Улучши свой английский [2, стереотипное ed.] 9785976501232, 9785020346321

Table of contents :
How To Be a Good Teacher
Classroom Speaking
Classroom language for very young learners
The English Language
English Grammar
Present Simple
Past Simple
The Past Habitual Tense
Future Simple
Will or Going to?
The Future in Adjectival Clauses
Other Ways of Indicating the Future
Forward Planning from the Time in the Past
Future Simple in the Past
Present Progressive
Present Progressive Used for Proposed Future Action
Past Progressive
Past Simple versus Past Progressive
Future Progressive
Future Progressive in the Past
Present Perfect
Past Simple versus Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Past Simple versus Past Perfect
Future Perfect
Future Perfect in the Past
Present Perfect Progressive
Present Perfect versus Present Perfect Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
Future Perfect Progressive
Future Perfect Progressive in the Past
Passive Voice
Structures after Verbs, Adjectives, and Nouns
Verbs with Two Objects
Phrasal Verbs
Infinitives with and without “to”
“-ing” forms
Past Partici ple
Sequence of Tenses and Reported Speech
Modals
Subjunctive Mood and Conditionals
Tag Questions
Nouns
Adjectives
Adverbs
Articles
Determiners
Pronouns
Numerals
Prepositions
Strategies for Unlocking Word Meaning
Part A. Determining a Word’s Meaning from Context
Part B. Determining Meaning Through Word Analysis
Some Recommendations and Preparation Ti ps for Exams
Reading
Writing
Listening and speaking
Functional English
Useful Language in Some Special Cases
Some Common Topics
Bibliography

Citation preview

Â.Ñ. Ìàòþøåíêîâ

IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH A Refresher English Course ÓËÓ×ØÈ ÑÂÎÉ ÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÈÉ Êóðñ óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèÿ 2-

,

Ìîñêâà Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Ôëèíòà» Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Íàóêà» 2012 1

ÓÄÊ 811.111(075) ÁÁÊ 81.2Àíãë Ì35

The The The The

mediocre teacher tells. good teacher explains. superior teacher demonstrates. great teacher inspires. William Word

Ì35

Ìàòþøåíêîâ Â.Ñ. Óëó÷øè ñâîé àíãëèéñêèé [ óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèÿ / Â.Ñ. Ìàòþøåíêîâ. — 2Ôëèíòà : Íàóêà, 2012. — 240 c.

.,

]: êóðñ . — Ì. :

In a completely rational society, the best of us would be teachers and the rest of us would have to settle for something else. Lee Iacocca

ISBN 978-5-9765-0123-2 (Ôëèíòà) ISBN 978-5-02-034632-1 (Íàóêà) Íàñòîÿùàÿ êíèãà àäðåñîâàíà âñåì, êòî èíòåðåñóåòñÿ ñîâðåìåííûì àíãëèéñêèì ÿçûêîì. Ñîáðàííûå â íåé ìàòåðèàëû ïîìîãóò æåëàþùèì óñïåøíî ñäàâàòü ðàçëè÷íûå ýêçàìåíû è òåñòû ïî àíãëèéñêîìó ÿçûêó. Íåñîìíåííóþ ïîìîùü äàííîå ïîñîáèå îêàæåò è ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿì, òàê êàê àâòîð íà ñîáñòâåííîì îïûòå àíàëèçèðóåò è îáúÿñíÿåò íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûå îøèáêè ñòóäåíòîâ â èñïîëüçîâàíèè ÿçûêà. Î ïðàêòè÷åñêîé íàïðàâëåííîñòè êíèãè ãîâîðèò ñîáðàííûé ñïðàâî÷íûé ìàòåðèàë ïî ãëàâíûì òðóäíûì âîïðîñàì ãðàììàòèêè, ïîäáîðêà ñîâðåìåííûõ àíãëèéñêèõ îáîðîòîâ è âûðàæåíèé, óïîòðåáëÿåìûõ â ðàçëè÷íûõ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ, èíòåðåñíûé ìàòåðèàë ëåêñè÷åñêîãî õàðàêòåðà, ñîâåòû ïî ïîäãîòîâêå ê ñäà÷å ýêçàìåíîâ. Äëÿ êðóãà ëèö, èçó÷àþùèõ àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê êàê ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíî, òàê è â âûñøèõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèÿõ, à òàêæå äëÿ ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà.

ÓÄÊ 811.111(075) ÁÁÊ 81.2Àíãë

ISBN 978-5-9765-0123-2 (Ôëèíòà) ISBN 978-5-02-034632-1 (Íàóêà)

© Ìàòþøåíêîâ Â.Ñ., 2012 © Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Ôëèíòà», 2012 2

3

ÓÄÊ 811.111(075) ÁÁÊ 81.2Àíãë Ì35

The The The The

mediocre teacher tells. good teacher explains. superior teacher demonstrates. great teacher inspires. William Word

Ì35

Ìàòþøåíêîâ Â.Ñ. Óëó÷øè ñâîé àíãëèéñêèé [ óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèÿ / Â.Ñ. Ìàòþøåíêîâ. — 2Ôëèíòà : Íàóêà, 2012. — 240 c.

.,

]: êóðñ . — Ì. :

In a completely rational society, the best of us would be teachers and the rest of us would have to settle for something else. Lee Iacocca

ISBN 978-5-9765-0123-2 (Ôëèíòà) ISBN 978-5-02-034632-1 (Íàóêà) Íàñòîÿùàÿ êíèãà àäðåñîâàíà âñåì, êòî èíòåðåñóåòñÿ ñîâðåìåííûì àíãëèéñêèì ÿçûêîì. Ñîáðàííûå â íåé ìàòåðèàëû ïîìîãóò æåëàþùèì óñïåøíî ñäàâàòü ðàçëè÷íûå ýêçàìåíû è òåñòû ïî àíãëèéñêîìó ÿçûêó. Íåñîìíåííóþ ïîìîùü äàííîå ïîñîáèå îêàæåò è ïðåïîäàâàòåëÿì, òàê êàê àâòîð íà ñîáñòâåííîì îïûòå àíàëèçèðóåò è îáúÿñíÿåò íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûå îøèáêè ñòóäåíòîâ â èñïîëüçîâàíèè ÿçûêà. Î ïðàêòè÷åñêîé íàïðàâëåííîñòè êíèãè ãîâîðèò ñîáðàííûé ñïðàâî÷íûé ìàòåðèàë ïî ãëàâíûì òðóäíûì âîïðîñàì ãðàììàòèêè, ïîäáîðêà ñîâðåìåííûõ àíãëèéñêèõ îáîðîòîâ è âûðàæåíèé, óïîòðåáëÿåìûõ â ðàçëè÷íûõ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ, èíòåðåñíûé ìàòåðèàë ëåêñè÷åñêîãî õàðàêòåðà, ñîâåòû ïî ïîäãîòîâêå ê ñäà÷å ýêçàìåíîâ. Äëÿ êðóãà ëèö, èçó÷àþùèõ àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê êàê ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíî, òàê è â âûñøèõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèÿõ, à òàêæå äëÿ ïðåïîäàâàòåëåé àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà.

ÓÄÊ 811.111(075) ÁÁÊ 81.2Àíãë

ISBN 978-5-9765-0123-2 (Ôëèíòà) ISBN 978-5-02-034632-1 (Íàóêà)

© Ìàòþøåíêîâ Â.Ñ., 2012 © Èçäàòåëüñòâî «Ôëèíòà», 2012 2

3

Contents

Future Perfect Progressive in the Past ................................................. 58 Passive Voice ................................................................................................ 59 Structures after Verbs, Adjectives, and Nouns ............................................. 64

How To Be a Good Teacher ......................................................................... 6 Classroom Speaking ....................................................................................... 8 Classroom language for very young learners ........................................ 15 The English Language ................................................................................... 16 English Grammar ......................................................................................... 20 Present Simple .............................................................................................. 21 Past Simple .................................................................................................... 26 The Past Habitual Tense ........................................................................ 28 Future Simple ................................................................................................ 30 Will or Going to? ......................................................................................... 31 The Future in Adjectival Clauses ........................................................... 33 Other Ways of Indicating the Future ................................................... 33 Forward Planning from the Time in the Past ....................................... 34 Future Simple in the Past ...................................................................... 34 Present Progressive ....................................................................................... 35 Present Progressive Used for Proposed Future Action ...................... 37 Past Progressive ............................................................................................ 40 Past Simple versus Past Progressive ...................................................... 43 Future Progressive ........................................................................................ 45 Future Progressive in the Past .............................................................. 46 Present Perfect .............................................................................................. 47 Past Simple versus Present Perfect ....................................................... 50 Past Perfect ................................................................................................... 52 Past Simple versus Past Perfect ............................................................. 53 Future Perfect ............................................................................................... 54 Future Perfect in the Past ...................................................................... 54 Present Perfect Progressive ................................................................... 55 Present Perfect versus Present Perfect Progressive ............................. 56

Verbs with Two Objects ......................................................................... 64 Phrasal Verbs .......................................................................................... 64 Infinitives with and without “to” ......................................................... 66 “-ing” forms ........................................................................................... 69 Past Partici ple ........................................................................................ 73 Sequence of Tenses and Reported Speech ........................................... 74 Modals ..................................................................................................... 77 Subjunctive Mood and Conditionals ..................................................... 85 Tag Questions ......................................................................................... 91 Nouns ...................................................................................................... 96 Adjectives .............................................................................................. 101 Adverbs ................................................................................................. 108 Articles ........................................................................................................ 112 Determiners ................................................................................................. 118 Pronouns ..................................................................................................... 120 Numerals ..................................................................................................... 124 Prepositions ................................................................................................. 126 Strategies for Unlocking Word Meaning ................................................... 133 Part A. Determining a Word’s Meaning from Context ........................ 133 Part B. Determining Meaning Through Word Analysis ...................... 135 Some Recommendations and Preparation Ti ps for Exams ..................... 149 Reading ................................................................................................. 149 Writing .................................................................................................. 150 Listening and speaking ......................................................................... 153 Functional English ...................................................................................... 155 Useful Language in Some Special Cases ............................................. 173 Some Common Topics ............................................................................... 180 Bibliography ................................................................................................ 235

Past Perfect Progressive ......................................................................... 57 Future Perfect Progressive ..................................................................... 58 4

5

Contents

Future Perfect Progressive in the Past ................................................. 58 Passive Voice ................................................................................................ 59 Structures after Verbs, Adjectives, and Nouns ............................................. 64

How To Be a Good Teacher ......................................................................... 6 Classroom Speaking ....................................................................................... 8 Classroom language for very young learners ........................................ 15 The English Language ................................................................................... 16 English Grammar ......................................................................................... 20 Present Simple .............................................................................................. 21 Past Simple .................................................................................................... 26 The Past Habitual Tense ........................................................................ 28 Future Simple ................................................................................................ 30 Will or Going to? ......................................................................................... 31 The Future in Adjectival Clauses ........................................................... 33 Other Ways of Indicating the Future ................................................... 33 Forward Planning from the Time in the Past ....................................... 34 Future Simple in the Past ...................................................................... 34 Present Progressive ....................................................................................... 35 Present Progressive Used for Proposed Future Action ...................... 37 Past Progressive ............................................................................................ 40 Past Simple versus Past Progressive ...................................................... 43 Future Progressive ........................................................................................ 45 Future Progressive in the Past .............................................................. 46 Present Perfect .............................................................................................. 47 Past Simple versus Present Perfect ....................................................... 50 Past Perfect ................................................................................................... 52 Past Simple versus Past Perfect ............................................................. 53 Future Perfect ............................................................................................... 54 Future Perfect in the Past ...................................................................... 54 Present Perfect Progressive ................................................................... 55 Present Perfect versus Present Perfect Progressive ............................. 56

Verbs with Two Objects ......................................................................... 64 Phrasal Verbs .......................................................................................... 64 Infinitives with and without “to” ......................................................... 66 “-ing” forms ........................................................................................... 69 Past Partici ple ........................................................................................ 73 Sequence of Tenses and Reported Speech ........................................... 74 Modals ..................................................................................................... 77 Subjunctive Mood and Conditionals ..................................................... 85 Tag Questions ......................................................................................... 91 Nouns ...................................................................................................... 96 Adjectives .............................................................................................. 101 Adverbs ................................................................................................. 108 Articles ........................................................................................................ 112 Determiners ................................................................................................. 118 Pronouns ..................................................................................................... 120 Numerals ..................................................................................................... 124 Prepositions ................................................................................................. 126 Strategies for Unlocking Word Meaning ................................................... 133 Part A. Determining a Word’s Meaning from Context ........................ 133 Part B. Determining Meaning Through Word Analysis ...................... 135 Some Recommendations and Preparation Ti ps for Exams ..................... 149 Reading ................................................................................................. 149 Writing .................................................................................................. 150 Listening and speaking ......................................................................... 153 Functional English ...................................................................................... 155 Useful Language in Some Special Cases ............................................. 173 Some Common Topics ............................................................................... 180 Bibliography ................................................................................................ 235

Past Perfect Progressive ......................................................................... 57 Future Perfect Progressive ..................................................................... 58 4

5

How To Be a Good Teacher

Teaching is a professional activity, requiring human warmth, tact, sensitivity, resolve and professional detachment. The management of pupils needs to be calm, patient and measured. Your comments should be as positive as possible and finally systematic evaluation is the key to any effective teacher development. A good lesson is fun, includes games, has a varied pace, gives students a sense of achievement, matches the students’ expectations, makes students feel involved, follows methods the students are used to, has a wide range of activities, has clear goals for the students, doesn’t depart from the teacher’s lesson plan. Children especially like playing roles. This is an opportunity when they have to be creative and to enter a world of imagination and fantasy — a world of their own. How good are you at organizing your time at work? Punctuality 1. Do (a) (b) 2. Do 3. Do

you allow enough time to: work your lesson. you keep breaks to the right length? your lessons usually last the right length of time?

Lesson Time 4. When do you plan your lessons? 5. When do you make any materials for your lessons? 6. Do you always check beforehand that machinery for your lesson is working? 7. When do you get together your books, etc. for your next lesson? 8. Do you find the correct place on a cassette / video before the lesson? 9. How quickly do you usually return your students’ homework? 6

Improving Classroom Management (a) make your classroom look attractive. (b) show videos. (c) arrange furniture in the way you need. (d) move around the room a lot. (e) decide where pupils should sit. (f) plan a range of work to suit everyone. (g) vary your activities. (h) repeat all instructions. (i) have quiet times and noisier times. (j) praise rather than punish. (k) be consistent in your behaviour. (l) never threaten. (m) run for help when you need to. (n) evaluate your lessons. The Qualities of a Good Teacher Strictness, willingness to communicate, gentleness, fairness, understanding, empathy with the student as someone who needs to have things explained, being able to put oneself in the same position as / on the same level as the student, respect, kindness, patience, tolerance, personality, a basic teaching knowledge, being able to help students rather than order them, pleasure in contact with others, sociability. Be patient, empathise with your students, be sociable, enjoy teaching, help your students, be tolerant. Good teachers care more about their students’ learning than they do about their own teaching. They use variety within a secure setting and need to walk a fine line between predictability and surprise, without lurching into either monotony or anarchy. A Teacher’s Character The most important traits for a teacher: dynamism, thoughtfulness, care for people, sense of humour, love of performing, generosity, toughness, intelligence, determination, enthusiasm, patience, calmness, flexibility, sensitivity, imagination. 7

How To Be a Good Teacher

Teaching is a professional activity, requiring human warmth, tact, sensitivity, resolve and professional detachment. The management of pupils needs to be calm, patient and measured. Your comments should be as positive as possible and finally systematic evaluation is the key to any effective teacher development. A good lesson is fun, includes games, has a varied pace, gives students a sense of achievement, matches the students’ expectations, makes students feel involved, follows methods the students are used to, has a wide range of activities, has clear goals for the students, doesn’t depart from the teacher’s lesson plan. Children especially like playing roles. This is an opportunity when they have to be creative and to enter a world of imagination and fantasy — a world of their own. How good are you at organizing your time at work? Punctuality 1. Do (a) (b) 2. Do 3. Do

you allow enough time to: work your lesson. you keep breaks to the right length? your lessons usually last the right length of time?

Lesson Time 4. When do you plan your lessons? 5. When do you make any materials for your lessons? 6. Do you always check beforehand that machinery for your lesson is working? 7. When do you get together your books, etc. for your next lesson? 8. Do you find the correct place on a cassette / video before the lesson? 9. How quickly do you usually return your students’ homework? 6

Improving Classroom Management (a) make your classroom look attractive. (b) show videos. (c) arrange furniture in the way you need. (d) move around the room a lot. (e) decide where pupils should sit. (f) plan a range of work to suit everyone. (g) vary your activities. (h) repeat all instructions. (i) have quiet times and noisier times. (j) praise rather than punish. (k) be consistent in your behaviour. (l) never threaten. (m) run for help when you need to. (n) evaluate your lessons. The Qualities of a Good Teacher Strictness, willingness to communicate, gentleness, fairness, understanding, empathy with the student as someone who needs to have things explained, being able to put oneself in the same position as / on the same level as the student, respect, kindness, patience, tolerance, personality, a basic teaching knowledge, being able to help students rather than order them, pleasure in contact with others, sociability. Be patient, empathise with your students, be sociable, enjoy teaching, help your students, be tolerant. Good teachers care more about their students’ learning than they do about their own teaching. They use variety within a secure setting and need to walk a fine line between predictability and surprise, without lurching into either monotony or anarchy. A Teacher’s Character The most important traits for a teacher: dynamism, thoughtfulness, care for people, sense of humour, love of performing, generosity, toughness, intelligence, determination, enthusiasm, patience, calmness, flexibility, sensitivity, imagination. 7

groups of six and I’m going to give each group a cassette recorder. Right, now, in your groups you’re going to (have / hold) a conversation and you are going to record what you say. OK? Now while (as) you’re talking I’ll be here, walking around, and if there’s anything you (want, need) to ask me, like how to say this or that, you just call me and I’ll come and help; Now what are you going to talk about?; I’d like to choose a topic from...

Classroom Speaking

Agreement: Right; Absolutely; Exactly; That’s it.

Interest: Disagreement: Really? Did you? Were you? Right. I doubt it; That’s very unlikely; That’s just not the case; I don’t agree. Sympathy: Classroom instructions: OK, now this time we’re going to listen (to) the excerpt again but in greater detail; I want you to complete the summary of the excerpt as you listen. OK? That’s right, fill in the blanks in this passage; Now before you listen again, could (would, can) you read the summary to make sure (certain) you understand it and to know what are you listening for? If there are any words you don’t understand, just ask me.

I can imagine; How awful; That sounds dreadful; Oh, dear. That must have been horrible. Admiration: How amazing!; That must have been really exciting; That sounds wonderful.

Hesitation:

Classroom instructions: Introducing a reading activity

Now, let me think.

Right, now we’re going to move (on) to something different; We’re going to read a passage in which a teacher talks about his experience as a teacher. Now the first time you read it, I’d like you to read it fairly quickly and don’t pay attention to the details of the passage or worry about any words you don’t understand — we’ll come back to them later.; OK? Right, now, I just want you to read it (through) quickly and answer the question. I’ll write it on the board. OK. Are you clear about what are you’re going to do? Could someone explain (to) us, please. OK, fine, thanks, yes, that’s right. Now the passage starts on page 22. So, could you find it, please? Everybody, OK? Can you start reading?

Correcting yourself / rephrasing: I mean...; Sorry what I meant to say...was; What I mean is...; How can I put it? Or rather... . Stopping interruptions: Hold on; Just a minute; I just wanted to add. Classroom instructions: Introducing a conversation lesson Right, now today we’re going to do something (very quite) different from anything we’ve done before; It’s a kind of conversation (practice / activity). OK? Now I’m going to ask you to (get / split / divide) into 8

Special ways of changing the subject: Anyway; Sorry, but; By the way...; I’d just like to say something else...; That reminds me of ...; Another point; Besides that... 9

groups of six and I’m going to give each group a cassette recorder. Right, now, in your groups you’re going to (have / hold) a conversation and you are going to record what you say. OK? Now while (as) you’re talking I’ll be here, walking around, and if there’s anything you (want, need) to ask me, like how to say this or that, you just call me and I’ll come and help; Now what are you going to talk about?; I’d like to choose a topic from...

Classroom Speaking

Agreement: Right; Absolutely; Exactly; That’s it.

Interest: Disagreement: Really? Did you? Were you? Right. I doubt it; That’s very unlikely; That’s just not the case; I don’t agree. Sympathy: Classroom instructions: OK, now this time we’re going to listen (to) the excerpt again but in greater detail; I want you to complete the summary of the excerpt as you listen. OK? That’s right, fill in the blanks in this passage; Now before you listen again, could (would, can) you read the summary to make sure (certain) you understand it and to know what are you listening for? If there are any words you don’t understand, just ask me.

I can imagine; How awful; That sounds dreadful; Oh, dear. That must have been horrible. Admiration: How amazing!; That must have been really exciting; That sounds wonderful.

Hesitation:

Classroom instructions: Introducing a reading activity

Now, let me think.

Right, now we’re going to move (on) to something different; We’re going to read a passage in which a teacher talks about his experience as a teacher. Now the first time you read it, I’d like you to read it fairly quickly and don’t pay attention to the details of the passage or worry about any words you don’t understand — we’ll come back to them later.; OK? Right, now, I just want you to read it (through) quickly and answer the question. I’ll write it on the board. OK. Are you clear about what are you’re going to do? Could someone explain (to) us, please. OK, fine, thanks, yes, that’s right. Now the passage starts on page 22. So, could you find it, please? Everybody, OK? Can you start reading?

Correcting yourself / rephrasing: I mean...; Sorry what I meant to say...was; What I mean is...; How can I put it? Or rather... . Stopping interruptions: Hold on; Just a minute; I just wanted to add. Classroom instructions: Introducing a conversation lesson Right, now today we’re going to do something (very quite) different from anything we’ve done before; It’s a kind of conversation (practice / activity). OK? Now I’m going to ask you to (get / split / divide) into 8

Special ways of changing the subject: Anyway; Sorry, but; By the way...; I’d just like to say something else...; That reminds me of ...; Another point; Besides that... 9

Classroom instructions: Introducing a writing activity OK, now I’d like you, (us) to move on to (do, doing) some writing. What I’d like you to do is to write a review of a course book you know well. And I’d like you to imagine that your partners are the people you’re writing the review (for). Because after you’ve written your reviews I’d like you to (stick, put) them up on the wall somewhere where everyone can read them, so you’ll be able to (get, have) an idea about what some course books are like. OK? Is that (OK, clear) all right? You are going to write a review of a course book and (afterwards, then) display it on the wall where everyone else will be able to read it. If you want to, you can (refer, go) back to the questionnaire on pages 31 and 32 for ideas. Classroom instructions: Preparing for a speaking activity OK, can you stop what you’re doing? Right, we’re going to go (on) to something else, some speaking practice. Can you look at Section 5, Activity 1 on page 41 (in, of) your books? Got it? Now in that activity, there are ten statements. Wait a minute; Hold on a minute. If you agree with the statements, I want (you) to tick them. If you don’t agree, what do you think you should do? Yes, that’s right, put a cross next to them. OK, so do you understand what you’ve got to do? Read the statements and tick the ones you agree with. OK, off you go. Bringing people into a conversation, inviting people to give their opinion What / How about you, Maria? What do you think? Would you agree with that? What’s your opinion, Maria? Would you go along with that? How does that strike you? How does that sound? Classroom instructions: Giving instructions for homework Right, I’d like to give you some homework. We’ve done a lot of listening and speaking today but we haven’t done much reading, so I’d like you to do some reading. It’s the texts and tasks on pages 48 and 49 of your books. Can you look at them now? Just read the exercises through to make sure you know what you have to do. OK? Now for Activity 1 just write a very short answer; for Activity 2 just write the feeling against / next to / beside the number of the text and for Activity 3 write me a 10

paragraph (on, about) each situation. OK? Is this clear? Manuel, could you explain the homework to (us, everybody) the class (the others)? Thank you. Now, could you do the homework on a piece / bit / sheet of paper and get it to me by / on Friday? OK? Classroom instructions: Introducing a true / false activity So, now you’re going to listen to the excerpt again but this time for another reason. You’ll need to reason much more carefully this time because you’ll be listening for detail. When you listen, I want you to decide (if / whether) some statements are true or false. The statements are in Section 7, Activity 3 on page 61. Can you find them, please? Found / got them? All right, now before you listen, I’d just like you to read the statements through. If there’s anything you don’t understand, just ask me. Was there anything, you didn’t understand? Everything clear? OK, then I’m going to play you the cassette. As you listen, decide if each statement is true or false. Put a T against / next to the true ones and an F against the false ones. Asking for clarification: What do you mean by...?; What does...mean?; Sorry, what did you say?, Sorry, I didn’t quite understand; How do you say...?; What’s the English for...? What do you call it when you...?; Could you speak a little more slowly / a bit louder? Classroom instructions: Introducing a grammar activity OK, now we’re going to do some grammar work. Now, I’ve written 4 sentences on the board. They’re all taken from the passages we’ve just read, so they’re all about “My Perfect School”. Now, can / could anybody tell me what these sentences have in common? Yes, that’s right. They all contain “would”, they are hypothetical, they are all examples of the Second Conditional Tense. And that’s the grammar. I’d like you to study now. OK, now, first of all, tell me — are these sentences talking about something that has happened, something that might happen, or something that hasn’t happened?

11

Classroom instructions: Introducing a writing activity OK, now I’d like you, (us) to move on to (do, doing) some writing. What I’d like you to do is to write a review of a course book you know well. And I’d like you to imagine that your partners are the people you’re writing the review (for). Because after you’ve written your reviews I’d like you to (stick, put) them up on the wall somewhere where everyone can read them, so you’ll be able to (get, have) an idea about what some course books are like. OK? Is that (OK, clear) all right? You are going to write a review of a course book and (afterwards, then) display it on the wall where everyone else will be able to read it. If you want to, you can (refer, go) back to the questionnaire on pages 31 and 32 for ideas. Classroom instructions: Preparing for a speaking activity OK, can you stop what you’re doing? Right, we’re going to go (on) to something else, some speaking practice. Can you look at Section 5, Activity 1 on page 41 (in, of) your books? Got it? Now in that activity, there are ten statements. Wait a minute; Hold on a minute. If you agree with the statements, I want (you) to tick them. If you don’t agree, what do you think you should do? Yes, that’s right, put a cross next to them. OK, so do you understand what you’ve got to do? Read the statements and tick the ones you agree with. OK, off you go. Bringing people into a conversation, inviting people to give their opinion What / How about you, Maria? What do you think? Would you agree with that? What’s your opinion, Maria? Would you go along with that? How does that strike you? How does that sound? Classroom instructions: Giving instructions for homework Right, I’d like to give you some homework. We’ve done a lot of listening and speaking today but we haven’t done much reading, so I’d like you to do some reading. It’s the texts and tasks on pages 48 and 49 of your books. Can you look at them now? Just read the exercises through to make sure you know what you have to do. OK? Now for Activity 1 just write a very short answer; for Activity 2 just write the feeling against / next to / beside the number of the text and for Activity 3 write me a 10

paragraph (on, about) each situation. OK? Is this clear? Manuel, could you explain the homework to (us, everybody) the class (the others)? Thank you. Now, could you do the homework on a piece / bit / sheet of paper and get it to me by / on Friday? OK? Classroom instructions: Introducing a true / false activity So, now you’re going to listen to the excerpt again but this time for another reason. You’ll need to reason much more carefully this time because you’ll be listening for detail. When you listen, I want you to decide (if / whether) some statements are true or false. The statements are in Section 7, Activity 3 on page 61. Can you find them, please? Found / got them? All right, now before you listen, I’d just like you to read the statements through. If there’s anything you don’t understand, just ask me. Was there anything, you didn’t understand? Everything clear? OK, then I’m going to play you the cassette. As you listen, decide if each statement is true or false. Put a T against / next to the true ones and an F against the false ones. Asking for clarification: What do you mean by...?; What does...mean?; Sorry, what did you say?, Sorry, I didn’t quite understand; How do you say...?; What’s the English for...? What do you call it when you...?; Could you speak a little more slowly / a bit louder? Classroom instructions: Introducing a grammar activity OK, now we’re going to do some grammar work. Now, I’ve written 4 sentences on the board. They’re all taken from the passages we’ve just read, so they’re all about “My Perfect School”. Now, can / could anybody tell me what these sentences have in common? Yes, that’s right. They all contain “would”, they are hypothetical, they are all examples of the Second Conditional Tense. And that’s the grammar. I’d like you to study now. OK, now, first of all, tell me — are these sentences talking about something that has happened, something that might happen, or something that hasn’t happened?

11

Classroom instructions: Setting up a role play Right, OK, everybody, today we’re going to do a role play. It’s about a family who are trying to decide if they should emigrate or not. Would you like to emigrate?; What do you think you would think about when trying to decide? OK. Now I’m going to divide / split / put you into groups of four and each group will be a family of four: mother, father and two grown-up children. But before I divide you up, I’d just like you to read the information about the family, which is on the sheets I’m going to give you. Expressing uncertainty and enthusiasm: I don’t know if I’d like...; I don’t know if I could cope with...; I’m not sure if I’d manage...; I think I might (not)...; I’d really like to...; I’d love to...; I really fancy going...Sounds fantastic! Classroom instructions: Introducing pronunciation work Now we’re going to do some pronunciation work on word stress. Can you look at the words in Section 2, Activity 2 on page 82 and decide which / what the stressed syllable is in each word. The stressed syllable is the one that is given most emphasis when you’re speaking, right? OK. Now what I’d like you to do is mark the stressed syllable by putting dot / mark above it. Then afterwards we’re going to listen to the words on the cassette so that you can check your answers. Then after that I’ll ask you to listen to the words or the cassette again and repeat them. I’d like you to pay special attention to your word stress. OK. So, first mark the stress, then listen and check, and finally listen and repeat. Is that / everything clear?

in the boxes. By the way, when you’re writing the answers, don’t write great long answers, just notes, OK? Just the most important thing your partner’s said. All right. Now can / could, would you start by just reading the questions? Classroom instructions: Introducing a vocabulary activity OK, now on page 95 you’ve got a list of 15 nouns. Can you find them, please? Got them? OK. Now all these nouns refer to character traits and what I’d like you to do is to read through the nouns and decide which ones you think are the most important character traits for a teacher to have. I’d like you to number the nouns which / that you think are the 5 most important ones. Number them 1 to 5, and put the number one against / next to / beside the trait which you think is really the most important of all, then 2, 3 and 5 against the others in descending order of importance. So all you have to do is to select the 5 most important traits and number them. Is that clear? OK. Introducing opinions I think...; As far as I’m concerned...; From what I can see...; In my experience...; What I’ve found is that...; To my mind...; My view is....; In my opinion...; It seems to me that... . Classroom instructions: Introducing pair corrections

Right, now, we’re going to do some pair work — just working in two, Maria and Pedro together, etc. OK. Now, I’m going to give out / you this questionnaire. Look at it — it’s got two columns. Fill in the first one about yourself, and then with your partner, ask each other the questions and write the answers in the boxes in the column. OK. So, do you understand what you’ve got to do? Ana, could you tell me? Yes, that’s right. You ask one another the questions and then you write the answers

Right, have you all finished? Have you all decided on / about each blank? Yes? OK. Now let’s move on to checking / correcting / looking at your answers. I’d like you to correct your work in pairs, so, you look at your answer to the first blank, compare it with your partner’s answer and then decide together what the answer is. Your answers may both be right, they may both be wrong, or one may be right and the other wrong. But in any case I want you to talk about / over your answers and discuss why you’ve put the answer you have. Then when you’ve done blank (a) go on and do the blank (b) in the same way. If you can’t argue on / about something, you can ask me. So remember, lots of discussion — I don’t want you just to say “Yes / No”, “agree, disagree”, but really discuss why you’ve put what you’ve put. OK, does everyone / everybody understand?

12

13

Classroom instructions: Introducing pair work

Classroom instructions: Setting up a role play Right, OK, everybody, today we’re going to do a role play. It’s about a family who are trying to decide if they should emigrate or not. Would you like to emigrate?; What do you think you would think about when trying to decide? OK. Now I’m going to divide / split / put you into groups of four and each group will be a family of four: mother, father and two grown-up children. But before I divide you up, I’d just like you to read the information about the family, which is on the sheets I’m going to give you. Expressing uncertainty and enthusiasm: I don’t know if I’d like...; I don’t know if I could cope with...; I’m not sure if I’d manage...; I think I might (not)...; I’d really like to...; I’d love to...; I really fancy going...Sounds fantastic! Classroom instructions: Introducing pronunciation work Now we’re going to do some pronunciation work on word stress. Can you look at the words in Section 2, Activity 2 on page 82 and decide which / what the stressed syllable is in each word. The stressed syllable is the one that is given most emphasis when you’re speaking, right? OK. Now what I’d like you to do is mark the stressed syllable by putting dot / mark above it. Then afterwards we’re going to listen to the words on the cassette so that you can check your answers. Then after that I’ll ask you to listen to the words or the cassette again and repeat them. I’d like you to pay special attention to your word stress. OK. So, first mark the stress, then listen and check, and finally listen and repeat. Is that / everything clear?

in the boxes. By the way, when you’re writing the answers, don’t write great long answers, just notes, OK? Just the most important thing your partner’s said. All right. Now can / could, would you start by just reading the questions? Classroom instructions: Introducing a vocabulary activity OK, now on page 95 you’ve got a list of 15 nouns. Can you find them, please? Got them? OK. Now all these nouns refer to character traits and what I’d like you to do is to read through the nouns and decide which ones you think are the most important character traits for a teacher to have. I’d like you to number the nouns which / that you think are the 5 most important ones. Number them 1 to 5, and put the number one against / next to / beside the trait which you think is really the most important of all, then 2, 3 and 5 against the others in descending order of importance. So all you have to do is to select the 5 most important traits and number them. Is that clear? OK. Introducing opinions I think...; As far as I’m concerned...; From what I can see...; In my experience...; What I’ve found is that...; To my mind...; My view is....; In my opinion...; It seems to me that... . Classroom instructions: Introducing pair corrections

Right, now, we’re going to do some pair work — just working in two, Maria and Pedro together, etc. OK. Now, I’m going to give out / you this questionnaire. Look at it — it’s got two columns. Fill in the first one about yourself, and then with your partner, ask each other the questions and write the answers in the boxes in the column. OK. So, do you understand what you’ve got to do? Ana, could you tell me? Yes, that’s right. You ask one another the questions and then you write the answers

Right, have you all finished? Have you all decided on / about each blank? Yes? OK. Now let’s move on to checking / correcting / looking at your answers. I’d like you to correct your work in pairs, so, you look at your answer to the first blank, compare it with your partner’s answer and then decide together what the answer is. Your answers may both be right, they may both be wrong, or one may be right and the other wrong. But in any case I want you to talk about / over your answers and discuss why you’ve put the answer you have. Then when you’ve done blank (a) go on and do the blank (b) in the same way. If you can’t argue on / about something, you can ask me. So remember, lots of discussion — I don’t want you just to say “Yes / No”, “agree, disagree”, but really discuss why you’ve put what you’ve put. OK, does everyone / everybody understand?

12

13

Classroom instructions: Introducing pair work

Classroom instructions: Introducing a gap-filling activity Ok, now, I’m going to give out a passage with a difference. It’s not complete; it’s got blanks / gaps in it. Now each blank corresponds to one missing word and what I want you to do is fill in the missing words. Do you understand what you’ve got to do? Cristina, can you explain to the others? Yes, that’s right. Now to be able to fill in the blanks don’t just guess. Read the words before and after the blank and decide what meaning the word must have and also what part of speech it must be, for example, a noun or a preposition or an adjective, etc. OK, you can work in pairs, groups so you can talk about your answers as you go along. Is that all clear? OK, I’ll just hand / give out the passage. Cristina, could you help me, please? Thanks.

should have spaced the materiel better (in a different way). Leave spaces between the lines. Make left-hand margin wider. Take notes on the lecture. Put your name on the note-books. I’ve used up / filled up my notebook. Shall I clean the chalkboard? Let me wet the duster / the sponge. Shall I do the translation orally or in writing / in written form? May I be excused from the lesson?

