHOOTING INTERIORS ON THE SOUND STAGE

The handball sequence♦

The film that was needed for

the handball sequence was taken on the sound stage of the cinema department at the University of Southern California. The ideal location to shoot the handball sequence would have been in the handball courts at the gymnasium, but the lights that were needed were too large to transport from the cinema department to the physical education building. Camera and lighting set-ups. There are two major points to keep in mind when lighting a set-up.

They are as

follows: 1.

Light the subject clearly, and as sharply as

possible. 2.

Eliminate all unwanted shadows, and subdue the

background in the set-up as it may prove to be distracting.

2k

These factors are to be particularly considered when the film is to be used for the purposes of analyzing mechanical, or fundamental kinesiological, and physiological principles. The lights employed in this study are given in Table I. It is extremely important for you to be certain of adequate light, especially when shooting at slow motion, sixty-four frames a second, because more light is needed than when normal speed, twenty-four frames a second, is used.

The following suggestions regarding lighting were

made by Rose: In taking indoor pictures with photofloods, at least two should be used at one time— one oh each side of the subject, and both in reflectors shining directly at the subject. The flood lighting units are used to provide a uniform over-all minimum exposure level of illumi­ nation, to lighten shadow, to illuminate backings and to give a soft general front-lighting in close shots.3 Several of the camera set-ups were sketched during the shooting of the film that was used as the basis for this study.

These sketches have been reproduced in Figure A. Using an expo sure meter. After the subject is placed

in the proper lighted area, an exposure meter is used to determine the amount of light that is falling upon the 3 Jackson J. Rose, The American Cinematographers1 Handbook and Reference Guide (sixth edition, Los Angeles: Southland Press, 1947)# p. 166.

TABLE I THE LIGHTS USED IN FILMING SPORTS ACTIVITIES FOR THIS STUDY Degree Beam Divergence spot flood

Name

Type

Nominal Wattage

MR Type #2l4&4l4 Senior Solarspot

l4M Fresnel-lens, high power lamp

5,000

10

44

MR Type #210&4l0 Junior Solarspot

9 7/8 Fresnel-lens, medium power lamp

2,000

10

44

26

i_________ >

\T

i

% i\ 1 \ 1 N

j i

A

R HANDBALL *

k

TENNIS SYMBOLS

•

»i

1 A

\

= Subject

A

- Camera

(A = Person Pitching Ball in mi cz=? * Lights ^\IU. • Sun

?! M >i v 1--- ✓ . CL ! o

m

w /

1“

( = Protective Screen

\ _____/- Baseball Backstop = Green Canvas

%■

INDOOR SHOT *

BASEBALL FIGURE A

EXAMPLE OF THE CAMERA SET-UP IN THE FRONT SHOT

27 subject.

For full Information on the correct use of an

exposure meter the best possible guide is The American Cinematographers1 Handbook and Reference Guide.

In that

source was included the following discussion on exposure meters: The most worthwhile adjunct to either professional or amateur photography is a reliable exposure meter. While there are many excellent types including the sensitized paper, visual extinction, calculator, and photometric types, all of which require viserai comparison of densities or brightness, the most uniformly dependable is the photo-electric cell type, which gives an accurate, mechanical measurement of the light falling on its light-sensitive cell. Of these, the Weston [this type was used in this study], Norwood and General Electric are probably the type most gener­ ally used. The following data, while directly appli­ cable to Weston meters, can in general be applied with few modifications to any other type of photo-electric cell exposure meter. Virtually all photo-electric meters are provided with an indicating dial upon which is read the brightness of the scene, usually in footcandles, and a calculating dial by means of which this reading may be translated into terms of photographic exposure, and adjustment is provided by means of which the calculator may be set to read accurately for a film or plate of any speed.4 In using an exposure meter, several rules should be followed in regard to the general operation necessary for good results. 1.

These are: Set the film speed to the value indicated for

the film used.

^ Ibid., pp. 184-85*

28 2.

Direct the meter at the scene or subject*

3.

Note the brightness reading on the indicator

4.

Set the pointer on the calculator dial to the

dial.

brightness value read on the indicator dial. 5.

Thereafter, the correct exposure may be read

from the calculator for any given shutter-time or lens opening. In using motion picture cameras other than those with adjustable shutter openings, the duration (shutter speed) of the exposure is fixed, and the lens opening must be set at a figure correct for that shutter speed.

The most common

error in using photo-electric exposure meters is pointing the sensitive cell at the scene wrongly so that it gives an inaccurate reading.

In general, the meter should be read on

the most important object or part of the scene.

For long

shots, the meter reading should be taken a short distance in front of the camera position.

For medium shots, the meter

should be read four or five feet from the person or object photographed.

For close-ups, the meter should be read

within one foot of the subject*s face. In taking readings, particularly in longer shots, the meter should be pointed slightly downward, so as not to include too much sky, which would give an erroneous reading. It is also a good plan to shade the meter*s "eye" as you

29 would a camera lens.

The direct rays of the sun must

never be allowed to strike the meter"1s cell. When shooting outdoors, It is important for you to read the meter at each new camera set-up, and freq;uently throughout any one camera set-up, to make certain that the lens diaphragm opening which is being used is properly set at all times.

Outdoor light is constantly changing and

must always be checked for picture exposure. Rehearsing the subject. When proper lighting has been established,

itis important to

be certain that the

subject*s actions can be fully covered from start to finish.

The subject should go through his performance

several times before the actual filming takes place.

The

action can be followed in the viewfinder of the camera, and any adjustment that is needed can be made.

II.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN SHOOTING

Covering the subject.

In covering the subject the

prime consideration is keeping the person within the frame limits of the film throughout the entire action.

The

author found that itis possible to cover the entire action in a long shot, thus eliminating the possibility of 5

Rose, loc. cit.

30 the subject*s being out of frame.

However, filming the

-subject in long shots was not sufficient for the proper analysis of the action.

It was necessary to move in

closer and compensate for this movement by using different lenses to increase the field or limits of the frame. Lenses used.

Lenses that have a focal length of

less than one inch are called wide-angle lenses.

These

lenses allow a large area to be filmed at close quarters. In this case the camera is set close to the subject to be filmed.

For this analysis a 15 mm. lens was used in several

of the shots and may be referred to in Table II. To cover a broader area in filming, a one-inch lens can be used.

In this study the entire tennis sequence was

filmed with a one-inch lens.

This was possible because the

subject could be moved readily, and this was found to be more practical than changing lenses.

A two and a half-inch

lens was used when close-up quality was desired; this resulted in showing only a small portion of the subject*s body. Speed of the camera.

In filming sports activities

for analysis, it is well to use slow motion speed which is sixty-four frames a second.

Normal speed for 16 mm.

cameras is 24 frames per second.

It is possible to take

slow motion pictures at 128 frames a second, but this

TABLE II DATA ON THE FILMING OF SPORTS ACTIVITIES FOR THIS STUDY

Shot

Sport

P/Stop

1. 2. 3. CO 4. H 5. 6. W EH 7. 8. 9. 10.

Down shot, normal speed Down shot, slow motion Front shot, slow motion, full figure Side shot, slow motion, full figure Reverse side, slow motion, full figure Medium close-up, side, waist up Medium close-up, front, waist up Medium close-up, back angle, waist up Medium close-up, back angle, waist down Medium close-up, front angle, waist down

F-8 F-8 F-8 F-8 f -8 F-8 f -8 f -8 F-8 F-8

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Down shot, normal speed Down shot, slow motion Front shot, slow motion, full figure Side shot, slow motion, full figure Reverse side, slow motion full figure Medium close-up, side, waist up Medium close-up, front, waist up Medium close-up, back angle, waist up Medium close-up, back angle, waist down Medium close-up, front angle, waist down

F-3-5 F-3-5 F-3-5 F-3-5 F-3-5 F-3-5 F-3-5 F-3-5 F-3-5 F-3-5

H g

11

* 40 frames equal one foot of 16 mm. film. ** A 25 nun. lens is the equivalent of a one-inch lens.