CLASSROOM LANGUAGE FOR VERY YOUNG LEARNERS Instructions (teacher)

First of all, for one thing, in the first place, for another, firstly, then, what’s more, and on top of that, in the second place.

Look at me / Listen to me / Could you come here please? Put your (coat) on / Take your (coat) off. Don’t do that / Stop (pushing, picking your nose, etc.). Quiet, please / Pay attention, please. Please get into line. Make a circle / Hold hands / Drop hands. Put your hand up. This is how you (colour, fold, cut, stick, tear) it. Go and find / fetch me a...Give me your papers.

Classroom instructions: Introducing a discussion activity

Praising

Right, in Section 1, Activity 1 on page 22 you’ll find / see 5 statements. All of them express an opinion. May be you’ll agree with this opinion or may be you won’t, or may be you’ll think it all depends. So the first thing / step is to find out what you think of those opinions. I want you to read through all the statements and write a 2 after them if you agree with them, a 0 if you disagree and a 1 if you think it depends. OK, now have you done that? Has everyone finished? All right, now the next thing is to see if you agree with one another. Could you get into pairs and compare / see / discuss what you’ve put? If you don’t agree with one another, give your reasons for your opinions and discuss what you think. May be you can make your partner change their mind?

Well done! Very good. That’s a nice picture.

Words of sequence:

Some other useful classroom expressions: Is it correct to say so? / Is it good English to say so? May I ask a question? / I’ve got a question. I don’t know how to put it. Review this materiel. Take up / cover new materiel. I’ve left my textbook at home. The teacher called on me for telling the story / for the new words, etc. Cross out the word. I left out a sentence. I wasn’t cribbing. You 14

Requests (pupils) Can I have a...? Can I go to the toilet? Can I borrow a...? Can I clean the board / give out the papers / collect the papers? Clarification (pupils) What’s (hermano) in English? I don’t understand.

Classroom instructions: Introducing a gap-filling activity Ok, now, I’m going to give out a passage with a difference. It’s not complete; it’s got blanks / gaps in it. Now each blank corresponds to one missing word and what I want you to do is fill in the missing words. Do you understand what you’ve got to do? Cristina, can you explain to the others? Yes, that’s right. Now to be able to fill in the blanks don’t just guess. Read the words before and after the blank and decide what meaning the word must have and also what part of speech it must be, for example, a noun or a preposition or an adjective, etc. OK, you can work in pairs, groups so you can talk about your answers as you go along. Is that all clear? OK, I’ll just hand / give out the passage. Cristina, could you help me, please? Thanks.

should have spaced the materiel better (in a different way). Leave spaces between the lines. Make left-hand margin wider. Take notes on the lecture. Put your name on the note-books. I’ve used up / filled up my notebook. Shall I clean the chalkboard? Let me wet the duster / the sponge. Shall I do the translation orally or in writing / in written form? May I be excused from the lesson?

CLASSROOM LANGUAGE FOR VERY YOUNG LEARNERS Instructions (teacher)

First of all, for one thing, in the first place, for another, firstly, then, what’s more, and on top of that, in the second place.

Look at me / Listen to me / Could you come here please? Put your (coat) on / Take your (coat) off. Don’t do that / Stop (pushing, picking your nose, etc.). Quiet, please / Pay attention, please. Please get into line. Make a circle / Hold hands / Drop hands. Put your hand up. This is how you (colour, fold, cut, stick, tear) it. Go and find / fetch me a...Give me your papers.

Classroom instructions: Introducing a discussion activity

Praising

Right, in Section 1, Activity 1 on page 22 you’ll find / see 5 statements. All of them express an opinion. May be you’ll agree with this opinion or may be you won’t, or may be you’ll think it all depends. So the first thing / step is to find out what you think of those opinions. I want you to read through all the statements and write a 2 after them if you agree with them, a 0 if you disagree and a 1 if you think it depends. OK, now have you done that? Has everyone finished? All right, now the next thing is to see if you agree with one another. Could you get into pairs and compare / see / discuss what you’ve put? If you don’t agree with one another, give your reasons for your opinions and discuss what you think. May be you can make your partner change their mind?

Well done! Very good. That’s a nice picture.

Words of sequence:

Some other useful classroom expressions: Is it correct to say so? / Is it good English to say so? May I ask a question? / I’ve got a question. I don’t know how to put it. Review this materiel. Take up / cover new materiel. I’ve left my textbook at home. The teacher called on me for telling the story / for the new words, etc. Cross out the word. I left out a sentence. I wasn’t cribbing. You 14

Requests (pupils) Can I have a...? Can I go to the toilet? Can I borrow a...? Can I clean the board / give out the papers / collect the papers? Clarification (pupils) What’s (hermano) in English? I don’t understand.

There were only about six million English speakers in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603). At the beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth II the figure had increased almost fifty-fold (250 million people speaking English as a mother tongue, and a further 100 million learning it as a foreign language). English is used as a mother tongue in the USA, Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and several Caribbean countries. English is used as a foreign language in more than 70 countries (more than 1.5 billion people). Nearly a quarter of the world’s population is already fluent or competent in English. Even Chinese, found in 8 different spoken languages, but unified by a common writing system, is known to only some 1.1 billion. Historically speaking, Romans were not more numerous than the peoples, they subjugated. They were simply more powerful. And later when Roman military power declined, Latin remained for a millennium as the international language of education, thanks to the ecclesiastical power of Roman Catholicism. In the eighteenth century, much of this prestige passed to French. Today it is the turn of English. English is now the language most widely taught as a foreign language in over 100 countries. Cultural, social, economic and political forces have made English the first world language in human history. The English language has three characteristics that can be counted as assets in its world state. First of all, the gender of every noun is determined by meaning, and does not require a masculine, feminine or neuter article. The second strong point is that English has a grammar of great simplicity and flexibility. Nouns and adjectives have highly simplified word-endings. The parts of speech are very flexible. Nouns can become verbs and verbs nouns. We can dog someone’s footsteps. We can bus children to school and then school them in English. And finally, the great quality of English is its huge vocabulary, 80 per cent of which is foreign-born. Although English is supple in its grammar, it is maddeningly inconsistent in spelling and pronunciation. It is highly idiomatic language as well. Most Anglophone children take three years to reach a literacy

standard that children in languages with relatively consistent spellings can reach in one. English spelling is only around 80 per cent consistent with its 74 rules of spelling. For example, there are no fewer than 13 spellings for sh: shoe, sugar, issue, mansion, mission, nation, suspicion, ocean, conscious, chaperon, schist, fuchsia, and pshaw. About 700 phrasal verbs like look up, get down, put up are generally used in everyday speech. From a lexical point of view, English is in fact more a Romance than a Germanic language (50 per cent of the roots of the most common words come from Latin and 30 per cent come from Greek). Originally English was a hybrid of Old Norse, German, Latin and Norman French. Besides words from Celtic, Germanic (German, Scandinavian and Dutch) and Romance (Latin, French and Spanish) languages English has words in common with virtually every language in Europe. In addition to this, English has borrowings from all the other major languages of the world, which make it a language of unique vitality. Structurally English has less than a dozen types of regular endings and a few irregular ones: the plural -s; the genitive -’s or s’, marking such meanings as possession; the past tense -ed; the past partici ple -ed; the third person singular of the present tense -s; the verb ending which marks such meanings as duration -ing; the negative -n’t; the comparative -er; the superlative -est; the shortened form of some verbs -‘ll, ’re, etc. Among the exceptions are certain nouns and adjectives, such as mice, men, better and worst and about 300 irregular verbs, such as gone, taken, saw, and ran. The language makes very little use of word structure, or morphology, to express the meanings that Latin conveys in its word-endings. Word order, that is the field of syntax, is crucial for English. There are about 400 everyday words in English whose spelling is wholly irregular. They are among the most frequently used words: although, among, answer, are, aunt, autumn, blood, build, castle, clerk, climb, colour, come, cough, could, course, debt, do, does, done, dough, eye, friend, gone, great, have, hour, island, journey, key, lamb, listen, move, none, of, once, one, only, own, people, pretty, quay, receive, rough, said, salt, says, shoe, shoulder, some, sugar, talk, two, was, water, were, where, who, you. Statistically, the first 15 words usually account for 25 per cent of all the words in the text, 100 words will account for 60 per cent, 1000 will account for 85 per cent. The most frequently used words in English are: the, a, an — 8.5 per cent; and, of, to, in, for, was, is, that, on, at,

16

17

The English Language

There were only about six million English speakers in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603). At the beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth II the figure had increased almost fifty-fold (250 million people speaking English as a mother tongue, and a further 100 million learning it as a foreign language). English is used as a mother tongue in the USA, Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and several Caribbean countries. English is used as a foreign language in more than 70 countries (more than 1.5 billion people). Nearly a quarter of the world’s population is already fluent or competent in English. Even Chinese, found in 8 different spoken languages, but unified by a common writing system, is known to only some 1.1 billion. Historically speaking, Romans were not more numerous than the peoples, they subjugated. They were simply more powerful. And later when Roman military power declined, Latin remained for a millennium as the international language of education, thanks to the ecclesiastical power of Roman Catholicism. In the eighteenth century, much of this prestige passed to French. Today it is the turn of English. English is now the language most widely taught as a foreign language in over 100 countries. Cultural, social, economic and political forces have made English the first world language in human history. The English language has three characteristics that can be counted as assets in its world state. First of all, the gender of every noun is determined by meaning, and does not require a masculine, feminine or neuter article. The second strong point is that English has a grammar of great simplicity and flexibility. Nouns and adjectives have highly simplified word-endings. The parts of speech are very flexible. Nouns can become verbs and verbs nouns. We can dog someone’s footsteps. We can bus children to school and then school them in English. And finally, the great quality of English is its huge vocabulary, 80 per cent of which is foreign-born. Although English is supple in its grammar, it is maddeningly inconsistent in spelling and pronunciation. It is highly idiomatic language as well. Most Anglophone children take three years to reach a literacy

standard that children in languages with relatively consistent spellings can reach in one. English spelling is only around 80 per cent consistent with its 74 rules of spelling. For example, there are no fewer than 13 spellings for sh: shoe, sugar, issue, mansion, mission, nation, suspicion, ocean, conscious, chaperon, schist, fuchsia, and pshaw. About 700 phrasal verbs like look up, get down, put up are generally used in everyday speech. From a lexical point of view, English is in fact more a Romance than a Germanic language (50 per cent of the roots of the most common words come from Latin and 30 per cent come from Greek). Originally English was a hybrid of Old Norse, German, Latin and Norman French. Besides words from Celtic, Germanic (German, Scandinavian and Dutch) and Romance (Latin, French and Spanish) languages English has words in common with virtually every language in Europe. In addition to this, English has borrowings from all the other major languages of the world, which make it a language of unique vitality. Structurally English has less than a dozen types of regular endings and a few irregular ones: the plural -s; the genitive -’s or s’, marking such meanings as possession; the past tense -ed; the past partici ple -ed; the third person singular of the present tense -s; the verb ending which marks such meanings as duration -ing; the negative -n’t; the comparative -er; the superlative -est; the shortened form of some verbs -‘ll, ’re, etc. Among the exceptions are certain nouns and adjectives, such as mice, men, better and worst and about 300 irregular verbs, such as gone, taken, saw, and ran. The language makes very little use of word structure, or morphology, to express the meanings that Latin conveys in its word-endings. Word order, that is the field of syntax, is crucial for English. There are about 400 everyday words in English whose spelling is wholly irregular. They are among the most frequently used words: although, among, answer, are, aunt, autumn, blood, build, castle, clerk, climb, colour, come, cough, could, course, debt, do, does, done, dough, eye, friend, gone, great, have, hour, island, journey, key, lamb, listen, move, none, of, once, one, only, own, people, pretty, quay, receive, rough, said, salt, says, shoe, shoulder, some, sugar, talk, two, was, water, were, where, who, you. Statistically, the first 15 words usually account for 25 per cent of all the words in the text, 100 words will account for 60 per cent, 1000 will account for 85 per cent. The most frequently used words in English are: the, a, an — 8.5 per cent; and, of, to, in, for, was, is, that, on, at,

16

17

The English Language

he, with, by, be, it, as, his, yes, this, but, well, have, you, got, what, do, my, there, I, play, house, go, very, are, am, some. English is going through a period of rapid growth and change. It has gone through such periods before, but previous changes have seldom been as rapid or as violent as those taking place towards the beginning of the twenty-first century, as English becomes the real world language. The foundation of World Standard Spoken English is already being laid down around us. Which varieties will be most influential in the development of it? It seems likely that it will be US (rather than UK) English. The direction of influence has for some time been largely one-way. Many grammatical issues in contemporary British usage show the influence of US forms, US spellings are increasingly widespread (especially in computer contexts) and there is a greater passive awareness of distinctly US lexicon (because of media influence) than vice versa. Still the USA will have decreasing influence on World English as the years go by because of the way world population is growing. English will probably continue to flourish at two quite distinct levels: International Standard (internationally functional) and Local Alternative (locally functional). The former will evolve more or less uniformly throughout the Standard English-using world. The latter, the Local Alternative, will become more and more distinctive and will indeed throw up local literatures. There are strong centrifugal forces pulling English apart: nationalist and racial pride, the increasing dominance of the spoken word, the proliferation of teachers for whom English is not their first language. There are also strong centri petal forces at work in English: television and other mass media, including pop songs, mass tourism by all sorts and conditions of people, and above all the printed word and the good writers. The United States is the country where on grounds of population-size alone a major change in the sociolinguistic situation could cause changes in English. Given that the USA has come to be dominant in so many domains, the future status of English must be bound up to some extent with the future of that country. The country contains nearly four times as many mother-tongue speakers of English as any other nation. It is in control of the new industrial revolution and is exercising a greater influence on the way English is developing worldwide than does any other regional variety. There are the closest of links between language and power. 18

There are internal forces threatening the country’s future unity. Some analysts consider the English language to have been an important factor in maintaining mutual intelligibility and American unity in the face of the immigration explosion,which more than tri pled the US population after 1900. There is also the fear in America of what is called “bilingualism”, especially directed against the rise of Spanish as a rival language. The Hispanic population of the USA estimated at more than 20 million has become increasingly significant. Half of the recorded Hispanics are bilingual, but Spanish is a growing force in the media. In part, this is a rerun of the 1970s debate about Black English and the danger of recognizing alternative standards. The self-consciousness of Black Power is a new factor affecting Black English. But there is no reason to suppose that it will not evolve in the same way as other dialects of English developing its own grammar and vocabulary, which will be enriched by the other dialects. The darker, aggressive side of the spread of global English can be found in Canada, which shares a 3000-mile border with the USA. Canadian English has been colonized by American English, mainly in the mass media. American textbooks, especially American dictionaries predominate in schools. Most people are already multidialectal to a greater or lesser extent. They use one spoken dialect at home, when they are with their family or talking to other members of their local community. This tends to be an informal variety, full of casual pronunciation, colloquial grammar and local turns of phrase. They use another spoken dialect when they are away from home, traveling to different parts of their country or dealing with others at their place of work. This tends to be a formal variety, full of careful pronunciation, conventional grammar, and standard vocabulary. Those who are literal have learned a third variety, that of written standard English which (apart from a few minor differences, such as British versus American spelling) currently unites the Englishspeaking world.

he, with, by, be, it, as, his, yes, this, but, well, have, you, got, what, do, my, there, I, play, house, go, very, are, am, some. English is going through a period of rapid growth and change. It has gone through such periods before, but previous changes have seldom been as rapid or as violent as those taking place towards the beginning of the twenty-first century, as English becomes the real world language. The foundation of World Standard Spoken English is already being laid down around us. Which varieties will be most influential in the development of it? It seems likely that it will be US (rather than UK) English. The direction of influence has for some time been largely one-way. Many grammatical issues in contemporary British usage show the influence of US forms, US spellings are increasingly widespread (especially in computer contexts) and there is a greater passive awareness of distinctly US lexicon (because of media influence) than vice versa. Still the USA will have decreasing influence on World English as the years go by because of the way world population is growing. English will probably continue to flourish at two quite distinct levels: International Standard (internationally functional) and Local Alternative (locally functional). The former will evolve more or less uniformly throughout the Standard English-using world. The latter, the Local Alternative, will become more and more distinctive and will indeed throw up local literatures. There are strong centrifugal forces pulling English apart: nationalist and racial pride, the increasing dominance of the spoken word, the proliferation of teachers for whom English is not their first language. There are also strong centri petal forces at work in English: television and other mass media, including pop songs, mass tourism by all sorts and conditions of people, and above all the printed word and the good writers. The United States is the country where on grounds of population-size alone a major change in the sociolinguistic situation could cause changes in English. Given that the USA has come to be dominant in so many domains, the future status of English must be bound up to some extent with the future of that country. The country contains nearly four times as many mother-tongue speakers of English as any other nation. It is in control of the new industrial revolution and is exercising a greater influence on the way English is developing worldwide than does any other regional variety. There are the closest of links between language and power. 18

There are internal forces threatening the country’s future unity. Some analysts consider the English language to have been an important factor in maintaining mutual intelligibility and American unity in the face of the immigration explosion,which more than tri pled the US population after 1900. There is also the fear in America of what is called “bilingualism”, especially directed against the rise of Spanish as a rival language. The Hispanic population of the USA estimated at more than 20 million has become increasingly significant. Half of the recorded Hispanics are bilingual, but Spanish is a growing force in the media. In part, this is a rerun of the 1970s debate about Black English and the danger of recognizing alternative standards. The self-consciousness of Black Power is a new factor affecting Black English. But there is no reason to suppose that it will not evolve in the same way as other dialects of English developing its own grammar and vocabulary, which will be enriched by the other dialects. The darker, aggressive side of the spread of global English can be found in Canada, which shares a 3000-mile border with the USA. Canadian English has been colonized by American English, mainly in the mass media. American textbooks, especially American dictionaries predominate in schools. Most people are already multidialectal to a greater or lesser extent. They use one spoken dialect at home, when they are with their family or talking to other members of their local community. This tends to be an informal variety, full of casual pronunciation, colloquial grammar and local turns of phrase. They use another spoken dialect when they are away from home, traveling to different parts of their country or dealing with others at their place of work. This tends to be a formal variety, full of careful pronunciation, conventional grammar, and standard vocabulary. Those who are literal have learned a third variety, that of written standard English which (apart from a few minor differences, such as British versus American spelling) currently unites the Englishspeaking world.

English Grammar

Present Simple

HOW TO DESCRIBE LANGUAGE

Verbs in the simple aspect see actions as a complete whole. The simple aspect expresses “simple actions.” The Present Simple describes activities and states, which are generally and universally true. The Present Simple is the tense for descri ption, definition, and statements of general truth. The Present Simple is used to talk about habits, routines, or regularly occurring events. Adverbs of frequency used for actions done regularly or frequently are common time markers and tell how often an action is repeated: always, usually, often, combinations with “every” (every day, week, time, etc.), sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, hardly ever, never.

All words in a language are subdivided for convenience into groups called parts of speech. Alongside grammatical features such as number, case, tense, mood, etc. and interaction between words of different parts of speech, the notion of a part of speech includes some lexical features: meaning, word-building elements, and some phonetic ones. We will use the following names for the parts of speech: notional parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, numerals); neither notional nor formal parts of speech (interjections, modal verbs, response words (yes, no); formal parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions, articles, particles). We use such terms to define words in sentence constructions: subject, predicate, object (direct, indirect), verb, complement, attribute and adverbial. Predicates can have the following forms: Simple Verbal Predicate (using Notional Verbs play, go, etc.), Compound Nominal Predicate (using Linkverbs be a teacher, grow cold, etc.), Compound Verbal Predicate (start to do, can swim, try to do, etc.). Direct objects refer to things or persons affected by the work. An indirect object refers to the person or thing that benefits from the action. Complement is used with verbs like be, seem, look, etc. to give information about the subject. It is used in Compound Nominal Predicate. Adverbials or adverbial phrases complement the verb in the same way that a complement complements the subject. Multi-clause sentence has many clauses. Apart from main verbs we have auxiliary verbs: to be, to have, to do and the modal auxiliary verbs: shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, ought.

I listen to the radio most mornings. I often play football. I (always) switch off all the lights before I go to bed. The last sentence is an example of the habitual present. It is used for repeated habitual actions. 1. The Present Simple is used to talk about permanent states and facts or to express present states or general truths and proverbs. It is used to express a fact, which is always true or usually true for a long time. It can cover a situation or an action, which is spread over past time, present time and is likely to extend into the future. They live in Montreal. My sister plays the piano. 2. The Present Simple is used to talk about emotions and feelings. It is usually used instead of The Present Progressive with the verbs of thinking and opinions, emotions and feeling, of having and being, of the senses, such as: like, believe, know, think (have an opinion), want, remember, need, understand, hope, own, have (possession). It is also used when people talk about immediate reactions to something. 21

English Grammar

Present Simple

HOW TO DESCRIBE LANGUAGE

Verbs in the simple aspect see actions as a complete whole. The simple aspect expresses “simple actions.” The Present Simple describes activities and states, which are generally and universally true. The Present Simple is the tense for descri ption, definition, and statements of general truth. The Present Simple is used to talk about habits, routines, or regularly occurring events. Adverbs of frequency used for actions done regularly or frequently are common time markers and tell how often an action is repeated: always, usually, often, combinations with “every” (every day, week, time, etc.), sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, hardly ever, never.

All words in a language are subdivided for convenience into groups called parts of speech. Alongside grammatical features such as number, case, tense, mood, etc. and interaction between words of different parts of speech, the notion of a part of speech includes some lexical features: meaning, word-building elements, and some phonetic ones. We will use the following names for the parts of speech: notional parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, numerals); neither notional nor formal parts of speech (interjections, modal verbs, response words (yes, no); formal parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions, articles, particles). We use such terms to define words in sentence constructions: subject, predicate, object (direct, indirect), verb, complement, attribute and adverbial. Predicates can have the following forms: Simple Verbal Predicate (using Notional Verbs play, go, etc.), Compound Nominal Predicate (using Linkverbs be a teacher, grow cold, etc.), Compound Verbal Predicate (start to do, can swim, try to do, etc.). Direct objects refer to things or persons affected by the work. An indirect object refers to the person or thing that benefits from the action. Complement is used with verbs like be, seem, look, etc. to give information about the subject. It is used in Compound Nominal Predicate. Adverbials or adverbial phrases complement the verb in the same way that a complement complements the subject. Multi-clause sentence has many clauses. Apart from main verbs we have auxiliary verbs: to be, to have, to do and the modal auxiliary verbs: shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, ought.

I listen to the radio most mornings. I often play football. I (always) switch off all the lights before I go to bed. The last sentence is an example of the habitual present. It is used for repeated habitual actions. 1. The Present Simple is used to talk about permanent states and facts or to express present states or general truths and proverbs. It is used to express a fact, which is always true or usually true for a long time. It can cover a situation or an action, which is spread over past time, present time and is likely to extend into the future. They live in Montreal. My sister plays the piano. 2. The Present Simple is used to talk about emotions and feelings. It is usually used instead of The Present Progressive with the verbs of thinking and opinions, emotions and feeling, of having and being, of the senses, such as: like, believe, know, think (have an opinion), want, remember, need, understand, hope, own, have (possession). It is also used when people talk about immediate reactions to something. 21

I feel drowsy. I want a breath of fresh air. Now I understand. I forget where he lives. (I don’t remember his address.) I hear that Mike is in Moscow. (I know where he is now.) Nowadays people often use The Past Simple or The Present Perfect in replies to similar sentences as the last one in informal style, e.g. You have heard correctly. It is used for the act of perception, but the more usual construction is “can+infinitive”. Do / Can you smell something? 3. The Present Simple or The Present Progressive is used with look or feel when people say how somebody looks or feels now. You look well today. You’re looking well today. 4. The Present Simple sometimes is used to describe present events. Specifically it is used for commentaries and reviews of happenings in a book, play, or a film. It often describes a series of events that follow quickly one after another, or a sequence of stages in a process. In storytelling we often use the Present Simple to talk about the past, especially to give a sense of drama and immediacy. Alonso shoots and it’s a goal! We mix the sauce and pour it into the tin. Yesterday, right? I arrive at the house and knock on the door... 5. The Present Simple is used with state and action verbs (if they do not convey the idea of activity which has begun but is not completed) when the speaker is referring to the following aspects of time: (a) all or any time not separated from the present (the particular time reference is not important). Paint contains a certain amount of lead. 22

(b) the present period as distinct from the past. I live in the country. We all speak English at home. (c) the present moment (often used in demonstrations in asking or giving instructions). This VCR is easy to work. Watch what I do. I switch it on, press this button and it starts. (This is an example of a momentary present.) (d) the present moment in declarations with performative verbs so called because they perform the action they refer to such as: admit, promise, reject or enclose, etc. I declare the meeting open. I’ll be back at one, I promise. (e) future time in dependent clauses referring to the future, especially temporal and conditional clauses (if emphasis is on the present plan). She will contact you as soon as she returns. I hope my letter reaches you before you leave. She won’t pass the exam unless she works harder. (f) future actions that the speaker considers as certain to take place in accordance with a firm decision, intention or a fixed timetable or order. It requires an adverbial of time to make the context clear. It is often used to talk about official events or timetables, which we cannot change. It is also used about programme of events and people’s schedules. John leaves at 5 p.m. tomorrow. We graduate next week. The train arrives at 6 p.m. The idea of firm plans may be contained in a predicative adjective. I’m busy all day tomorrow. 23

I feel drowsy. I want a breath of fresh air. Now I understand. I forget where he lives. (I don’t remember his address.) I hear that Mike is in Moscow. (I know where he is now.) Nowadays people often use The Past Simple or The Present Perfect in replies to similar sentences as the last one in informal style, e.g. You have heard correctly. It is used for the act of perception, but the more usual construction is “can+infinitive”. Do / Can you smell something? 3. The Present Simple or The Present Progressive is used with look or feel when people say how somebody looks or feels now. You look well today. You’re looking well today. 4. The Present Simple sometimes is used to describe present events. Specifically it is used for commentaries and reviews of happenings in a book, play, or a film. It often describes a series of events that follow quickly one after another, or a sequence of stages in a process. In storytelling we often use the Present Simple to talk about the past, especially to give a sense of drama and immediacy. Alonso shoots and it’s a goal! We mix the sauce and pour it into the tin. Yesterday, right? I arrive at the house and knock on the door... 5. The Present Simple is used with state and action verbs (if they do not convey the idea of activity which has begun but is not completed) when the speaker is referring to the following aspects of time: (a) all or any time not separated from the present (the particular time reference is not important). Paint contains a certain amount of lead. 22

(b) the present period as distinct from the past. I live in the country. We all speak English at home. (c) the present moment (often used in demonstrations in asking or giving instructions). This VCR is easy to work. Watch what I do. I switch it on, press this button and it starts. (This is an example of a momentary present.) (d) the present moment in declarations with performative verbs so called because they perform the action they refer to such as: admit, promise, reject or enclose, etc. I declare the meeting open. I’ll be back at one, I promise. (e) future time in dependent clauses referring to the future, especially temporal and conditional clauses (if emphasis is on the present plan). She will contact you as soon as she returns. I hope my letter reaches you before you leave. She won’t pass the exam unless she works harder. (f) future actions that the speaker considers as certain to take place in accordance with a firm decision, intention or a fixed timetable or order. It requires an adverbial of time to make the context clear. It is often used to talk about official events or timetables, which we cannot change. It is also used about programme of events and people’s schedules. John leaves at 5 p.m. tomorrow. We graduate next week. The train arrives at 6 p.m. The idea of firm plans may be contained in a predicative adjective. I’m busy all day tomorrow. 23

(g) past time in newspaper headlines, sometimes in narrative and usually in the synopsis of a novel or play. Earthquake rocks Nicaragua. That night Romeo sees Juliet alone on her balcony. Tom stands up on the coach and looks back at his father’s figure. (This is an example of the so-called Historic Present.) 6. The Present Simple is used with exclamations preceded by here and there when the subject follows the verb. Here comes the winner! There goes the last bus!

11. The present tenses are often used after many conjunctions instead of “will” if the exact time is shown once in a sentence. The discovery will mean that we spend less on food. 12. Present Simple is generally used instead of the Future in the following types of questions: Why don’t you...? and How long+be+for...? Why don’t you ask her for a date tomorrow? How long is she here for? Until the end of month? 13. The Present Simple is used in the subordinate clauses of comparison when we talk about the future.

7. The Present Simple appears in certain stereotyped phrases. It is often used at the end of business letters, at formal invitations, etc. I remain, Yours truly (signature). 8. The Present Simple is used for states that are permanent, so far as can be foreseen. The shop closes at 8 p.m. Mary loves John.

The earlier you get up, the more you will do.

14. The Present Simple is used to talk about the future after whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever, and however. What ever you do, I’ll always follow you. However much he eats, he never gets fat. 15. Note also: They did nothing but quarrel.

9. The Present Simple of the verb “say” is used when people describe something they have read in a book. The Bible says love of money is the root of all evil. The Present Simple of reporting verbs such as “hear” or “tell” are used when people report what somebody said to them at some point in a recent past. They tell me you’re moving. 10. The Present Simple is also used to express doubt or uncertainty. What do we do now? I hope you do well. I don’t know if I can do it. 24

(g) past time in newspaper headlines, sometimes in narrative and usually in the synopsis of a novel or play. Earthquake rocks Nicaragua. That night Romeo sees Juliet alone on her balcony. Tom stands up on the coach and looks back at his father’s figure. (This is an example of the so-called Historic Present.) 6. The Present Simple is used with exclamations preceded by here and there when the subject follows the verb. Here comes the winner! There goes the last bus!

11. The present tenses are often used after many conjunctions instead of “will” if the exact time is shown once in a sentence. The discovery will mean that we spend less on food. 12. Present Simple is generally used instead of the Future in the following types of questions: Why don’t you...? and How long+be+for...? Why don’t you ask her for a date tomorrow? How long is she here for? Until the end of month? 13. The Present Simple is used in the subordinate clauses of comparison when we talk about the future.

7. The Present Simple appears in certain stereotyped phrases. It is often used at the end of business letters, at formal invitations, etc. I remain, Yours truly (signature). 8. The Present Simple is used for states that are permanent, so far as can be foreseen. The shop closes at 8 p.m. Mary loves John.

The earlier you get up, the more you will do.

14. The Present Simple is used to talk about the future after whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever, and however. What ever you do, I’ll always follow you. However much he eats, he never gets fat. 15. Note also: They did nothing but quarrel.

9. The Present Simple of the verb “say” is used when people describe something they have read in a book. The Bible says love of money is the root of all evil. The Present Simple of reporting verbs such as “hear” or “tell” are used when people report what somebody said to them at some point in a recent past. They tell me you’re moving. 10. The Present Simple is also used to express doubt or uncertainty. What do we do now? I hope you do well. I don’t know if I can do it. 24

His family went to America and soon became rich. But he still doesn’t feel happy.

Past Simple

The Past Simple is used for completed actions and states that took place or started and finished in the past. It shows that an activity has stopped at a particular point of time in the past, often with dates or times. We use the Past Simple when we think of when something happened or when we narrate a sequence of events at a given time. We talk about finished actions or past situations and habits. 1. The most basic use of the Past Simple is to describe one completed action in the past with or without a mention of time. Common time markers are: yesterday and its combinations, combinations with last and ago, specific points with prepositions in, on, and at. A time-phrase marking a period of time is also often used: just now (meaning a moment ago), the other day, then when, just (= only), etc. I telephoned John an hour ago. We lived in America for six years. It happened yesterday morning. I just came in to say good-bye.

4. The Past Simple can also describe a period of time in the past, which began and ended in the past, especially with such verbs as: be, live, have, and rule. Dinosaurs lived in North America. 5. The Past Simple is used in indirect (or reported speech) after a past main verb. She told me that she lived in Kiev now. 6. The Past Simple refers to the future. The verb form is past, but the action or event has not taken place yet. It’s getting dark already. It’s time we went. 7. The Past Simple refers to an unreal situation. If I were you, I would never forgive him. 8. The Past Simple is also used in unfulfilled wishes.

2. The Past Simple is used to describe repeated actions for a period of time in the past, a past habit or past situation. Many of the time markers are the same as in the Present Simple: sometimes, never, always, often, each year, year after year. It is often used in stories, fairy tales and fiction. We competed in sports at primary school. I wore a uniform at talk. We went to school together, when we were boys, so we saw each other every day. 3. A series of verbs in the Past Simple is often used to tell about events that happen quickly, one after the other, usually in telling a story. A series of events in the past cannot include a present tense. He left the hotel, took a taxi and drove to the station. 26

I wish I knew French better. If only my friends could see me now. 9. We use the Present Perfect to give new information, but if we continue to talk about it, we normally use the Past Simple, especially when asking about the person, thing, circumstances, or talking about details of some events in the past that made the existing situation possible. The Past Simple is used with questions starting with When...? or What time...? and often Where...? 10. We use the Past Simple to talk about the origin or cause of something present that was made in the past. Who painted that picture? My wife bought me that tie. 27

His family went to America and soon became rich. But he still doesn’t feel happy.

Past Simple

The Past Simple is used for completed actions and states that took place or started and finished in the past. It shows that an activity has stopped at a particular point of time in the past, often with dates or times. We use the Past Simple when we think of when something happened or when we narrate a sequence of events at a given time. We talk about finished actions or past situations and habits. 1. The most basic use of the Past Simple is to describe one completed action in the past with or without a mention of time. Common time markers are: yesterday and its combinations, combinations with last and ago, specific points with prepositions in, on, and at. A time-phrase marking a period of time is also often used: just now (meaning a moment ago), the other day, then when, just (= only), etc. I telephoned John an hour ago. We lived in America for six years. It happened yesterday morning. I just came in to say good-bye.

4. The Past Simple can also describe a period of time in the past, which began and ended in the past, especially with such verbs as: be, live, have, and rule. Dinosaurs lived in North America. 5. The Past Simple is used in indirect (or reported speech) after a past main verb. She told me that she lived in Kiev now. 6. The Past Simple refers to the future. The verb form is past, but the action or event has not taken place yet. It’s getting dark already. It’s time we went. 7. The Past Simple refers to an unreal situation. If I were you, I would never forgive him. 8. The Past Simple is also used in unfulfilled wishes.

2. The Past Simple is used to describe repeated actions for a period of time in the past, a past habit or past situation. Many of the time markers are the same as in the Present Simple: sometimes, never, always, often, each year, year after year. It is often used in stories, fairy tales and fiction. We competed in sports at primary school. I wore a uniform at talk. We went to school together, when we were boys, so we saw each other every day. 3. A series of verbs in the Past Simple is often used to tell about events that happen quickly, one after the other, usually in telling a story. A series of events in the past cannot include a present tense. He left the hotel, took a taxi and drove to the station. 26

I wish I knew French better. If only my friends could see me now. 9. We use the Present Perfect to give new information, but if we continue to talk about it, we normally use the Past Simple, especially when asking about the person, thing, circumstances, or talking about details of some events in the past that made the existing situation possible. The Past Simple is used with questions starting with When...? or What time...? and often Where...? 10. We use the Past Simple to talk about the origin or cause of something present that was made in the past. Who painted that picture? My wife bought me that tie. 27

11. Sometimes the Past Simple is used with the adverbials of future to show that the plans have changed. Yesterday they left tomorrow (means: Yesterday they were going to leave the next day but that didn’t happen). 12. The Past Simple is used in modest requests with such words like want, think, hope. How much did you want now? (That sounds more modest than: How much do you want now?) 13. The Past Simple is usually used when people resolutely deny some facts. I never called him. I didn’t touch anything.

I didn’t use to love sweets in my childhood. 1. This tense can describe a state or activity, which lasted for a period of time (describing a past routine it is often replaceable by would). He used to go to work by car. Camels used to carry heavy loads. 2. The Past Habitual can also describe repeated habitual actions for a period of time in the past. The adverbs are often used with this tense. Statements with ”used to” are no longer true in the present (would does not have this meaning). I used to play basketball; now I just watch.