Lens

Length of take Feet Frames*

1" 1" 1” 1" 1" 1" 1" 1" 1" I”

8 20 8 23 13 5 6 8 8 10

0 0 0 38 0 30 24 20 4 2

15 mm.** 15 m m . --

9 21 13 8 7

0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 20

1" jfl 1” 2” 2” 1" 1” 1”

18 18 13 10 9

TABLE II (continued) DATA ON THE FILMING OF SPORTS ACTIVITIES FOR THIS STUDY

Shot

Sport

.M*1

d PQ

0 CO C PQ

1. 2. J• •• 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Down shot, normal speed Down shot, slow motion Front shot, slow motion, full figure Side shot, slow motion, full figure Reverse side, slow motion, full figure Medium close-up, side, waist up Medium close-up, front, waist up Medium close-up, back angle, waist up Medium close-up, back angle, waist down Medium close-up, front angle, waist down

F/Stop

F-9 F-9 F-9 F-9 F-9 F-9 F-9 F-9 F-9 F-9

Lens

1” l,f 2 1 /2 ” lfl 1" 1” 1" 1” 1” 1”

Length of take Feet Frames* 9 33 5 4 10 7 6 8 12 14

10 0 11 25 0 5 0 23 0 20

U) ro

33 requires a special camera and It was not available for use by the author. Running a camera at slow motion speed for long periods of time, particularly spring-driven cameras, is somewhat damaging to the mechanisms of both the power unit and the intermittent drive movements.

At times the spring

action of the pressure plate does not always function correctly at this high speed.

When this happens, it will

result in the film being out of focus.

III.

SHOOTING EXTERIORS

The filming of the motion picture outdoors followed the same type of procedure that was needed for the indoor shots.

There were a few differences, and several problems

that were faced in the outdoor shots will be mentioned in this section of the thesis. The tennis sequence.

The film that was needed for

the tennis sequence was taken on the University of Southern California tennis courts.

The shooting script was followed

very closely and the set-ups were made as nearly like those in the handball sequence as possible.

The same angles that

were taken in handball were taken in the tennis sequence. As often as possible, before the start of the action, the author attempted to put the subject in a position that

34 would give the best possible results in the film, that is, as far as photographic technique is concerned.

An example

of this procedure is the use of the green canvas that covers the fence around the tennis courts.

Whenever possible, the

subject was placed in front of that green canvas when being photographed.

This gave a silhouette effect and thus

made the subject stand out more clearly than if the back­ ground had been a light distracting one. The down-shot angle or camera set-up in the tennis shots was different from those used for handball.

In the

handball sequence the filming was accomplished on the sound stage by mounting the camera on the rafters of the ceiling and shooting directly down.

The down shot in tennis was

obtained by mounting the camera on the roof of the cinema building which overlooks the tennis courts.

This shot was

not directly overhead, but it captured nearly all the necessary motion and was of value in analyzing the action of the tennis forehand stroke. The baseball sequence. All the baseball film that was used in this thesis was taken on Bovard field.

The same

shots were taken of the baseball subject as were taken of the tennis and handball subjects.

The filming of the base­

ball subject presented a more difficult task than the two other sports.

In handball and tennis the ball can be guided

35 with more accuracy than in baseball.

The baseball subject,

as were all the other subjects, was swinging with full power during the shooting as if in an actual game situation. Because of the danger involved, the camera as well as the person taking the pictures had to be protected.

Some pre-

cautionary measures were taken in filming the front shot. The front shot was taken with the batter hitting the ball directly at the camera.

The camera was placed on a

tripod behind the backstop screen, with the lens placed in such a way as to avoid having the screen in the film.

The

subject was brought in about half the original distance from home plate to the pitcher; in other words, he was approximately thirty feet from the pitcher and the camera. The pitcher compensated for this shorter distance by throwing the ball somewhat, slower in order that the batter’s reaction time would function properly.

The screen that

protects the first baseman during the practice sessions was moved and placed within close range of the pitcher.

After

delivering his pitch, the pitcher ducked behind this screen; this was to prevent him from being hit by any ball aimed directly at him by the batter.

A diagram of this set-up may

be found in Figure A given earlier in this chapter. The down shot needed for this sequence was shot from the balcony of Founders1 Hall on the campus of the University of Southern California and proved very satisfactory.

CHAPTER IV POST-PRODUCTION TECHNIQUE Laboratory procedure. The film was processed by Consolidated Film Industries in Hollywood, California.

The

cost of processing a hundred feet of film was six dollars and sixty-four cents.

For this price one work print was

made, and one negative copy which can be used at a later date to make reprints from if more films are desired.

The

total cost for four hundred feet of a 16 mm. film without sound was thirty-seven dollars and thirty-nine cents. included purchasing the film and developing it.

This

To give

the reader a thumbnail sketch of what happens to the film when it is sent to the laboratory for processing, the fol­ lowing few statements have been included.

The film as it

is taken from the camera is called exposed negative; this is placed in a chemical bath and developed.

This devel­

oped negative is then printed on to the positive stock, and in turn processed to make a work print.

The work print is

the film that is used in the Moviola and may be projected on a screen.

The negative stock is never used in this

manner because it would become scratched and prints that were made from it would be of very poor quality.

After

the film has been returned from the laboratory, the next procedure is to edit it.

Editing the work print. When the film is returned from the laboratory it is inspected to be certain that everything desired is on the film.

Sometimes there will

be out-of-focus shots that have to be eliminated from the film and cases of unwanted types of action in the film. All this is taken out during the editing process.

The

first step in editing is to be sure of the film that is to be used and to discard the unwanted film.

For this

purpose the Moviola was used; this enables the viewer to scrutinize the film carefully and to stop the film at the desired time on any single frame.

If a frame or a scene

is not wanted it can be cut out of the film with a pair of scissors and the correct frame or scene inserted in its place.

To patch the film together, a Griswold splicer was

used in this study.

(For some instructions on how it

operates, see Chapter One on definition of terms.) The film may be edited in several ways according to the effect that is desired as well as the purpose for which the film is intended.

If the film is to be used as a

teaching device to improve a certain phase of action in a particular sport, then the film is edited with the differ­ ent angles of that action following one after the other. This will give the person watching the film a picture of the athlete from all possible angles as he is performing the action.

If the film is to be used to illustrate the

38 similarities between certain sports, then it is edited in a different, manner.

For this purpose, the film taken of each

sport is intercut; i. e., one comparable angle of each sport is selected at a time. For example, as the film is viewed on the screen, the side shots or side angles of all three sports (tennis, baseball, and handball, the examples used in this study) follow each other.

This gives the person watching the film

a chance to compare the actions in the three sports.

An

important point to remember before editing is to be certain of the results that are desired and to edit the film in such a fashion that these results may be obtained with the minimum of effort. How the film was analyzed. The film was analyzed by viewing it through the Moviola.

In order to facilitate

greater speed and less confusion, the film was cut into the separate views or angles that were taken of the sub­ ject.

In this manner any one of the three sports, or any

of the angles, could be found easily, and studied indi­ vidually.

This is a particularly good method to use if

one wishes to compare the actions of various sports to see if there are similarities of movements.

As the film was

run through the Moviola, notes were taken concerning the body mechanics of the athlete performing the action.

39 To illustrate the movements of the athletes as they performed their skills and to give the reader a clearer picture of what the author saw in the film, blow-ups of the frames that exemplified certain movements were made. How blow-ups are made. The first step in the pro­ cedure of making blow-ups was to determine what frames were to be used.

In order to locate the frames that were to be

blown up, the services of the Moviola were once again utilized. • When the frames had been located, they were marked with a grease pencil and were thus distinguishable from the other frames.

Blow-ups cannot be made from the

work print, but only from the negative stock.

This then

required finding the comparable frames on the negative stock.

In the handling of the negative stock it is well

to wear white gloves in order to minimize the possibilities of fingerprints and scratches on the film.

It is also a

good idea to have some sort of a container into which the film may fall as it is taken from the reel.

Remember that

when a small frame is enlarged the smallest mark will be magnified greatly; thus, the cleaner the negative, the better the blow-up.

To find the frames on the negative,

a synchronizer was utilized.

This synchronizer has two

reels, one directly opposite the other.

The work print

was placed on one of the reels, and the negative on the

40 other.

Again, the slating code was useful in locating the

exact scene needed in the film.

Also of help after the

scene had been located were small key numbers that run along the sides of the film near the sprocket holes.

After

the correct scene was found, the film was lined up on each reel so that when the knob of the synchronizer was turned the film on each reel had identical frames side by side. When a grease pencil mark was located on the frame of the work print, it was known that on the other reel directly opposite that frame was a similar frame on the negative film.

Then the negative film frame was marked

with a grease pencil near the sprocket holes.

lightly Care must

be taken not to get any markings on the frame itself.

All

the frames that were needed in that scene were marked in this fashion.

Then the negative film was removed from the

synchronizer and all the frames marked were cut out.

They

were then filed in separate envelopes according to the slate numbers and in regard to whether they illustrated the preliminary movements, the action, or the follow-through. Here they stayed until the time came to enlarge them. Special techniques were needed to blow up the frames, and these will be mentioned at this time.

The frames cut

from the negative film were mounted on Kodak mask charts, which is a guide for the accurate cutting of photographic printing masks.

This was accomplished by cutting squares

41 the size or the frame out of the mask and placing the mask over the frames. mask paper.

It might be called framing the frame with

The mask chart was cut to four by five, and a

cover glass transparent slide was placed on both sides of it. One side of the slide was then sealed with scotch tape, giving the slides a hinge effect.

This made it easy

to remove the mask paper and to change the frames for the next set of blow-ups.

This slide now holding the frames

was placed in an Omega D II condenser type enlarging machine.

The next step was to blow up the negative on to

the printing paper.

The distance required between the lens

and the printing in order to receive an image of 3 l/^ x 2 1/4 was .approximately five feet.

This was accomplished

by placing the enlarging machine on a table and putting the printing paper on an adjustable easel that is placed on the floor,

The easel in this position can be moved

until the image is properly centered on the paper.

An

exposure of between six and nine seconds at F 5*6 was needed because of the great distance between the lens and the printing paper.

For this type of work, special quality

printing paper was needed.

This paper was used in this

thesis for the illustrations.

It is Eastman Kodak light­

weight, A 3, 8 l/2 x 11 inch.kodabromide type paper.

This

42 paper was chosen because of its light weight and surface quality.

The emulsion is such that it will not crack when

folded and can easily be written upon with ink, pencil, or typewriter.

The emulsion is a normal bromide coating and

is available in four types of contrast, which should cover the extremes in contrast of all types of technical photoggraphy. At the completion of exposure, the paper was removed from the easel and placed in a tray containing the devel­ oper.

The developing time is from one to one and a half

minutes in D 72 solution diluted with two parts of water to one part developer.

It is recommended that the tray used

for the developer be a size larger than the paper that is being developed. with greater ease.

This facilitates handling of the paper In the process of making the blow-ups

for this thesis an 11 x 14 inch tray was utilized, which is one size greater than the 8 1/2 x 11 inch paper.

When the

print was removed from the developer, it was dried for a few seconds and then placed in the short stop solution. The short stop solution should be mixed 1 1/2 ounces of 28$ acetic acid to 32 ounces of water.

The prints remained

in this solution for a period of 15 seconds.

It is advis­

able to use this short stop bath immediately after the developing of oxidation stains and to prevent rapid depletion of the hypo bath.

The hypo bath, or fixing

43 solution, was the next tray of chemicals into which the print was placed.

For the pictures that appear in this

thesis, a F 5 Eastman Kodak hardener fixing bath was used. Any general purpose or specific paper fixer bath may be utilized with good results. It was found in developing the prints for this study (140) that it is possible to fix approximately 150 prints in one gallon of this type of fixer bath before the solution shows signs of exhaustion.

To insure against

possible staining of the paper, it seems advisable not to use the fixer beyond 150 prints.

It is recommended by the

manufacturers that this paper be fixed between seven and ten minutes in a fresh fixing bath (F 5)•

Longer fixing

time may cause bleaching of the image; however, as the fixing bath is used, it is advisable to extend the period of fixation to compensate for the weakening of the solu­ tion.

After completion of the fixing period, the prints

are removed to a circulatory print washer.

Any type of

washer, either circulatory or tumbling in action, is satisfactory for washing the prints.

Recommended washing

time is from 20 to 45 minutes depending upon the water conditions.

Extremely soft or hard water will require a

change in the timing procedure.

After the prints are

removed from the washer they are ready to be dried. may be dried naturally or on a drum drier.

They

If dried on a

44 drum drier they should be treated as matte surface prints with the face or emulsion side of the print against the apron of the drier.

If they are dried naturally the excess

water should be sponged off and laid face down upon cheese­ cloth drying racks.

When the prints have dried thoroughly,

they should be stacked and placed in a letter press with a moderate amount of pressure or under some other type of weight.

This will remove the wrinkles from the prints.

Any marks, such as dust specks or defects on the negative, that show on the image of the print can be spotted out by going over it with a medium to hard (5 H) lead pencil.

CHAPTER V A SAMPLE TECHNIQUE OP HOW TO ANALYZE MOVEMENTS IN SPORTS This chapter attempts to give an example of how slow motion picture films of sports activities may be used for analytical purposes.

It proposes to present a logical

system of utilizing the film for convenient study of the movements in various sports. In the developing of prints for this study, the film of each sports activity was cut into strips that presented only one angle or shot of the athlete performing his skill. These sections of the film were then viewed separately through a Moviola.

In order to establish an over-all

viewpoint of the skills performed, each angle of the activity was studied carefully.

The particular examples

in this chapter are all ballistic movements and limited to only one type of action, namely, the tennis forehand drive, batting in baseball, and the side arm serve In handball. In order to scrutinize the action more carefully, divisions of the performance were made. The first division was the preliminary movements of the athlete in preparation for striking the ball. the backswing.

This was subdivided into the stance and

The second division was the forward movement

leading to contact with the ball.

The third and final

46 division was the follow-through.

Again, the film strips

of each separate angle were studied by viewing them in the Moviola.

In this manner the individual divisions were

studied.

It was decided at this time that still further

breakdown of the film was necessary.

Therefore, the

backswing was divided into two phases, the beginning and the end of the action. divided into two phases.

The forward movement was also It was decided that the end of

the backswing and the beginning of the forward motion were one and the same. not necessary.

Thus, isolation of these movements was

Instead, the middle portion of the forward

motion and the contact with the ball were chosen as the subdivisions.

The follow-through movements were classified

in a similar manner, one being the middle of the action and the other the end. The various angles of the sports were viewed again in the Moviola, and each frame that seemed to show the desired action (i.e., end of the backswing) was marked with a grease pencil.

Later these frames were cut from the film,

and blow-ups were made from them.

These blow-ups were

placed in this thesis and may be studied by the reader.

The

reader must keep in mind that these blow-ups show only the actions in each sport performed by one athlete.

It should

not be assumed that this is the only way, or even the correct way, to perform the activities presented.

Not all

47 athletes have Identical movements while performing the same skill.

These blow-ups are merely to show a technique that

may be utilized to facilitate the study of motion pictures of sports activities.

Blow-ups of a similar nature may

be used in a body mechanics course in order to present the students with examples of types of movements.

If one

wishes to study the similarities of actions in various sports, the arrangement of the blow-ups as they appear in this thesis may seem advisable and helpful.

Only the

shots showing the full figure of the athletes were blown up and used as illustrations.

It was felt that to include the

medium close-up shots of the athletes in this thesis was needless repetition.

There is, however, one medium close-

up shot, from the waist up, of the handball player that appears in Illustration 29.

This illustration represents

eight frames that ran consecutively in the motion picture. It is suggested that certain factors be observed when analyzing actions in various phases of the movements. The principles related to mechanical analysis of sports activities formulated by McCloy were used as a basis for making the analysis.

(See Appendix.)

The analysis that appears in this chapter was made from viewing the film in a Moviola and with the aid of the blow-ups that appear in this thesis.

This analysis is

merely an example of one way to analyze the actions that

48 can be seen In the blow-ups.

By no means is it considered

the most accurate manner of describing the movements that occur in the sports. Three blow-ups appear on each page of the illus­ trations; they attempt to represent the same phase of the action as it occurs in each sport.

These three sports

have been analyzed briefly in this chapter.