3. “Would” is used to describe past routines and habitual actions in the past. They even may still take place now.

14. The Past Simple is used when the information is given as a fact that must be considered or if the person wishes to express his / her opinion. I forgot to buy sugar. My teacher fell ill. I met him once. 15. The Past Simple is used to express that something has just happened or to ask about it. A bee stung me! Did the telephone ring?

THE PAST HABITUAL TENSE We use “used+infinitive” to talk about past habits and long-lasting situations or states which are now finished or different. It is used to emphasize the difference between past and present states or habitual actions. “Used to” is a verb in the Past Simple. 28

The girls would bully her. “Would” is often used when relating childhood experiences or recalling memories of the past. It is not as common as used to. “Would” is only used to talk about past actions. We do not use it to talk about past states and situations with verbs like be, have, etc. Most English speakers understand “would be” as a future conditional. In my youth, our relatives would visit us every year at Christmas. “Used to” consisting of an adjective and the preposition to means “accustomed to.” The expression “be / get used to” means “to be / get accustomed to doing something” or “to acquire a habit over a long time” and is followed by an “-ing form”. “Would” changes its meaning in negative sentences to mean that a person didn’t want to do something. Compare: I used to ask him, and he would (always) come. and I asked him but he wouldn’t come.

11. Sometimes the Past Simple is used with the adverbials of future to show that the plans have changed. Yesterday they left tomorrow (means: Yesterday they were going to leave the next day but that didn’t happen). 12. The Past Simple is used in modest requests with such words like want, think, hope. How much did you want now? (That sounds more modest than: How much do you want now?) 13. The Past Simple is usually used when people resolutely deny some facts. I never called him. I didn’t touch anything.

I didn’t use to love sweets in my childhood. 1. This tense can describe a state or activity, which lasted for a period of time (describing a past routine it is often replaceable by would). He used to go to work by car. Camels used to carry heavy loads. 2. The Past Habitual can also describe repeated habitual actions for a period of time in the past. The adverbs are often used with this tense. Statements with ”used to” are no longer true in the present (would does not have this meaning). I used to play basketball; now I just watch.

3. “Would” is used to describe past routines and habitual actions in the past. They even may still take place now.

14. The Past Simple is used when the information is given as a fact that must be considered or if the person wishes to express his / her opinion. I forgot to buy sugar. My teacher fell ill. I met him once. 15. The Past Simple is used to express that something has just happened or to ask about it. A bee stung me! Did the telephone ring?

THE PAST HABITUAL TENSE We use “used+infinitive” to talk about past habits and long-lasting situations or states which are now finished or different. It is used to emphasize the difference between past and present states or habitual actions. “Used to” is a verb in the Past Simple. 28

The girls would bully her. “Would” is often used when relating childhood experiences or recalling memories of the past. It is not as common as used to. “Would” is only used to talk about past actions. We do not use it to talk about past states and situations with verbs like be, have, etc. Most English speakers understand “would be” as a future conditional. In my youth, our relatives would visit us every year at Christmas. “Used to” consisting of an adjective and the preposition to means “accustomed to.” The expression “be / get used to” means “to be / get accustomed to doing something” or “to acquire a habit over a long time” and is followed by an “-ing form”. “Would” changes its meaning in negative sentences to mean that a person didn’t want to do something. Compare: I used to ask him, and he would (always) come. and I asked him but he wouldn’t come.

Future Simple

But “will now” means “will” according to information now available in The concert will now begin at 8:30.

The Future Simple is used to give or ask for information about the future, when there is no reason to use a present verb-form. This future tense describes actions, activities, and states in the future. Common time markers use combinations with next (next week, year, etc.), with in (in the future, in future, in two weeks, etc.), with from now (e.g. ten years from now), one of these days, some day, sometime, sooner or later. There are five usual ways of referring to the future. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

George George George George George

will leave tomorrow. is going to leave tomorrow. is to leave tomorrow. is leaving tomorrow. leaves tomorrow.

The emphasis in “will+infinitive” is on the future event or state. With the other four “tenses” the emphasis is more on the present indications — signs, intentions, plans, certainty, etc. — that point to a future event. “Be going to” is typical of informal conversational style. “Will” would be preferred to “be going to” in the following cases: (a) in more formal style. (b) often in writing, especially in advertising. (c) in accurate reporting. (d) in a continuous text, where a repetition of going to would become monotonous, for example, in the weather forecasts. The temporal will, shall, ‘ll, won’t and shan’t do not normally occur in temporal or conditional clause. However they could occur in such a clause. Notice the difference between: If the lava comes down as far as this, it will be too late to evacuate these houses and If the lava will (is likely to) come down as far as this, we must evacuate these houses immediately. “Will now” refers to the immediate future in The concert will now begin. 30

Just in “will just” means only, for example: There will just be the two of us — no more. Notice the difference between: When does the next bus for London leave? and When will the next bus for London leave? (When is the next bus to London going to leave?). The last question expresses impatience of the speaker. The future tense may be used in an “if-clause” expressing a request: If you will give me some money, I will buy you a drink and If you will / would do me this favour, I will / would be very grateful to you.

WILL OR GOING TO? “Will” expresses an intention only or decision made at the moment of speaking (to make an instant decision). I’ll phone back later. What do you want to drink? I’ll have a coke, please. “Going to” implies a firm intention or will, a plan or decision thought about before the moment of speaking. It is used when a person has already decided or arranged to do something. I’m going to take an exam next week. What are you going to do when you grow up? The most common use of “will” is to refer to the future. It expresses a future fact or prediction usually based on what one thinks, guesses, calculates, imagines or believes will happen, that is on a person’s intuition, knowledge, experience. One may have no evidence about 31

Future Simple

But “will now” means “will” according to information now available in The concert will now begin at 8:30.

The Future Simple is used to give or ask for information about the future, when there is no reason to use a present verb-form. This future tense describes actions, activities, and states in the future. Common time markers use combinations with next (next week, year, etc.), with in (in the future, in future, in two weeks, etc.), with from now (e.g. ten years from now), one of these days, some day, sometime, sooner or later. There are five usual ways of referring to the future. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

George George George George George

will leave tomorrow. is going to leave tomorrow. is to leave tomorrow. is leaving tomorrow. leaves tomorrow.

The emphasis in “will+infinitive” is on the future event or state. With the other four “tenses” the emphasis is more on the present indications — signs, intentions, plans, certainty, etc. — that point to a future event. “Be going to” is typical of informal conversational style. “Will” would be preferred to “be going to” in the following cases: (a) in more formal style. (b) often in writing, especially in advertising. (c) in accurate reporting. (d) in a continuous text, where a repetition of going to would become monotonous, for example, in the weather forecasts. The temporal will, shall, ‘ll, won’t and shan’t do not normally occur in temporal or conditional clause. However they could occur in such a clause. Notice the difference between: If the lava comes down as far as this, it will be too late to evacuate these houses and If the lava will (is likely to) come down as far as this, we must evacuate these houses immediately. “Will now” refers to the immediate future in The concert will now begin. 30

Just in “will just” means only, for example: There will just be the two of us — no more. Notice the difference between: When does the next bus for London leave? and When will the next bus for London leave? (When is the next bus to London going to leave?). The last question expresses impatience of the speaker. The future tense may be used in an “if-clause” expressing a request: If you will give me some money, I will buy you a drink and If you will / would do me this favour, I will / would be very grateful to you.

WILL OR GOING TO? “Will” expresses an intention only or decision made at the moment of speaking (to make an instant decision). I’ll phone back later. What do you want to drink? I’ll have a coke, please. “Going to” implies a firm intention or will, a plan or decision thought about before the moment of speaking. It is used when a person has already decided or arranged to do something. I’m going to take an exam next week. What are you going to do when you grow up? The most common use of “will” is to refer to the future. It expresses a future fact or prediction usually based on what one thinks, guesses, calculates, imagines or believes will happen, that is on a person’s intuition, knowledge, experience. One may have no evidence about 31

this. “Will” can refer either to the near or distant future (for example, general truths). I’m sure you’ll pass the exam. Brazil will win the next World Cup. Women will become more equal. “Going to” is used to make predictions based on what one knows (facts) or can see or feel in the present situation (especially when one sees evidence that something is certain to happen as a result of something). “Going to” usually refers to the near future, something that will happen quite soon, and can express a trend. It can be used without time expressions but the use of “going to” suggests the action is expected to happen in the near future (be going to = will+for sure). It is imminent. Look at the clouds. It’s going to rain. His brakes have failed! He’s going to crash. What a horrible smell! I’m going to be sick. “Will” is often used to make an offer or promise, when agreeing to do something or asking somebody to do something. I can’t do my homework. O.K. I’ll help you. I’ll be careful. I promise. Could you fetch the book from the library? Sure. I will bring it later in the evening. Will you help me translate the text.

“Will” is often used after verbs and expressions like be afraid, be / feel sure, believe, doubt, expect, and (not to) think, I wonder, probably to talk about our hopes and expectations about the future. After (I) hope present tense is generally used. I hope she makes it on time. “Shall” is only used with I and we in British English. “Shall” is also common in question tags, for example: Let’s go, shall we? It is also used in suggestions, for example: Shall we take a taxi? and requests for instructions, for example: What shall I do with your letters? 32

“Shall” is also used when people are talking about events and situations about which they have some control, for example, in resolutions or promises, for example: Of course he shall have his drink. I shall be released soon. “Shall” is used for an invitation to a person to join an activity, for example: Shall we dance? “Will” can sound like a mild or severe command. “Will” is sometimes used to talk about present situations, when people assume that something is (or is not) the case and don’t think there’s any reason to doubt it. Most workers will have heard about retirement plans. You won’t know Jim. He’s our new English teacher. “Will” is often used to express a persistent habit. If you will miss the lectures, how can you pass the exam?

THE FUTURE IN ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES Adjectival clauses are descri ptive. When you leave, hand over the keys to Mr. Jones who lives next door. A future verb can be used if it is a necessary part of the action or situation. Please bring me the book, which you will find on my desk.

OTHER WAYS OF INDICATING THE FUTURE The sentences with be due to and be about to with the following infinitive clauses refer to planned future events that are expected to happen soon. She is due to start her own business soon. John is about to get a good job shortly. 33

this. “Will” can refer either to the near or distant future (for example, general truths). I’m sure you’ll pass the exam. Brazil will win the next World Cup. Women will become more equal. “Going to” is used to make predictions based on what one knows (facts) or can see or feel in the present situation (especially when one sees evidence that something is certain to happen as a result of something). “Going to” usually refers to the near future, something that will happen quite soon, and can express a trend. It can be used without time expressions but the use of “going to” suggests the action is expected to happen in the near future (be going to = will+for sure). It is imminent. Look at the clouds. It’s going to rain. His brakes have failed! He’s going to crash. What a horrible smell! I’m going to be sick. “Will” is often used to make an offer or promise, when agreeing to do something or asking somebody to do something. I can’t do my homework. O.K. I’ll help you. I’ll be careful. I promise. Could you fetch the book from the library? Sure. I will bring it later in the evening. Will you help me translate the text.

“Will” is often used after verbs and expressions like be afraid, be / feel sure, believe, doubt, expect, and (not to) think, I wonder, probably to talk about our hopes and expectations about the future. After (I) hope present tense is generally used. I hope she makes it on time. “Shall” is only used with I and we in British English. “Shall” is also common in question tags, for example: Let’s go, shall we? It is also used in suggestions, for example: Shall we take a taxi? and requests for instructions, for example: What shall I do with your letters? 32

“Shall” is also used when people are talking about events and situations about which they have some control, for example, in resolutions or promises, for example: Of course he shall have his drink. I shall be released soon. “Shall” is used for an invitation to a person to join an activity, for example: Shall we dance? “Will” can sound like a mild or severe command. “Will” is sometimes used to talk about present situations, when people assume that something is (or is not) the case and don’t think there’s any reason to doubt it. Most workers will have heard about retirement plans. You won’t know Jim. He’s our new English teacher. “Will” is often used to express a persistent habit. If you will miss the lectures, how can you pass the exam?

THE FUTURE IN ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES Adjectival clauses are descri ptive. When you leave, hand over the keys to Mr. Jones who lives next door. A future verb can be used if it is a necessary part of the action or situation. Please bring me the book, which you will find on my desk.

OTHER WAYS OF INDICATING THE FUTURE The sentences with be due to and be about to with the following infinitive clauses refer to planned future events that are expected to happen soon. She is due to start her own business soon. John is about to get a good job shortly. 33

To be likely (unlikely)+infinitive is used to express that something is likely (unlikely) to happen soon.

Present Progressive

She is unlikely to win the first prize.

FORWARD PLANNING FROM A TIME IN THE PAST The Past Progressive can be used to refer to events planned in the past, especially with verbs such as come and go. Their son was going to America next year. The Past Simple of “be” in be going to, be about to and be due to used in structures to express future events implies that the expected event has not happened or will not happen. The play was due to start the following night.

FUTURE SIMPLE IN THE PAST This tense describes a future as seen from the past and it can be expressed by “would” or optional “should” in British English after I and we. The climbers were moving steadily up the final slope. Soon they would see the summit.

Progressive forms of verbs are used to show action that continues over the time in the past, present or future. The progressive aspect conveys the idea of activity, which has begun but is not completed. Verb forms see activities in progress. The activities have duration, a beginning and an end. The progressive aspect has the effect of lengthening an activity. It has duration, and it can be interrupted. Other events can happen in the middle of it. The Present Progressive is often used for background — for things that are already happening when the story starts, or for those that continue through part of the story. When I woke up this morning, it was raining (interrupted activity). The Progressive can also express the idea of limited duration. The activity does not last forever, it has a beginning and an end. It is often used for repeated actions around the moment of speaking. It is used for activities that happen regularly but only for a limited period of time (temporary routines / habits). It is used for habit when it is clear that the habit is only a temporary one. I’m going to work by car this week because there’s a train strike. I’m taking swimming lessons this summer (temporary job). She’s seeing a lot of him these days. The Present Progressive is used for actions, which are happening in the present (now at the moment of speaking), and for a period of time, which includes the present. It marks changing and developing situations. In The Present Progressive tense time markers are not always used. English speakers understand the tense itself to mean “right now” or a period of time including “right now.” Some other time markers for present time are combinations with “this” (this month, week, etc.), “these” (these days), today, tonight, now, at this moment, at present, currently, in these days, in this age, nowadays, presently. The speaker can emphasize the idea of activity in progress or of activity uncompleted by using an action verb referring to all or any time. 35

To be likely (unlikely)+infinitive is used to express that something is likely (unlikely) to happen soon.

Present Progressive

She is unlikely to win the first prize.

FORWARD PLANNING FROM A TIME IN THE PAST The Past Progressive can be used to refer to events planned in the past, especially with verbs such as come and go. Their son was going to America next year. The Past Simple of “be” in be going to, be about to and be due to used in structures to express future events implies that the expected event has not happened or will not happen. The play was due to start the following night.

FUTURE SIMPLE IN THE PAST This tense describes a future as seen from the past and it can be expressed by “would” or optional “should” in British English after I and we. The climbers were moving steadily up the final slope. Soon they would see the summit.

Progressive forms of verbs are used to show action that continues over the time in the past, present or future. The progressive aspect conveys the idea of activity, which has begun but is not completed. Verb forms see activities in progress. The activities have duration, a beginning and an end. The progressive aspect has the effect of lengthening an activity. It has duration, and it can be interrupted. Other events can happen in the middle of it. The Present Progressive is often used for background — for things that are already happening when the story starts, or for those that continue through part of the story. When I woke up this morning, it was raining (interrupted activity). The Progressive can also express the idea of limited duration. The activity does not last forever, it has a beginning and an end. It is often used for repeated actions around the moment of speaking. It is used for activities that happen regularly but only for a limited period of time (temporary routines / habits). It is used for habit when it is clear that the habit is only a temporary one. I’m going to work by car this week because there’s a train strike. I’m taking swimming lessons this summer (temporary job). She’s seeing a lot of him these days. The Present Progressive is used for actions, which are happening in the present (now at the moment of speaking), and for a period of time, which includes the present. It marks changing and developing situations. In The Present Progressive tense time markers are not always used. English speakers understand the tense itself to mean “right now” or a period of time including “right now.” Some other time markers for present time are combinations with “this” (this month, week, etc.), “these” (these days), today, tonight, now, at this moment, at present, currently, in these days, in this age, nowadays, presently. The speaker can emphasize the idea of activity in progress or of activity uncompleted by using an action verb referring to all or any time. 35

The Rhine is always pouring its waters into the sea. His health is improving every day.

The idea of annoying habit that goes on and on is emphasized in The postman is always putting your letters in my letter box.

Always, constantly can also be used with The Present Progressive, but there’s a change of meaning. Forever is always used with progressive tenses. Emotional attitude is expressed to the person doing something too often. If something is always happening, it happens often, but is unplanned. She’s always having showers (she does this too often). She’s always smiling. I’m always meeting her in the swimming pool. Always, constantly, continually, perpetually, etc. with Progressive Tenses are often used to suggest criticism in the opinion of the speaker of abnormal or unreasonable behaviour of the other person of doing something more often than normal. These adverbs are used thus in emotionally coloured sentences. You’re always complaining about something. The Present Progressive is often used to express an activity around now but not necessarily happening at this moment.

The Present Progressive is used to describe: — the present period to express an activity that is in progress now. I’m writing a postcard to my friend. — future time in temporal or conditional clauses, as in I’ll telephone you while I’m waiting. — immediate past time, as in That check, what did you do with it? What are you talking about? What check? — past time, when the speaker refers to activity that is the background to a new development in a narrative, as in While Tom is standing up on the couch looking back at his father, the horses suddenly break up into a gallop.

He’s studying to be an accountant. The Present Progressive often expresses temporary activity. It is used with a regular habitual action, especially one, which is new or temporary. I’m living with friends until I find a place of my own. You’re smoking too much these days. The speaker may be thinking of an activity that continues through the period or a series of acts throughout the period. I’m living in the country. John is going to the university now. (He is now a university student). He is getting up at five o’clock every day this week to prepare for his examination. 36

The Present Progressive can express the will or flat refusal in negative sentences. I’m sorry, you’re not taking my car.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE USED FOR PROPOSED FUTURE ACTION The Present Progressive with adverbial of future time can also be used to express the idea that a course of action has been arranged without giving the impression that the arrangement is due to an official plan, decision, instructions, or prohibitions. We also use this tense when the future action is expected with some certainty. We talk about future events that we have already fixed or arranged. 37

The Rhine is always pouring its waters into the sea. His health is improving every day.

The idea of annoying habit that goes on and on is emphasized in The postman is always putting your letters in my letter box.

Always, constantly can also be used with The Present Progressive, but there’s a change of meaning. Forever is always used with progressive tenses. Emotional attitude is expressed to the person doing something too often. If something is always happening, it happens often, but is unplanned. She’s always having showers (she does this too often). She’s always smiling. I’m always meeting her in the swimming pool. Always, constantly, continually, perpetually, etc. with Progressive Tenses are often used to suggest criticism in the opinion of the speaker of abnormal or unreasonable behaviour of the other person of doing something more often than normal. These adverbs are used thus in emotionally coloured sentences. You’re always complaining about something. The Present Progressive is often used to express an activity around now but not necessarily happening at this moment.

The Present Progressive is used to describe: — the present period to express an activity that is in progress now. I’m writing a postcard to my friend. — future time in temporal or conditional clauses, as in I’ll telephone you while I’m waiting. — immediate past time, as in That check, what did you do with it? What are you talking about? What check? — past time, when the speaker refers to activity that is the background to a new development in a narrative, as in While Tom is standing up on the couch looking back at his father, the horses suddenly break up into a gallop.

He’s studying to be an accountant. The Present Progressive often expresses temporary activity. It is used with a regular habitual action, especially one, which is new or temporary. I’m living with friends until I find a place of my own. You’re smoking too much these days. The speaker may be thinking of an activity that continues through the period or a series of acts throughout the period. I’m living in the country. John is going to the university now. (He is now a university student). He is getting up at five o’clock every day this week to prepare for his examination. 36

The Present Progressive can express the will or flat refusal in negative sentences. I’m sorry, you’re not taking my car.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE USED FOR PROPOSED FUTURE ACTION The Present Progressive with adverbial of future time can also be used to express the idea that a course of action has been arranged without giving the impression that the arrangement is due to an official plan, decision, instructions, or prohibitions. We also use this tense when the future action is expected with some certainty. We talk about future events that we have already fixed or arranged. 37

I’m playing tennis tonight. I’m having lunch with them tomorrow. This tense can be used without an adverbial of future time to suggest an action in the immediate future, as in Hurry up. The train is starting. This tense can be freely used in a conditional clause if emphasis is on the present arrangement, as in If the train is starting in two minutes, you’ll have to run and get the tickets.

Verbs of condition, which do not take progressive tenses: appear (meaning to seem), be, feel (have the opinion that, when used with no object), seem, resemble, smell (when used with no object), look (meaning to seem), sound, taste (when used with no object), fear, envy, belong, concern, consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, fit, hold (= contain), include, involve, lack, matter, need, owe, own, possess, resemble, exist. Feel, smell, taste with objects are active verbs and can take progressive tenses. Contrast these sentences: She is tasting the water. It tastes fresh. The following verbs can be used in the Simple or Progressive forms but with different meanings: appear, feel, see, smell, taste, think.

The Present Progressive can be used to express a future arrangement between people. It is common with verbs such as go, come, see, visit, meet, have (a party), leave. Pat and Jim are coming for a meal tonight. Sometimes there is little or no difference between a future intention (going to) and a future arrangement (Present Progressive). We’re going to see a play tonight. We’re seeing a play tonight. Present Progressive can express emotional attitude to the behaviour of the person with the verb be. It says how somebody is behaving. You’re being cruel.

Note. In English, a certain group of verbs cannot usually take any of progressive tenses. These are verbs, which describe mental states or mental activity or condition of things. Therefore to show present time, these verbs take the Present Simple instead. Verbs of mental activity or mental state, which do not take progressive tenses: be fond of, believe, hate, have (meaning to own), impress, know, like, love, need, see (understand), hear, think (meaning to believe), understand, want, dislike, prefer, wish, doubt, guess, imagine, mean (= signify), realize, recognize, remember, surprise, forget, suppose. 38

39

I’m playing tennis tonight. I’m having lunch with them tomorrow. This tense can be used without an adverbial of future time to suggest an action in the immediate future, as in Hurry up. The train is starting. This tense can be freely used in a conditional clause if emphasis is on the present arrangement, as in If the train is starting in two minutes, you’ll have to run and get the tickets.

Verbs of condition, which do not take progressive tenses: appear (meaning to seem), be, feel (have the opinion that, when used with no object), seem, resemble, smell (when used with no object), look (meaning to seem), sound, taste (when used with no object), fear, envy, belong, concern, consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, fit, hold (= contain), include, involve, lack, matter, need, owe, own, possess, resemble, exist. Feel, smell, taste with objects are active verbs and can take progressive tenses. Contrast these sentences: She is tasting the water. It tastes fresh. The following verbs can be used in the Simple or Progressive forms but with different meanings: appear, feel, see, smell, taste, think.

The Present Progressive can be used to express a future arrangement between people. It is common with verbs such as go, come, see, visit, meet, have (a party), leave. Pat and Jim are coming for a meal tonight. Sometimes there is little or no difference between a future intention (going to) and a future arrangement (Present Progressive). We’re going to see a play tonight. We’re seeing a play tonight. Present Progressive can express emotional attitude to the behaviour of the person with the verb be. It says how somebody is behaving. You’re being cruel.

Note. In English, a certain group of verbs cannot usually take any of progressive tenses. These are verbs, which describe mental states or mental activity or condition of things. Therefore to show present time, these verbs take the Present Simple instead. Verbs of mental activity or mental state, which do not take progressive tenses: be fond of, believe, hate, have (meaning to own), impress, know, like, love, need, see (understand), hear, think (meaning to believe), understand, want, dislike, prefer, wish, doubt, guess, imagine, mean (= signify), realize, recognize, remember, surprise, forget, suppose. 38

39

Because the Progressive can express interrupted activities, the activities might not be completed.

Past Progressive

Who’s been eating my sandwich? He was dying, but the doctors managed to resuscitate him. The Past Progressive is used to say that something was going on for some time around a particular past time. He was watching TV all evening. The Past Progressive is rarely used by itself. Rather, it is used to describe what was taking place when another activity happened in the past. It is often used to suggest that one action in the past started before another action in the past, and probably continued after it but didn’t finish or we don’t know about it. Usually the Past Progressive is joined to another clause in the Past Progressive or in the Past Simple. We use this tense for past actions or states that were going on / happening / taking place as something else happened, that is for background actions or states. She was holding the ball when the music stopped. She was crying while the reporters were talking. They were talking to their guests when the roof fell in. The time marker while introduces clauses in the Past Progressive; when introduces clauses in the Past Simple. The other examples of time markers are: from 6 to 7, all day long last Friday, the whole evening yesterday. The Past Progressive is used to express an activity in progress in the past. The events of a story are in the Past Simple, but descri ptions and interrupted activities are in the Past Progressive. When we arrived, he was making some coffee. It is often used in contrasting events. The Past Simple follows The Past Progressive when you want to contrast a situation with an event, which happened just after that situation. I was working on the computer when I saw the letter. 40

The use of the Past Progressive suggests a temporary action or situation. The Past simple is used for more permanent actions or situations. We cannot say “The apple tree was standing in the middle of the courtyard” because the use of the Past Progressive suggests a temporary situation — at other times the apple tree stood somewhere else. It happened while I was living in London. The Past Progressive refers to longer “background” activities or situations, while the Past Simple refers to shorter actions or situations that happened in the middle of longer ones or interrupted them. The Past Progressive describes the background (setting the scene), and the Past Simple reports on the event. When I woke up this morning, the birds were singing and the sun was shining. The Past Progressive is used: (1) to express progress before, and probably, after a particular time in the past. At 7:00 this morning I was having breakfast. (2) to describe a situation or activity during a period in the past. Jane looked lovely. She was wearing a green cotton dress, her eyes were shining. (3) to express an interrupted past activity. It often describes a longer action interrupted by a shorter action. When the phone rang, I was having a bath. 41

Because the Progressive can express interrupted activities, the activities might not be completed.

Past Progressive

Who’s been eating my sandwich? He was dying, but the doctors managed to resuscitate him. The Past Progressive is used to say that something was going on for some time around a particular past time. He was watching TV all evening. The Past Progressive is rarely used by itself. Rather, it is used to describe what was taking place when another activity happened in the past. It is often used to suggest that one action in the past started before another action in the past, and probably continued after it but didn’t finish or we don’t know about it. Usually the Past Progressive is joined to another clause in the Past Progressive or in the Past Simple. We use this tense for past actions or states that were going on / happening / taking place as something else happened, that is for background actions or states. She was holding the ball when the music stopped. She was crying while the reporters were talking. They were talking to their guests when the roof fell in. The time marker while introduces clauses in the Past Progressive; when introduces clauses in the Past Simple. The other examples of time markers are: from 6 to 7, all day long last Friday, the whole evening yesterday. The Past Progressive is used to express an activity in progress in the past. The events of a story are in the Past Simple, but descri ptions and interrupted activities are in the Past Progressive. When we arrived, he was making some coffee. It is often used in contrasting events. The Past Simple follows The Past Progressive when you want to contrast a situation with an event, which happened just after that situation. I was working on the computer when I saw the letter. 40

The use of the Past Progressive suggests a temporary action or situation. The Past simple is used for more permanent actions or situations. We cannot say “The apple tree was standing in the middle of the courtyard” because the use of the Past Progressive suggests a temporary situation — at other times the apple tree stood somewhere else. It happened while I was living in London. The Past Progressive refers to longer “background” activities or situations, while the Past Simple refers to shorter actions or situations that happened in the middle of longer ones or interrupted them. The Past Progressive describes the background (setting the scene), and the Past Simple reports on the event. When I woke up this morning, the birds were singing and the sun was shining. The Past Progressive is used: (1) to express progress before, and probably, after a particular time in the past. At 7:00 this morning I was having breakfast. (2) to describe a situation or activity during a period in the past. Jane looked lovely. She was wearing a green cotton dress, her eyes were shining. (3) to express an interrupted past activity. It often describes a longer action interrupted by a shorter action. When the phone rang, I was having a bath. 41

(4) to express an incomplete activity in the past (person is often in the middle of an action) in order to contrast with the Past Simple which expresses a completed activity or that actions happened one after another. I was reading a book during the flight. (I didn’t finish it). I watched a film during the night (the whole night). When John came, we translated the text. The Past Simple is usually used to express a repeated past habit or situation or to say how often something happened.

She was leaving for Moscow but had to make a last-minute connection. The Past Progressive can be used to indicate non-fact, as in: I wish (or I’d rather, It’s time) we were going home.

PAST SIMPLE VERSUS PAST PROGRESSIVE Past Simple expresses past actions as simple facts. The Past Progressive gives past activities time and duration.

I went out with Jack for years. The Past Progressive can be used about continued states or repeated actions, which occurred in the past. She was meeting lots of people at that time. The Past Progressive can be used if the repeated habit becomes a longer “setting” for something. I was going out with Jack when I first met Harry. Past Progressive is simply an implication of progressive aspect, as described before in the Present Progressive to past tense: I was living in the country in 1972. She was getting up at 5 o’clock every day that week. I was telephoning him only an hour ago. We were seeing (i.e. meeting) each other every day. (It is acceptable but only to express the idea of a fixed habit.) The Past Progressive is frequently used in narrative and descri ptions to supply a background to a new event in the story or describe events planned in the past: I remember the first day we met. The sun was shining and the birds were singing in the trees. 42

A. B. C. D.

I didn’t see you in the pub last night. No. I stayed at home and watched TV. I rang you last night, but there was no reply. Sorry, I was watching football. I didn’t hear the phone.

The questions refer to different time periods: the Past Progressive asks about activities before; the Past Simple asks about what happened after. What was Peter doing when the war broke out? He was studying. What did Peter do when the war broke out? He went home to his parents. When the war broke out, Peter was studying medicine at university. He decided it was safer to go home to his parents and postpone his studies. The Past Progressive is often used to refer to events planned in the past, especially with common verbs such as come, go, leave, etc. His son was going to study abroad next year. The Progressive form is often used to introduce a new and interesting topic into the conversation rather than just to report someone’s words. The use of the Past Simple would impart by contrast a sense of definite commitment, factuality and authority. 43

(4) to express an incomplete activity in the past (person is often in the middle of an action) in order to contrast with the Past Simple which expresses a completed activity or that actions happened one after another. I was reading a book during the flight. (I didn’t finish it). I watched a film during the night (the whole night). When John came, we translated the text. The Past Simple is usually used to express a repeated past habit or situation or to say how often something happened.

She was leaving for Moscow but had to make a last-minute connection. The Past Progressive can be used to indicate non-fact, as in: I wish (or I’d rather, It’s time) we were going home.

PAST SIMPLE VERSUS PAST PROGRESSIVE Past Simple expresses past actions as simple facts. The Past Progressive gives past activities time and duration.

I went out with Jack for years. The Past Progressive can be used about continued states or repeated actions, which occurred in the past. She was meeting lots of people at that time. The Past Progressive can be used if the repeated habit becomes a longer “setting” for something. I was going out with Jack when I first met Harry. Past Progressive is simply an implication of progressive aspect, as described before in the Present Progressive to past tense: I was living in the country in 1972. She was getting up at 5 o’clock every day that week. I was telephoning him only an hour ago. We were seeing (i.e. meeting) each other every day. (It is acceptable but only to express the idea of a fixed habit.) The Past Progressive is frequently used in narrative and descri ptions to supply a background to a new event in the story or describe events planned in the past: I remember the first day we met. The sun was shining and the birds were singing in the trees. 42

A. B. C. D.

I didn’t see you in the pub last night. No. I stayed at home and watched TV. I rang you last night, but there was no reply. Sorry, I was watching football. I didn’t hear the phone.

The questions refer to different time periods: the Past Progressive asks about activities before; the Past Simple asks about what happened after. What was Peter doing when the war broke out? He was studying. What did Peter do when the war broke out? He went home to his parents. When the war broke out, Peter was studying medicine at university. He decided it was safer to go home to his parents and postpone his studies. The Past Progressive is often used to refer to events planned in the past, especially with common verbs such as come, go, leave, etc. His son was going to study abroad next year. The Progressive form is often used to introduce a new and interesting topic into the conversation rather than just to report someone’s words. The use of the Past Simple would impart by contrast a sense of definite commitment, factuality and authority. 43

She was saying their summer house nearly burnt down last night. — Really! The Past Continuous is often used in conversations in which the partici pants wish to create deliberately indefinite, imprecise and informal interaction. It is also used to suggest that the topic is ongoing. We are reversing back to the theme of the discussion. (We were saying... = coming back to our topic.) The Past Progressive is sometimes used to express an action, which didn’t happen. He was coming to see me yesterday. Sometimes it can even express an action that won’t happen in the future. I was reading a paper tomorrow. (I intended to read it but I won’t.) The Past Progressive is often used in polite requests. It is more polite than Present or Past Indefinite. I was wondering if I could come a bit later. Were you wanting to see someone?

Future Progressive

The Future Progressive is used to say that something will be going on or somebody will be in the middle of doing something at a certain time in the future. The Future Progressive is generally used to set up a background activity that is in progress when another action takes place: I’ll be sitting in the storm cellar when the tornado hits. The Future Progressive is used for planned or expected future events. This tense is often used with specific time markers (clock time, for example) to tell what a person will be doing at some time in the future. Common time markers are combinations with “at” (at 5:00, at that moment), with “next” (next week), and “in” (in two days). The ceremony begins at seven. In half an hour they will be driving past our house. It will be raining on Thursday. The speaker may be making a plain statement about the future, without wishing to emphasize the idea of action in progress or may be adding an expression of his present intentions to his statement about the future. I’ll be meeting you about that soon. The Future Progressive is used when a person is sure that something will happen because arrangements have been made and expresses certainty. It expresses future actions which have already been decided I will be meeting you at the station. I’ll be wearing my new evening dress to the dinner. The Future Progressive is used in polite enquiries about people’s decisions or plans, when one wants something or wants people to do something. Will you be coming to the party tonight? 45

She was saying their summer house nearly burnt down last night. — Really! The Past Continuous is often used in conversations in which the partici pants wish to create deliberately indefinite, imprecise and informal interaction. It is also used to suggest that the topic is ongoing. We are reversing back to the theme of the discussion. (We were saying... = coming back to our topic.) The Past Progressive is sometimes used to express an action, which didn’t happen. He was coming to see me yesterday. Sometimes it can even express an action that won’t happen in the future. I was reading a paper tomorrow. (I intended to read it but I won’t.) The Past Progressive is often used in polite requests. It is more polite than Present or Past Indefinite. I was wondering if I could come a bit later. Were you wanting to see someone?

Future Progressive

The Future Progressive is used to say that something will be going on or somebody will be in the middle of doing something at a certain time in the future. The Future Progressive is generally used to set up a background activity that is in progress when another action takes place: I’ll be sitting in the storm cellar when the tornado hits. The Future Progressive is used for planned or expected future events. This tense is often used with specific time markers (clock time, for example) to tell what a person will be doing at some time in the future. Common time markers are combinations with “at” (at 5:00, at that moment), with “next” (next week), and “in” (in two days). The ceremony begins at seven. In half an hour they will be driving past our house. It will be raining on Thursday. The speaker may be making a plain statement about the future, without wishing to emphasize the idea of action in progress or may be adding an expression of his present intentions to his statement about the future. I’ll be meeting you about that soon. The Future Progressive is used when a person is sure that something will happen because arrangements have been made and expresses certainty. It expresses future actions which have already been decided I will be meeting you at the station. I’ll be wearing my new evening dress to the dinner. The Future Progressive is used in polite enquiries about people’s decisions or plans, when one wants something or wants people to do something. Will you be coming to the party tonight? 45

“(I shall) be seeing you” is more often used today than “See you (soon)”. The Future Progressive is often used for the suggestions concerning the actions happening at the moment of speaking. Don’t come to his office now. He’ll be having a meeting. The Future Progressive can be used to convey the idea that something is not at all exceptional but quite a normal happening. I shall be seeing the Queen tomorrow and I’ll tell her what you said (you are a relation, a close friend or a member of a household). I shall see the Queen tomorrow (you indicate that it is a special day in your life). If there is an adverbial expression to indicate futurity, the Ðresent Simple can be used. It is a matter of personal choice to use either tense. The Prime Minister goes to Russia tomorrow.

Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is a present tense. It always tells us something about present state of affairs. The Past Simple tells us only about the past. Verbs in the Perfect Tenses express past action in relation to another time. If we use Present Perfect, we are thinking of not when exactly something happened, but of its result into the present, its consequence or of some knowledge that you have as a result of its happening. We don’t know when the activity or situation happened in the past but the states or actions of the past continue to affect the present. It is generally used to talk about an indefinite time in the past that leads up to the present. We’ve played with each other before. She has had problems in concentration. This tense is also used when we talk about events in an unfinished past, which leads up to and includes the present. The events also take place within a specified time frame.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE IN THE PAST This tense expresses future as seen from the past and can be used with would, or optional should (British English) after I or we. It is more polite than Future Indefinite. She told me that we would be sailing at midnight. Would you be using the dictionary tomorrow? Can you lend me it then?

He has worked well this term. I have had a lot to cope with this week. The Present Perfect is used with action and state verbs, when the speaker is referring to an activity or a state, which either begins in the past and continues up to the moment of speaking or occurs at some unspecified time within the pre-present period. One meaning of the Present Perfect is that an action has been completed before the present time. This action has an effect on the present situation but it is not happening in the present. It connects the past and the present. It is usually used for finished actions that are important now. They have results now, or they are news. What is important here is not how long the activity lasted, but that it has finished. It is also used for something that has happened within a period of time not yet finished. The action has relevance to the present. Common time markers normally are: already, not yet, just, ever, never, before, recently, often, so far, in the last few days, all day long, the whole month, today, this week. 47

“(I shall) be seeing you” is more often used today than “See you (soon)”. The Future Progressive is often used for the suggestions concerning the actions happening at the moment of speaking. Don’t come to his office now. He’ll be having a meeting. The Future Progressive can be used to convey the idea that something is not at all exceptional but quite a normal happening. I shall be seeing the Queen tomorrow and I’ll tell her what you said (you are a relation, a close friend or a member of a household). I shall see the Queen tomorrow (you indicate that it is a special day in your life). If there is an adverbial expression to indicate futurity, the Ðresent Simple can be used. It is a matter of personal choice to use either tense. The Prime Minister goes to Russia tomorrow.

Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is a present tense. It always tells us something about present state of affairs. The Past Simple tells us only about the past. Verbs in the Perfect Tenses express past action in relation to another time. If we use Present Perfect, we are thinking of not when exactly something happened, but of its result into the present, its consequence or of some knowledge that you have as a result of its happening. We don’t know when the activity or situation happened in the past but the states or actions of the past continue to affect the present. It is generally used to talk about an indefinite time in the past that leads up to the present. We’ve played with each other before. She has had problems in concentration. This tense is also used when we talk about events in an unfinished past, which leads up to and includes the present. The events also take place within a specified time frame.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE IN THE PAST This tense expresses future as seen from the past and can be used with would, or optional should (British English) after I or we. It is more polite than Future Indefinite. She told me that we would be sailing at midnight. Would you be using the dictionary tomorrow? Can you lend me it then?

He has worked well this term. I have had a lot to cope with this week. The Present Perfect is used with action and state verbs, when the speaker is referring to an activity or a state, which either begins in the past and continues up to the moment of speaking or occurs at some unspecified time within the pre-present period. One meaning of the Present Perfect is that an action has been completed before the present time. This action has an effect on the present situation but it is not happening in the present. It connects the past and the present. It is usually used for finished actions that are important now. They have results now, or they are news. What is important here is not how long the activity lasted, but that it has finished. It is also used for something that has happened within a period of time not yet finished. The action has relevance to the present. Common time markers normally are: already, not yet, just, ever, never, before, recently, often, so far, in the last few days, all day long, the whole month, today, this week. 47

She’s bought some new clothes (She can show them now). She’s done a lot this week. The Present Perfect is most often used with recently in affirmative sentences and with lately in negative and interrogative sentences.

Present Perfect is used in sentences with this / it / that is the first / second / third / only / best / worst etc. That is the second time I’ve seen that film. The Present Perfect refers to:

I haven’t seen him lately. I’ve seen him recently.

— activity continuing until now (use Present Perfect, not Present Perfect Progressive with always).

The Progressive Tenses are typical for sentences with lately in the affirmative.

I have lived in London since 1995 (or for the last five months). She has always been a brave girl (in any time up to now).

We’ve been having trouble with the boy lately. — activity in a period continuing until now. The Present Perfect is used for actions repeated up to now. I’ve been to Canada several times (up to now). I’ve often wondered why she behaved herself so then. One job of the Present Perfect is to show an activity or a state that has continued for a period of time, from a point in the past until the present. Time markers for this idea are: for (with the meaning “time up to now”) and since.

I have lived in Canada. Have you been to the bank already? (It appears that you have. Already here is used in affirmatively oriented question?) Have you been to the bank yet? (I really don’t know. Yet is used in a completely open question). The Present Perfect is also used in temporal and conditional clauses. I will return your book on Monday when (or if) I’ve read it.

I’ve known her for many years. We’ve been friends since 1965. Since I’ve been here, nobody has come. We use Present Perfect with today, this morning, this evening, etc. when these periods are not finished at the time of speaking. Have you seen Kate this morning? (Morning lasts from midnight till about 13:00.) A Present Simple is sometimes used with since to talk about changes and in the structure It is...since... She looks more beautiful since her pregnancy. How long is it since you saw her? It’s a long time since dinner. 48

In English the Present Perfect is essentially a present tense but it also expresses the effect of past actions and activities on the present. News is often announced in the Present Perfect because events are emphasized. The details are usually given in the Past Simple. Present Perfect means “before now.” The Present Perfect does not express when an action happened. If we say the exact time, we have to use the Past Simple. Present Perfect is used with just to talk about a recently completed action (the time is still very close to the present). He has just come in. Present Perfect is used for recent actions with a present result. The evidence is in the present. It often expresses the present importance of a past event. It’s often used in giving news. 49

She’s bought some new clothes (She can show them now). She’s done a lot this week. The Present Perfect is most often used with recently in affirmative sentences and with lately in negative and interrogative sentences.

Present Perfect is used in sentences with this / it / that is the first / second / third / only / best / worst etc. That is the second time I’ve seen that film. The Present Perfect refers to:

I haven’t seen him lately. I’ve seen him recently.

— activity continuing until now (use Present Perfect, not Present Perfect Progressive with always).

The Progressive Tenses are typical for sentences with lately in the affirmative.

I have lived in London since 1995 (or for the last five months). She has always been a brave girl (in any time up to now).

We’ve been having trouble with the boy lately. — activity in a period continuing until now. The Present Perfect is used for actions repeated up to now. I’ve been to Canada several times (up to now). I’ve often wondered why she behaved herself so then. One job of the Present Perfect is to show an activity or a state that has continued for a period of time, from a point in the past until the present. Time markers for this idea are: for (with the meaning “time up to now”) and since.

I have lived in Canada. Have you been to the bank already? (It appears that you have. Already here is used in affirmatively oriented question?) Have you been to the bank yet? (I really don’t know. Yet is used in a completely open question). The Present Perfect is also used in temporal and conditional clauses. I will return your book on Monday when (or if) I’ve read it.

I’ve known her for many years. We’ve been friends since 1965. Since I’ve been here, nobody has come. We use Present Perfect with today, this morning, this evening, etc. when these periods are not finished at the time of speaking. Have you seen Kate this morning? (Morning lasts from midnight till about 13:00.) A Present Simple is sometimes used with since to talk about changes and in the structure It is...since... She looks more beautiful since her pregnancy. How long is it since you saw her? It’s a long time since dinner. 48

In English the Present Perfect is essentially a present tense but it also expresses the effect of past actions and activities on the present. News is often announced in the Present Perfect because events are emphasized. The details are usually given in the Past Simple. Present Perfect means “before now.” The Present Perfect does not express when an action happened. If we say the exact time, we have to use the Past Simple. Present Perfect is used with just to talk about a recently completed action (the time is still very close to the present). He has just come in. Present Perfect is used for recent actions with a present result. The evidence is in the present. It often expresses the present importance of a past event. It’s often used in giving news. 49

Present Perfect is used for actions, which began in the past and still take place or are happening now, especially when it is mentioned how long they have lasted. It also expresses experience that happened some time in your life. It is experience that is important, not when it happened. It is unfinished past. I have lived here all my life. I have been to Canada. (I still remember.) How long have you been here for? (Since when...?) How long are you here for? (Until when...?) Present Perfect is used for recent actions when the time is indefinite. Negatives and questions may use yet.

or continuing actions or states in the past. Present Perfect is used for actions and events that started in the past and still have some connection with the present. We use it to talk about recent actions or events when no fixed time is given (for example, in news reports). We use it for actions, which have results in the present. We often use it to state experiences or lack of them in somebody’s life so far, often with yet, so far, ever, for, and since. In American English the following sentences are correct: Did you hear the news? There was an earthquake. Your father just called you. I already had breakfast.

Have you seen the film? No, I haven’t seen it yet. Present Perfect is used to relate experience (from the past up till now). It is often used with ever or never. Have you ever seen a whale? No, I’ve never seen one. The Present Perfect connects the past and the present. Oh, no! She’s done that again! The Present Perfect can sometimes be used after when, after, before, as soon as, until, till. I’ll wait here until the doctor arrives / has arrived. The Present Perfect expresses an action that happened repeatedly before now. I’ve failed my driving test twice.

PAST SIMPLE VERSUS PRESENT PERFECT Past Simple is used for completed actions that started and finished in the past. It is used for an activity that has stopped. We talk about habitual 50

51

Present Perfect is used for actions, which began in the past and still take place or are happening now, especially when it is mentioned how long they have lasted. It also expresses experience that happened some time in your life. It is experience that is important, not when it happened. It is unfinished past. I have lived here all my life. I have been to Canada. (I still remember.) How long have you been here for? (Since when...?) How long are you here for? (Until when...?) Present Perfect is used for recent actions when the time is indefinite. Negatives and questions may use yet.

or continuing actions or states in the past. Present Perfect is used for actions and events that started in the past and still have some connection with the present. We use it to talk about recent actions or events when no fixed time is given (for example, in news reports). We use it for actions, which have results in the present. We often use it to state experiences or lack of them in somebody’s life so far, often with yet, so far, ever, for, and since. In American English the following sentences are correct: Did you hear the news? There was an earthquake. Your father just called you. I already had breakfast.

Have you seen the film? No, I haven’t seen it yet. Present Perfect is used to relate experience (from the past up till now). It is often used with ever or never. Have you ever seen a whale? No, I’ve never seen one. The Present Perfect connects the past and the present. Oh, no! She’s done that again! The Present Perfect can sometimes be used after when, after, before, as soon as, until, till. I’ll wait here until the doctor arrives / has arrived. The Present Perfect expresses an action that happened repeatedly before now. I’ve failed my driving test twice.

PAST SIMPLE VERSUS PRESENT PERFECT Past Simple is used for completed actions that started and finished in the past. It is used for an activity that has stopped. We talk about habitual 50

51

Past Perfect

The Past Perfect expresses an action that was expected to occur in the past. I had hoped to know about the job before now.

The Past Perfect is used to make it clear which event or state in a sequence preceded which; it can be regarded as a transference either (a) of the Present Perfect to the past, or (b) of the past to a previous past. In this case the verb describes an action before the past and continuing up until that point in the past or at least having a kind of past relevance. We only use the Past Perfect when there are two consecutive states or actions and we want to stress that one of them happened before the other. Like the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect has several uses. The first use is to show an action, which was completed before a second time in the past. Common time markers are: already, just, yet, by that time, by Saturday.

This tense is also used to describe a general situation in the past. The house had seemed empty at first.

PAST SIMPLE VERSUS PAST PERFECT The Past Perfect is used to show that a completed action happened before something else in the past. But if the two past actions are close in time, or closely connected, the Past Perfect is not usually used.

We had already had had dinner, when John arrived. Past Perfect is often used after when and after and before the clause starting with before to show that something was completely finished. After I had read the book, I decided to give it as a gift to my friend. I had already done my homework before my friends came. We use Past Perfect when we talk about the past in sentences with this / it / that is the first / second / third / only / best / worst, etc. Jane was the best friend that she had ever had. If the sequence of events is clear, Past Simple is used for both events, usually with before or when (meaning after). She closed the front door before she went upstairs. The mother cooked breakfast when her son got up. Past Simple is often used instead of Past Perfect with the verbs like know or understand. When I knew all the new words, I easily translated the article. 52

53

Past Perfect

The Past Perfect expresses an action that was expected to occur in the past. I had hoped to know about the job before now.

The Past Perfect is used to make it clear which event or state in a sequence preceded which; it can be regarded as a transference either (a) of the Present Perfect to the past, or (b) of the past to a previous past. In this case the verb describes an action before the past and continuing up until that point in the past or at least having a kind of past relevance. We only use the Past Perfect when there are two consecutive states or actions and we want to stress that one of them happened before the other. Like the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect has several uses. The first use is to show an action, which was completed before a second time in the past. Common time markers are: already, just, yet, by that time, by Saturday.

This tense is also used to describe a general situation in the past. The house had seemed empty at first.

PAST SIMPLE VERSUS PAST PERFECT The Past Perfect is used to show that a completed action happened before something else in the past. But if the two past actions are close in time, or closely connected, the Past Perfect is not usually used.

We had already had had dinner, when John arrived. Past Perfect is often used after when and after and before the clause starting with before to show that something was completely finished. After I had read the book, I decided to give it as a gift to my friend. I had already done my homework before my friends came. We use Past Perfect when we talk about the past in sentences with this / it / that is the first / second / third / only / best / worst, etc. Jane was the best friend that she had ever had. If the sequence of events is clear, Past Simple is used for both events, usually with before or when (meaning after). She closed the front door before she went upstairs. The mother cooked breakfast when her son got up. Past Simple is often used instead of Past Perfect with the verbs like know or understand. When I knew all the new words, I easily translated the article. 52

53

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Future Perfect

The Future Perfect is used to talk about an action, which will have happened by a certain point in the future. The Future Perfect has two uses. One is to show a completed action, which happens before a second action in the future. The Future Perfect is used with the action that happens first. The other action is often introduced by a time word such as when, by, or before, and takes a present tense. The mechanics will have checked the car when it leaves the pit. The Future Perfect tense can describe a state, an activity, or a period of time before a second action in the future. Usually two time markers appear in these sentences: one for the length of time, and one for the end point.

This tense is used (with action verbs) for activities or states, that began in the past and have continued to the present, or which have recently stopped but have a result in the present. It looks at the continuing situation itself and there is a connection with now. The speaker is emphasizing the idea of activity in progress, not its completion. Time markers (usually for and since) show the length of time of the activity. This tense is used to talk about permanent or very long-lasting situations. Use this tense if you want to emphasize the duration of a recent event. This tense is mainly used for periods of limited duration that may have continued up to the recent present only. Present Perfect is used for periods of longer duration that are probably still continuing. I have been living in Sochi since 1980. (The activity may have ended in the recent past.) I have been teaching all day. I have taught all my life. This tense is used to talk about long and repeated actions that have finished recently, and which have present results.

He will have run for three hours by the time he finishes. The Future Perfect can also indicate repeated actions within a period of time before a second action in the future. He’ll have clocked a different finishing time every few minutes for two hours when the last runner finishes. The Future Perfect may express the past likely action. Here it is close to the construction “must+Perfect Infinitive” and means probably, likely. You will have read in the newspapers about that event.

FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST This tense expresses a future-as-seen-from-the-past. It can be expressed by “would”, or optional “should” after I or we in British English. 54

You look pale. You’ve been studying too much. He’s a good chess player. He’s been playing chess since he was 6. Sometimes the Present Perfect Progressive contains the idea of a temporary arrangement, which can be changed. I’ve been staying in the hostel so far, but I’m just about to take a furnished apartment. There is a tone of complaint in some examples of this tense. Someone has been eating my sweets. The Present Perfect Progressive relates past activities to the present. It has two main uses: (1) to express unfinished past I’ve been working here for 15 years. 55

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Future Perfect

The Future Perfect is used to talk about an action, which will have happened by a certain point in the future. The Future Perfect has two uses. One is to show a completed action, which happens before a second action in the future. The Future Perfect is used with the action that happens first. The other action is often introduced by a time word such as when, by, or before, and takes a present tense. The mechanics will have checked the car when it leaves the pit. The Future Perfect tense can describe a state, an activity, or a period of time before a second action in the future. Usually two time markers appear in these sentences: one for the length of time, and one for the end point.

This tense is used (with action verbs) for activities or states, that began in the past and have continued to the present, or which have recently stopped but have a result in the present. It looks at the continuing situation itself and there is a connection with now. The speaker is emphasizing the idea of activity in progress, not its completion. Time markers (usually for and since) show the length of time of the activity. This tense is used to talk about permanent or very long-lasting situations. Use this tense if you want to emphasize the duration of a recent event. This tense is mainly used for periods of limited duration that may have continued up to the recent present only. Present Perfect is used for periods of longer duration that are probably still continuing. I have been living in Sochi since 1980. (The activity may have ended in the recent past.) I have been teaching all day. I have taught all my life. This tense is used to talk about long and repeated actions that have finished recently, and which have present results.

He will have run for three hours by the time he finishes. The Future Perfect can also indicate repeated actions within a period of time before a second action in the future. He’ll have clocked a different finishing time every few minutes for two hours when the last runner finishes. The Future Perfect may express the past likely action. Here it is close to the construction “must+Perfect Infinitive” and means probably, likely. You will have read in the newspapers about that event.

FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST This tense expresses a future-as-seen-from-the-past. It can be expressed by “would”, or optional “should” after I or we in British English. 54

You look pale. You’ve been studying too much. He’s a good chess player. He’s been playing chess since he was 6. Sometimes the Present Perfect Progressive contains the idea of a temporary arrangement, which can be changed. I’ve been staying in the hostel so far, but I’m just about to take a furnished apartment. There is a tone of complaint in some examples of this tense. Someone has been eating my sweets. The Present Perfect Progressive relates past activities to the present. It has two main uses: (1) to express unfinished past I’ve been working here for 15 years. 55

It also expresses a temporary activity (usually more temporary actions than expressed by present and past simple). We’ve been living with them for a month (temporary state). I’ve lived here all my life (permanent state). (2) to express the present result of past activities. You look tired. What have you been doing? It often expresses possibly incomplete activity. Who’s been eating my sandwich? The Present Perfect Progressive also expresses an activity, which began in the past and is still continuing. I’ve been learning French for three years. This tense can never be used for intermittent actions because an idea of continuity is implied in it. But if an action is intermittent but has become a habit, the Present Perfect Progressive is used. I’ve been going to the swimming pool ever since I was 7 years old. This tense expresses also general action recently in progress without mentioning the time of it. I’ve been thinking about taking up French next year.

PRESENT PERFECT VERSUS PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

I’ve played football twice this week. I’ve been playing football a lot recently.

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE The Past Perfect Progressive is an application of progressive aspect to the past perfect. It shows that there had been continuous or repeated action before something else in the past. It describes an activity or a state, which began in the past and lasted until a second time in the past. It is used to talk about continued actions, which are interrupted by a Past Simple action. It is also used for descri ptions and to set the scene when telling astory. Use this tense if you want to emphasize the recentness and duration of a continuous activity, which took place before a particular time in the past. It had been snowing for an hour when I started to drive home. 1. The Past Progressive is used to talk about something that was in progress up to the past time we are thinking about. She was very tired. She had been practising karate all day. 2. This tense is used to show that an action was frequently repeated before a past time we are thinking about. He had been annoying her for months. 3. This tense could be used along with the Past Perfect to say about wishes and expectations before a particular time in the past. I had been naturally expecting some trouble coming from those people then.

When I got home, I discovered she had painted the door (definitely finished action). When I got home, I discovered she had been painting the door (she may not have finished the job and / or the paint is still wet). The Present Perfect is used to say how often something has happened (because of the idea of completion).

This tense also describes an action that was expected to occur in the past.

56

57

I had been expecting her change in the attitude.

It also expresses a temporary activity (usually more temporary actions than expressed by present and past simple). We’ve been living with them for a month (temporary state). I’ve lived here all my life (permanent state). (2) to express the present result of past activities. You look tired. What have you been doing? It often expresses possibly incomplete activity. Who’s been eating my sandwich? The Present Perfect Progressive also expresses an activity, which began in the past and is still continuing. I’ve been learning French for three years. This tense can never be used for intermittent actions because an idea of continuity is implied in it. But if an action is intermittent but has become a habit, the Present Perfect Progressive is used. I’ve been going to the swimming pool ever since I was 7 years old. This tense expresses also general action recently in progress without mentioning the time of it. I’ve been thinking about taking up French next year.

PRESENT PERFECT VERSUS PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

I’ve played football twice this week. I’ve been playing football a lot recently.

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE The Past Perfect Progressive is an application of progressive aspect to the past perfect. It shows that there had been continuous or repeated action before something else in the past. It describes an activity or a state, which began in the past and lasted until a second time in the past. It is used to talk about continued actions, which are interrupted by a Past Simple action. It is also used for descri ptions and to set the scene when telling astory. Use this tense if you want to emphasize the recentness and duration of a continuous activity, which took place before a particular time in the past. It had been snowing for an hour when I started to drive home. 1. The Past Progressive is used to talk about something that was in progress up to the past time we are thinking about. She was very tired. She had been practising karate all day. 2. This tense is used to show that an action was frequently repeated before a past time we are thinking about. He had been annoying her for months. 3. This tense could be used along with the Past Perfect to say about wishes and expectations before a particular time in the past. I had been naturally expecting some trouble coming from those people then.

When I got home, I discovered she had painted the door (definitely finished action). When I got home, I discovered she had been painting the door (she may not have finished the job and / or the paint is still wet). The Present Perfect is used to say how often something has happened (because of the idea of completion).

This tense also describes an action that was expected to occur in the past.

56

57

I had been expecting her change in the attitude.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE Durative verbs in this tense involve a beginning, a period of time, and end point. They relate to another time in the future. The two markers are usually required in this time picture, one for the duration of the time period and one to mark its end point. They will have been working for three hours at that time. When punctual verbs are used in this tense, they indicate repeated action within a time period. As many as three markers can be used: one for frequency, one for duration, and one for the end point. They will have been calling for help every few minutes for several hours by the time the fire is out.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IN THE PAST This tense is rarely used and expresses a future-as-seen-from-the-past and can be expressed by “would” or “should” after I and we in British English.

Passive Voice

Passive Voice is usually used when people think about what is done to the person or thing, not about what they do. In a described action it is not so important who or what did the action. We don’t know or there is no need to say who is the “doer of the action.” The action is more important than the person who does it. Consequently by and the agent are put in only when they are absolutely necessary to the meaning. It is more widely used than in Russian. Passive constructions can help us to go on talking about the same thing in cases where an active verb would need an unwanted new subject. The subject of a passive verb corresponds to the object of an active verb. Passive Voice is not used with intransitive verbs (live, etc), link-verbs (be, become, etc), and verbs have (meaning hold, possess) and lack (not have). Prepositions by or with are often used in passive constructions. We can use “by+noun” to say who was the direct agent of an action. By is also used to show the actual cause of the event, it is used for the instrument when the agent is remote. He was knocked down by a car. (Driver is the remote agent, it was the car that really hit the man.) By is also used for the author, general agent or organization, natural phenomenon and also in scientific texts to introduce abstract notions, substances, relationshi ps, elements of grammar, etc. You can use by to mention the method by using an “-ing” form after by. You can improve your English by working abroad in the summer. With is used for the instrument involving direct agent or a doer. Here you mention something that the agent used to perform an action. It answers the question: How is / was it done? The lion was killed with a gun. (A certain person killed it with a gun.)

58

59

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE Durative verbs in this tense involve a beginning, a period of time, and end point. They relate to another time in the future. The two markers are usually required in this time picture, one for the duration of the time period and one to mark its end point. They will have been working for three hours at that time. When punctual verbs are used in this tense, they indicate repeated action within a time period. As many as three markers can be used: one for frequency, one for duration, and one for the end point. They will have been calling for help every few minutes for several hours by the time the fire is out.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE IN THE PAST This tense is rarely used and expresses a future-as-seen-from-the-past and can be expressed by “would” or “should” after I and we in British English.

Passive Voice

Passive Voice is usually used when people think about what is done to the person or thing, not about what they do. In a described action it is not so important who or what did the action. We don’t know or there is no need to say who is the “doer of the action.” The action is more important than the person who does it. Consequently by and the agent are put in only when they are absolutely necessary to the meaning. It is more widely used than in Russian. Passive constructions can help us to go on talking about the same thing in cases where an active verb would need an unwanted new subject. The subject of a passive verb corresponds to the object of an active verb. Passive Voice is not used with intransitive verbs (live, etc), link-verbs (be, become, etc), and verbs have (meaning hold, possess) and lack (not have). Prepositions by or with are often used in passive constructions. We can use “by+noun” to say who was the direct agent of an action. By is also used to show the actual cause of the event, it is used for the instrument when the agent is remote. He was knocked down by a car. (Driver is the remote agent, it was the car that really hit the man.) By is also used for the author, general agent or organization, natural phenomenon and also in scientific texts to introduce abstract notions, substances, relationshi ps, elements of grammar, etc. You can use by to mention the method by using an “-ing” form after by. You can improve your English by working abroad in the summer. With is used for the instrument involving direct agent or a doer. Here you mention something that the agent used to perform an action. It answers the question: How is / was it done? The lion was killed with a gun. (A certain person killed it with a gun.)

58

59

Passive constructions are mostly used with three types of verbs. The first two groups concern ditransitive verbs, the ones that may have both direct and indirect objects in an active clause. The first group consists of the verbs, which may have one indirect object followed by a direct one in constructions of a type give somebody something. They include: give, tell, show, teach, promise, send, lend, sell, refuse, envy, offer, answer, strike, award, forgive, ask. Sentences with such verb constructions can have two passive constructions, except for ask, where only one construction is possible. They told her the truth. The truth was told to her. He was asked a lot of questions. The second group consists of the verbs, which may have direct and indirect object with preposition to in constructions of a type explain something to somebody. They include: explain, buy, sing, read, write, mention, say, dictate, suggest, explain, describe, repeat, address, announce, propose, attribute, communicate, declare, deliver, introduce, prove, ship, submit. Sentences with such verb constructions can have only one passive construction. They can’t have the structure with the person as a subject. Only direct object can become the subject of such sentences. The letter was dictated to me. Constructions of such type with give, allow, offer, show, tell can have two passives. The third group consists of intransitive phrasal verbs. The most frequently used verbs are: account for, agree upon, allude to, approve of, arrive at, call for, call on, call at, comment upon, depend on, dispose of, hear of, insist on, interfere with, laugh at, look at, look for, look after, look down, look up, listen to, operate on, provide for, refer to, rely on, speak to, speak of (about), send for, think of. In passive structures, “verb + preposition” groups stay together.

play around with, talk down to. Passives are also used with: take care of, find fault with, lose sight of, put an end to, pay attention to. The singer is never lost sight of. There are several rather formal complex passive structures. (1) Active object compliment is replaced by passive subject complement. The boy considered her a liar. She was considered a liar. People call him lucky. He is called lucky by people. (2) Structure with introductory it. This structure is often used in news reports with verbs: think, believe, expect, etc. It is thought that the news will be announced today. (3) “Subject + passive verb + infinitive” with verbs like: is thought / believed / said / asked / seen / made etc. to... He was made to tell the truth. (4) Structure with there is: There is thought / said etc. to be... There were thought to be no people living there. (5) “Be supposed to” may mean it is supposed to... = it is said to... The play is supposed to be very good. (6) It is used to talk about planned, arranged or expected actions. I’m supposed to meet her at 5.

She was operated on in August. A few phrasal verbs with an adverb and a preposition can be used in the passive constructions. The most frequently used of them are: do away with, live up to, look down on, look forward to, look out for, look up to, 60

“Be not supposed to do something” = it is not allowed or advised to do it. You’re not supposed to lift any heavy subjects. 61

Passive constructions are mostly used with three types of verbs. The first two groups concern ditransitive verbs, the ones that may have both direct and indirect objects in an active clause. The first group consists of the verbs, which may have one indirect object followed by a direct one in constructions of a type give somebody something. They include: give, tell, show, teach, promise, send, lend, sell, refuse, envy, offer, answer, strike, award, forgive, ask. Sentences with such verb constructions can have two passive constructions, except for ask, where only one construction is possible. They told her the truth. The truth was told to her. He was asked a lot of questions. The second group consists of the verbs, which may have direct and indirect object with preposition to in constructions of a type explain something to somebody. They include: explain, buy, sing, read, write, mention, say, dictate, suggest, explain, describe, repeat, address, announce, propose, attribute, communicate, declare, deliver, introduce, prove, ship, submit. Sentences with such verb constructions can have only one passive construction. They can’t have the structure with the person as a subject. Only direct object can become the subject of such sentences. The letter was dictated to me. Constructions of such type with give, allow, offer, show, tell can have two passives. The third group consists of intransitive phrasal verbs. The most frequently used verbs are: account for, agree upon, allude to, approve of, arrive at, call for, call on, call at, comment upon, depend on, dispose of, hear of, insist on, interfere with, laugh at, look at, look for, look after, look down, look up, listen to, operate on, provide for, refer to, rely on, speak to, speak of (about), send for, think of. In passive structures, “verb + preposition” groups stay together.

play around with, talk down to. Passives are also used with: take care of, find fault with, lose sight of, put an end to, pay attention to. The singer is never lost sight of. There are several rather formal complex passive structures. (1) Active object compliment is replaced by passive subject complement. The boy considered her a liar. She was considered a liar. People call him lucky. He is called lucky by people. (2) Structure with introductory it. This structure is often used in news reports with verbs: think, believe, expect, etc. It is thought that the news will be announced today. (3) “Subject + passive verb + infinitive” with verbs like: is thought / believed / said / asked / seen / made etc. to... He was made to tell the truth. (4) Structure with there is: There is thought / said etc. to be... There were thought to be no people living there. (5) “Be supposed to” may mean it is supposed to... = it is said to... The play is supposed to be very good. (6) It is used to talk about planned, arranged or expected actions. I’m supposed to meet her at 5.

She was operated on in August. A few phrasal verbs with an adverb and a preposition can be used in the passive constructions. The most frequently used of them are: do away with, live up to, look down on, look forward to, look out for, look up to, 60

“Be not supposed to do something” = it is not allowed or advised to do it. You’re not supposed to lift any heavy subjects. 61

Some English transitive verbs are intransitive in Russian. The most often used of them are: affect, answer, attend, enjoy, follow, join, need, watch, believe, enter, help. We often use passive voice when we don’t want to mention the agent of the action. Ergative verbs, the verbs, which can have the same thing as their object when transitive, or their subject when intransitive, are also used to avoid mentioning of the performer of an action. These verbs which are usually followed by an object (for example, sell, cut, wash) can be used without an object and take on a passive meaning. She opened the door. The door opened. Here are some other verbs of this sort: drive, steer (a car), sail (a boat), wind up (a boat), lock, unlock (a door), read well, easily (a book). Sometimes “get” is used instead of “be” in the passive. Nobody got hurt in the incident. “Get” is used only when things happen or change, especially if they are unplanned or unexpected. A few transitive verbs refer to states rather than actions. The agent is put after the preposition with. They are: cram, crowd, decorate, fill, ornament, throng. A room was crowded with people. However, we use by with the following verbs describing a state: conceal, exceed, illuminate, inhibit, occupy, overshadow. The room was occupied by two big beds. There are also several verbs, which are used with preposition in. They are: contain, cover, embody, include, involve, subsume. The verb cover can be used with by, with, or in. The walls of the room were covered in colored posters. We must differentiate between “-ed” as adjective and “-ed” as pure passive. Only a small number of -ed partici ples can be modified by 62

very or too or can be compared. These few include tired, interested, worried, etc. I am very worried about you (adjective). We were worried by mosquitoes all night (passive). The Passive Voice can be used with all the verbs that fit into complex object pattern (I heard the bell ring) except have, notice and watch. “Let” can be used in passive only if followed by monosyllable verb (She was let go), with longer phrase we must replace it by “allow” or “permit.” The passive occurs with all the verbs that fit into subjunctive pattern (We recommend (that) he (should) go) except desire, disagree, insist. The passive can be formed with all the verbs having two objects, which fit into a pattern (I showed you the way) except call, cost, cut, fix, get, mean, reach, wish. The passive is possible with verbs that have only one indirect object (I showed you) except grant and owe. The Passive Voice can be used with all verbs in patterns (He gave a book to George; He provided books for George) except cost, reach, wish. A passive is possible with all the verbs in the pattern (He explained (to us) that he was on a diet) except complain and remark. Passive is possible with verbs that fit the pattern (We found the house empty) except have and wish. We cannot form a passive in sentences where indirect subject can be changed into a phrase with the preposition “for.” Jane fixed Bob a drink. Jane fixed a drink for Bob.

Some English transitive verbs are intransitive in Russian. The most often used of them are: affect, answer, attend, enjoy, follow, join, need, watch, believe, enter, help. We often use passive voice when we don’t want to mention the agent of the action. Ergative verbs, the verbs, which can have the same thing as their object when transitive, or their subject when intransitive, are also used to avoid mentioning of the performer of an action. These verbs which are usually followed by an object (for example, sell, cut, wash) can be used without an object and take on a passive meaning. She opened the door. The door opened. Here are some other verbs of this sort: drive, steer (a car), sail (a boat), wind up (a boat), lock, unlock (a door), read well, easily (a book). Sometimes “get” is used instead of “be” in the passive. Nobody got hurt in the incident. “Get” is used only when things happen or change, especially if they are unplanned or unexpected. A few transitive verbs refer to states rather than actions. The agent is put after the preposition with. They are: cram, crowd, decorate, fill, ornament, throng. A room was crowded with people. However, we use by with the following verbs describing a state: conceal, exceed, illuminate, inhibit, occupy, overshadow. The room was occupied by two big beds. There are also several verbs, which are used with preposition in. They are: contain, cover, embody, include, involve, subsume. The verb cover can be used with by, with, or in. The walls of the room were covered in colored posters. We must differentiate between “-ed” as adjective and “-ed” as pure passive. Only a small number of -ed partici ples can be modified by 62

very or too or can be compared. These few include tired, interested, worried, etc. I am very worried about you (adjective). We were worried by mosquitoes all night (passive). The Passive Voice can be used with all the verbs that fit into complex object pattern (I heard the bell ring) except have, notice and watch. “Let” can be used in passive only if followed by monosyllable verb (She was let go), with longer phrase we must replace it by “allow” or “permit.” The passive occurs with all the verbs that fit into subjunctive pattern (We recommend (that) he (should) go) except desire, disagree, insist. The passive can be formed with all the verbs having two objects, which fit into a pattern (I showed you the way) except call, cost, cut, fix, get, mean, reach, wish. The passive is possible with verbs that have only one indirect object (I showed you) except grant and owe. The Passive Voice can be used with all verbs in patterns (He gave a book to George; He provided books for George) except cost, reach, wish. A passive is possible with all the verbs in the pattern (He explained (to us) that he was on a diet) except complain and remark. Passive is possible with verbs that fit the pattern (We found the house empty) except have and wish. We cannot form a passive in sentences where indirect subject can be changed into a phrase with the preposition “for.” Jane fixed Bob a drink. Jane fixed a drink for Bob.

Structures after Verbs, Adjectives, and Nouns

VERBS WITH TWO OBJECTS In sentences with such verbs the indirect object often refers to a person and comes before the direct one. The following verbs are mostly used in this way: bring, buy, cost, do, give, leave, lend, make, offer, owe, pass, pay, produce, promise, read, refuse, send, show, take, tell, write. If the indirect object follows the direct one, we must use a preposition, usually to or for. She brought the tray to him. The father got the bear for his friend. Explain, say, suggest, and describe do not have the indirect object first. The teacher explained a new grammar rule to us. We cannot say: The teacher explained us a new grammar rule. If both objects are expressed by personal pronouns, the usual pattern is to use direct object first. Give it to me. Send them to her.

get on, get out of, get over, get through, get up, give up, go over, grow up, hang up, have on, keep out (of), kick out (of), look after, look out (for), Look out!, look over, look up, make up, name after, name for, pass away, pick out, pick up, put back, put off, put on, run into, run across, show up, shut off, take after, tear up, think over, throw out, throw away, try on, turn down, turn off, turn on, turn out, turn up. There are four types of verb phrases with phrasal verbs: — “verb+preposition+noun” phrase The thieves broke into our house last night. — “verb+adverb particle”: particle always stressed; no passive. The war broke out suddenly. — “verb+object+particle” or “verb+particle+object”: particle stressed when it follows the object. I don’t want to break up the party, but I really have to go. — “verb+particle+preposition+noun” phrase: particle stressed. We have run out of bread. An adverb particle must go after a pronoun object. Turn it off, please.

PHRASAL VERBS We often use verbs with the following prepositions: after, at, during, for, from, into, of, out of, with, without. The following adverbs (particles) are also found after verbs: ahead, aside, away, back, forward, home, out. Sometimes both prepositions and particles are used after verbs: about, across, along, (a)round, before, behind, by, down, in, inside, near, off, on, outside, over, past, through, under, up. These verbs are very common in colloquial speech. Here is the list of the most popular phrasal verbs: bring up, call back, call on, catch up with, check in, check out, come across, drop by (in, on), drop out (of), fill in, get back from, get in(into), get off,

Here are some more popular phrasal verbs: look after, like, through, up to, at, on, out, over, up; take after, away, back, down, in, off, on, out, over, up; put away, down, forward, in, off, on, out, through, put something up, put up with; bring about, back, down, in, on, out, round, up; set back, down, in, off, out, up; stand by, for, in, out, up to; run across, away, down, out, over, up; come across, back, down, in, into, off, on, out, round, to, up, down with, up with; get away, by, in, off, on, out, over, round, through, up, away with, on with, out of, round to; turn against, away, back, down, into, off, on, out, over, to, up; see off, through, to; give away, in, out, up; break away, down, in(to), off, out, out of, through, up.

64

65

Structures after Verbs, Adjectives, and Nouns

VERBS WITH TWO OBJECTS In sentences with such verbs the indirect object often refers to a person and comes before the direct one. The following verbs are mostly used in this way: bring, buy, cost, do, give, leave, lend, make, offer, owe, pass, pay, produce, promise, read, refuse, send, show, take, tell, write. If the indirect object follows the direct one, we must use a preposition, usually to or for. She brought the tray to him. The father got the bear for his friend. Explain, say, suggest, and describe do not have the indirect object first. The teacher explained a new grammar rule to us. We cannot say: The teacher explained us a new grammar rule. If both objects are expressed by personal pronouns, the usual pattern is to use direct object first. Give it to me. Send them to her.

get on, get out of, get over, get through, get up, give up, go over, grow up, hang up, have on, keep out (of), kick out (of), look after, look out (for), Look out!, look over, look up, make up, name after, name for, pass away, pick out, pick up, put back, put off, put on, run into, run across, show up, shut off, take after, tear up, think over, throw out, throw away, try on, turn down, turn off, turn on, turn out, turn up. There are four types of verb phrases with phrasal verbs: — “verb+preposition+noun” phrase The thieves broke into our house last night. — “verb+adverb particle”: particle always stressed; no passive. The war broke out suddenly. — “verb+object+particle” or “verb+particle+object”: particle stressed when it follows the object. I don’t want to break up the party, but I really have to go. — “verb+particle+preposition+noun” phrase: particle stressed. We have run out of bread. An adverb particle must go after a pronoun object. Turn it off, please.

PHRASAL VERBS We often use verbs with the following prepositions: after, at, during, for, from, into, of, out of, with, without. The following adverbs (particles) are also found after verbs: ahead, aside, away, back, forward, home, out. Sometimes both prepositions and particles are used after verbs: about, across, along, (a)round, before, behind, by, down, in, inside, near, off, on, outside, over, past, through, under, up. These verbs are very common in colloquial speech. Here is the list of the most popular phrasal verbs: bring up, call back, call on, catch up with, check in, check out, come across, drop by (in, on), drop out (of), fill in, get back from, get in(into), get off,

Here are some more popular phrasal verbs: look after, like, through, up to, at, on, out, over, up; take after, away, back, down, in, off, on, out, over, up; put away, down, forward, in, off, on, out, through, put something up, put up with; bring about, back, down, in, on, out, round, up; set back, down, in, off, out, up; stand by, for, in, out, up to; run across, away, down, out, over, up; come across, back, down, in, into, off, on, out, round, to, up, down with, up with; get away, by, in, off, on, out, over, round, through, up, away with, on with, out of, round to; turn against, away, back, down, into, off, on, out, over, to, up; see off, through, to; give away, in, out, up; break away, down, in(to), off, out, out of, through, up.

64

65

INFINITIVES WITH AND WITHOUT “TO” There are simple, progressive, perfect and passive infinitives. Perfect Infinitives have similar meanings as perfect or past tenses. In Active Voice we have the following forms: to do, to be doing, to have done, to have been doing. In Passive Voice the verb forms are: to be done, to be being done, to have been done. Infinitive is often used for purpose “in action = in order to.” I come here to study French.

order, permit, persuade, recommend, remind, require, teach, tell, want, warn, would like, would prefer, would love, would hate. The following verbs may be followed by gerund as well: advise, recommend, encourage, allow, permit, forbid. An important function of the “to + infinitive” is to indicate a future action or event. The best things are still to come. “Be to” can also express a command or prohibition regarding future actions.

We use the infinitive without “to” after the modal verbs can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will and would, and after had better and needn’t. “To” is absent also in the structures with Why (not)...? The bare infinitive also follows: had best, would (or had) rather, would sooner and might (just) as well. You’d better stop crying.

You are not to go there. The idea of something that is “to come” is often apparent in complex object constructions. I expect to see them tonight.

Verbs that are followed by “to + infinitive” include the following: ache, advise, afford, agree, aim, allow, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, beg, care, cause, challenge, choose, claim, command, compel, consent, dare, decide, demand, deserve, desire, disdain, enable, encourage, endeavour, expect, fail, fight, forbid, forget, grow, happen, help, hesitate, hope, instruct, intend, invite, learn, live, long, manage, mean, need, neglect, offer, opt, order, pay, plan, pledge, prepare, pretend, promise, prove, reckon, refuse, remember, remind, resolve, scorn, seek, seem, survive, swear, teach, tell, tend, threaten, urge, venture, volunteer, vow, wait, want, warn, wish. Transitive verbs that are followed by the bare infinitives are: see, hear, feel, watch (all physical perceptions), and make / have (=force), help, know (usually in perfect forms), let and an old-fashioned bid. In passive forms of these verbs only “to + infinitive” is possible.

The complex object constructions on this pattern can be made with the following verbs: advise, allow, appoint, ask, assist, beg, beseech, bribe, cause, challenge, charge, command, compel, condemn, dare, direct, drive, enable, encourage, entitle, expect, forbid, force, get, would hate, help, instruct, intend, invite, lead, like, love, mean, need, oblige, order, permit, persuade, prefer, press, promise, recommend, remind, require, sentence, teach, tell, tempt, train, trouble, trust, urge, want, warn, wish. We usually subdivide all these verbs, which express action, not state into the groups of complex object verbs: Verbs expressing a wish: want, wish, desire, should (would) like, like, dislike, hate. We sometimes use want with present partici ple to express continuous action. I don’t want you straining your back.

I’ve never known you lose your temper before. In the constructions when to + infinitive is used after the object (I asked her to come over), the following verbs are used: advise, allow, ask, beg, can’t bear, cause, convince, enable, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get (= persuade, arrange for), help, invite, leave, mean (= intend), need,

Verbs of physical perceptions: see, watch, observe, notice, hear, feel, sense, listen (to), smell, taste, etc. We can use bare infinitive and present partici ple after these verbs. Consecutive actions are expressed by infinitives, while simultaneous actions are expressed by present partici ple.

66

67

INFINITIVES WITH AND WITHOUT “TO” There are simple, progressive, perfect and passive infinitives. Perfect Infinitives have similar meanings as perfect or past tenses. In Active Voice we have the following forms: to do, to be doing, to have done, to have been doing. In Passive Voice the verb forms are: to be done, to be being done, to have been done. Infinitive is often used for purpose “in action = in order to.” I come here to study French.

order, permit, persuade, recommend, remind, require, teach, tell, want, warn, would like, would prefer, would love, would hate. The following verbs may be followed by gerund as well: advise, recommend, encourage, allow, permit, forbid. An important function of the “to + infinitive” is to indicate a future action or event. The best things are still to come. “Be to” can also express a command or prohibition regarding future actions.

We use the infinitive without “to” after the modal verbs can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will and would, and after had better and needn’t. “To” is absent also in the structures with Why (not)...? The bare infinitive also follows: had best, would (or had) rather, would sooner and might (just) as well. You’d better stop crying.

You are not to go there. The idea of something that is “to come” is often apparent in complex object constructions. I expect to see them tonight.

Verbs that are followed by “to + infinitive” include the following: ache, advise, afford, agree, aim, allow, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, beg, care, cause, challenge, choose, claim, command, compel, consent, dare, decide, demand, deserve, desire, disdain, enable, encourage, endeavour, expect, fail, fight, forbid, forget, grow, happen, help, hesitate, hope, instruct, intend, invite, learn, live, long, manage, mean, need, neglect, offer, opt, order, pay, plan, pledge, prepare, pretend, promise, prove, reckon, refuse, remember, remind, resolve, scorn, seek, seem, survive, swear, teach, tell, tend, threaten, urge, venture, volunteer, vow, wait, want, warn, wish. Transitive verbs that are followed by the bare infinitives are: see, hear, feel, watch (all physical perceptions), and make / have (=force), help, know (usually in perfect forms), let and an old-fashioned bid. In passive forms of these verbs only “to + infinitive” is possible.

The complex object constructions on this pattern can be made with the following verbs: advise, allow, appoint, ask, assist, beg, beseech, bribe, cause, challenge, charge, command, compel, condemn, dare, direct, drive, enable, encourage, entitle, expect, forbid, force, get, would hate, help, instruct, intend, invite, lead, like, love, mean, need, oblige, order, permit, persuade, prefer, press, promise, recommend, remind, require, sentence, teach, tell, tempt, train, trouble, trust, urge, want, warn, wish. We usually subdivide all these verbs, which express action, not state into the groups of complex object verbs: Verbs expressing a wish: want, wish, desire, should (would) like, like, dislike, hate. We sometimes use want with present partici ple to express continuous action. I don’t want you straining your back.

I’ve never known you lose your temper before. In the constructions when to + infinitive is used after the object (I asked her to come over), the following verbs are used: advise, allow, ask, beg, can’t bear, cause, convince, enable, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get (= persuade, arrange for), help, invite, leave, mean (= intend), need,

Verbs of physical perceptions: see, watch, observe, notice, hear, feel, sense, listen (to), smell, taste, etc. We can use bare infinitive and present partici ple after these verbs. Consecutive actions are expressed by infinitives, while simultaneous actions are expressed by present partici ple.

66

67

I heard the window open and shut. I could hear people singing and laughing in the bar. Verbs expressing a supposition: expect, think, believe, suppose, consider, report, find, know, suspect, understand, mean, declare, etc. Either of two passive constructions can be used to show that something is supposed to be true. John is said to be very red. It is said that John is very red. John is thought to have robbed a bank. Verbs expressing an order, request or permission: order, command, ask (for), allow, tell, cause (= force), make, get, let. Passives are often used after these verbs. Phrasal verbs: count upon, rely on, wait for, etc. The use of complex object after expect and wait is not obligatory.

Use “bring” for things coming to where we are and “take” for things going somewhere else, “fetch” means go somewhere else and come back with something. These English verbs are used with an object: allow, order, advise, enable, inform, remind, ask, fail. The commander ordered his men to search the prisoner / ordered the prisoner to be searched. Generally speaking “do” is used with nouns expressing work, a duty or an obligation (do homework / the washing-up, etc.). “Make” with nouns often means to produce or create something new, which didn’t exist before (make a cake / fire / plan / mistake, etc.).

“-ING” FORMS

Robert considers me to be his friend (but regards me as one).

The “-ing” suffix,added to the verb stem,forms both the Ðresent Ðartici ple and the Gerund. A gerund is an “-ing” form used as a noun; a present partici ple shows action that is contemporary with the main verb and may be used as an adjective. Verbs of two syllables double the final consonant before “-ing” and “-ed” when the vowel of the final syllable is stressed and also is spelled with a single letter (occur, occurred, occurring). Exceptions in British English are travel, signal, and worshi p, which double the final consonant. There are the following “-ing” forms in Active Voice: doing, having done. In Passive Voice we have being done and having being done. The gerund can be the subject or object of the sentence. It can have an object of its own and also a complement. It can have a determiner (the, this, my, etc) or a possessive ‘s before “-ing” form. It can follow prepositions. By is used to express method or means of doing something; for is used to give the purpose of something; on doing something means when / as soon as you do something. Gerunds can have a plural. Gerund follows after the following verbs: admit, adore, advise, antici pate, appreciate, avoid, can’t bear, begin, burst out, can’t help, cease, celebrate, commence, complete, consider, contemplate, continue, defer, delay, deny, describe, detest, discontinue, discuss, dislike, dread, dream of, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, explain, (can’t) face, fancy, favour, feel like, finish, forget, forgive, give up, go, go on, hate, can’t help, imagine, intend, involve, keep (on), carry on, leave off, lie, like,

68

69

I expected her to come at 12. I expected that she would come at 12. In I hear the bell ring pattern “hear” is replaceable by bid, feel, have, help, know, let, make, notice, see, watch. Here are some adjectives and partici ples that are often used with “to + infinitive” in the pattern (I am glad to meet you). They are: glad, happy, pleased, delighted, lucky, content, fortunate, sorry, sad, upset, disappointed, proud, ashamed, ready, prepared, eager, willing, careful, reluctant, afraid, surprised, astonished to, shocked to, anxious, certain, likely, right, wrong. Some nouns can be followed by infinitives: decision, need, plan, time, wish. After an adjective or a noun, if an infinitive needs its own subject, this is introduced by for. This structure is used for possible, necessary, important or frequent action. The best thing is for you to go now. It is important for there to be money for everything. She’s easy (for people) to amuse. Don’t use “as” after the word consider.

I heard the window open and shut. I could hear people singing and laughing in the bar. Verbs expressing a supposition: expect, think, believe, suppose, consider, report, find, know, suspect, understand, mean, declare, etc. Either of two passive constructions can be used to show that something is supposed to be true. John is said to be very red. It is said that John is very red. John is thought to have robbed a bank. Verbs expressing an order, request or permission: order, command, ask (for), allow, tell, cause (= force), make, get, let. Passives are often used after these verbs. Phrasal verbs: count upon, rely on, wait for, etc. The use of complex object after expect and wait is not obligatory.

Use “bring” for things coming to where we are and “take” for things going somewhere else, “fetch” means go somewhere else and come back with something. These English verbs are used with an object: allow, order, advise, enable, inform, remind, ask, fail. The commander ordered his men to search the prisoner / ordered the prisoner to be searched. Generally speaking “do” is used with nouns expressing work, a duty or an obligation (do homework / the washing-up, etc.). “Make” with nouns often means to produce or create something new, which didn’t exist before (make a cake / fire / plan / mistake, etc.).

“-ING” FORMS

Robert considers me to be his friend (but regards me as one).

The “-ing” suffix,added to the verb stem,forms both the Ðresent Ðartici ple and the Gerund. A gerund is an “-ing” form used as a noun; a present partici ple shows action that is contemporary with the main verb and may be used as an adjective. Verbs of two syllables double the final consonant before “-ing” and “-ed” when the vowel of the final syllable is stressed and also is spelled with a single letter (occur, occurred, occurring). Exceptions in British English are travel, signal, and worshi p, which double the final consonant. There are the following “-ing” forms in Active Voice: doing, having done. In Passive Voice we have being done and having being done. The gerund can be the subject or object of the sentence. It can have an object of its own and also a complement. It can have a determiner (the, this, my, etc) or a possessive ‘s before “-ing” form. It can follow prepositions. By is used to express method or means of doing something; for is used to give the purpose of something; on doing something means when / as soon as you do something. Gerunds can have a plural. Gerund follows after the following verbs: admit, adore, advise, antici pate, appreciate, avoid, can’t bear, begin, burst out, can’t help, cease, celebrate, commence, complete, consider, contemplate, continue, defer, delay, deny, describe, detest, discontinue, discuss, dislike, dread, dream of, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, explain, (can’t) face, fancy, favour, feel like, finish, forget, forgive, give up, go, go on, hate, can’t help, imagine, intend, involve, keep (on), carry on, leave off, lie, like,

68

69

I expected her to come at 12. I expected that she would come at 12. In I hear the bell ring pattern “hear” is replaceable by bid, feel, have, help, know, let, make, notice, see, watch. Here are some adjectives and partici ples that are often used with “to + infinitive” in the pattern (I am glad to meet you). They are: glad, happy, pleased, delighted, lucky, content, fortunate, sorry, sad, upset, disappointed, proud, ashamed, ready, prepared, eager, willing, careful, reluctant, afraid, surprised, astonished to, shocked to, anxious, certain, likely, right, wrong. Some nouns can be followed by infinitives: decision, need, plan, time, wish. After an adjective or a noun, if an infinitive needs its own subject, this is introduced by for. This structure is used for possible, necessary, important or frequent action. The best thing is for you to go now. It is important for there to be money for everything. She’s easy (for people) to amuse. Don’t use “as” after the word consider.

loathe, love, mention, mind, miss, need (= require), omit, postpone, practise, prefer, propose, put off, quit, recall, recollect, recommend, remember, regret, report, require, resent, resist, risk, sit, spend / waste (time), (can’t) stand, start, stop, suggest, tolerate, try, understand, want (= require). We often use “go...v-ing” to talk about sporting and leisure activities. I go shopping every Sunday. Gerund is often used after certain verbs, adjectives, and partici ples with prepositions: accuse of, be afraid of, be angry with, be disappointed at, be good at, be pleased at, be sorry for, be surprised at, be responsible for, be tired of, prevent from, complain of, consist in, persist in, result in, spend in, succeed in, be engaged in, be interested in, agree to, (dis)approve of, speak of, suspect of, hear of, think of, be (in)capable of, be fond of, be proud of, count on, depend on, insist on, rely on, object to, get or be used to, look like, thank for, look forward to, busy, it is (of) no use, it is useless, it is no good, it is (not) worth (while). It needs (wants, requires) doing means It needs to be done.

be followed by a noun or gerund. The gerund can only be used if the subject of both parts of the sentence is the same. Despite winning ascholarshi p,he couldn’t afford to go to university. There is a difference of meaning after certain verbs and adjectives when you use infinitive or gerund. Those verbs and adjectives are: allow, permit, be afraid (of), be ashamed (of), be certain (sure) (of), come, deserve, forget, have, (would) be very interested (keen on) in, like, love, hate, prefer, mean, regret, remember, can’t stand, teach, thank (for), think (about), try, want, need, go on, stop. We use “-ing” form for things people did and infinitive for things people have / had to do with verbs: remember, forget and regret. I still remember meeting my future wife for the first time. Remember to pass my regards to your parents. We use “infinitive” after “go on” for a change to a new activity and “-ing” form for its continuation. The teacher went on to explain a new material. She went on reading the story.

The floor needs sweeping. Gerund is also used to define something after the following nouns: astonishment at, disappointment at, surprise at, apology for, plan for, preparation for, reason for, experience in, interest in, skill in, art of, chance of, objection to, opportunity of, habit of, hope of, idea of, importance of, intention of, means of, method of, necessity of, objection to, pleasure of, possibility of, problem of, process of, right of, way of, difficulty in, thought of. Some verbs can have either gerund or infinitive after them: attempt, begin, bother, can (can’t) afford, can’t bear, can’t risk, can’t stand, can’t help, cease, continue, fear, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, start, be sorry, forget, remember, stop, try, regret, go on. Either the infinitive or a “preposition + v-ing” can follow the verbs agree (on), aim (at) and decide (on), the nouns attempt, pleasure, honour, chance, opportunity, and the adjectives content and determined without any difference in meaning. Adjectives with prepositions always take the gerund as well as most phrasal verbs and verbs with particles. “Despite / in spite of” can only

For “allow” and “permit” we use “infinitive” after object and “-ing” form if there is no object.

70

71

We don’t allow smoking. She doesn’t allow / permit her daughter to smoke. With “stop” if there is a reason for stopping we use “infinitive”, and “-ing” form if activity stops. He stopped taking drugs. He stopped to smoke. With “try” we use “-ing” form for experiments. I tried phoning her regularly in the evening. I need to do something = it is necessary for me to do it. Something needs doing = something needs to be done.

loathe, love, mention, mind, miss, need (= require), omit, postpone, practise, prefer, propose, put off, quit, recall, recollect, recommend, remember, regret, report, require, resent, resist, risk, sit, spend / waste (time), (can’t) stand, start, stop, suggest, tolerate, try, understand, want (= require). We often use “go...v-ing” to talk about sporting and leisure activities. I go shopping every Sunday. Gerund is often used after certain verbs, adjectives, and partici ples with prepositions: accuse of, be afraid of, be angry with, be disappointed at, be good at, be pleased at, be sorry for, be surprised at, be responsible for, be tired of, prevent from, complain of, consist in, persist in, result in, spend in, succeed in, be engaged in, be interested in, agree to, (dis)approve of, speak of, suspect of, hear of, think of, be (in)capable of, be fond of, be proud of, count on, depend on, insist on, rely on, object to, get or be used to, look like, thank for, look forward to, busy, it is (of) no use, it is useless, it is no good, it is (not) worth (while). It needs (wants, requires) doing means It needs to be done.

be followed by a noun or gerund. The gerund can only be used if the subject of both parts of the sentence is the same. Despite winning ascholarshi p,he couldn’t afford to go to university. There is a difference of meaning after certain verbs and adjectives when you use infinitive or gerund. Those verbs and adjectives are: allow, permit, be afraid (of), be ashamed (of), be certain (sure) (of), come, deserve, forget, have, (would) be very interested (keen on) in, like, love, hate, prefer, mean, regret, remember, can’t stand, teach, thank (for), think (about), try, want, need, go on, stop. We use “-ing” form for things people did and infinitive for things people have / had to do with verbs: remember, forget and regret. I still remember meeting my future wife for the first time. Remember to pass my regards to your parents. We use “infinitive” after “go on” for a change to a new activity and “-ing” form for its continuation. The teacher went on to explain a new material. She went on reading the story.

The floor needs sweeping. Gerund is also used to define something after the following nouns: astonishment at, disappointment at, surprise at, apology for, plan for, preparation for, reason for, experience in, interest in, skill in, art of, chance of, objection to, opportunity of, habit of, hope of, idea of, importance of, intention of, means of, method of, necessity of, objection to, pleasure of, possibility of, problem of, process of, right of, way of, difficulty in, thought of. Some verbs can have either gerund or infinitive after them: attempt, begin, bother, can (can’t) afford, can’t bear, can’t risk, can’t stand, can’t help, cease, continue, fear, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, start, be sorry, forget, remember, stop, try, regret, go on. Either the infinitive or a “preposition + v-ing” can follow the verbs agree (on), aim (at) and decide (on), the nouns attempt, pleasure, honour, chance, opportunity, and the adjectives content and determined without any difference in meaning. Adjectives with prepositions always take the gerund as well as most phrasal verbs and verbs with particles. “Despite / in spite of” can only

For “allow” and “permit” we use “infinitive” after object and “-ing” form if there is no object.

70

71

We don’t allow smoking. She doesn’t allow / permit her daughter to smoke. With “stop” if there is a reason for stopping we use “infinitive”, and “-ing” form if activity stops. He stopped taking drugs. He stopped to smoke. With “try” we use “-ing” form for experiments. I tried phoning her regularly in the evening. I need to do something = it is necessary for me to do it. Something needs doing = something needs to be done.

Notice the change of meaning in the following examples: He is afraid to ride a bike. He is afraid of swimming too far. She’s too ashamed to look at her teacher. He’s ashamed of losing his temper. Jane is sure to pass her exam. Jane is sure of passing her exam. John deserves to get this prize. They deserve shooting for that. He had me bring that book. She had us all laughing. I’m very interested to read this book. I’m interested in reading fiction. I meant to tell you that in my next letter. This behaviour will mean your leaving the school immediately. We stand to lose everything. I can’t stand seeing you crying. My mother taught me to knit. She taught me knitting. I’ll thank you to leave me alone. Thank you for coming so soon. I never thought to congratulate him. I never think about getting old.

It is not always easy to differ the present partici ple from the gerund. My neighbour always objects to my / me playing saxophone during the day. But the possessive adjective is necessary when the gerund is the subject of the sentence. Your coming home late wories your parents a lot. It is more important to see the difference of meaning between the gerund and infinitive. Gerund usually describes a developing action. Infinitive usually defines plans for the future while gerund is not connected with it. 72

I prefer traveling (on all occasions). I prefer to travel by car (on this occasion). Present Partici ple is used in complex object structures with the verbs of physical perceptions. I saw her standing there. “Saw” is replaceable in this pattern by catch, discover, feel, find, get, have, hear, keep, leave, listen to, notice, observe, see, set, smell, start, stop, watch, want.

PAST PARTICIPLE It is important to recognize the difference between present and past partici ples. Interested,bored,excited,etc. say how people feel; interesting, boring, exciting, etc. describe the people or things that cause the feelings. Past Partici ple is used with such verbs as like, want, need when action by someone else is required. I want these letters typed by three o’clock. The construction “have / get + object + past partici ple” is used to express arrangement for something to be done by somebody else. I must have my hair cut. This structure can also be used to refer to kinds of experience. He had his house burglarized while he was away on holiday. Some past partici ples, used adjectivally, have more than one meaning. They must not be confused. Past Participle

beloved bent blessed

Adjective, Attributive

beloved / id / bent, bended blessed / id / 73

Adjective, Predicative

beloved bent blest

Notice the change of meaning in the following examples: He is afraid to ride a bike. He is afraid of swimming too far. She’s too ashamed to look at her teacher. He’s ashamed of losing his temper. Jane is sure to pass her exam. Jane is sure of passing her exam. John deserves to get this prize. They deserve shooting for that. He had me bring that book. She had us all laughing. I’m very interested to read this book. I’m interested in reading fiction. I meant to tell you that in my next letter. This behaviour will mean your leaving the school immediately. We stand to lose everything. I can’t stand seeing you crying. My mother taught me to knit. She taught me knitting. I’ll thank you to leave me alone. Thank you for coming so soon. I never thought to congratulate him. I never think about getting old.

It is not always easy to differ the present partici ple from the gerund. My neighbour always objects to my / me playing saxophone during the day. But the possessive adjective is necessary when the gerund is the subject of the sentence. Your coming home late wories your parents a lot. It is more important to see the difference of meaning between the gerund and infinitive. Gerund usually describes a developing action. Infinitive usually defines plans for the future while gerund is not connected with it. 72

I prefer traveling (on all occasions). I prefer to travel by car (on this occasion). Present Partici ple is used in complex object structures with the verbs of physical perceptions. I saw her standing there. “Saw” is replaceable in this pattern by catch, discover, feel, find, get, have, hear, keep, leave, listen to, notice, observe, see, set, smell, start, stop, watch, want.

PAST PARTICIPLE It is important to recognize the difference between present and past partici ples. Interested,bored,excited,etc. say how people feel; interesting, boring, exciting, etc. describe the people or things that cause the feelings. Past Partici ple is used with such verbs as like, want, need when action by someone else is required. I want these letters typed by three o’clock. The construction “have / get + object + past partici ple” is used to express arrangement for something to be done by somebody else. I must have my hair cut. This structure can also be used to refer to kinds of experience. He had his house burglarized while he was away on holiday. Some past partici ples, used adjectivally, have more than one meaning. They must not be confused. Past Participle

beloved bent blessed

Adjective, Attributive

beloved / id / bent, bended blessed / id / 73

Adjective, Predicative

beloved bent blest

bound drunk lit melted rotted shaved shrunk sunk swell strike melt work drink

bounden drunken lighted molten rotten shaven shrunken sunken

bound drunk lit melted rotten shaved shrunk sunk

swelled head (conceited) swollen li p (increased in size) poverty-stricken (very poor) stage-struck (with a strong desire to act on the stage) molten metal (in a liquid state) melted snow (after a thaw) overworked (made to work too hard) overwrought (suffering from stress) a drunken man or a drunk (not a drunk man).

SEQUENCE OF TENSES AND REPORTED SPEECH The tense of the verb in direct speech normally changes when indirect speech is reported as a past event. Present tense becomes past and past tense becomes past perfect. Verbs become more past. There is no verb tense change, if we report something that is a wellknown fact.

He told me that he was leaving soon. When we speak in a fast tempo and repeat direct speech that the other person says he hasn’t heard properly, we don’t make the tense-change as well. I have that book, too. What did you say? I said I have that book, too. The sequence of tenses is often broken in informal speech, newspapers and magazines. Reported speech is used to report to a third person what someone else said. The pronoun, tense and time phrase may all be changed. In reported speech using second and third conditional sentences, the tenses are not changed. The Ðast Simple can usually stay the same in reported speech, or you can change it to the Past Perfect. The change to Ðast Ðerfect is made only when we want to emphasise what the time relations are. Adverbials of perfect tense are usually present in such sentences. They told me he had come back two days before. We should also pay special attention to the change in personal pronouns, possessives and certain adverbials of time and place when we transfer direct speech into indirect. “Time”: now

She didn’t know that water boils at 100°C. The tense-change need not be done, if the speaker wishes to emphasise that the situation (present or future) described in the actual words spoken still exists or will exist and he is sure of that. The adverbials of present and past sentences are often used in such sentences. They said it will be rainy next week. But we don’t keep the original speaker’s tenses if we do not agree with what he / she said, or if we want to show that the ideas do not come from us. 74

immediately / then / at that moment / right away ago before two days ago two days before / two days earlier today that day tomorrow the next day / the following day the day after tomorrow two days later yesterday (on) the previous day / the day before the day before yesterday two days before last night the night before / the previous night last week the week before next year the next year / the following year / the year after 75

bound drunk lit melted rotted shaved shrunk sunk swell strike melt work drink

bounden drunken lighted molten rotten shaven shrunken sunken

bound drunk lit melted rotten shaved shrunk sunk

swelled head (conceited) swollen li p (increased in size) poverty-stricken (very poor) stage-struck (with a strong desire to act on the stage) molten metal (in a liquid state) melted snow (after a thaw) overworked (made to work too hard) overwrought (suffering from stress) a drunken man or a drunk (not a drunk man).

SEQUENCE OF TENSES AND REPORTED SPEECH The tense of the verb in direct speech normally changes when indirect speech is reported as a past event. Present tense becomes past and past tense becomes past perfect. Verbs become more past. There is no verb tense change, if we report something that is a wellknown fact.

He told me that he was leaving soon. When we speak in a fast tempo and repeat direct speech that the other person says he hasn’t heard properly, we don’t make the tense-change as well. I have that book, too. What did you say? I said I have that book, too. The sequence of tenses is often broken in informal speech, newspapers and magazines. Reported speech is used to report to a third person what someone else said. The pronoun, tense and time phrase may all be changed. In reported speech using second and third conditional sentences, the tenses are not changed. The Ðast Simple can usually stay the same in reported speech, or you can change it to the Past Perfect. The change to Ðast Ðerfect is made only when we want to emphasise what the time relations are. Adverbials of perfect tense are usually present in such sentences. They told me he had come back two days before. We should also pay special attention to the change in personal pronouns, possessives and certain adverbials of time and place when we transfer direct speech into indirect. “Time”: now

She didn’t know that water boils at 100°C. The tense-change need not be done, if the speaker wishes to emphasise that the situation (present or future) described in the actual words spoken still exists or will exist and he is sure of that. The adverbials of present and past sentences are often used in such sentences. They said it will be rainy next week. But we don’t keep the original speaker’s tenses if we do not agree with what he / she said, or if we want to show that the ideas do not come from us. 74

immediately / then / at that moment / right away ago before two days ago two days before / two days earlier today that day tomorrow the next day / the following day the day after tomorrow two days later yesterday (on) the previous day / the day before the day before yesterday two days before last night the night before / the previous night last week the week before next year the next year / the following year / the year after 75

this morning tonight

that morning that night

In indirect commands the verbs tell, advise, ask, encourage, invite and warn should be followed by an object pronoun and the infinitive with “to.” We can have various patterns after suggest and recommend.

“Place”: this (place) these (places) here

that (place) / the / last those (places) there

We use special verbs in reported speech to express promises, agreements, orders, offers, advice, suggestions, requests, etc. often with infinitives. The mostly used verbs are: say, tell, add, allow, announce, answer, beg, decide, declare, explain, inform, offer, order, plan, promise, refuse, remark, remind, reply, state, suppose, think, ask, wonder, be interested to know, I’d like to know, I want to know, I didn’t know. Yes / no questions are reported with “if” or “whether.” We use “whether” before or, especially in formal style or when the speaker feels that the answer is doubtful. We use “whether” where or not is implied. Unlike whether, if doesn’t expect a Yes or No reply. I was wondering whether she was coming with me or not. It is also obligatory when the whether clause precedes the main clause or is the object of a preposition. Whether we can win the game, I’m rather doubtful. Whether you’ll be able to do it is hard to tell. I think I can’t rely on whether you have enough time. The order of an interrogative sentence can be used in reported special question concerning the subject or predicate of the compound nominal predicate with a link-verb to be. He asked me, “Who is the driver of the car?” He asked me who was the driver of that car. He asked me, “What is the colour of the house?” He asked me what was the colour of the house?” Note also: She also mentioned how glad she was to have met him there. 76

MODALS Modals are mainly used when we want to indicate our attitude towards what we are saying, or when we are concerned about the effect of what we are saying on the person we are speaking or writing to. The ten modal auxiliary verbs are: will, would, must, shall, should, ought, can, could, may, might. They don’t have infinitives or partici ples. Instead other expressions are used like: be able to, be allowed to, have to. Will / would express: (1) willingness, intention or readiness I really will make a cake tonight. (2) unwillingness, refusal (in negative sentences) or resistance (about inanimate objects) She won’t listen to anyone. The door wouldn’t open. (3) a promise or threat I’ll come straight home after work, I promise. You’ll regret if you do it again. (4) probability, doubt, supposition or conjecture Your wife would have been about twenty when you first met. I would seem to have been wrong on that. (5) a habit or frequent occurrence He would often sit by the fire dreaming of the days gone by. 77

this morning tonight

that morning that night

In indirect commands the verbs tell, advise, ask, encourage, invite and warn should be followed by an object pronoun and the infinitive with “to.” We can have various patterns after suggest and recommend.