The blow-ups

may be used as references on the similarities in the three sports and as examples of the technique used in cinema­ tography.

I.

ANALYSIS OF THE PRELIMINARY MOVEMENTS IN THREE SPORTS

Stance and backswing in baseball.

One stance in

baseball is taken with the feet almost parallel to each other; the left foot is about two Inches in front of the right, and approximately eighteen inches separates the two feet.

The body weight seems to be evenly distributed

over both feet, while the knees are slightly bent and in a relaxed position.

The trunk appears to be inclined forward

by slight flexion of the hip joint.

This particular batter

holds the bat firmly with both hands, the left hand being the lowest on the bat.

The left elbow is flexed to

approximately 45° while the right has a much greater angle of flexion, almost 90°.

This brings the bat in a position

49 behind the head and over the right shoulder.

The hands are

now holding the bat we11.out in front of the right shoulder. The head is turned with the chin pointed toward the left shoulder while both eyes are fixed on the approaching ball. The positions that have been stated seem to be evident in Illustrations 1 to 4. The movements leading to the backswing are initiated by lowering the bat.

This seems to be accomplished by

extension of the left elbow.

The hands are then almost

parallel to the waist; this no doubt changes with the height of the oncoming ball.

As the arms are lowered, there

is a transfer of weight to the back leg and a greater bend in the knee.

At this moment the left foot is raised from

the ground and brought forward with a slight turning, which results in the toes being pointed more directly at the pitcher.

Illustrations 5, 6, and 7 seem to substantiate

these statements.

The step is one of ease and firmness in

order to maintain body balance, while the weight is shifted from the back foot to the front.

The stride taken is about

eighteen inches and is just high enough for the spikes of the shoe to clear the ground.

Before the foot strikes the

ground the bat is in a position behind the head.

During

this movement there is a slight torque of the'hips.

As

the foot comes in contact with the ground, the bat is over the right shoulder and somewhat parallel to the ground.

50 The bat has now assumed the position of the end of the backswing.

Illustrations 9 to 12 depict the end of the

backswing. Stance and backswing in tennis.

The blow-ups of

the tennis stance that appear in Illustrations 1 to k are not comparable to the other sports at that phase of the action.

The tennis position that is presented in these

illustrations is a position of readiness to get to a position to hit the ball, and not the position of readiness to strike the ball.

This sample analysis of the forehand

drive in tennis begins with this preliminary readiness position.

The stance of the athlete as he prepares to move

to a striking position is one of balance and affords easy movement to the right or left, backward and forward.

It

appears that the body weight is equally distributed on both feet.

The body is bent slightly forward with a rounding of

the shoulders.

Both hands are placed on the racket, the

right hand occupying the lowest position (right-handed player) and the left placed above it.

Holding the racket

with the left hand relieves the strain on the right wrist, as well as acting as a guide and helping to render a more relaxed position. As the player starts his backswing, the body weight seems to shift from the left to the right foot.

The weight

is shifted by a step forward and to the right, thus

51 bringing the body from a front position to one of a side position.

At approximately the same time, the racket is

lowered to the waist, with the left hand guiding the shaft of the racket.- The left foot is now brought forward and to the right.

(See Illustration 9*)

In this position the

left shoulder is facing the approaching ball.

As the

athlete steps into the ball, the left hand leaves the racket and the right arm brings the racket well back. motion the head of the racket is held high.

During this

The wrist

seems to bend backward, and there is adduction of the elbow. When the left hand leaves the racket, the arm is brought forward and acts as a balancing agent.

At the end of the

backswing the body weight seems to be over the right foot. The knees are bent and the hips are slightly rotated. Stance and backswing in handball.

One stance in

handball may be taken with the feet about eighteen inches apart, the knees slightly bent, the trunk straight, and a slight rounding of the shoulders.

The left side of the body

is facing the wall upon which the ball is to be hit.

The

ball is held in the left hand (right-handed player) and raised slowly from the thigh to a chest-high position.

It

is then released at this height in order to start its bounce.

Of course, the distance the ball is raised will

vary with the players as well as with the amount of bounce

that is required.

Some players may wish to release the ball

at a lower level and bounce the ball to the desired height by giving the wrist a short quick snap.

Other players

merely release the ball at a higher level and omit the wrist snap.

The film taken of the handball player in this study

showed that he did not release the ball at the same height in every serve.

The backswing seems to begin when the ball

starts its bounce.

This results in a lowering of the left

arm, and a dropping of the left shoulder.

As the right arm

is brought back, there is a slight rotation of the trunk. During this action the left foot is raised from the ground and strides forward about fifteen inches.

At the end of

the backswing the ball seems to be approximately at shoulder level, and the lower arm assumes a somewhat bent position.

The left arm is out to the left and front of the

body, aiding in maintaining good balance. 12 seem to support these statements.

Illustrations 11,

ILLUSTRATION 1 STANCE, SOWN SHOT, IN BASEBALL, HANDBALL, AND PRELIMINARY READINESS POSITION IN TENNIS

£

\

ILLUSTRATION 2 STANCE, FRONT SHOT, IN BASEBALL, HANDBALL, AND PRELIMINARY READINESS POSITION IN TENNIS

55

ILLUSTRATION 3 STANCE, REVERSE SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, HANDBALL, AND PRELIMINARY READINESS POSITION IN TENNIS

*

ILLUSTRATION 4 STANCE, SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, HANDBALL, PRELIMINARY READINESS POSITION IN TENNIS

57

ILLUSTRATION 5 BACKSWING, START OF, DOWN SHOT IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, HANDBALL

58

ILLUSTRATION 6 BACKSWING, START OP, FRONT SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, HANDBALL

59

ILLUSTRATION 7 BACKSWING, START OF, REVERSE SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

ILLUSTRATION 8 BACKSWING, START OP, SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, HANDBALL

ILLUSTRATION 9 BACKSWING, END OF, DOWN SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, HANDBALL

ILLUSTRATION 10 BACKStfING, END OF, FRONT SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

63

ILLUSTRATION 11 BACKSWING, END OP, REVERSE SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

ILLUSTRATION 12 BACKSWING, END OP, SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

f

65 II.

ANALYSIS OF THE FORWARD MOVEMENT LEADING TO CONTACT WITH THE BALL

Forward movement and contact with the ball In base­ ball . As the forward swing is executed, there seems to be a transfer of weight and a torque of the hips that turns the body from a sideward position to one that is facing the pitcher.

This action is of the greatest importance as

it provides a large amount of power and is known as drivethrough with the hips.

When most of the weight is placed on

the front leg (left), the knee is almost locked.

This

transfer of weight seems to bend the right leg at the knee and brings the heel off the ground, creating a pushing motion with the toes.

This may be seen plainly in Illustration 16.

As the bat is brought around, the hands hold it well out in front of the body (Illustration 13).

At the approximate

time the ball makes contact with the bat, the hands are out in front of the hips, and if a plumb line were dropped from the bat to the ground it would probably strike the left foot.

For a good example of this alignment, see Illustra­

tions 17 and 20.

It must be remembered that the camera,

shooting at 64 frames a second, cannot capture every exact movement.

The speed of the body movements, particularly

the swing of the arm, is extremely fast at times.

Blow-ups

of the tennis player (Illustrations 17 and 18) attempted to

66

show the contact of the racket with the ball.

The frame

chosen was the only frame that came close to showing that action.

However, in both these blow-ups the ball is about

to be hit, and not actually hit.

The frame that followed

the blown-up frame, in the motion picture, showed the racket after it had hit the ball.

This means there is no

exact record on the film showing the impact of the racket with the ball.

This is true in nearly all cases of shoot­

ing at 64 frames a second. Forward movement and contact with the ball in tennis. At the start of the forward motion in tennis there seems to be a transfer of weight from the rear foot to the front foot.

There is a bending of the knees in order to keep the

center of gravity low, thus maintaining body balance more easily.

This position also aids the player in meeting the

ball with a level racket.

As the racket is swung around,

there is a sweeping motion of the arm and a straightening of the elbow.

The swing is made from the shoulder with a

straight extension of the arm.

This long lever aids in

giving extreme speed and power to the stroke.

As the racket

is swung around, there is a torque of the hips and a straightening of the left knee.