“Place”: this (place) these (places) here

that (place) / the / last those (places) there

We use special verbs in reported speech to express promises, agreements, orders, offers, advice, suggestions, requests, etc. often with infinitives. The mostly used verbs are: say, tell, add, allow, announce, answer, beg, decide, declare, explain, inform, offer, order, plan, promise, refuse, remark, remind, reply, state, suppose, think, ask, wonder, be interested to know, I’d like to know, I want to know, I didn’t know. Yes / no questions are reported with “if” or “whether.” We use “whether” before or, especially in formal style or when the speaker feels that the answer is doubtful. We use “whether” where or not is implied. Unlike whether, if doesn’t expect a Yes or No reply. I was wondering whether she was coming with me or not. It is also obligatory when the whether clause precedes the main clause or is the object of a preposition. Whether we can win the game, I’m rather doubtful. Whether you’ll be able to do it is hard to tell. I think I can’t rely on whether you have enough time. The order of an interrogative sentence can be used in reported special question concerning the subject or predicate of the compound nominal predicate with a link-verb to be. He asked me, “Who is the driver of the car?” He asked me who was the driver of that car. He asked me, “What is the colour of the house?” He asked me what was the colour of the house?” Note also: She also mentioned how glad she was to have met him there. 76

MODALS Modals are mainly used when we want to indicate our attitude towards what we are saying, or when we are concerned about the effect of what we are saying on the person we are speaking or writing to. The ten modal auxiliary verbs are: will, would, must, shall, should, ought, can, could, may, might. They don’t have infinitives or partici ples. Instead other expressions are used like: be able to, be allowed to, have to. Will / would express: (1) willingness, intention or readiness I really will make a cake tonight. (2) unwillingness, refusal (in negative sentences) or resistance (about inanimate objects) She won’t listen to anyone. The door wouldn’t open. (3) a promise or threat I’ll come straight home after work, I promise. You’ll regret if you do it again. (4) probability, doubt, supposition or conjecture Your wife would have been about twenty when you first met. I would seem to have been wrong on that. (5) a habit or frequent occurrence He would often sit by the fire dreaming of the days gone by. 77

(6) something typical or inevitable (will / would always stressed) Girls will be girls! They always want to have a new dress! (7) Will you...? can introduce instructions, orders and requests. Would can make requests sound more polite. Will you be quiet, please? Would you help me to cut bread? Would expresses a preference in would rather / sooner I would rather go by car than by bus. (8) offers and invitations. Would like / prefer can make invitations more polite Will you come into my parlour? Would you like another cup of tea? Would that is old-fashioned if only.

(4) an offer of help or suggestion Shall I post the letter for you? (Positive answer.) Can / could you? It’s kind of you. (Negative one.) No, thank you. Shall we go shopping? (Positive answer.) Yes, let’s. Yes, let’s, shall we? (Negative answer.) No, I’d rather not. We didn’t. Should expresses: (1) duty or moral obligation You should try to be more careful. (2) probability or strong supposition The party ended two hours ago. She should be at home now. (3) advisability or desirability You should improve your pronunciation. (4) obligation or expectancy (especially after why and how)

Shall expresses: (1) a request for the will of the listener (in the first or third persons) Shall I start reading?

Why should I go and not you? (5) surprise or lack of understanding

(2) the speaker’s will (an order, command or prohibition in the second and third persons; shall is always stressed) I know you are not inclined to accept his offer, but I say you shall! You shall not have your own way! You shan’t leave without my permission. (3) the speaker’s promise, threat or warning (in the second and third persons) You shall have the book tomorrow. You shall pay for it. 78

How should I know? Ought to expresses: (1) duty or moral obligation The disabled ought to be helped by the state. (2) probability or strong supposition He ought to arrive in Paris at 5. 79

(6) something typical or inevitable (will / would always stressed) Girls will be girls! They always want to have a new dress! (7) Will you...? can introduce instructions, orders and requests. Would can make requests sound more polite. Will you be quiet, please? Would you help me to cut bread? Would expresses a preference in would rather / sooner I would rather go by car than by bus. (8) offers and invitations. Would like / prefer can make invitations more polite Will you come into my parlour? Would you like another cup of tea? Would that is old-fashioned if only.

(4) an offer of help or suggestion Shall I post the letter for you? (Positive answer.) Can / could you? It’s kind of you. (Negative one.) No, thank you. Shall we go shopping? (Positive answer.) Yes, let’s. Yes, let’s, shall we? (Negative answer.) No, I’d rather not. We didn’t. Should expresses: (1) duty or moral obligation You should try to be more careful. (2) probability or strong supposition The party ended two hours ago. She should be at home now. (3) advisability or desirability You should improve your pronunciation. (4) obligation or expectancy (especially after why and how)

Shall expresses: (1) a request for the will of the listener (in the first or third persons) Shall I start reading?

Why should I go and not you? (5) surprise or lack of understanding

(2) the speaker’s will (an order, command or prohibition in the second and third persons; shall is always stressed) I know you are not inclined to accept his offer, but I say you shall! You shall not have your own way! You shan’t leave without my permission. (3) the speaker’s promise, threat or warning (in the second and third persons) You shall have the book tomorrow. You shall pay for it. 78

How should I know? Ought to expresses: (1) duty or moral obligation The disabled ought to be helped by the state. (2) probability or strong supposition He ought to arrive in Paris at 5. 79

(3) advisability or desirability You ought to read the instructions very carefully.

That must have been very unpleasant for them. The letter must have never been answered. There’s someone at the door. Who can it be? She can’t come before 5.

We don’t usually use ought to in tags. We ought to wait for him, shouldn’t we? “Should” and “ought” to with perfect infinitive express criticism or reproach. You shouldn’t have read the letter. Must expresses:

“Must” also expresses: (1) obligation or necessity (used as a past tense in indirect speech) The teacher told him that he must revise harder. (2) persuasive invitation (with people you know well) You must come and visit us.

(1) necessity, orders, strong suggestion (should is used for less strong suggestions), advice and opinion in the present or future (must usually expresses the feelings and wishes of the speaker / hearer; have (got) to often expresses obligations that come from somewhere else). “Must” is used in the affirmative and interrogative sentences in this case. I must finish my work in a couple of hours. I’ve got to get up early tomorrow. The classes start at 8. Must / need I do it? No, you needn’t. (There is no necessity.) (2) strong likelihood, probability or deduction (must is used for something that is logically necessary or something we are sure of; the negative is cannot or can’t). Can is used in questions and negatives. That must be John. He usually comes home at that time. In the negative sentence or sentences concerning the future to express uncertainty, we often use modal words probably, obviously, evidently, perhaps, apparently, etc. or verb phrase be (un)likely. We can also use verbs like fail, misunderstand; adjectives like, unable, unpleasant; pronouns like nobody, nothing, etc. Apparently it’s not John. You must have misunderstood her. 80

“Must not” expresses prohibition (similar to don’t) or advice not to do something (don’t have to, don’t need to or need not are used to say that something is unnecessary). You mustn’t speak loudly at the concert. You mustn’t miss the classes or you won’t pass the exams in June. “Must” is used when we assume something is true. She must love him. She’s waited ten years to marry hum. May / might are used when something is possible but we are not sure about it. May expresses: (1) probability or possibility, It may rain this morning. (2) ðermission May I come in? No, you may not. (No, you can’t or I’m afraid, you can’t is used for polite refusal; No, you mustn’t means you are prohibited.) 81

(3) advisability or desirability You ought to read the instructions very carefully.

That must have been very unpleasant for them. The letter must have never been answered. There’s someone at the door. Who can it be? She can’t come before 5.

We don’t usually use ought to in tags. We ought to wait for him, shouldn’t we? “Should” and “ought” to with perfect infinitive express criticism or reproach. You shouldn’t have read the letter. Must expresses:

“Must” also expresses: (1) obligation or necessity (used as a past tense in indirect speech) The teacher told him that he must revise harder. (2) persuasive invitation (with people you know well) You must come and visit us.

(1) necessity, orders, strong suggestion (should is used for less strong suggestions), advice and opinion in the present or future (must usually expresses the feelings and wishes of the speaker / hearer; have (got) to often expresses obligations that come from somewhere else). “Must” is used in the affirmative and interrogative sentences in this case. I must finish my work in a couple of hours. I’ve got to get up early tomorrow. The classes start at 8. Must / need I do it? No, you needn’t. (There is no necessity.) (2) strong likelihood, probability or deduction (must is used for something that is logically necessary or something we are sure of; the negative is cannot or can’t). Can is used in questions and negatives. That must be John. He usually comes home at that time. In the negative sentence or sentences concerning the future to express uncertainty, we often use modal words probably, obviously, evidently, perhaps, apparently, etc. or verb phrase be (un)likely. We can also use verbs like fail, misunderstand; adjectives like, unable, unpleasant; pronouns like nobody, nothing, etc. Apparently it’s not John. You must have misunderstood her. 80

“Must not” expresses prohibition (similar to don’t) or advice not to do something (don’t have to, don’t need to or need not are used to say that something is unnecessary). You mustn’t speak loudly at the concert. You mustn’t miss the classes or you won’t pass the exams in June. “Must” is used when we assume something is true. She must love him. She’s waited ten years to marry hum. May / might are used when something is possible but we are not sure about it. May expresses: (1) probability or possibility, It may rain this morning. (2) ðermission May I come in? No, you may not. (No, you can’t or I’m afraid, you can’t is used for polite refusal; No, you mustn’t means you are prohibited.) 81

(3) wishes (for others)

(3) offers, requests and instructions (could sounds less definite and is used in suggestions and polite requests)

May all your dreams come true! May not is sometimes used to express prohibition, especially in official regulations. You may not leave the classroom until the lesson is over. Might expresses:

Can I carry your suitcase? Can you put the baby to sleep. I wonder if you could do me a favour? Permission in this case can be expressed only by can or may (not could). Could I make a suggestion? Of course, you may / can. (Of course, you could would mean “yes” under a certain condition.)

(1) weak possibility You might find his address in my notebook, but I doubt it. (2) a polite suggestion or request You might give me some advice on this matter. Might I trouble you for a light? You may indeed. (3) a reproach You might at least call us.

(4) doubt, astonishment, the impossibility of something. It’s very warm here. You can’t be cold. You can’t have lost your passport. Can you really do it? Can / could he still be sleeping? You couldn’t be more wrong. I couldn’t be happier.

Can expresses:

Could is used to express possibility in the past. Was able / managed to / succeeded in are used for a particular achievement in the past.

(1) ability (we can use can if we are deciding now what to do in the future: in other cases, we have to use will be able to)

Need (questions and negatives without do) is used to say what is (not) necessary at the time of speaking:

I can spend one hour with you tonight. Do not use could to say that you managed to do something on one occasion in the affirmative and interrogative sentences. Use was able to, managed to, succeeded in. (2) permission (could is more polite in questions; may is more formal and less common) Could you give me your magazine? 82

Need I pay now. Yes, you must. You needn’t have gone there. (But you went.) I didn’t have to go there. (I didn’t go there.) Had better (not) with bare infinitive is used to give strong advice, threat or warning to people (including ourselves). It means It would be good to... “Had better” refers to the immediate future. It is more urgent than should or ought. You’d better do it quick. He won’t be around tomorrow. 83

(3) wishes (for others)

(3) offers, requests and instructions (could sounds less definite and is used in suggestions and polite requests)

May all your dreams come true! May not is sometimes used to express prohibition, especially in official regulations. You may not leave the classroom until the lesson is over. Might expresses:

Can I carry your suitcase? Can you put the baby to sleep. I wonder if you could do me a favour? Permission in this case can be expressed only by can or may (not could). Could I make a suggestion? Of course, you may / can. (Of course, you could would mean “yes” under a certain condition.)

(1) weak possibility You might find his address in my notebook, but I doubt it. (2) a polite suggestion or request You might give me some advice on this matter. Might I trouble you for a light? You may indeed. (3) a reproach You might at least call us.

(4) doubt, astonishment, the impossibility of something. It’s very warm here. You can’t be cold. You can’t have lost your passport. Can you really do it? Can / could he still be sleeping? You couldn’t be more wrong. I couldn’t be happier.

Can expresses:

Could is used to express possibility in the past. Was able / managed to / succeeded in are used for a particular achievement in the past.

(1) ability (we can use can if we are deciding now what to do in the future: in other cases, we have to use will be able to)

Need (questions and negatives without do) is used to say what is (not) necessary at the time of speaking:

I can spend one hour with you tonight. Do not use could to say that you managed to do something on one occasion in the affirmative and interrogative sentences. Use was able to, managed to, succeeded in. (2) permission (could is more polite in questions; may is more formal and less common) Could you give me your magazine? 82

Need I pay now. Yes, you must. You needn’t have gone there. (But you went.) I didn’t have to go there. (I didn’t go there.) Had better (not) with bare infinitive is used to give strong advice, threat or warning to people (including ourselves). It means It would be good to... “Had better” refers to the immediate future. It is more urgent than should or ought. You’d better do it quick. He won’t be around tomorrow. 83

“Had better” is not used to compare two courses of action. Instead we use expressions like: It would be better to, You’d be better to, Your best plan would be to. Dare / dared as modal tend to occur only in the negative and interrogative and expresses courage, outrage, and challenge: How dare you to read my letter? I dare not go yet.

I am not staying in this hospital. Permission or prohibition according to the law or rules are usually expressed by can (can’t) or be (not) allowed to. You can’t smoke in the school. You aren’t allowed to smoke in the school.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AND CONDITIONALS May as well, might (just) as well These expressions are used as follows: How shall we go? Shall we go by bus? We might just as well walk. That’s what I suggest. Be to expresses necessity according to prior agreement or arrangement: He is to start work tomorrow. It can express also command for an action according to a certain order.

There are three sets of verb forms in English grammar that express (a) a fact or action (indicative mood), (b) a command (imperative mood), or (c) a doubt, wish, situations that do not actually exist, etc. (subjunctive mood). “If” can be used with the same tenses as most conjunctions. If you pay by cash, you get a discount. If you work hard, you’ll pass the exam. If it was very warm, we sat outside. Oil floats if you pour it on water. This is the case of Zero Conditional, which is used for a situation, which is always true.

You are to stand here! Sometimes it expresses inevitability. That’s our fate. We are never to meet again.

If you didn’t practise your English enough at school, you’ll find TOEFL exam very hard to pass.

We can use “I am not” followed by present partici ple to express strong unwillingness.

Would / could / might and past tenses are used to “distance” our language from reality, when we talk about present or future unreal situations. Would and past tenses form the Second Conditional. Both clauses refer to the present. “If” and “when” are used as conjunctions. The past tense and “would” usually suggests that the situation is less probable, or less definite, or impossible, or imaginary than in the construction of a type If I go...I will (First Conditional). The First Conditional is used for a possible future action, which depends on another action. (“Could have” = would have been able to, “might have” = would perhaps have.) In case does not mean if. It refers to the possibility of something happening. Use either Simple or Perfect Tense after it. Do not use will.

84

85

It expresses possibility as well. Where is the taxi to be found? How am I to know that you are telling the truth? Nine modals can be arranged according to the degrees of (un)certainty that the speaker feels. Might can be considered as the most uncertain, must as the most certain: might, may, could, can, should, ought to, would, will, must.

“Had better” is not used to compare two courses of action. Instead we use expressions like: It would be better to, You’d be better to, Your best plan would be to. Dare / dared as modal tend to occur only in the negative and interrogative and expresses courage, outrage, and challenge: How dare you to read my letter? I dare not go yet.

I am not staying in this hospital. Permission or prohibition according to the law or rules are usually expressed by can (can’t) or be (not) allowed to. You can’t smoke in the school. You aren’t allowed to smoke in the school.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AND CONDITIONALS May as well, might (just) as well These expressions are used as follows: How shall we go? Shall we go by bus? We might just as well walk. That’s what I suggest. Be to expresses necessity according to prior agreement or arrangement: He is to start work tomorrow. It can express also command for an action according to a certain order.

There are three sets of verb forms in English grammar that express (a) a fact or action (indicative mood), (b) a command (imperative mood), or (c) a doubt, wish, situations that do not actually exist, etc. (subjunctive mood). “If” can be used with the same tenses as most conjunctions. If you pay by cash, you get a discount. If you work hard, you’ll pass the exam. If it was very warm, we sat outside. Oil floats if you pour it on water. This is the case of Zero Conditional, which is used for a situation, which is always true.

You are to stand here! Sometimes it expresses inevitability. That’s our fate. We are never to meet again.

If you didn’t practise your English enough at school, you’ll find TOEFL exam very hard to pass.

We can use “I am not” followed by present partici ple to express strong unwillingness.

Would / could / might and past tenses are used to “distance” our language from reality, when we talk about present or future unreal situations. Would and past tenses form the Second Conditional. Both clauses refer to the present. “If” and “when” are used as conjunctions. The past tense and “would” usually suggests that the situation is less probable, or less definite, or impossible, or imaginary than in the construction of a type If I go...I will (First Conditional). The First Conditional is used for a possible future action, which depends on another action. (“Could have” = would have been able to, “might have” = would perhaps have.) In case does not mean if. It refers to the possibility of something happening. Use either Simple or Perfect Tense after it. Do not use will.

84

85

It expresses possibility as well. Where is the taxi to be found? How am I to know that you are telling the truth? Nine modals can be arranged according to the degrees of (un)certainty that the speaker feels. Might can be considered as the most uncertain, must as the most certain: might, may, could, can, should, ought to, would, will, must.

Take a key in case the door is locked. I didn’t offer to help in case I offended him. (I might have offended him.)

Sometimes we omit “if” and use inversion. Were he here, he would be angry with you.

The Second Conditional is used to talk about imagined, impossible or unlikely events in the future. It is used for an imaginary situation, where the meaning is in the present. It can be also used for a remote possibility in the future or for giving advice.

There is also a mixed group, using any other sequence of tenses and aspects. “If-clause” with will with 2nd or 3rd person subject, and containing a suggestion of willingness.

If I had a dog, I would take it for walks (now). If I won the lottery, I’d travel around the world (may be some time in future). If I were you, I’d get a new jacket. I shouldn’t worry, if I were you.

If you will / would write me a letter about it, I will / would attend to it at once. (Ñonstructions with would are frequently used in business or official correspondence.)

The Second Conditional is also used to talk about impossible events at present. If I had more time, I wouldn’t eat fast food. The Third Conditional is used for an imaginary situation referring to a past action. We use the Third Conditional to imagine how things might have been different in the past. It is used to talk about hypothetical past events and states. Would / could / might have and Past Perfect Tenses are used here. Both clauses refer to the past. If I’d known about the rail strike, I would have gone by car. Sometime we use sentences of Split Condition, where the main clause refers to the present, the subordinate clause refers to the past or otherwise. If you had taken my advice, you’d feel better now. If you were cleverer, you wouldn’t have made such a silly mistake. If he hadn’t stolen the money, he wouldn’t be in prison now. We also use sentences of Problematic Condition. The condition in such sentences is less probable. If I were to him, I’ll tell him about you. Should you see him, please tell him I’m waiting. 86

“If-clause” with will, with no suggestion of willingness. I can / could lend you five pounds, if that will / would help you. (It can mean: I can / could lend you five pounds. Will / would that help? or My loan depends on whether, at some time in the future, a loan will help.) Past tense in the if-clause assuming an actual fact in the past. If you parked your car there (then), where is it now? / you were foolish / the police would have removed it. “Were to + infinitive” in the “if-clause” making a supposition about the future. If I / you were to touch that wire, I / you would be killed instantly. Were this enterprise to fail, it would be a disaster for us all. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Purpose Indicative or imperative mood is used in the main clause and “may / might / could / should + infinitive or present subjunctive” is used in the subordinate clause. Conjunctions so that, that, in order that, lest, in case are used. She closed the door so that they might not be heard. Let us start again so that everyone be given fair chance. 87

Take a key in case the door is locked. I didn’t offer to help in case I offended him. (I might have offended him.)

Sometimes we omit “if” and use inversion. Were he here, he would be angry with you.

The Second Conditional is used to talk about imagined, impossible or unlikely events in the future. It is used for an imaginary situation, where the meaning is in the present. It can be also used for a remote possibility in the future or for giving advice.

There is also a mixed group, using any other sequence of tenses and aspects. “If-clause” with will with 2nd or 3rd person subject, and containing a suggestion of willingness.

If I had a dog, I would take it for walks (now). If I won the lottery, I’d travel around the world (may be some time in future). If I were you, I’d get a new jacket. I shouldn’t worry, if I were you.

If you will / would write me a letter about it, I will / would attend to it at once. (Ñonstructions with would are frequently used in business or official correspondence.)

The Second Conditional is also used to talk about impossible events at present. If I had more time, I wouldn’t eat fast food. The Third Conditional is used for an imaginary situation referring to a past action. We use the Third Conditional to imagine how things might have been different in the past. It is used to talk about hypothetical past events and states. Would / could / might have and Past Perfect Tenses are used here. Both clauses refer to the past. If I’d known about the rail strike, I would have gone by car. Sometime we use sentences of Split Condition, where the main clause refers to the present, the subordinate clause refers to the past or otherwise. If you had taken my advice, you’d feel better now. If you were cleverer, you wouldn’t have made such a silly mistake. If he hadn’t stolen the money, he wouldn’t be in prison now. We also use sentences of Problematic Condition. The condition in such sentences is less probable. If I were to him, I’ll tell him about you. Should you see him, please tell him I’m waiting. 86

“If-clause” with will, with no suggestion of willingness. I can / could lend you five pounds, if that will / would help you. (It can mean: I can / could lend you five pounds. Will / would that help? or My loan depends on whether, at some time in the future, a loan will help.) Past tense in the if-clause assuming an actual fact in the past. If you parked your car there (then), where is it now? / you were foolish / the police would have removed it. “Were to + infinitive” in the “if-clause” making a supposition about the future. If I / you were to touch that wire, I / you would be killed instantly. Were this enterprise to fail, it would be a disaster for us all. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Purpose Indicative or imperative mood is used in the main clause and “may / might / could / should + infinitive or present subjunctive” is used in the subordinate clause. Conjunctions so that, that, in order that, lest, in case are used. She closed the door so that they might not be heard. Let us start again so that everyone be given fair chance. 87

Give them a refund lest they take us to court. Take an umbrella with you in case it rains. (Indicative mood is also possible.) The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Comparison Indicative or imperative mood are used in the main clauses and past subjunctive (“were”) or past tenses are used in the subordinate clauses. Conjunctions as if, as though are used.

Our fear was lest they should learn about it. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Concession Indicative or imperative mood are used in the main clause and “may / might + infinitive” in the subordinate clauses. Conjunctions though, although, however, whatever, whoever, no matter how, no matter who, no matter what are used.

She speaks as if / as though she knew him well. (The meaning is not past in this sentence. It means She talks as she would talk, if she knew him well.

I’ll take the job, whoever may / might object. However badly he may / might have behaved towards you in his youth, he is still your brother.

We use the past because the idea is not real: She doesn’t know him. We use the past in the same way with if and wish.

The sentences with conjunctions even if, even though may follow the patterns of the second, third, and split conditionals.

She looks tired as if she had been working for hours. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Predicative Clauses Indicative or imperative mood with link-verbs: be, feel, look, seem, sound, taste, etc. are used in the main clauses and past subjunctive (“were”) and past tenses are used in the subordinate clauses. Conjunctions as if, as though are used. He felt as if he were a hundred. It’s not as if / had known her before. We may use an abstract noun as a subject: wish, aim, plan, order, demand, suggestion, proposal, arrangement, ambition, etc. with a link verb to be in the main clause and “should + infinitive or present subjunctive” in the subordinate clause. A conjunction that is used. Our chief demand is / was that we be taken along.

Even if you had taken his advice, you wouldn’t feel better now. Note 1. The indicative mood can also be used in adverbial clauses of concession for something supposed: Cold as it may be, we’ll go there or for something real: Cold as it is, we’ll go there. Note 2. The subjunctive mood is also used in adverbial clauses of time: Whenever he may come, he’ll be welcome or of place: Wherever you might go, I’ll follow you. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Subject Clauses The main clause usually begins with: It is / was / will be / might be necessary, obligatory, true, strange, clear, advisable, doubtful, (un)pleasant, (un)important, requested, better, best, recommended, (im)possible, (un)believable, (un)natural, of vital importance, etc.”Should + infinitive or present subjunctive” is used in subordinate clause with a conjunction that. It is strange that you should have met him there.

We may use an abstract noun as a subject: fear, apprehension, etc. with a link-verb to be and “should + infinitive or present subjunctive” in the subordinate clause. A conjunction is lest.

The indicative mood is also used in subject clauses to denote real actions: It’s natural that she doesn’t like it.

88

89

Give them a refund lest they take us to court. Take an umbrella with you in case it rains. (Indicative mood is also possible.) The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Comparison Indicative or imperative mood are used in the main clauses and past subjunctive (“were”) or past tenses are used in the subordinate clauses. Conjunctions as if, as though are used.

Our fear was lest they should learn about it. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Concession Indicative or imperative mood are used in the main clause and “may / might + infinitive” in the subordinate clauses. Conjunctions though, although, however, whatever, whoever, no matter how, no matter who, no matter what are used.

She speaks as if / as though she knew him well. (The meaning is not past in this sentence. It means She talks as she would talk, if she knew him well.

I’ll take the job, whoever may / might object. However badly he may / might have behaved towards you in his youth, he is still your brother.

We use the past because the idea is not real: She doesn’t know him. We use the past in the same way with if and wish.

The sentences with conjunctions even if, even though may follow the patterns of the second, third, and split conditionals.

She looks tired as if she had been working for hours. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Predicative Clauses Indicative or imperative mood with link-verbs: be, feel, look, seem, sound, taste, etc. are used in the main clauses and past subjunctive (“were”) and past tenses are used in the subordinate clauses. Conjunctions as if, as though are used. He felt as if he were a hundred. It’s not as if / had known her before. We may use an abstract noun as a subject: wish, aim, plan, order, demand, suggestion, proposal, arrangement, ambition, etc. with a link verb to be in the main clause and “should + infinitive or present subjunctive” in the subordinate clause. A conjunction that is used. Our chief demand is / was that we be taken along.

Even if you had taken his advice, you wouldn’t feel better now. Note 1. The indicative mood can also be used in adverbial clauses of concession for something supposed: Cold as it may be, we’ll go there or for something real: Cold as it is, we’ll go there. Note 2. The subjunctive mood is also used in adverbial clauses of time: Whenever he may come, he’ll be welcome or of place: Wherever you might go, I’ll follow you. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Subject Clauses The main clause usually begins with: It is / was / will be / might be necessary, obligatory, true, strange, clear, advisable, doubtful, (un)pleasant, (un)important, requested, better, best, recommended, (im)possible, (un)believable, (un)natural, of vital importance, etc.”Should + infinitive or present subjunctive” is used in subordinate clause with a conjunction that. It is strange that you should have met him there.

We may use an abstract noun as a subject: fear, apprehension, etc. with a link-verb to be and “should + infinitive or present subjunctive” in the subordinate clause. A conjunction is lest.

The indicative mood is also used in subject clauses to denote real actions: It’s natural that she doesn’t like it.

88

89

The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Object Clauses

The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Attributive Clauses

The main clause uses the verb wish, past subjunctive (were), past tenses or “would + infinitive” are used in the subordinate clauses. Sometimes it is used to express annoyance or request with no real hope.

The main clause uses structure: It is / was (high) time, it is / was about time..., Isn’t it time...?, Don’t you think it’s time...? The subordinate clause has past subjunctive (“were”) or past tenses, or should + infinitive if connected to the main clause with a conjunction that.

I wish he wouldn’t be working so much! The main clause uses the verbs: suggest, demand, propose, rule, insist, arrange, be anxious, be sorry, doubt, see to something, order, etc. The subordinate clause takes “should + indefinite or present subjunctive” I insist that we go there. They demand that an end (should) be put to the war. The main clause uses verbs: fear, dread, tremble, be terrified, etc. with a conjunction lest. Subordinate clause takes “should + infinitive or present subjunctive.”

Don’t you think it’s time we were going? It’s time (that) we should go home. In clauses after it’s time and would rather / sooner a past tense has a present or future meaning. Wish and if only are both used when the speaker would like a situation to be different. For a wish about the future, use would or could. Wish and if only can be used with “would” and past tenses. These structures express regrets, and wishes for unlikely or impossible things. If only is more emphatic. I wish I could go to the party tomorrow.

I fear lest you be found guilty. Would is often used when the speaker is complaining about something. The structure of the main clause uses verbs: feel, consider, believe, find, etc. + it + natural, important, strange, etc. Conjunction that joins subordinate clause with “should + infinitive or present subjunctive.” The doctor found it advisable that you stay at home. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Attributive Appositive Clauses

I wish you would be quiet. Do not use I / we would after “I / we wish” and if only “I / we.” For a wish about the present, use a past tense after “I wish” and “if only.” I wish he didn’t drink so much.

Abstract nouns: aim, wish, idea, suggestion, instruction, surprise, request, (dis)belief, etc. are used as subject or object in the main clause. Conjunction that joins the subordinate clause with “should + infinitive or present subjunctive.” He expressed his wish that nobody (should) speak about it.

Were is often used instead of was after “wish” and “if only.” For a wish about the past to express regret, use the Past Perfect after “wish” and “if only.” She wished she had married him.

Abstract nouns: fear, apprehension, etc. are used as subject or object of the main clause. Conjunction lest joins subordinate clause with “should + infinitive or present subjunctive.”

TAG QUESTIONS

I find your fear lest you (should) be fired ridiculous. 90

We often use a tag question to seek immediate agreement to a statement or a question. We normally use this question to check / seek confirmation. 91

The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Object Clauses

The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Attributive Clauses

The main clause uses the verb wish, past subjunctive (were), past tenses or “would + infinitive” are used in the subordinate clauses. Sometimes it is used to express annoyance or request with no real hope.

The main clause uses structure: It is / was (high) time, it is / was about time..., Isn’t it time...?, Don’t you think it’s time...? The subordinate clause has past subjunctive (“were”) or past tenses, or should + infinitive if connected to the main clause with a conjunction that.

I wish he wouldn’t be working so much! The main clause uses the verbs: suggest, demand, propose, rule, insist, arrange, be anxious, be sorry, doubt, see to something, order, etc. The subordinate clause takes “should + indefinite or present subjunctive” I insist that we go there. They demand that an end (should) be put to the war. The main clause uses verbs: fear, dread, tremble, be terrified, etc. with a conjunction lest. Subordinate clause takes “should + infinitive or present subjunctive.”

Don’t you think it’s time we were going? It’s time (that) we should go home. In clauses after it’s time and would rather / sooner a past tense has a present or future meaning. Wish and if only are both used when the speaker would like a situation to be different. For a wish about the future, use would or could. Wish and if only can be used with “would” and past tenses. These structures express regrets, and wishes for unlikely or impossible things. If only is more emphatic. I wish I could go to the party tomorrow.

I fear lest you be found guilty. Would is often used when the speaker is complaining about something. The structure of the main clause uses verbs: feel, consider, believe, find, etc. + it + natural, important, strange, etc. Conjunction that joins subordinate clause with “should + infinitive or present subjunctive.” The doctor found it advisable that you stay at home. The Subjunctive Mood in Complex Sentences with Attributive Appositive Clauses

I wish you would be quiet. Do not use I / we would after “I / we wish” and if only “I / we.” For a wish about the present, use a past tense after “I wish” and “if only.” I wish he didn’t drink so much.

Abstract nouns: aim, wish, idea, suggestion, instruction, surprise, request, (dis)belief, etc. are used as subject or object in the main clause. Conjunction that joins the subordinate clause with “should + infinitive or present subjunctive.” He expressed his wish that nobody (should) speak about it.

Were is often used instead of was after “wish” and “if only.” For a wish about the past to express regret, use the Past Perfect after “wish” and “if only.” She wished she had married him.

Abstract nouns: fear, apprehension, etc. are used as subject or object of the main clause. Conjunction lest joins subordinate clause with “should + infinitive or present subjunctive.”

TAG QUESTIONS

I find your fear lest you (should) be fired ridiculous. 90

We often use a tag question to seek immediate agreement to a statement or a question. We normally use this question to check / seek confirmation. 91

Tag questions either request information when the voice goes up or invite agreement when the voice goes down. Tag questions are changing now in English usage, at any rate in colloquial and informal speech. A confident assertion (positive or negative) is now followed immediately by “Right?” îr “OK?” (both with rising intonation) instead of by a tag. You agree with me on that. OK? OK. We’ll drop in here. Right? Right.

An auxiliary verb in the statement correlates with the same auxiliary verb in the tag. The subject in the tag is a pronoun, which correlates with the subject of the statement. You have got a car, haven’t you / don’t you? One can’t be too sure, can one. No, one can’t. Other verbs use “do” in the tag, and this must be followed in the reply. You met her at the station, didn’t you? Yes, I did.

A commonly used tag question is one in which an affirmative statement is followed by negative or vice versa. She’d rather stay at home, wouldn’t she? You’d better have a rest, hadn’t you?

When a negative statement seeking confirmation is followed by a positive tag, agreement is expressed by no. A common error is to say “Yes” = I agree with your (negative) statement. It’s not far from here to the city, is it? No, (it isn’t).

Tag questions are of two types: For questions with rising intonation on the tag, the answer can be “yes” or “no”.

(a) with falling intonation; (b) with rising intonation. The former expects the listener to agree; the latter is prepared for agreement or denial. (a) You’ve met John, haven’t you? (I’m sure you know him and I expect you will agree). (b) You’ve met John, haven’t you? (genuine question: answer “Yes” or “No”). A statement is negative as long as it contains a negative idea. Nonnegative tags are used after never, no, nobody, hardly, scarcely, little. She hardly seems to care what people think about her, does she? Hardly is a negative idea. Each tag takes a rising or falling intonation, according to whether we expect agreement or seek an answer to a question. You have two sons, don’t you? 92

It’s not far to the city, is it? Yes, it is. (But it is.) It’s another four miles. or. No, it isn’t. It’s only half a mile. You’re not going out tonight, are you? Yes. (Yes, I’m going out.) or No. (No, I’m not going out). We often use a negative-positive pattern to ask for things or information, or to ask somebody to do something. The voice goes up at the end of the tag then. You couldn’t do me a favour, could you? It depends what it is. In informal English, everyone, everybody, nobody, anyone take a singular verb and then, confusingly, are followed by they in the tag. Everybody helped with the homework, didn’t they? In colloquial English, the negative element in a dependent clause introduced by that is often transferred to the main clause after verbs like suppose, imagine, and think. 93

Tag questions either request information when the voice goes up or invite agreement when the voice goes down. Tag questions are changing now in English usage, at any rate in colloquial and informal speech. A confident assertion (positive or negative) is now followed immediately by “Right?” îr “OK?” (both with rising intonation) instead of by a tag. You agree with me on that. OK? OK. We’ll drop in here. Right? Right.

An auxiliary verb in the statement correlates with the same auxiliary verb in the tag. The subject in the tag is a pronoun, which correlates with the subject of the statement. You have got a car, haven’t you / don’t you? One can’t be too sure, can one. No, one can’t. Other verbs use “do” in the tag, and this must be followed in the reply. You met her at the station, didn’t you? Yes, I did.

A commonly used tag question is one in which an affirmative statement is followed by negative or vice versa. She’d rather stay at home, wouldn’t she? You’d better have a rest, hadn’t you?

When a negative statement seeking confirmation is followed by a positive tag, agreement is expressed by no. A common error is to say “Yes” = I agree with your (negative) statement. It’s not far from here to the city, is it? No, (it isn’t).

Tag questions are of two types: For questions with rising intonation on the tag, the answer can be “yes” or “no”.

(a) with falling intonation; (b) with rising intonation. The former expects the listener to agree; the latter is prepared for agreement or denial. (a) You’ve met John, haven’t you? (I’m sure you know him and I expect you will agree). (b) You’ve met John, haven’t you? (genuine question: answer “Yes” or “No”). A statement is negative as long as it contains a negative idea. Nonnegative tags are used after never, no, nobody, hardly, scarcely, little. She hardly seems to care what people think about her, does she? Hardly is a negative idea. Each tag takes a rising or falling intonation, according to whether we expect agreement or seek an answer to a question. You have two sons, don’t you? 92

It’s not far to the city, is it? Yes, it is. (But it is.) It’s another four miles. or. No, it isn’t. It’s only half a mile. You’re not going out tonight, are you? Yes. (Yes, I’m going out.) or No. (No, I’m not going out). We often use a negative-positive pattern to ask for things or information, or to ask somebody to do something. The voice goes up at the end of the tag then. You couldn’t do me a favour, could you? It depends what it is. In informal English, everyone, everybody, nobody, anyone take a singular verb and then, confusingly, are followed by they in the tag. Everybody helped with the homework, didn’t they? In colloquial English, the negative element in a dependent clause introduced by that is often transferred to the main clause after verbs like suppose, imagine, and think. 93

In a “There sentence”, there acts as the subject of the tag, as in:

Tags have other uses. Will you? helps to make requests.