The right knee is bent,

and the athlete is up on the toes of his right foot. can be seen in Illustrations 19 and 20.

This

In order to help

67 maintain proper balance, the left arm is held out to the left side of the body.

None of the blow-ups that appear in

this thesis shows the exact contact of the racket with the ball.

Illustrations 17 and 18 seem to show the ball as it

is about to come in contact with the racket.

In Illustra­

tion 19 neither the ball nor the racket can be seen. Illustration 20 seems to show the ball after it has been hit with the racket. Forward movement and contact with the ball in handball.

In this study the beginning of the forward motion

in handball is brought about by a transfer of weight from the back foot to the front foot.

There is a whip-like torque

of the hips which results in turning the body from a side position to a front position.

There is a bend in the right

knee that seems to tilt the body over in a serving position. (See Illustration 16.)

As the arm is swung around, there

is noted a leading with the elbow. Illustration 20.

This may be seen in

As contact with the ball is about to be

made, the right arm seems almost straight.

The hand is

cupped, and it appears as though the ball is carried in the hand for a short distance before it is released.

This

technique is mentioned by Morehouse and Cooper.1

In

1 Laurence Morehouse and John Cooper, Kinesiology (St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Company, 1950).

Illustration 29 there are eight frames that were blown of the handball player striking the ball. substantiate the above statement.

These seem

ILLUSTRATION 13 FORWARD MOTION, MIDDLE OF DOWN SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

ILLUSTRATION 14 FORWARD MOTION, MIDDLE OF, FRONT SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

ILLUSTRATION 15 FORWARD MOTION, MIDDLE OF, REVERSE SIDE SHOT, BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

ILLUSTRATION 16 FORWARD MOTION, MIDDLE OF, SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

■

rr '

73

ILLUSTRATION 17 CONTACT WITH BALL, DOWN SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

74

ILLUSTRATION 18 CONTACT WITH BALL, FRONT SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

75

ILLUSTRATION 19 CONTACT WITH BALL, REVERSE SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

76

ILLUSTRATION 20 CONTACT WITH BALL, SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

77 III.

ANALYSIS OF THE FOLLOW-THROUGH

Fo1low-thro ugh In baseball. The follow-through in baseball, as in other sports, is a means of reducing the speed which has been developed and affording time for stopping.

The follow-through helps to avoid strains which

most certainly would result if the stop were abrupt.

p

In

this study the baseball follow-through begins the very moment after the ball strikes the bat.

After the ball is

hit, any action on the part of the athlete will not affect the flight of the ball.

The uppermost thought in the

ball player*s mind is to get to first base.

He may do this

most efficiently if he completes his swing in the most convenient and economical way possible.

After the ball has

been hit, the body weight is almost completely on the left leg.

Due to the forward motion of the body, caused by the

torque of the hips, the trunk turns toward the flight of the ball.

About halfway through the action (see Illustra­

tions 21 to 24), the arms are almost straight out in front of the body.

As this swinging action continues, there is

rotation of the wrist and a bending of the elbows, and the bat is swung over the left side of the body.

In the final

position at the end of the follow-through, the bat is well

2 Ibid., pp. 180-81.

78 back behind the head and almost resting on the neck.

The

hips have been turned until they are in a locked position. (For the end of the follow-through, see Illustrations 25 through 28.) Fo1low-through in tennis.

In this study the follow-

through in tennis starts with the weight almost entirely on the front leg.

There is a turning of the body toward the

flight of the ball. straight.

The arm swing may be considered almost

The racket travels about a foot forward in the

direction of the proposed flight of the ball. aids in the proper placement of the ball.

This movement

At the halfway

point of the follow-through, the plane of the swing changes to an upward and over-the-left-shoulder type of stroke. This may be seen in Illustrations 21, 22, and 24.

The

follow-through ends with the racket around the left shoulder and the wrist and elbow bent forward.

Illustrations 27 and

28 seem to illustrate the above statement. Follow-through in handball.

In this study the

follow-through in handball begins when the ball is released from the hand.

When the ball is thrown from the hand, there

is a turning of the wrist, which can be seen in Illustration 29.

From this position the arm is swung around the body,

with the palm of the hand facing downward.

The elbow of

the arm is only slightly bent and seems to be perfectly

79

straight, especially in Illustration 24.

At the halfway

position in the follow-through, the stance is very wide and it seems as though the entire weight of the body is carried on the forward leg. forward leg.

There is a very marked bend in the

This helps maintain body balance by keeping

the center of gravity low.

As the arm swings around the

body, the hips rotate forward.

As the hips turn, the back

foot is lifted from the ground and brought forward.

The

handball player will then plant his right foot next to the left and will be ready to move in any direction when the serve is returned.

ILLUSTRATION 21 FOLLOW-THROUGH, MIDDLE OF, DOWN SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

81

ILLUSTRATION 22 FOLLOW-THROUGH, MIDDLE OF, FRONT SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

82

ILLUSTRATION 23 FOLLOW-THROUGH, MIDDLE OF, REVERSE SIDE, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

83

ILLUSTRATION 24 FOLLOW-THROUGH, MIDDLE OF, SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

84

ILLUSTRATION 25 FOLLOW-THROUGH, END OF, DOWN SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

85

ILLUSTRATION 26 FOLLOW-THROUGH, END OF, FRONT SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

86

ILLUSTRATION 27 FOLLOW-THROUGH, END OF, REVERSE SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

ILLUSTRATION 28 FOLLOW-THROUGH, END OF, SIDE SHOT, IN BASEBALL, TENNIS, AND HANDBALL

CHAPTER VI DISCUSSION OF VARIOUS CAMERA ANGLES

When motion picture films are taken for purposes of analysis the subject should be covered from as many angles as possible.

This will aid the analyst in determining what

variations occur in the action studied.

There are, however,

certain advantages and disadvantages in shooting from various angles. factors.

This chapter attempts to point out these

The blow-ups that appear in this thesis were

used as the basis for studying the good and bad features of different angles.

The angles that were blown up for

the purposes of placing them in this thesis were: (l) down shot, (2) front shot, (3) side shot, (4) reverse side shot, and (5) a special medium close-up side shot of handball. These angles have been given much consideration in regard to their value in giving the analyst a clear pic­ ture of the action that is taking place.

Other shots were

taken during this study, but they did not have sufficient value to be included in this thesis.

They were medium

close-ups, from the waist up and waist down, taken from the same angles as the full figure shots. Down shot.

The down shot can be used to great ad­

vantage in certain types of activities, in order to plot

89 the type of circular movement that is taken, or to see the extent to which an area is covered.

Although it is not

presented in this thesis, a good example of an activity that may be photographed for that purpose is the discus throw.

Certain relationships of the body can be estab­

lished -from viewing the activity from above.

The illus­

tration of the handball player in Illustration 1 does not reveal an adequate amount of information about his type of movement.

In this shot the camera was too directly

overhead, which resulted in limiting what could be seen of the athletefs body.

In looking at the illustration,

one is in doubt as to how high the left arm is, or how far apart the feet are.

An overhead or downshot has a tendency

to distort the figure somewhat; therefore, a true picture of the athlete is missing.

In the same illustration it

may be noted that the shots of the baseball and tennis players are not the same type of down shot as appears in the handball blow-up.

They are taken from an angle not

directly over the body. more of the athlete.

They seem to reveal slightly

It is not advisable to take down

shots unless other angles are taken to compare them with. The hardship of improvising ways of taking the down shot should discourage the cinematographer at the outset. Front shot.

The front shot is valuable because it

90 shows the athlete from a straight-on position.

In this

position one can see the athlete*s approach to the ball (Illustration 13), the way the body is balanced, and the torque of the hips.

There are hazards involved in shooting

a sport like baseball from a front angle.

There is always

a danger of bodily harm as well as harm to the camera un­ less they are both well protected.

An example of the

camera set-up for the front shot appears in Figure A. Side shot. The side shots as they appear in this thesis are not side angle shots in the true sense of the word.

They are not exactly representative of a side shot

because they were taken at an angle that was slightly off the plane of a true side shot.

The blow-ups of the base­

ball player are the closest, of the three sports, to being a true side shot.

The side angle shot, when properly

executed, is the most valuable angle to the analyst.

This

angle reveals the most helpful information concerning the stance, shift of weight, point of contact, and followthrough.

Illustration 29 on the following page shows the

handball player*s movements as he strikes the ball.

This

is a medium close-up shot, which was intended to be a side shot, but does not represent it completely. Reverse side shot. The reverse side shot, as its name implies, is a side shot taken from the opposite side

ILLUSTRATION 29 SPECIAL SHOT OP HANDBALL, SHOWING THE SERVE IN MEDIUM CLOSE-UP

92 of the subject.

They are helpful in establishing complete

coverage from all sides of the subject.

This shot is not

necessary unless the student wishes to draw some conclu­ sions as to what muscles are being used on the back or posterior portion of the legs.

This would not seem very

probable in view of the many assumptions that would have to be made without proper proof.

The reverse side shot

can be omitted from the angles taken of the subject without undue loss of material for analyzing purposes.

CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary. The steps that were used in the preproduction, production, and post-production of the films that were made for this study are as follows: 1.

Selection of cameras.

For this study a 16 mm.

Bell and Howell Filmo DA and an Eastman Kodak Cine Special were used. 2.

Both cameras were used at 64 frames a second. Choice of film.

The film selected for this

study was 16 mm. Panchromatic negative background, and its cost was $2.33 per hundred feet.

Four hundred feet of

film was required for full coverage of the actions. 3.

Selection of subjects.

Three subjects were

filmed for use as examples in this study.

The sports

activities filmed were the forehand drive in tennis, bat­ ting in baseball, and the side arm serve in handball. 4.

Preparation of a script.

A script was prepared

in order to insure uniformity of the shots and to be cer­ tain of adequate coverage of the action.

In this study

nine different camera angles or set-ups were used, and they are as follows: a.

Down shot, full figure of the complete swing, normal speed

b.

Down shot, full figure in slow motion, 64

94 frames per second c.

Front shot, full figure in slow motion

d.

Side shot, full figure in slow motion

e.

Reverse side shot, full figure, in slow motion

f.

Side angle, medium close-up, waist up, including full arm swing.

g.

Front angle medium close-up, waist up, including full arm swing

h.

Side angle medium close-up waist down to feet

i.

Front angle medium close-up, waist down to feet

5.

Slating code.

To provide for easy identifica­

tion, a slating code was used to differentiate one angle from the other.

Before each new angle was shot, the number

of the angle was marked on a small blackboard and photo­ graphed.

6 . Indoor shooting.

Shooting actions of sports

indoors requires the use of good lighting and is a task that should be left to an expert cinematographer.

When­

ever it is possible, the subject should be shot outdoors. 7.

Using an exposure meter.

A knowledge of an

exposure meter should be gained before proper results can be expected in filming motion pictures.

The American

95 Cinematographers1 Handbook is the best guide for instruc­ tions in the use of an exposure meter.

8 . Rehearsing the subject.

It is important that

the subject go through his performance several times before actual filming takes place. 9.

Covering the subject.

By covering the subject

is meant keeping him within the frame limits of the film throughout the entire action. 10.

Lenses used.

The lenses used In this study

were: 2 l/2 inch, 1 inch, and 15 mm.

Table II showed the

times these different lenses were utilized. 11.

Speed of the camera.

In filming sport activi­

ties for analysis it is desirable to use slow motion speed (64 frames a second).

For this study the film was

shot at that speed. 12.

Shooting exteriors.

The filming of the motion

picture outdoors followed approximately the type of pro­ cedure that was needed for the indoor shots.

When shoot­

ing outdoors, it is important to read the exposure meter after each new camera set-up and frequently throughout any set-up that requires a great amount of time.

After the

readings have been taken, they can be checked against the lens diaphragm opening to be certain that they are proper­ ly opened.

Outdoor light Is constantly changing and must

be checked for exposure.

96 13•

Laboratory procedure.

The film taken for this

study was processed by Consolidated Film Industries in Hollywood, California.

The cost of processing a hundred

feet of film was six dollars and sixty-four cents. 14.

Editing the work print.

When the film was re­

turned from the laboratory it was edited in a logical order. 15.

Analyzing the film.

After editing, the film

was analyzed by viewing it through the Moviola. 16.

Selection of frames for blow-ups.

The frames

that were needed for the purpose of illustrating certain phases of the action were marked and cut from the film. A synchronizer was used to locate the frame on the negative print.

The frames were mounted on photographic printing

masks and placed between 4 x 5 glass slides.

inch transparent cover

The slides were placed in an Omega D II

condenser-type enlarging machine and photographed upon Eastman Kodak lightweight, A 3, 8 1/2 x 11 inch kodabromide type paper.

After exposure, the paper is placed

in a series of chemical baths and then dried. 17. in sports.

A sample technique of how to analyze movements Three examples of how the film may be analyzed

was presented.

The film was broken down into the differ­

ent angles, and the action of the performance was separated

97 into: (l) the stance, (2 ) the beginning of the backstroke, (3) end of the backstroke, (4) middle of forward motion, (5 ) contact with the ball, (6 ) the beginning of the follow-through, and (7 ) end of the follow-through* 18.

Discussion of the various camera angles used in

this study.

The down shot and the reverse side shots were

the angles that were of the least value.

The side shot

when taken properly may be considered the best angle for the purposes of analysis. Conclusions.

On the basis of the results obtained

in this thesis the following conclusions have been drawn: 1.

The use of slow motion pictures for the purpose

of analyzing the mechanics involved in sports activities seems to be a sufficiently valid method.

If it were

possible to film the action at 128 frames a second it might result in a more accurate presentation of the ath­ lete performing the action than when it is shot at 64 frames a second.

However, shooting at 128 frames a second

requires a special camera and a greater degree of profes­ sional skill.

For the purposes of analysis, 64 frames a

second will give adequate results when viewed through a Moviola. 2.

Whenever possible, the film should be shot out­

doors as the procedure of lighting a camera set-up indoors

98 becomes quite involved and time-consuming.

In the opinion

of the author, amateurs receive better results in their film if they shoot outdoors. 3*

From the experience of the author in shooting

the film needed for this thesis, it was concluded that: a.

A shooting script that is well planned will save valuable time in filming the necessary actions.

It reduces the amount

of retakes as well as establishes a time limit for each shot and insures full cover­ age of the subject. b.

When you are restricted to the use of only one angle, it is advisable to use a side angle shot of the athlete.

4.

A synchronizer may be used to facilitate

locating a comparable frame on the negative stock while using the work print as a guide.

5 . Blow-ups may be considered a good medium for studying the actions performed, by athletes.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.

BOOKS

Adams, Thurston, Motion Pictures in Physical Education. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1939* 57 PP. Bowen, Wilbur P., Applied Anatomy and Kinesiology. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1939* 301 pp. Budge, Lloyd, Tennis Made Easy. and Company, 19^5• 126 pp.

New York:

A. S.

Burnford, Paul, Filming for Amateurs. NewYork: Publishing Corporation, 1939* ^07 pp.

Barnes Pitman

Coombs, John, Baseball; Individual Play and Team Strategy. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19^5* 276 pp. Dent, Ellsworth Charles, Handbook of Visual Instruction. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1934-• 180 pp. Fern, George H., and Eldon Robbins, Teaching with Films. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company, 1946. Goldwaite, J. E., Body Mechanics. New York: Lippincott Company, 193^ • 337 PP*

J. B.

Hawley, Gertrude, An Anatomical Analysis of Sports. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1940. 191 pp. Hoban, Charles F., Movies That Teach. New York: Cordan Company, 1946.

The

Howland, Ivalclare, The Teaching of Body Mechanics in Elementary and Secondary Schools7 New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 193o. 263 pp. Kodak Reference Handbook. Rochester: Company, 19^7*

The Eastman Kodak

Morehouse, L., and John Cooper, Kinesiology. The C. V. Mosby Company, 1950. 435 PP*

St. Louis:

100 Research Methods Applied to Health, Physical Education and Recreation* Washington, D.C.: American Association Tor Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1950. Rose, Jackson J., American Cinematographers1 Handbook and Reference Guide. Los Ange le s: South land Press, T 9 W 7

asrpp:----------

Scott, Gladys M., Analysis of Human Motion. New York: F. S. Crofts and Co . T T 9 W T “ 3H8 pp. Steindler, Arthur, Mechanics of Normal and Pathological Locomotion in Man. Chicago: Charles C. Thomas, 1935* 424 pp. B.