There was a piano in the room, wasn’t there? Help me close the door, will you? A tag correlates with the “that” clause, not the main clause but it is positive and correlates with the negative in the main verb “don’t think.” I don’t think you’ve been here before, have you. We can also have an affirmative statement followed by an affirmative tag, but with a rising intonation. This can express a wide range of attitudes on the part of the speaker, from casual enquiry to heavy sarcasm or threatening anger. You’ve locked the door, have you? You’ve done that again, have you? We say aren’t I (= am I not).

Won’t you? helps with invitations. Have a cup of coffee, won’t you? (Thank you in answer is used to accept an offer. It generally means Yes, please.) Shall we? Introduced by Let’s (Let us), it makes a suggestion. Let’s go here for a drink, shall we. Yes, let’s. The suggestion can also be in the form of a statement, followed by a tag. I’ll post the letter for you, shall I? Will you / won’t you? Both are used for commands. You will return the book today, won’t you.

I’m late, aren’t I. After the imperative (Do... / Don’t do... etc.) the tag is usually …will you? Open the window, will you? We can use will / would / can / can’t / could you to tell or ask people to do something in informal language. You can’t give me this CD, can you? Shut up, can’t you? There are occasions when the speaker offers an opinion and then asks the listener for his / her opinion. Since it is not really a tag question, it can operate outside positivenegative or otherwise framework. There is a pause between two remarks. I like horror movies. Do you?

The second type of tag question, in which the statement and the tag question are either both positive or negative, expresses a conclusion that the speaker has come to by judging the situation. Tags can also be used to show your reaction to something that someone has just said or implied, for example, to show interest, surprise, or anger. An affirmative tag follows an affirmative statement. You’ve been to Canada before, have you? Interrogative short answers using auxiliary “verb + pronoun” also can express attention, interest or surprise. It was a dreadfully boring party. Was it? I’ve got a stomachache again. Have you, dear? I’ll get you a pill now. Negative replies to affirmative sentences can express emphatic agreement. She’s given up smoking. Yes, hasn’t she?

94

95

In a “There sentence”, there acts as the subject of the tag, as in:

Tags have other uses. Will you? helps to make requests.

There was a piano in the room, wasn’t there? Help me close the door, will you? A tag correlates with the “that” clause, not the main clause but it is positive and correlates with the negative in the main verb “don’t think.” I don’t think you’ve been here before, have you. We can also have an affirmative statement followed by an affirmative tag, but with a rising intonation. This can express a wide range of attitudes on the part of the speaker, from casual enquiry to heavy sarcasm or threatening anger. You’ve locked the door, have you? You’ve done that again, have you? We say aren’t I (= am I not).

Won’t you? helps with invitations. Have a cup of coffee, won’t you? (Thank you in answer is used to accept an offer. It generally means Yes, please.) Shall we? Introduced by Let’s (Let us), it makes a suggestion. Let’s go here for a drink, shall we. Yes, let’s. The suggestion can also be in the form of a statement, followed by a tag. I’ll post the letter for you, shall I? Will you / won’t you? Both are used for commands. You will return the book today, won’t you.

I’m late, aren’t I. After the imperative (Do... / Don’t do... etc.) the tag is usually …will you? Open the window, will you? We can use will / would / can / can’t / could you to tell or ask people to do something in informal language. You can’t give me this CD, can you? Shut up, can’t you? There are occasions when the speaker offers an opinion and then asks the listener for his / her opinion. Since it is not really a tag question, it can operate outside positivenegative or otherwise framework. There is a pause between two remarks. I like horror movies. Do you?

The second type of tag question, in which the statement and the tag question are either both positive or negative, expresses a conclusion that the speaker has come to by judging the situation. Tags can also be used to show your reaction to something that someone has just said or implied, for example, to show interest, surprise, or anger. An affirmative tag follows an affirmative statement. You’ve been to Canada before, have you? Interrogative short answers using auxiliary “verb + pronoun” also can express attention, interest or surprise. It was a dreadfully boring party. Was it? I’ve got a stomachache again. Have you, dear? I’ll get you a pill now. Negative replies to affirmative sentences can express emphatic agreement. She’s given up smoking. Yes, hasn’t she?

94

95

“Negative / negative pattern” is used to express negative emotions. The voice goes up at the end of such sentences. They tend to sound aggressively. So you don’t like my cooking, don’t you?

NOUNS

He put on a pair of shoes, which were waiting there for him. He took off a pair of glasses and handed them to her. To express measure of the substance expressed by an uncountable noun, the following is used: a drop of water, a bar of soap, a piece of cake, a slice of bread, cake, meat, a loaf of bread, a bar of chocolate, a lump of sugar, a carton of milk, a tin of lemonade, a tube of toothpaste, a bottle of milk, a jar of jam, a grain of rice, barley, wheat, a pinch of salt, a piece / stick of chalk, five pounds of sugar, a blade of grass, a bag of flour, a packet of tea, a piece of string, news, sugar, a spoonful of sugar, flour, etc., an amount of leisure, a stroke of luck, a fit of temper, a means of transport, an item of news, information, a sheet of paper, a sort of cheese, a type of beer, a yard of cloth, a state of health, disorder, uncertainty.

The plural number is usually formed with the help of the ending “-s” or “-es.” In the following 14 nouns the final “f” is changed into “-v” and “-es” is added: calf, elf, half, knife, life, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wharf, wolf. The following nouns ending in “o” have plurals ending in “oes”: domino, echo, embargo, hero, Negro, potato, tomato, veto. Some English nouns keep foreign plurals, sometimes English and foreign plurals are used side by side: alumna-alumnae, alumnus-alumni, formula-formulae-formulas, index-indices-indexes, crisis-crises, criterioncriteria, phenomenon-phenomena, datum-data, nucleus-nuclei, syllabussyllabi, symposium-symposia. Some nouns have the same form for the singular and for the plural: cod, deer, grouse, sheep, trout, quail, (air)craft, dozen, score (twenty), stone (6.5 kg), means, salmon, series, species, works, barracks, headquarters. There are some words which are uncountable nouns in English (singular) but often countable in other languages: accommodation, advice, baggage, behaviour, bread, chaos, cream, damage, furniture, hair, homework, information, ink, knowledge, leafage, luck, luggage, machinery, money, news, permission, progress, research, scenery, shrubbery, spaghetti, timber, traffic, watch, weather, work. Another group of uncountable nouns occurs only in the plural form: archives, clothes, congratulations, contents, customs, goods, jeans, odds, outskirts, particulars, proceeds, remains, riches, savings, scissors, spectacles, surroundings, thanks, tropics, trousers, wages (but we say a living wage), whereabouts, wits. If you refer to items of clothing you may use “a pair of” to show that one item is meant. The verb with it is singular if it is in the same clause. If the verb is in a following relative clause, it is usually plural. You also use plural pronoun after “a pair of.”

The following verbs are used with the plural verb only: cattle, clergy, gentry, people, police, poultry, vermin. Reference to individual members of the group is made thus: ten people, fifty police(men), ten head of cattle. Singular or plural verb can be used after youth of meaning young men and women considered as a group. Many collective nouns exist for groups of animals and birds: a covey of quail, a brood of grouse, a bevy of partridge, roes, nide, eye of pheasants, a whisp of snipe, a flock of birds, chickens, geese, pigeons, sheep, a gaggle of geese, a muster of peacocks, a herd of cattle, sheep, cows, goats, deer, buffalo, giraffe, elephants, whales, a hive of bees, a pack of dogs, hounds,

96

97

Certain groups of people or animals are described by a group name. This is called a “collective noun.” The same name is given to a group of things that have something in common. Most common collective nouns are: army, audience, band, cast, cattle, choir, chorus, class, club, college, committee, community, company, council, crew, crowd, cutlery, enemy, faculty, family, firm, flock (of sheep), furniture, gang, government, group, herd (of cattle), jury, linen, management, majority, minority, orchestra, population, press (newspapers), public, school, staff, team, union, university. If they are thought as a group, a singular verb follows, but if they are thought as separate individuals or items, the verb is plural. The team play exceptionally well today (all its members).

“Negative / negative pattern” is used to express negative emotions. The voice goes up at the end of such sentences. They tend to sound aggressively. So you don’t like my cooking, don’t you?

NOUNS

He put on a pair of shoes, which were waiting there for him. He took off a pair of glasses and handed them to her. To express measure of the substance expressed by an uncountable noun, the following is used: a drop of water, a bar of soap, a piece of cake, a slice of bread, cake, meat, a loaf of bread, a bar of chocolate, a lump of sugar, a carton of milk, a tin of lemonade, a tube of toothpaste, a bottle of milk, a jar of jam, a grain of rice, barley, wheat, a pinch of salt, a piece / stick of chalk, five pounds of sugar, a blade of grass, a bag of flour, a packet of tea, a piece of string, news, sugar, a spoonful of sugar, flour, etc., an amount of leisure, a stroke of luck, a fit of temper, a means of transport, an item of news, information, a sheet of paper, a sort of cheese, a type of beer, a yard of cloth, a state of health, disorder, uncertainty.

The plural number is usually formed with the help of the ending “-s” or “-es.” In the following 14 nouns the final “f” is changed into “-v” and “-es” is added: calf, elf, half, knife, life, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wharf, wolf. The following nouns ending in “o” have plurals ending in “oes”: domino, echo, embargo, hero, Negro, potato, tomato, veto. Some English nouns keep foreign plurals, sometimes English and foreign plurals are used side by side: alumna-alumnae, alumnus-alumni, formula-formulae-formulas, index-indices-indexes, crisis-crises, criterioncriteria, phenomenon-phenomena, datum-data, nucleus-nuclei, syllabussyllabi, symposium-symposia. Some nouns have the same form for the singular and for the plural: cod, deer, grouse, sheep, trout, quail, (air)craft, dozen, score (twenty), stone (6.5 kg), means, salmon, series, species, works, barracks, headquarters. There are some words which are uncountable nouns in English (singular) but often countable in other languages: accommodation, advice, baggage, behaviour, bread, chaos, cream, damage, furniture, hair, homework, information, ink, knowledge, leafage, luck, luggage, machinery, money, news, permission, progress, research, scenery, shrubbery, spaghetti, timber, traffic, watch, weather, work. Another group of uncountable nouns occurs only in the plural form: archives, clothes, congratulations, contents, customs, goods, jeans, odds, outskirts, particulars, proceeds, remains, riches, savings, scissors, spectacles, surroundings, thanks, tropics, trousers, wages (but we say a living wage), whereabouts, wits. If you refer to items of clothing you may use “a pair of” to show that one item is meant. The verb with it is singular if it is in the same clause. If the verb is in a following relative clause, it is usually plural. You also use plural pronoun after “a pair of.”

The following verbs are used with the plural verb only: cattle, clergy, gentry, people, police, poultry, vermin. Reference to individual members of the group is made thus: ten people, fifty police(men), ten head of cattle. Singular or plural verb can be used after youth of meaning young men and women considered as a group. Many collective nouns exist for groups of animals and birds: a covey of quail, a brood of grouse, a bevy of partridge, roes, nide, eye of pheasants, a whisp of snipe, a flock of birds, chickens, geese, pigeons, sheep, a gaggle of geese, a muster of peacocks, a herd of cattle, sheep, cows, goats, deer, buffalo, giraffe, elephants, whales, a hive of bees, a pack of dogs, hounds,

96

97

Certain groups of people or animals are described by a group name. This is called a “collective noun.” The same name is given to a group of things that have something in common. Most common collective nouns are: army, audience, band, cast, cattle, choir, chorus, class, club, college, committee, community, company, council, crew, crowd, cutlery, enemy, faculty, family, firm, flock (of sheep), furniture, gang, government, group, herd (of cattle), jury, linen, management, majority, minority, orchestra, population, press (newspapers), public, school, staff, team, union, university. If they are thought as a group, a singular verb follows, but if they are thought as separate individuals or items, the verb is plural. The team play exceptionally well today (all its members).

hyenas, wolves, a sloth of bears, a pride of lions, a shoal / school of fish, herring, mackerel, a swarm of ants, (also colony of) bees, flies, a colony of ants, etc. We use the following words for the shelter of animals: kennel for dogs, coop for chickens, fold / pen for sheep, hutch / warren for rabbits, cowshed / barn / byre / cowyard for cows, dovecote, columbary for pigeons, sty / pen for pigs, aquarium / bowl / fish tank for fish. Natural homes are: den / lair for lions, lodge for beavers, aerie for eagles, burrow for rabbits, rookery for penguins, hole for rats, hive for bees. Some other popular collective nouns are: a gang of robbers, a bunch of grapes, bananas, cherries, keys, flowers (to put in a vase), a pack of hands, cards, lies, a litter of puppies, kittens, piglets, etc., a clump of bushes, flowers (when still growing in the garden), a bouquet of flowers (for carrying), a bundle of laundry, firewood or faggots, a medley / selection of tunes, a block of flats, a suite of rooms, a cluster of houses, grapes (which are still growing), a team of footballers, oxen, a bevy of beautiful girls, a board of directors, a panel / team of experts, a sheaf of wheat, an assembly of churchmen, a fleet of shi ps, a nest of tables (a group of them which will fit under each other neatly), a set of teacups, a news bulletin, a crowd of people, a hum of conversation, a batch of letters, loaves, letters, a chain of shops, a tuft of hair, grass, a range of mountains, a wad of notes, a consensus of opinion, a pile of books, magazines, newspapers (lying about), a confederation of states, a bed of flowers (an area where they grow). Only singular verb is used after nouns used to describe a group of animals or fish. The following singular expressions usually have plural verbs: a number of, the majority of, a couple of, a group of, a lot of + plural noun / pronoun, the rest of + plural noun / pronoun. A number of them are decreasing fast. The number of and some plural expressions have singular verbs: names of quantities, plural names of countries, compound nouns joined by and, more than one + singular noun, one of + plural noun. Hundred dollars is enough for a week. Fish and chi ps costs two dollars. More than one sheep disappears. One of her kids plays basketball. 98

Fractions and percentages take the singular verb when they modify an uncountable noun and plural when they modify a countable noun; either of the verbs may be used when they modify a collective noun. The same rule is used after such words like: none, all, some, any, majority, most, half, etc. Fifty per cent of paper was spoilt. Twenty per cent of boys have passed the test. Thirty per cent of the team was / were present. Problems may arise when the subject is expressed by a noun-phrase: Either my friend or my relatives are going to see me soon. Neither my relatives nor my friend is going to see me soon. The proximity princi ple works here: the verb agrees in number with the closest part of the subject. The same rule is applied in “there is / are” structures. There is a book and two notebooks. We use verb in plural after “both ... and. Both tiger and lion are in the Zoo. The princi ple of non-intervention is observed when the subject is a prepositional phrase including “together with”, “along with”, “as well as”, etc. Father, together with his sons, is building the house. The agreement of subject with verb is problematic in certain types of relative clauses. He is one of those people who never ceases to work hard. The verb is singular if words each and every stand before subject in singular. Everyman and woman is eligible to vote. 99

hyenas, wolves, a sloth of bears, a pride of lions, a shoal / school of fish, herring, mackerel, a swarm of ants, (also colony of) bees, flies, a colony of ants, etc. We use the following words for the shelter of animals: kennel for dogs, coop for chickens, fold / pen for sheep, hutch / warren for rabbits, cowshed / barn / byre / cowyard for cows, dovecote, columbary for pigeons, sty / pen for pigs, aquarium / bowl / fish tank for fish. Natural homes are: den / lair for lions, lodge for beavers, aerie for eagles, burrow for rabbits, rookery for penguins, hole for rats, hive for bees. Some other popular collective nouns are: a gang of robbers, a bunch of grapes, bananas, cherries, keys, flowers (to put in a vase), a pack of hands, cards, lies, a litter of puppies, kittens, piglets, etc., a clump of bushes, flowers (when still growing in the garden), a bouquet of flowers (for carrying), a bundle of laundry, firewood or faggots, a medley / selection of tunes, a block of flats, a suite of rooms, a cluster of houses, grapes (which are still growing), a team of footballers, oxen, a bevy of beautiful girls, a board of directors, a panel / team of experts, a sheaf of wheat, an assembly of churchmen, a fleet of shi ps, a nest of tables (a group of them which will fit under each other neatly), a set of teacups, a news bulletin, a crowd of people, a hum of conversation, a batch of letters, loaves, letters, a chain of shops, a tuft of hair, grass, a range of mountains, a wad of notes, a consensus of opinion, a pile of books, magazines, newspapers (lying about), a confederation of states, a bed of flowers (an area where they grow). Only singular verb is used after nouns used to describe a group of animals or fish. The following singular expressions usually have plural verbs: a number of, the majority of, a couple of, a group of, a lot of + plural noun / pronoun, the rest of + plural noun / pronoun. A number of them are decreasing fast. The number of and some plural expressions have singular verbs: names of quantities, plural names of countries, compound nouns joined by and, more than one + singular noun, one of + plural noun. Hundred dollars is enough for a week. Fish and chi ps costs two dollars. More than one sheep disappears. One of her kids plays basketball. 98

Fractions and percentages take the singular verb when they modify an uncountable noun and plural when they modify a countable noun; either of the verbs may be used when they modify a collective noun. The same rule is used after such words like: none, all, some, any, majority, most, half, etc. Fifty per cent of paper was spoilt. Twenty per cent of boys have passed the test. Thirty per cent of the team was / were present. Problems may arise when the subject is expressed by a noun-phrase: Either my friend or my relatives are going to see me soon. Neither my relatives nor my friend is going to see me soon. The proximity princi ple works here: the verb agrees in number with the closest part of the subject. The same rule is applied in “there is / are” structures. There is a book and two notebooks. We use verb in plural after “both ... and. Both tiger and lion are in the Zoo. The princi ple of non-intervention is observed when the subject is a prepositional phrase including “together with”, “along with”, “as well as”, etc. Father, together with his sons, is building the house. The agreement of subject with verb is problematic in certain types of relative clauses. He is one of those people who never ceases to work hard. The verb is singular if words each and every stand before subject in singular. Everyman and woman is eligible to vote. 99

The verb is singular after the introductory it and uncountable nouns. It was the dogs, which awakened me The debate was long. His evidence is false. The margin is not wide enough. The fruit is ri pe. Gender — masculine, feminine, neuter — affects the form of the 3rd person singular. He refers to a person or animal regarded as male; she to a person or animal regarded as female; it to an inanimate object, or to a person or animal not yet regarded as male or female (e.g. Who is it?). “She” can be used for a country, a city in myths, poetry or politicoeconomic contexts. Nature, sea, ship, plane, boat, hovercraft are referred as “she” and the moon as “he” in emotionally coloured text. Car and automobile are referred to as “it”, however they, especially those in which the speaker takes a personal pride, can be referred to as “she” or “he” by men and women, respectively. To express some male or female animals, different words are used. There is often a quartet: the name of the male, the name of female, the name of the young, and the common name: boar, sow, piglet, pig; bull, steer (castrated), cow, heifer, calf, cattle; cock, rooster, capon (castrated), hen, chicken; dog, bitch, puppy, dog; drake, duck, duckling, duck; gander, goose, gosling, goose; ram, ewe, lamb, sheep; stag, hind, buck, doe, deer; stallion, gelding (castrated), mare, foal, colt, filly, horse; fox, vixen; lion, lioness; tiger, tigress. The name of the young: bear / cub, sheep / lamb, duck / duckling, frog / tadpole, polliwog, swan / cygnet, chicken / chick, hen / pullet, horse / colt / foal, mare / filly, swine / pig / shoat, deer / fawn, elephant / calf, cat / kitten, oyster / set, seal / calf, goose / gosling, bull / bullock, cow / heifer, cod / codling, lion / cub. The animals produce such sounds: cats mew / miaow / purr / caterwaul / yowl, lions roar, pigs squeal, hogs grunt, sheep bleat, stags bell, bulls bellow / roar, cows moo / low, pheasants gaggle, ducks quack, wolves howl, crows caw / croak, snakes hiss / blow, eagles scream, bitterns boom, donkeys bray, geese gaggle / gabble / cackle / hiss, wild geese honk, hens cackle, cluck, chuck, cocks crow, magpies chatter, frogs croak, doves coo, sparrows chirp / chirrup, goats bleat, elephants trumpet, turkeys gobble, wild turkeys yelp, owls hoot / screech, bees buzz / drone / hum, beetles drone / boom, mice squeak, cheep, horse neigh / whinny / snort, blackbirds whistle, snipe scape, monkeys chatter. 100

Constructions on the pattern “noun + noun” are of two types: (a) those that have, in pronunciation, a nuclear stress on the first element, as in school friend or bathing costume. They are commonly used to indicate a subclass; (b) those that have in pronunciation, a nuclear stress on the second element, as in a good friend or a boiling water. On this pattern, we have cane sugar, cotton shirt, iron bar, lead pencil, leather belt, rubber gloves, silk tie, steel girder. Here cotton shirt is one made of cotton. Wood and wool are usually replaced by wooden and woolen. A woodshed is one for storing wood, wooden shed is one made of wood. We also find golden, leaden and silken on this pattern: a golden opportunity, a leaden sky, a silken thread. The same stress pattern as that in cotton shirt occurs in: table drawer, bedroom furniture / window, city center, town hall, school clock, government department, summer holidays, mountain roads. These constructions indicate, for example, that the drawer belongs to the table, or that the holidays take place in the summer. We use the possessive “’s” structure most often to talk about something that belongs to a particular person, group, organization, country or animal. In other structures we generally prefer a structure with “of”, for example, the leg of the table. We also use this structure with nouns that refer to the length of duration of an event and with common “time when” expressions: two weeks’ holiday (but a two-week holiday), yesterday’s paper, tomorrow’s weather. Note the difference between the children’s bright costumes and a bright children’s costume. The first phrase is an example of possessive case, while the second one is an adjective, expressing a subclass of goods for children.

ADJECTIVES We use adjectives to say how something is, seems, becomes, looks, sounds, tastes or smells. There are two main types of adjective, qualitative and classifying. Adjectives that identify a quality that someone or something has, such as “sad”, “pretty”, “small”, are called qualitative adjectives. They are gradable, which means that the person or thing referred to can have more or less of the 101

The verb is singular after the introductory it and uncountable nouns. It was the dogs, which awakened me The debate was long. His evidence is false. The margin is not wide enough. The fruit is ri pe. Gender — masculine, feminine, neuter — affects the form of the 3rd person singular. He refers to a person or animal regarded as male; she to a person or animal regarded as female; it to an inanimate object, or to a person or animal not yet regarded as male or female (e.g. Who is it?). “She” can be used for a country, a city in myths, poetry or politicoeconomic contexts. Nature, sea, ship, plane, boat, hovercraft are referred as “she” and the moon as “he” in emotionally coloured text. Car and automobile are referred to as “it”, however they, especially those in which the speaker takes a personal pride, can be referred to as “she” or “he” by men and women, respectively. To express some male or female animals, different words are used. There is often a quartet: the name of the male, the name of female, the name of the young, and the common name: boar, sow, piglet, pig; bull, steer (castrated), cow, heifer, calf, cattle; cock, rooster, capon (castrated), hen, chicken; dog, bitch, puppy, dog; drake, duck, duckling, duck; gander, goose, gosling, goose; ram, ewe, lamb, sheep; stag, hind, buck, doe, deer; stallion, gelding (castrated), mare, foal, colt, filly, horse; fox, vixen; lion, lioness; tiger, tigress. The name of the young: bear / cub, sheep / lamb, duck / duckling, frog / tadpole, polliwog, swan / cygnet, chicken / chick, hen / pullet, horse / colt / foal, mare / filly, swine / pig / shoat, deer / fawn, elephant / calf, cat / kitten, oyster / set, seal / calf, goose / gosling, bull / bullock, cow / heifer, cod / codling, lion / cub. The animals produce such sounds: cats mew / miaow / purr / caterwaul / yowl, lions roar, pigs squeal, hogs grunt, sheep bleat, stags bell, bulls bellow / roar, cows moo / low, pheasants gaggle, ducks quack, wolves howl, crows caw / croak, snakes hiss / blow, eagles scream, bitterns boom, donkeys bray, geese gaggle / gabble / cackle / hiss, wild geese honk, hens cackle, cluck, chuck, cocks crow, magpies chatter, frogs croak, doves coo, sparrows chirp / chirrup, goats bleat, elephants trumpet, turkeys gobble, wild turkeys yelp, owls hoot / screech, bees buzz / drone / hum, beetles drone / boom, mice squeak, cheep, horse neigh / whinny / snort, blackbirds whistle, snipe scape, monkeys chatter. 100

Constructions on the pattern “noun + noun” are of two types: (a) those that have, in pronunciation, a nuclear stress on the first element, as in school friend or bathing costume. They are commonly used to indicate a subclass; (b) those that have in pronunciation, a nuclear stress on the second element, as in a good friend or a boiling water. On this pattern, we have cane sugar, cotton shirt, iron bar, lead pencil, leather belt, rubber gloves, silk tie, steel girder. Here cotton shirt is one made of cotton. Wood and wool are usually replaced by wooden and woolen. A woodshed is one for storing wood, wooden shed is one made of wood. We also find golden, leaden and silken on this pattern: a golden opportunity, a leaden sky, a silken thread. The same stress pattern as that in cotton shirt occurs in: table drawer, bedroom furniture / window, city center, town hall, school clock, government department, summer holidays, mountain roads. These constructions indicate, for example, that the drawer belongs to the table, or that the holidays take place in the summer. We use the possessive “’s” structure most often to talk about something that belongs to a particular person, group, organization, country or animal. In other structures we generally prefer a structure with “of”, for example, the leg of the table. We also use this structure with nouns that refer to the length of duration of an event and with common “time when” expressions: two weeks’ holiday (but a two-week holiday), yesterday’s paper, tomorrow’s weather. Note the difference between the children’s bright costumes and a bright children’s costume. The first phrase is an example of possessive case, while the second one is an adjective, expressing a subclass of goods for children.

ADJECTIVES We use adjectives to say how something is, seems, becomes, looks, sounds, tastes or smells. There are two main types of adjective, qualitative and classifying. Adjectives that identify a quality that someone or something has, such as “sad”, “pretty”, “small”, are called qualitative adjectives. They are gradable, which means that the person or thing referred to can have more or less of the 101

quality mentioned. The other main type of adjective consists of adjectives that you use to identify the particular class that something belongs to (for example, medieval, daily). Adjectives which are used in this way are called classifying adjectives. These adjectives are not gradable. Things are either in a particular group or not. Some adjectives can be either qualitative or classifying depending on the meaning that you want to convey. Compare the use of an adjective in an emotional person with the emotional needs of the children. The most common adjectives used in this way are: academic, conscious, dry, educational, effective, emotional, extreme, late, modern, moral, objective, ordinary, regular, religious, revolutionary, rural, scientific, secret, similar. There are also some “-ing” and “-ed” partici ples which can be used both as attributive and as predicative adjectives and which can be modified by very. They include: (a) alarming, amazing, amusing, astonishing, boring, charming, comforting, confusing, damaging, daring, deafening, disturbing, embarrassing, encouraging, enterprising, entertaining, exacting, exciting, frightening, heartening, humiliating, insulting, interesting, lasting, pleasing, promising, rewarding, satisfying, shocking, striking, surprising, thrilling, tiring, worrying; (b) alarmed, amused, annoyed, balanced, badly-behaved, well-behaved, bored, wellbuilt, conceited, confused, contented, well-defined, disappointed, distinguished, divided, well-dressed, well-educated, embarrassed, excited, fascinated, frightened, interested, isolated, limited, pleased, relaxed, reserved, satisfied, shocked, surpised, thrilled, tired, unexpected, unsettled, worried. Very much is used with mistaken and “past partici ples” when they are in passive verbs.

good bad, ill far

better worse farther, further

like real tired

more like more real more tired

the best the worst the farthest, furthest (further as an adjective is preferred in the sense of another, additional) the most like the most real the most tired (such forms tend to be used with other one syllable words in informal speech)

Comparison with “-er”, “est” is normal with two-syllable adjectives ending in “y”, such as angry, dirty, silly. Such comparisons occur optionally with such adjectives when they have the addition of the prefix “-un” and with certain two-syllable adjectives stressed on the first syllable: able, clever, common, cruel, feeble, gentle, handsome, likely, mature, narrow, obscure, pleasant, polite, remote, shallow, simple, solid, stupid, subtle, tender. Little is not usually compared in British English: little, small

smaller

the smallest

He takes offense at the least little thing. Late has two different forms of comparative and superlative degree with different meanings: late late

later latter

I was very much mistaken in her abilities. He is very much imitated by other painters.

(the) latest (the) last (latter means the last of two, last means final of things in row or list)

Near has two different forms of superlative degree With gradable adjectives, we can make three types of comparison: (a) to a higher degree; (b) the same degree; (c) to a lower degree. The comparative degree is indicated by the inflexion “-er” or the premodifier more. The superlative degree is indicated by the inflexion “-est” or the premodifier most. Comparison with “-er”, “-est” is normal with monosyllabic words. Seven monosyllabic adjectives do not follow this rule. They are: 102

Near Near

nearer

(the) nearest (the) next (means the following, neighbourly, for example, the next mail, next week).

It will be settled in the near future. 103

quality mentioned. The other main type of adjective consists of adjectives that you use to identify the particular class that something belongs to (for example, medieval, daily). Adjectives which are used in this way are called classifying adjectives. These adjectives are not gradable. Things are either in a particular group or not. Some adjectives can be either qualitative or classifying depending on the meaning that you want to convey. Compare the use of an adjective in an emotional person with the emotional needs of the children. The most common adjectives used in this way are: academic, conscious, dry, educational, effective, emotional, extreme, late, modern, moral, objective, ordinary, regular, religious, revolutionary, rural, scientific, secret, similar. There are also some “-ing” and “-ed” partici ples which can be used both as attributive and as predicative adjectives and which can be modified by very. They include: (a) alarming, amazing, amusing, astonishing, boring, charming, comforting, confusing, damaging, daring, deafening, disturbing, embarrassing, encouraging, enterprising, entertaining, exacting, exciting, frightening, heartening, humiliating, insulting, interesting, lasting, pleasing, promising, rewarding, satisfying, shocking, striking, surprising, thrilling, tiring, worrying; (b) alarmed, amused, annoyed, balanced, badly-behaved, well-behaved, bored, wellbuilt, conceited, confused, contented, well-defined, disappointed, distinguished, divided, well-dressed, well-educated, embarrassed, excited, fascinated, frightened, interested, isolated, limited, pleased, relaxed, reserved, satisfied, shocked, surpised, thrilled, tired, unexpected, unsettled, worried. Very much is used with mistaken and “past partici ples” when they are in passive verbs.

good bad, ill far

better worse farther, further

like real tired

more like more real more tired

the best the worst the farthest, furthest (further as an adjective is preferred in the sense of another, additional) the most like the most real the most tired (such forms tend to be used with other one syllable words in informal speech)

Comparison with “-er”, “est” is normal with two-syllable adjectives ending in “y”, such as angry, dirty, silly. Such comparisons occur optionally with such adjectives when they have the addition of the prefix “-un” and with certain two-syllable adjectives stressed on the first syllable: able, clever, common, cruel, feeble, gentle, handsome, likely, mature, narrow, obscure, pleasant, polite, remote, shallow, simple, solid, stupid, subtle, tender. Little is not usually compared in British English: little, small

smaller

the smallest

He takes offense at the least little thing. Late has two different forms of comparative and superlative degree with different meanings: late late

later latter

I was very much mistaken in her abilities. He is very much imitated by other painters.

(the) latest (the) last (latter means the last of two, last means final of things in row or list)

Near has two different forms of superlative degree With gradable adjectives, we can make three types of comparison: (a) to a higher degree; (b) the same degree; (c) to a lower degree. The comparative degree is indicated by the inflexion “-er” or the premodifier more. The superlative degree is indicated by the inflexion “-est” or the premodifier most. Comparison with “-er”, “-est” is normal with monosyllabic words. Seven monosyllabic adjectives do not follow this rule. They are: 102

Near Near

nearer

(the) nearest (the) next (means the following, neighbourly, for example, the next mail, next week).

It will be settled in the near future. 103

Great progress has been made in this field during the last few years. It will be settled within (during) the next few days / months / years, etc.

Comparison to a lower degree can be indicated in two ways: (a) the construction “not as / so + adjective + as”; (b) expensive — less expensive — the least expensive. That book is not so / as costly / less expensive as this one.

We have special forms of comparison for adjectives formed from nouns and adverbs: north, northern

northernmore

south, southern out, outer in, inner up, upper

southernmore outermore innermore uppermore

northernmost (although we may also have more northern, most northern) southernmost outermost innermost uppermost

Certain adjectives can’t be compared: perfect, unique, preferable, supreme, right, correct, etc. Elder and eldest are used with members of the family. In a three-way comparison, the third degree in the series uses still or even. Even must precede the adjective or adverb. Still can precede or follow. John is tall. Jim is taller than John. But Bill is even taller / taller still.

Other useful structures are: We haven’t got as much food as we need. She goes to the same college as me / as I do. She’s twice as small. Before comparatives, we can use (very) much, (by) far, a little, a bit, a lot / lots, a great deal, any, no, still and even. I feel much better today. This is much / by far the shortest route (by far is used only for the superlative degree). More than is also used before adjectives as an emphatic adverb of degree. You would be more than welcome. No cannot qualify an adjective unless there is a noun there also except for the phrase no different. Your method is no different from mine.

We should say: John is the taller of the two brothers. Where there is no idea of comparison in the context, most (adverb) has the meaning of very. This is a most interesting story (very interesting). You have been most generous. The same degree is indicated by the construction “as + adjective + as.” This book is as exciting as that one. 104

If we compare more than two things, then we should use the superlative. But popular usage often ignores this distinction. We’ve got oranges from Greece and Spain. Those from Spain are the cheapest. The...the with comparatives is used to show that things change or vary together. The more I see her, the more I like her. 105

Great progress has been made in this field during the last few years. It will be settled within (during) the next few days / months / years, etc.

Comparison to a lower degree can be indicated in two ways: (a) the construction “not as / so + adjective + as”; (b) expensive — less expensive — the least expensive. That book is not so / as costly / less expensive as this one.

We have special forms of comparison for adjectives formed from nouns and adverbs: north, northern

northernmore

south, southern out, outer in, inner up, upper

southernmore outermore innermore uppermore

northernmost (although we may also have more northern, most northern) southernmost outermost innermost uppermost

Certain adjectives can’t be compared: perfect, unique, preferable, supreme, right, correct, etc. Elder and eldest are used with members of the family. In a three-way comparison, the third degree in the series uses still or even. Even must precede the adjective or adverb. Still can precede or follow. John is tall. Jim is taller than John. But Bill is even taller / taller still.

Other useful structures are: We haven’t got as much food as we need. She goes to the same college as me / as I do. She’s twice as small. Before comparatives, we can use (very) much, (by) far, a little, a bit, a lot / lots, a great deal, any, no, still and even. I feel much better today. This is much / by far the shortest route (by far is used only for the superlative degree). More than is also used before adjectives as an emphatic adverb of degree. You would be more than welcome. No cannot qualify an adjective unless there is a noun there also except for the phrase no different. Your method is no different from mine.