PERIODICAL ARTICLES

Brown, P. F., "Kymograph Action Current Recording,n Journal of General Psychology, 20:511-17* 1939. Cureton, Thomas K., "Elementary Principles and Tech­ niques of Cinematographic Analysis as Aids in Athletic Research, Research Quarterly, 10:3-24, 1939Elf tman, H., "The Work Done by Muscles in Running," American Journal of Physiology, 129:672-84, 1940; v Fenn, W. 0., "Mechanical Energy Expenditure in Spring Running as Measured by Moving Pictures," American Journal of Physiology, 90*343-44, 1929. , "Work against Gravity and Work Due to Velocity Changes in Running," American Journal of Physiology, 93**433-62, 1930. Fulton, R. E., "Speed and Accuracy in Learning a Ballistic Movement," Research Quarterly, 13:30-36, 1942. , "Speed and Accuracy in Learning Movements," Archives of Psychology, New York, 1945* No. 300. 53 PP. Glassow, Ruth, "Motion Pictures as Teaching Aids," Journal of Health and Physical Education, 13:8, October, 1942. Hudgins, C. V., "The Incidence of Muscular Contraction in Reciprocal Movements under Changing Loads," Journal of General Psychology, 20:327-38, 1939.

Priebe Ray, and William H. Burton, f,The Slow Motion Picture as a Coaching Device,” School Review, *49, March, 1939* Slater-Hammel, Arthur, ”An Action Current Study of Contraction— Movement Relationship in the Golf Stroke,” Research Quarterly, 19:lo4-177, October, 1948. , ”An Action Current Study of Contraction— Movement Relationship in the Tennis Stroke,” Re­ search Quarterly, 20:424-31* December, 1949Sperry, R., ”Action Current Study in Motor Coordination, Journal of General Psychology, 20:293-313* 1939* Stetson, R. H., “Mechanism of the Different Types of Movements,” Psychological Monographs, 32:18-20, 1923 _______ , ”A Motor Theory of Rhythm and Discrete Suc­ cession, ” £s££holoj£ioar^Review, 12:261-262, 1905* Stetson, R. H., and H. D. Bouman, ”The Coordination of Simple Skilled Movements,” Research Quarterly, 20: 179-254, 1935. — '

C.

PARTS OP SERIES

Dale, Edgar and Lloyd Ramseyer, Teaching with Motion Pictures. American Council on Education Studies, Series II, Vol. I, No. 2. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1937-

D.

UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

McCloy, Charles H., “Mechanical Analysis of Physical Education Activities.11 Unpublished paper received at the State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 1948.

A P P E N D I X

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITIES BY C.

H. McCloy

State University of Iowa "Other things being equal” is a phrase frequently used in science. In mechanics, accurate predictions can be made when all of the conditions affecting the results can be controlled. In the application of mechanical principles to the physical activities of man, however, the accuracy of prediction drops rapidly: all of the conditions af­ fecting the results cannot be controlled: little or nothing is known about many of these conditions. Among the con­ ditions that are at present difficult to allow for are air resistance, changes in angles of attachment of muscles as the limbs move, differences in strength of muscles from person to person, and different proportional distances of insertion of muscles from the Joints. We must make greater efforts to solve such problems, and to reduce the results to quantitative terms, so that they may be added to those "other things" which are "made equal." The following definitions, principles, and applications of mechanics to physical skills are not exhaustive, but they will permit the student to analyze nearly all of the com­ moner athletic and gymnastic activities. The appropriate physical formulas should be studied in connection with these principles. 1. To begin a motor activity, the body, or a part of the body, or an implement, must be set in motion. To do this, a force must be used. The motion may be linear or angular or both; and if angular, will rotate around a given center. This center will be one end of the body, or a nearby Joint, if this end is in contact with a fixed support, and will be the center of gravity of the body if the body is revolving in space. In angular motion, the centrifugal force must be accounted for. 2. Movements may be (a) ballistic (or impulsive), or (b) movements having a sustained muscular contraction throughout the movement. In ballistic movements, the muscular contraction is momentary, but enough to initiate the movement. The movement is then completed

103 by the inertia of the part. 3.

To change the direction of the flight of a body, force must be used. (See also item number 22).

4.

In using several forces simultaneously, the resulting direction and force depend upon the direction and rela­ tive forces of the components. This relationship is often referred to as a "parallelogram of forces.” One of these forces is uaually gravity. In general, force exerted along a line diagonal to the ground will have two components. The horizontal component will be the force times the cosine of the angle of the line of force to the horizontal while the vertical component will be the force times the sine of that angle. In most motor performances the angle of application of force is constantly changing, hence, these components of force will change accordingly.

3*

Several forces may be summed in a single direction: (a) If simultaneously applied, they may be relatively limited by the weakest force of the group of forces. (b) If successively added the subsequent forces should be added at the point of greatest speed but least acceleration of the preceding ones, when they will be summed.

6.

In angular movements, the maximum forward and backward velocity is the limb is at right angles to the linear direction of the movement. The velocity forward or backward diminishes rapidly beyond that point•

7«

In all speed performances, in the last analysis, the attained speed Is dependent upon the balance of pro­ pulsive forces and the external and internal resistances.

8*

Work is force times the distance over which the force is applied (FD). This involves the expenditure of energy. In physiology there is frequently an expenditure of energy without visible motion, as in the holding of a position against the pull of gravity. This energy appears as heat, which can be converted Into a thermal equivalent of work. In general, 0.324 small calories are held to be the thermal equivalent of one foot pound of work. There are other equivalents of work, such as an electrical equivalent.

104 9*

When force is applied to a mass, the mass increases its velocity. This increase is called acceleration. (P = ma and hence « a). If the force is applied against the direction of movement, the velocity is decreased. This decrease of velocity is called deceleration or negative acceleration.

10.

In using a constant force to .attain a given horizontal velocity, the velocity is proportional to the square root of the distance over which the force is applied. (Fd = l/2mv2). This increase of velocity involves acceleration* The only force needed to maintain it is that used to overcome internal and external resist­ ance and gravity. If the force is exerted in any upward direction, the formula becomes Fd = l/2mv^ /ragd (sin 0), where 0 is the ange with the horizontal. The formula to the right of the equation represents kinetic energy. Potential energy equals mgh.

11.

Additional distance for an implement used in striking may be gained by bending a joint, as bending the knee preparatory to kicking a soccer ball, or "cocking" the wrists before striking a golf ball, thus giving ad­ ditional linear velocity at the end of the limb or implement with approximately the same angular velocity of the central rotating body.

12.

In the human body, the available force varies inversely with the velocity of movement. Thus, when the muscle contracts at jts maximum speed of contraction, no ef­ fective force for the acomplishment of external work will be available, as it will all be used up in over­ coming internal resistance. A muscle contracting at half of its maximum velocity will exert only half of its potential force. Effective force = Maximum force(l

vel-oci-^Maximum contraction

contraction^ velocity F = F max (l ' - J v mas 13*

In many events, forward linear motion must be integrated with angular motion to obtain a maximum of efficient use of the force, (e.g. in the discus throw).

105 14.

In addition to other forces, there is resistance of air or water. This usually varies approximately with the square of the velocity.

15-

When a flat implement (such as a discus) is thrown with a "sailing motion,” it is held up in the airby the air suction above and the air pressure below in the same manner as is an aeroplane wing.

16.

A muscle contracts with more force when first put on a stretch just before the beginning of the concentric contraction.

17-

The potential force of rotation of the musclefspull on a given bone is the force of the muscle times the sine of the angle of the muscle with the bone.

18.

Power is the time rate

H

of work, or

. Since ~

X = velocity, power * FV. 19-

Inertias The mass of the body resists being set in mo­ tion, but when once set in motion, either linear or angular, tends to retain its velocity in that direction until stopped by another force. The inertia is pro­ portional to the mass. Angular inertia ** ( m)r2, where r is the radius of gyration.

20.

In doing any exercise that necessitates pulling up the body and then pushing it further upward, as in the ”breast-upM on the rings, parallel bars or horizontal bar, or the pull-up and push-up in the polevault, there should be no pause in the movement, but the movement should be continuous. (See prin­ ciple 19)- This principle of continuity of motion also applies to swimming strokes.

21.

In angular movement, the tendency to continue in a straight line produces centrifugal force. The amount of this force is described by the formula (mv2 y

22• Momentum is the quantity of motion, and is mass x velocity. The body is frequently put in motion by the transfer of momentum from a part of the whole. Mass times the velocity of one part, when the force is transmitted to the whole body, equals mass times the velocity of the whole. Momentum may be linear or angular.

106 23.

In blows struck with an implement, the connection of the implement with the body (hands, etc.) must be made as firm as possible at the moment of impact, as by exerting a maximum force with the wrists, or a hard punch through of fist or foot,

2k. The speed of flight of a Struck ball depends upon the mass and striking force of the ball and bat and the co-efficient of restitution of the ball and of the bat. 25.

When a body is rotating around an axis, with the center of gravity at a given distance from the axis, to shorten the radius of gyration between the axis and the center of gravity increases the angular velocity according to the formula: angular Momentum = ( mr2 ). This is according to the principle of the conservation of the moment of momentum. (A moment of force is the force times the length of the lever at the right angles to direction of the force. It is measured in foot pounds). = v ancj is expressed in radians per second. 7

26.

The shortening or lengthening of the radius of gyration in angular motion accelerates or slows any angular velocity, as in somersaults in the air, or in pivoting in skating.

27. To accelerate angular velocity in swinging exercises, shorten the radius between the center of rotation and the center of gravity on the up-swing. Lengthening the radius on the downswing increases the linear velocity of the center of gravity at the bottom of the swing. 28.

In swinging suspension, force exerted when under the point of support, pulling towards the center of rotation (along the line of the radius) causes the center of weight to rise much higher.

29.

In mounting exercises on a piece of apparatus which involve angular motion, the center of gravity should be brought as near as possible to the center of sup­ port at the critical moment (when under the point of support).

30.

In events in which the point of support (on the ground) is ahead of the forward-moving center of weight, the center of gravity should be high, relative to the point of support, in order that the forward component

107 of force will be relatively larger than the downward (gravity) component. (Example: the forward hand­ spring). If it is impracticable to do this, the knees and hips should be flexed to permit the center of gravity to "slide down the line of motion,11 as in the landing In the running broad Jump. 31.

To every action there is an equal and opposite reac­ tion. This is true of both linear and angular motion. If the performer is in the air, free of support, no movement will raise or lower his center of gravity, but it may raise or lower his body around the center of gravity.

32.

The reaction of a long lever affects the body more than that of a short lever of the same weight, when moved through the same angle with the same angular velocity.

33-

Because of the effects of angular reaction, a for­ ward movement of a leg on one side will produce a backward movement (reaction) of the same hip. This can be overcome by a forward movement of the arm on opposite side. Hence, a vigorous forward angular movement of an arm or leg on one side is usually accompanied by a corresponding forward angular move­ ment of the other limb on the opposite side. This is usually called the principle of opposition.

34.

When throwing an object forward vigorously, to prevent the reaction from pushing the body back­ ward, the rear foot should usually be kept push­ ing backward against the ground until the object has left the hand. This is often not true of light ob­ jects thrown hard, as the forward momentum of the body is often used to check the reaction.

35. Glasses of levers: Lever of first class, fulcrum is between force and weight. Lever of second class weight is between force and fulcrum. Lever of the third class, force is between weight and fulcrum. In the human body, the same Joint may change from one class to another with different usages. E.g., the ankle Joint and foot function as a lever of the second class in rising on the toes; but as a lever of the first class when pushing a weight with the toes, with the fulcrum at the ankle Joint. 36. The "mechanical advantage" of a lever is the pro­ portion of motion at the point of the force to that

108 at the application to the weight. 37-

In using a lever to turn a mass, the longer the force arm of the lever, the greater the moment of force. The moment of force of a weight lifted is often increased by the increasing angle of the limb to the vertical.

38.

Where a limb is used to turn the body of anoths*, the individual turned must resist the force of the throw­ er by moving the limb against the force.

39- In levers, where the force arm is constant, as it usually is in the human body, the shorter the resist­ ance arm, the greater will be the lifting force, but the less the speed. The longer the resistance arm, the less will be force, but the greater the speed. 40.

In throwing movements involving rotation of the body, the longer the lever the less will be the force at the end, torque being equal; but, partly because of principle (12) the greater will be the instantaneous linear speed. (Torque is the rotating force applied at the center of rotation. It is measured in foot pounds).

41.

The body is in a state of stable equilibrium when its center of gravity falls within its base. It loses its stability of equilibrium when the center of gravity falls outside of the base.

42.

In all arm support activites, the center of of the body should be as nearly as possible point of support on the hands. In vaulting move the center of gravity in the direction

43*

Various parts of movements must be properly timed.

gravity over the exercises, of the vault.

(a) Mounting movements in swinging exercises on the bars should usually start as the center of gravity passes a point directly below the point of support. The same is true of the shortening of the radius in circles on the apparatus. (b) In exercises such as the uprises on the bars, the leg and trunk momentum carries the trunk and legs high, and the decisive movement is performed just before the end of the leg and trunk swing.

109 (c) On the flying rings, the essential movement is usually at the end of the swing; there gravity is momentarily neutralized by the upward momentum, and one can avoid the effect of centrifugal force. (d) In rotation movements such as somersaults, these must be timed to turn the requisite amount in the time available. (e) In other types of activities, the timing must be adapted to the skill in such a manner as to give the optimum application of forces. 44.

In swinging movements, the center of gravity is frequently directed upward in such a way as to re­ lieve the arms of a large part of the weight. This is accomplished by body swing just before the end of the swing that directs the line of force upward and towards the point of support not tangent to the swing.

45.

In "twister” movements, four principles are involved. (a) A turning of the head and shoulders gives angular velocity around the long axis of the body, due to transfer of momentum from part to whole. This turn must begin before the feet leave the support. (b) When the arms are out at right angles to the trunk when the turn is begun with the feet still on the support, additional velocity may be had by bringing the arms in a line with the long axis of the trunk (see principle number 26). (c) When starting a twist from the pike position, the arms are pulled in to the body or extended ,out in line with the body, and the trunk given angular motion against the angular inertia of the legs. The legs are then straightened out in line with the trunk, and the trunk*s inertia continues the twist. This is the way a cat, dropped upside down, turns to alight on its feet. (d) If the arms are rotated around the body’s long axis, the angular reaction of the body will be in the opposite direction. In the return movement of the arms, they are held as close to the body as possible, or are moved parallel to the body’s long axis.

110 46.

In striking balls, direction of flight of the ball depends in part upon the fact that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. Because of the partial flattening of the ball on the imple­ ment with the subsequent elastic rebound directly away from the plane of the implement, this relation­ ship holds true only in part.

47.

When a ball is spinning rapidly while it is also traveling rapidly through the air, the air resist­ ance to the side which is spinning forward will be greater than the air resistance to the side that is spinning backward. Hence the increased force on the side spinning forward will force the ball towards the side which is spinning backard.

38. The viscosity of muscular tissue offers an internal resistance to rapid motion. Because of the very minute openings into which this muscular fluid is forced, the resistance varies approximately with the force exerted. 49.

Any effort which does not contribute to the desired result uses oxygen, and hence acts as a relstance. Example, wave moving in swimming, or unneeded contraction of antagonistic muscles.

50. The force of a blow or fall (in foot pounds) is dis­ tributed over a given area. The shock can be dim­ inished by absorbing it over either (1) a greater area, or (2) a greater distance, or both. 51.

The coefficient of starting friction, K * F/W, where F is the force it takes to overcome friction. This form of the equation is true only in case the surface la horizontal. In sliding friction, the coefficient, f, is also F/W, but this is less than the coefficient of starting friction.

37a. A moment of force times a radius at right angles to the direction'"of* force. To achieve ana maintain balance in activities when in motion, or when acting against external forces, the rotary moments in the opposite direction must balance.