We should say: John is the taller of the two brothers. Where there is no idea of comparison in the context, most (adverb) has the meaning of very. This is a most interesting story (very interesting). You have been most generous. The same degree is indicated by the construction “as + adjective + as.” This book is as exciting as that one. 104

If we compare more than two things, then we should use the superlative. But popular usage often ignores this distinction. We’ve got oranges from Greece and Spain. Those from Spain are the cheapest. The...the with comparatives is used to show that things change or vary together. The more I see her, the more I like her. 105

After superlatives, we do not use of with a singular word for a place or group. It is the highest mountain in the world. She is the prettiest girl in the group. He is the youngest of her brothers. We normally use of for a period of time. He is the youngest of his brothers. This is the warmest month of the year. A superlative is often followed by a perfect tense. It’s the worst experience I’ve ever had. (= I’ve never had such a bad experience / I’ve never had an experience as bad as that.) We do not use the before superlative without noun, when we are comparing somebody or something with him / her / itself in other situations. France is best in May. We can use like and as to say that things are similar. Like is a preposition, used before noun or pronoun. As is a conjunction, used before “subject + verb” or a prepositional expression. She roared like a lion. In Moscow, as in New York, consumer goods are expensive. We use as as a preposition before a noun or pronoun to talk about jobs, roles and functions of people and things. As your brother, I must warn you about her (I am your brother). Like your brother, I must warn about her (We both warn you). So and such are used for emphasizing; to talk about similarity, we prefer like this / that. I would love to have a house like that. 106

Some verbs (appear, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste) are used with both adjectives and adverbs, with different meanings. These verbs may serve as link-verbs and have adjectives. You look beautiful tonight. She looked angrily at him. Be always takes adjective, not adverb. When you use more than one adjective in a noun group, the usual order for the adjectives is: qualitative, followed by colour adjectives, followed by classifying adjectives. So we have the following order: epithet (describing or expressing some characteristic of the noun), size, shape, age, colour, origin, substance, gerund / noun / adjective (describing what purpose the object if it is inanimate is used for), noun. Opinions often come before descri ptions. An old white cotton shirt. A famous American law school. Nice new blue jeans. When the suffix “-ly” is added to nouns like man, king (meaning “having the attributes of”) the resulting word must be an adjective. It cannot be used as an adverb: brotherly, sisterly, fatherly, motherly, manly, womanly, kingly, queenly, princely. Also: gentlemanly, lovely, lonely, seemly, unseemly, friendly, kindly. The similar adverbs must use an adverbial phrase, “in a ...manner / way / fashion.” The hostess treated us in a most friendly way. When adjectives come after a verb, we usually put and before the last. She is very slim and gracious. We mostly use and before the last adjective when adjectives refer to different parts of a following noun. A concrete and glass building. 107

After superlatives, we do not use of with a singular word for a place or group. It is the highest mountain in the world. She is the prettiest girl in the group. He is the youngest of her brothers. We normally use of for a period of time. He is the youngest of his brothers. This is the warmest month of the year. A superlative is often followed by a perfect tense. It’s the worst experience I’ve ever had. (= I’ve never had such a bad experience / I’ve never had an experience as bad as that.) We do not use the before superlative without noun, when we are comparing somebody or something with him / her / itself in other situations. France is best in May. We can use like and as to say that things are similar. Like is a preposition, used before noun or pronoun. As is a conjunction, used before “subject + verb” or a prepositional expression. She roared like a lion. In Moscow, as in New York, consumer goods are expensive. We use as as a preposition before a noun or pronoun to talk about jobs, roles and functions of people and things. As your brother, I must warn you about her (I am your brother). Like your brother, I must warn about her (We both warn you). So and such are used for emphasizing; to talk about similarity, we prefer like this / that. I would love to have a house like that. 106

Some verbs (appear, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste) are used with both adjectives and adverbs, with different meanings. These verbs may serve as link-verbs and have adjectives. You look beautiful tonight. She looked angrily at him. Be always takes adjective, not adverb. When you use more than one adjective in a noun group, the usual order for the adjectives is: qualitative, followed by colour adjectives, followed by classifying adjectives. So we have the following order: epithet (describing or expressing some characteristic of the noun), size, shape, age, colour, origin, substance, gerund / noun / adjective (describing what purpose the object if it is inanimate is used for), noun. Opinions often come before descri ptions. An old white cotton shirt. A famous American law school. Nice new blue jeans. When the suffix “-ly” is added to nouns like man, king (meaning “having the attributes of”) the resulting word must be an adjective. It cannot be used as an adverb: brotherly, sisterly, fatherly, motherly, manly, womanly, kingly, queenly, princely. Also: gentlemanly, lovely, lonely, seemly, unseemly, friendly, kindly. The similar adverbs must use an adverbial phrase, “in a ...manner / way / fashion.” The hostess treated us in a most friendly way. When adjectives come after a verb, we usually put and before the last. She is very slim and gracious. We mostly use and before the last adjective when adjectives refer to different parts of a following noun. A concrete and glass building. 107

Only is used as an adjective. I am an only child. (I have no siblings.) These are the only jeans I have. The adjectives easy, difficult, hard, heavy, good, etc. are generally followed by the active infinitive. French isn’t easy to learn. We usually say that a man is handsome or good-looking, and that a woman is beautiful, lovely, good-looking or pretty. We tend to use silly or stupid instead of foolish in modern usage. There is no adverb formed from silly. We use in a silly manner instead. Good is an adjective only. The goalkeeper plays very well.

ADVERBS We use adverbs with other verbs to say how something happens or is done. They are divided into adverbs of place, time, manner, frequency, repetition, and degree. We also use adverbs before adjectives, past partici ples, other adverbs and prepositional expressions. The suffix “-ly” is the commonest device for creating an adverb from an adjective. The same suffix is used to create an adverb from a few nouns that denote a period of time: hourly, daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, yearly. These words can also be used as adjectives. Cowardly, deadly, likely, lovely, silly, ugly are adjectives. The trains run hourlily. There is an hourly bus service to town. The paper is published daily.

Comparative and superlative adverbs normally have more and most. Early, fast, hard, late, near, soon have “-er” and “-est” forms. At the end of a sentence we often put words and expressions, which say how, where, and when. They most often go in that order. She studies hard at the college now. After verbs of movement, the order can be different; expressions of place are normally put in the first place before adverb of time or adverb with a preposition by or with. He climbed in the attic quickly. Come to the theatre with me. When there are two or more adverbials of place, only the context can decide the order of priority. The general trend is for the focal point to come first, followed by the wider or more remote location. I usually stay at the hotel on the Black Sea coast. Adverbs often, seldom, ever, first, sometimes, always, never, last, just, still, almost, hardly, pronouns all, both, each are put before notional verbs and after auxiliary or modal verb or the verb to be. We all went there. You can always refuse. Enough is put before nouns and after adjectives or adverb. She had not enough money. I came quickly enough.

Late, early, near, high, loud, well are both adjectives and adverbs. Many adverbs are gradable, can be modified by very, so and too, and can be compared. They include: (a) most adverbs of manner (e.g. clearly, carefully, well); (b) often, frequently, seldom, rarely (adverbs of frequency); (c) early, late, recently, soon (adverbs of relative time); (d) near, far (adverbs of relative time).

Briefly is an adverb of time and manner and means in a few words, for a short space of time. Shortly is an adverb of time. It means very soon, in a short space of time. Often, preceded by other adverbs, makes a rough scale of frequency: Not often, not very often means rarely, fairly often means from time to time, quite often means several times and very often means frequently. By all means equals certainly.

108

109

Only is used as an adjective. I am an only child. (I have no siblings.) These are the only jeans I have. The adjectives easy, difficult, hard, heavy, good, etc. are generally followed by the active infinitive. French isn’t easy to learn. We usually say that a man is handsome or good-looking, and that a woman is beautiful, lovely, good-looking or pretty. We tend to use silly or stupid instead of foolish in modern usage. There is no adverb formed from silly. We use in a silly manner instead. Good is an adjective only. The goalkeeper plays very well.

ADVERBS We use adverbs with other verbs to say how something happens or is done. They are divided into adverbs of place, time, manner, frequency, repetition, and degree. We also use adverbs before adjectives, past partici ples, other adverbs and prepositional expressions. The suffix “-ly” is the commonest device for creating an adverb from an adjective. The same suffix is used to create an adverb from a few nouns that denote a period of time: hourly, daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, yearly. These words can also be used as adjectives. Cowardly, deadly, likely, lovely, silly, ugly are adjectives. The trains run hourlily. There is an hourly bus service to town. The paper is published daily.

Comparative and superlative adverbs normally have more and most. Early, fast, hard, late, near, soon have “-er” and “-est” forms. At the end of a sentence we often put words and expressions, which say how, where, and when. They most often go in that order. She studies hard at the college now. After verbs of movement, the order can be different; expressions of place are normally put in the first place before adverb of time or adverb with a preposition by or with. He climbed in the attic quickly. Come to the theatre with me. When there are two or more adverbials of place, only the context can decide the order of priority. The general trend is for the focal point to come first, followed by the wider or more remote location. I usually stay at the hotel on the Black Sea coast. Adverbs often, seldom, ever, first, sometimes, always, never, last, just, still, almost, hardly, pronouns all, both, each are put before notional verbs and after auxiliary or modal verb or the verb to be. We all went there. You can always refuse. Enough is put before nouns and after adjectives or adverb. She had not enough money. I came quickly enough.

Late, early, near, high, loud, well are both adjectives and adverbs. Many adverbs are gradable, can be modified by very, so and too, and can be compared. They include: (a) most adverbs of manner (e.g. clearly, carefully, well); (b) often, frequently, seldom, rarely (adverbs of frequency); (c) early, late, recently, soon (adverbs of relative time); (d) near, far (adverbs of relative time).

Briefly is an adverb of time and manner and means in a few words, for a short space of time. Shortly is an adverb of time. It means very soon, in a short space of time. Often, preceded by other adverbs, makes a rough scale of frequency: Not often, not very often means rarely, fairly often means from time to time, quite often means several times and very often means frequently. By all means equals certainly.

108

109

May I join you? By all means. (You are welcome.) By no means equals not at all. Am I disturbing you? By no means. (Not at all.) Where only + adverbial and some other adverbials start a sentence, there is inversion of subject and verb. Only then did I realize what a fool I had been. Under no circumstances shall I agree to that. Especially did I like the settings of the third act. Rather increases or decreases the force of the word it qualifies. It is used with adjectives, other adverbs, nouns, verbs, comparatives and too. It’s rather a pity you have to leave so soon. I rather like the way she dresses (opposite will be: I don’t much / really like the way she dresses).

Yet contrasts with still. I haven’t met her yet (up to now). I still haven’t met her. (I’ve been trying to meet her, but so far without success.) Already is used in an affirmative statement or in an affirmativelyoriented question, yet in a negative statement or in a completely open question. It can be used in the Present Simple: I can’t see it yet. I’ve been there twice already. Have you been to the bank already? (It appears that you have). Have you been to the bank yet? ( I really don’t know). Out of the question means impossible; out of question means the opposite, that is, certainly. We say less than 5 pounds (not few) because 5 pounds is considered as a sum of money not as a number of coins.

In no sooner...than / as soon as the sequence of events is instantaneous. If the sentence starts with No sooner, the subject and verb are inverted. No sooner had he got to the station than the train started. The position of still can alter the sense. I still don’t think so. (I continue to disagree.) I don’t still think so. (I’ve changed my mind.) English is not always consistent. We say last night (not yesterday night); but we hear yesterday evening more often than last evening. We use tonight, although this night may be heard, but it is not in common use. The adverb yet looks towards a time in the future from the present standpoint. I haven’t received a reply yet. I’d be surprised if the parcel had arrived yet. 110

111

May I join you? By all means. (You are welcome.) By no means equals not at all. Am I disturbing you? By no means. (Not at all.) Where only + adverbial and some other adverbials start a sentence, there is inversion of subject and verb. Only then did I realize what a fool I had been. Under no circumstances shall I agree to that. Especially did I like the settings of the third act. Rather increases or decreases the force of the word it qualifies. It is used with adjectives, other adverbs, nouns, verbs, comparatives and too. It’s rather a pity you have to leave so soon. I rather like the way she dresses (opposite will be: I don’t much / really like the way she dresses).

Yet contrasts with still. I haven’t met her yet (up to now). I still haven’t met her. (I’ve been trying to meet her, but so far without success.) Already is used in an affirmative statement or in an affirmativelyoriented question, yet in a negative statement or in a completely open question. It can be used in the Present Simple: I can’t see it yet. I’ve been there twice already. Have you been to the bank already? (It appears that you have). Have you been to the bank yet? ( I really don’t know). Out of the question means impossible; out of question means the opposite, that is, certainly. We say less than 5 pounds (not few) because 5 pounds is considered as a sum of money not as a number of coins.

In no sooner...than / as soon as the sequence of events is instantaneous. If the sentence starts with No sooner, the subject and verb are inverted. No sooner had he got to the station than the train started. The position of still can alter the sense. I still don’t think so. (I continue to disagree.) I don’t still think so. (I’ve changed my mind.) English is not always consistent. We say last night (not yesterday night); but we hear yesterday evening more often than last evening. We use tonight, although this night may be heard, but it is not in common use. The adverb yet looks towards a time in the future from the present standpoint. I haven’t received a reply yet. I’d be surprised if the parcel had arrived yet. 110

111

The indefinite article has a general use — “any.”

Articles

An Englishman’s home is his castle. It represents a class of people and can mean any example of something. Use the indefinite article when you are introducing a particular thing (or person) into conversation text for the first time if you cannot assume that your listener or reader knows which particular thing you are talking about. After weeks of looking, we finally bought a house. Use the indefinite article just to refer to any thing or person of a particular type. John refused to look for a job. Here you cannot refer back to the same sort of thing with “it”, “he”, “she”, etc. If you want to refer again to the same sort of thing you still use the indefinite article, or more likely the pronoun “one” or the thing itself. I have never had a dog since Rex. I have never wanted one. Give me a car. I want a car. Use the indefinite article to describe things and people, give information about something that has already been introduced. This use is common with verbs like “be”, “seem”, “look”, or “sound”, or where the descri ption immediately follows the noun. He is after all a wide-published scholar, an expert in his field. This seemed a logical approach. You also use the indefinite article to say what somebody’s job or profession is or what something is used as. It is often used in descri ptions of people. She’s a teacher. She has a nice smile. Don’t use that as a hammer. 112

A fool and his money are soon parted. It is used with the names of living creatures. A dog is (a) man’s best friend. (Man without an article means the human race.) In time phrases, the addition of a / an leaves the exact time or date indefinite. She went to Moscow on a Friday (no date is specified). The is used when it’s clear which noun we mean. The is also used with musical instruments, some adjectives with plural meanings, some nationality adjectives, most mountain ranges, oceans, seas, rivers, plural names of countries, island groups and regions, and to talk about a whole species. I live in the house near the shop. The definite article has reference backwards and forwards, when you are specifically referring to a particular thing, person, or a group. Last night a man was run over by a lorry. The accident happened in the street where I live. The first the looks back to what happened. The street looks forwards to ”where I live.” The, with its reference backwards or forwards, contrasts with a / an which have no such reference. The context or situation in which you are speaking or writing often identifies the thing we refer to. I want the black tie (tie is clearly defined in the context of the situation). I want a black tie. 113

The indefinite article has a general use — “any.”

Articles

An Englishman’s home is his castle. It represents a class of people and can mean any example of something. Use the indefinite article when you are introducing a particular thing (or person) into conversation text for the first time if you cannot assume that your listener or reader knows which particular thing you are talking about. After weeks of looking, we finally bought a house. Use the indefinite article just to refer to any thing or person of a particular type. John refused to look for a job. Here you cannot refer back to the same sort of thing with “it”, “he”, “she”, etc. If you want to refer again to the same sort of thing you still use the indefinite article, or more likely the pronoun “one” or the thing itself. I have never had a dog since Rex. I have never wanted one. Give me a car. I want a car. Use the indefinite article to describe things and people, give information about something that has already been introduced. This use is common with verbs like “be”, “seem”, “look”, or “sound”, or where the descri ption immediately follows the noun. He is after all a wide-published scholar, an expert in his field. This seemed a logical approach. You also use the indefinite article to say what somebody’s job or profession is or what something is used as. It is often used in descri ptions of people. She’s a teacher. She has a nice smile. Don’t use that as a hammer. 112

A fool and his money are soon parted. It is used with the names of living creatures. A dog is (a) man’s best friend. (Man without an article means the human race.) In time phrases, the addition of a / an leaves the exact time or date indefinite. She went to Moscow on a Friday (no date is specified). The is used when it’s clear which noun we mean. The is also used with musical instruments, some adjectives with plural meanings, some nationality adjectives, most mountain ranges, oceans, seas, rivers, plural names of countries, island groups and regions, and to talk about a whole species. I live in the house near the shop. The definite article has reference backwards and forwards, when you are specifically referring to a particular thing, person, or a group. Last night a man was run over by a lorry. The accident happened in the street where I live. The first the looks back to what happened. The street looks forwards to ”where I live.” The, with its reference backwards or forwards, contrasts with a / an which have no such reference. The context or situation in which you are speaking or writing often identifies the thing we refer to. I want the black tie (tie is clearly defined in the context of the situation). I want a black tie. 113

The contrasts with the absence of an article in meaning all or some. They took away the books (all the books). They took away books (some books). The is used before nouns that are unique in the context. The President will address the nation tonight. The is not used with abstract or uncountable nouns unless they are made specific in a context. Beauty is often skin-deep (only on the surface). She admired the beauty of the melody. The names of living creatures used in a general context can take either the or a / an. The / an elephant is found in Asia and in Africa. The plural of such nouns does not have an article. Tigers are not found in Africa. If you are referring to a whole class of species or something we call this a generic reference.

body was affected by somebody else’s action or when we refer to a touch, blow or pain. He took the girl by the arm and led her to the dance floor. She was kicked on the ankle., I have a pain in the side. He struck her in the face. The boy was stabbed in the back. I took her by the hand. We use the referring to unique items like: devil, Earth, equator, moon, north / south pole, planets, pope, sky, solar system, stars, sun, universe, weather, world. Still you can use most of them (but not earth and weather) with the indefinite articles or plurals. Earth is often used without an article after on. The sky was blue that morning. We basked under a warm October sun. The smallest nation on Earth. We use the for nouns with qualifications. Nouns can be qualified by prepositional phrases (He knew the answer to that question.), by relative clause (the progress which has been achieved), by clause with non-finite forms (the film shown on TV), by apposition. (The defendant, a woman of 35, denied the charge.) We do not generally use the in generalizations with plural and uncountable nouns, even if there is an adjective before the noun. She studies Japanese art. She studies the Japanese art of the twentieth century.

However, the definite article is used if the part of the body mentioned does not belong to the subject of the sentence or when the part of the

We use the before the nouns qualified by an of-phrase. Firstly, where the noun involved refers to an action, event, or a state and the ofphrase indicates the performer of the action or the thing affected (the rise of prices). Secondly, certain nouns refer to a part or characteristic of something and have unique reference: back, beginning, bottom, edge, end, front, height, length, middle, price, size, title, top, weight. We use the with the superlative adjectives. We use a in fixed expressions: a best friend, a best seller. We use the with unique adjectives: first, following, last, main, next, only, opposite, present, principal, right, same, sole, ultimate, usual, wrong. Some of them (except next, following, same) can be used with the indefinite article.

114

115

Napoleon described the English as a nation of shopkeepers. But we generally use a possessive determiner when referring to part of somebody’s body, somebody’s relatives, and somebody’s personal possessions. My / your / his / her / its / our / their are used with reference to parts of the body or articles of clothing. She put her hand in her pocket and took out the purse. Put your hands behind your back!

The contrasts with the absence of an article in meaning all or some. They took away the books (all the books). They took away books (some books). The is used before nouns that are unique in the context. The President will address the nation tonight. The is not used with abstract or uncountable nouns unless they are made specific in a context. Beauty is often skin-deep (only on the surface). She admired the beauty of the melody. The names of living creatures used in a general context can take either the or a / an. The / an elephant is found in Asia and in Africa. The plural of such nouns does not have an article. Tigers are not found in Africa. If you are referring to a whole class of species or something we call this a generic reference.

body was affected by somebody else’s action or when we refer to a touch, blow or pain. He took the girl by the arm and led her to the dance floor. She was kicked on the ankle., I have a pain in the side. He struck her in the face. The boy was stabbed in the back. I took her by the hand. We use the referring to unique items like: devil, Earth, equator, moon, north / south pole, planets, pope, sky, solar system, stars, sun, universe, weather, world. Still you can use most of them (but not earth and weather) with the indefinite articles or plurals. Earth is often used without an article after on. The sky was blue that morning. We basked under a warm October sun. The smallest nation on Earth. We use the for nouns with qualifications. Nouns can be qualified by prepositional phrases (He knew the answer to that question.), by relative clause (the progress which has been achieved), by clause with non-finite forms (the film shown on TV), by apposition. (The defendant, a woman of 35, denied the charge.) We do not generally use the in generalizations with plural and uncountable nouns, even if there is an adjective before the noun. She studies Japanese art. She studies the Japanese art of the twentieth century.

However, the definite article is used if the part of the body mentioned does not belong to the subject of the sentence or when the part of the

We use the before the nouns qualified by an of-phrase. Firstly, where the noun involved refers to an action, event, or a state and the ofphrase indicates the performer of the action or the thing affected (the rise of prices). Secondly, certain nouns refer to a part or characteristic of something and have unique reference: back, beginning, bottom, edge, end, front, height, length, middle, price, size, title, top, weight. We use the with the superlative adjectives. We use a in fixed expressions: a best friend, a best seller. We use the with unique adjectives: first, following, last, main, next, only, opposite, present, principal, right, same, sole, ultimate, usual, wrong. Some of them (except next, following, same) can be used with the indefinite article.

114

115

Napoleon described the English as a nation of shopkeepers. But we generally use a possessive determiner when referring to part of somebody’s body, somebody’s relatives, and somebody’s personal possessions. My / your / his / her / its / our / their are used with reference to parts of the body or articles of clothing. She put her hand in her pocket and took out the purse. Put your hands behind your back!

He paid a last visit to America. The answer is not to ignore a first child. I was an only child. We’ve taken a wrong turn. We use the stressed the to mean “the best”. (This is the place to be.) The is not used with most names of the diseases and after verbs describing a change of state. They made him President. She was appointed chairman of the committee.

The is also used with certain groups of words describing media and communications: (the) tele(vision), (the) TV, the box, (the) radio, the news, the telephone, the phone, the newspapers, the press, the papers, the post, the mail. We use the with words like train or bus to refer to a whole transport system. How long does it take on the train? No article is used when we refer to art form: cinema (Am. movie), theatre, opera, ballet. We sometimes say a very fine piece of cinema, etc. We usually say the with musical instruments, but if we talk about roles in a musical group we use no articles (a trio of trumpet, guitar, and drums; no article also after on, meaning “playing.” (Rey Brown on bass.) No articles are used before nouns naming people playing special roles: author, best man, boss, captain, centerforward, chairman, chairperson, director, goalkeeper, head, king, leader, manager, president, prime minister, queen, secretary, treasurer. But if we are talking about a person, not somebody’s role we need an article. The Queen then abandoned the project. We use the with adjectives meaning something: bizarre, exotic, impossible, incredible, inevitable, new, obvious, old, possible, ridiculous, sublime, supernatural, unbelievable, unexpected, unknown, unreal, unthinkable. 116

Half a glass (an hour, a day, a mile, etc.) is the shortened form of (half of a glass, etc.). We use a in some fixed phrases: make a noise / mistake / fortune / will / impression / experiment / attempt. We should say A man walked into a shop instead of One man walked into a shop. The indefinite article is needed only with common names of illnesses. I was suffering from a cold (a fever / cough / headache). Cholera is a dreadful disease. Go to church means to go and pray; while go to the church means to go and visit the church; similar use in go to bed / prison / market / hospital and sit at table. In the future means in the time to come. Nobody knows what will happen in the future. You must be careful in future. Don’t use the indefinite article before such words like: work, fun, health, permission, progress, information, weather, news. Note also: He is the son of a worker. It’s a slip of the tongue. It’s a slip of the pen. All mankind. The whole of mankind. The whole of Hungary. No article is used when generalizing, or with most countries, lakes, towns, streets, squares, etc. Unless a particular one is meant, no article is used before college, university, school, prison, hospital or church. Notice also go / stay to bed, go to / start work, go home, stay at home.

He paid a last visit to America. The answer is not to ignore a first child. I was an only child. We’ve taken a wrong turn. We use the stressed the to mean “the best”. (This is the place to be.) The is not used with most names of the diseases and after verbs describing a change of state. They made him President. She was appointed chairman of the committee.

The is also used with certain groups of words describing media and communications: (the) tele(vision), (the) TV, the box, (the) radio, the news, the telephone, the phone, the newspapers, the press, the papers, the post, the mail. We use the with words like train or bus to refer to a whole transport system. How long does it take on the train? No article is used when we refer to art form: cinema (Am. movie), theatre, opera, ballet. We sometimes say a very fine piece of cinema, etc. We usually say the with musical instruments, but if we talk about roles in a musical group we use no articles (a trio of trumpet, guitar, and drums; no article also after on, meaning “playing.” (Rey Brown on bass.) No articles are used before nouns naming people playing special roles: author, best man, boss, captain, centerforward, chairman, chairperson, director, goalkeeper, head, king, leader, manager, president, prime minister, queen, secretary, treasurer. But if we are talking about a person, not somebody’s role we need an article. The Queen then abandoned the project. We use the with adjectives meaning something: bizarre, exotic, impossible, incredible, inevitable, new, obvious, old, possible, ridiculous, sublime, supernatural, unbelievable, unexpected, unknown, unreal, unthinkable. 116

Half a glass (an hour, a day, a mile, etc.) is the shortened form of (half of a glass, etc.). We use a in some fixed phrases: make a noise / mistake / fortune / will / impression / experiment / attempt. We should say A man walked into a shop instead of One man walked into a shop. The indefinite article is needed only with common names of illnesses. I was suffering from a cold (a fever / cough / headache). Cholera is a dreadful disease. Go to church means to go and pray; while go to the church means to go and visit the church; similar use in go to bed / prison / market / hospital and sit at table. In the future means in the time to come. Nobody knows what will happen in the future. You must be careful in future. Don’t use the indefinite article before such words like: work, fun, health, permission, progress, information, weather, news. Note also: He is the son of a worker. It’s a slip of the tongue. It’s a slip of the pen. All mankind. The whole of mankind. The whole of Hungary. No article is used when generalizing, or with most countries, lakes, towns, streets, squares, etc. Unless a particular one is meant, no article is used before college, university, school, prison, hospital or church. Notice also go / stay to bed, go to / start work, go home, stay at home.

We use some / any to talk about indefinite amounts. We use no article when we are thinking about unlimited numbers or amounts, or not thinking about numbers / amounts at all.

Determiners

I like sweets. I ate some sweets after dinner. In English, there are two main ways in which you can use a noun group. You can use it to refer to someone or something, knowing that the person you are speaking to understands which person or thing you are talking about. This can be called the specific way of referring to someone or something. Alternatively, you can use a noun group to refer to someone or something of a particular type, without saying which person or thing you mean. This can be called the general way of referring to someone or something. In order to distinguish between these two ways of using a noun group, you use a special class of words called determiners. Here is the list of specific determiners: the, this, that, these, those, his, her, its, our, their. Here is a list of general determiners: a, all, an, another, any, both, each, either, enough, every, few, little, many, more, most, much, neither, no, other, several, some. If you want to describe something that you do to yourself or that someone else does to themselves, you normally use a possessive determiner: his, her, its, our, their. She was brushing her teeth.

Some is also used to mean quite a large amount or number. It took me some years to write the book. We often use none before “of” with the following verb in singular form. None of the students failed the exam. All is not used without a noun or pronoun to mean “everybody”. It can be used to mean “everything” or “the only thing”, but only with a relative clause with a conjunction that. All (that) I want now is to be left alone. They are all here. All is mainly used with uncountable and plural nouns. Whole is mainly used with singular countable nouns. We use the whole of before place names (the whole of class). All mankind equals the whole of mankind. We also say all those present / none of those present. He was left all alone / quite alone. (not He was left alone.)

When you use that or those you are distancing yourself slightly from the thing you are referring to. Some means “a certain (not large) number or amount of”. Some is used mostly in affirmative sentences and also in some questions when we expect people to say “Yes”, especially in requests when asking for things and offers. We use any instead of some in negative sentences, in most questions, with if, and with words like never, without, refuse, doubt, which have a negative kind of meaning. We also use any with the meaning “it doesn’t matter which.” In negative sentences, we can use just any to make this meaning clear. I don’t record just any music, I choose the best. 118

Much and many are generally used in questions and negatives, and after so, as, too and very. In other informal affirmative sentences, we mostly use a lot (of), lots (of) or plenty (of) with both uncountables and plurals. Little and few (without a) meaning “not much / many or not enough” are rather formal and often replaced by only a little / few or not much / many. Not many people read that book. We can use “another + few” or “another + a number with a plural noun.” You will see her in another five days (= five more days). 119

We use some / any to talk about indefinite amounts. We use no article when we are thinking about unlimited numbers or amounts, or not thinking about numbers / amounts at all.

Determiners

I like sweets. I ate some sweets after dinner. In English, there are two main ways in which you can use a noun group. You can use it to refer to someone or something, knowing that the person you are speaking to understands which person or thing you are talking about. This can be called the specific way of referring to someone or something. Alternatively, you can use a noun group to refer to someone or something of a particular type, without saying which person or thing you mean. This can be called the general way of referring to someone or something. In order to distinguish between these two ways of using a noun group, you use a special class of words called determiners. Here is the list of specific determiners: the, this, that, these, those, his, her, its, our, their. Here is a list of general determiners: a, all, an, another, any, both, each, either, enough, every, few, little, many, more, most, much, neither, no, other, several, some. If you want to describe something that you do to yourself or that someone else does to themselves, you normally use a possessive determiner: his, her, its, our, their. She was brushing her teeth.

Some is also used to mean quite a large amount or number. It took me some years to write the book. We often use none before “of” with the following verb in singular form. None of the students failed the exam. All is not used without a noun or pronoun to mean “everybody”. It can be used to mean “everything” or “the only thing”, but only with a relative clause with a conjunction that. All (that) I want now is to be left alone. They are all here. All is mainly used with uncountable and plural nouns. Whole is mainly used with singular countable nouns. We use the whole of before place names (the whole of class). All mankind equals the whole of mankind. We also say all those present / none of those present. He was left all alone / quite alone. (not He was left alone.)

When you use that or those you are distancing yourself slightly from the thing you are referring to. Some means “a certain (not large) number or amount of”. Some is used mostly in affirmative sentences and also in some questions when we expect people to say “Yes”, especially in requests when asking for things and offers. We use any instead of some in negative sentences, in most questions, with if, and with words like never, without, refuse, doubt, which have a negative kind of meaning. We also use any with the meaning “it doesn’t matter which.” In negative sentences, we can use just any to make this meaning clear. I don’t record just any music, I choose the best. 118

Much and many are generally used in questions and negatives, and after so, as, too and very. In other informal affirmative sentences, we mostly use a lot (of), lots (of) or plenty (of) with both uncountables and plurals. Little and few (without a) meaning “not much / many or not enough” are rather formal and often replaced by only a little / few or not much / many. Not many people read that book. We can use “another + few” or “another + a number with a plural noun.” You will see her in another five days (= five more days). 119

In short answers we can use me, him, etc. (informal) or I, he, etc. with a verb (more formal). The same thing happens after as and than.

Pronouns

When we use language, both in speech and writing, we constantly refer to things we have already mentioned or are about to mention. We can do this by repeating the noun group, but unless there is a special reason to do so we are more likely to use a pronoun instead. They make statements less repetitive while showing how the subjects and objects of a clause or a series of clauses are connected. There are several types of pronouns: personal, possessive, reflexive, demonstrative, indefinite, reciprocal, relative, interrogative. It stands for “the thing, activity or situation mentioned or indicated”, the thing being either abstract, or concrete and inanimate, or animate but not considered as male or female. He stands for “the person or animal mentioned or indicated”, and considered as a male, or someone. A person is usually he or she. But there are occasions when they become it or that. That and it are also used over the telephone to ask the speaker to identify himself. There’s someone at the door. What does he want? Who is it? It’s a policeman. Who was that you were talking to? Oh, that was my sister. A baby or very young child can also be referred to as it if the speaker doesn’t know its sex. She bore him a child. I don’t know if it is a boy or a girl. It is used as a formal object after consider, find, like, hate, know, etc. We consider it important to help him in time. I don’t like it when she speaks like that. I know it for certain that he is here. He owes it to his brother that he became an interpreter. We also use it after repeat / say or risk: Say / repeat it again. Don’t risk it! I, you, she, it, we, they are used as subjects before verbs. Me, you, him, her, it, us, them are normally used in other cases. We usually use the latter pronouns after be. Who’s that? It’s me.

I’m hot. Me too. I am too. She gets paid more than me. She gets paid more than I do. We use one(s) to avoid repeating a countable noun. We haven’t got fresh cream. Would you like tinned? We do not use a with one if there is no adjective. What shirt would you like to wear? One with yellow stri pes. The following determiners have of before articles (the, a / an), possessives (my / your, etc.), demonstratives (this / that, etc.) and pronouns (it / us / you / them): some, any, much, many, more, too much, etc., enough, little, less, least, few, all, both, each, every one, anyone, none, and numbers one, two, etc. Whose book shall we use? Mine. What when used as a relative pronoun means the thing that. Defining relative clauses give us essential information. They define the person or thing we are talking about. They usually directly follow the noun that we are defining. We use the relative pronouns who, which, that, whose. That can be used instead of who or which when they limit the meaning of a noun more narrowly. There is a growing tendency to use who rather than whom after prepositions. Which of my brothers did you meet? The one that lives in London, or the one that lives in Liverpool. She is the one who gave me that book. Non-defining relative clauses do not define the noun. They give us extra information. Note that we use commas with non-defining relative clauses. We do not use that in non-defining relative clauses and we cannot leave out the relative pronoun. This is my father, who lives in Leeds.

120

121

In short answers we can use me, him, etc. (informal) or I, he, etc. with a verb (more formal). The same thing happens after as and than.

Pronouns

When we use language, both in speech and writing, we constantly refer to things we have already mentioned or are about to mention. We can do this by repeating the noun group, but unless there is a special reason to do so we are more likely to use a pronoun instead. They make statements less repetitive while showing how the subjects and objects of a clause or a series of clauses are connected. There are several types of pronouns: personal, possessive, reflexive, demonstrative, indefinite, reciprocal, relative, interrogative. It stands for “the thing, activity or situation mentioned or indicated”, the thing being either abstract, or concrete and inanimate, or animate but not considered as male or female. He stands for “the person or animal mentioned or indicated”, and considered as a male, or someone. A person is usually he or she. But there are occasions when they become it or that. That and it are also used over the telephone to ask the speaker to identify himself. There’s someone at the door. What does he want? Who is it? It’s a policeman. Who was that you were talking to? Oh, that was my sister. A baby or very young child can also be referred to as it if the speaker doesn’t know its sex. She bore him a child. I don’t know if it is a boy or a girl. It is used as a formal object after consider, find, like, hate, know, etc. We consider it important to help him in time. I don’t like it when she speaks like that. I know it for certain that he is here. He owes it to his brother that he became an interpreter. We also use it after repeat / say or risk: Say / repeat it again. Don’t risk it! I, you, she, it, we, they are used as subjects before verbs. Me, you, him, her, it, us, them are normally used in other cases. We usually use the latter pronouns after be. Who’s that? It’s me.

I’m hot. Me too. I am too. She gets paid more than me. She gets paid more than I do. We use one(s) to avoid repeating a countable noun. We haven’t got fresh cream. Would you like tinned? We do not use a with one if there is no adjective. What shirt would you like to wear? One with yellow stri pes. The following determiners have of before articles (the, a / an), possessives (my / your, etc.), demonstratives (this / that, etc.) and pronouns (it / us / you / them): some, any, much, many, more, too much, etc., enough, little, less, least, few, all, both, each, every one, anyone, none, and numbers one, two, etc. Whose book shall we use? Mine. What when used as a relative pronoun means the thing that. Defining relative clauses give us essential information. They define the person or thing we are talking about. They usually directly follow the noun that we are defining. We use the relative pronouns who, which, that, whose. That can be used instead of who or which when they limit the meaning of a noun more narrowly. There is a growing tendency to use who rather than whom after prepositions. Which of my brothers did you meet? The one that lives in London, or the one that lives in Liverpool. She is the one who gave me that book. Non-defining relative clauses do not define the noun. They give us extra information. Note that we use commas with non-defining relative clauses. We do not use that in non-defining relative clauses and we cannot leave out the relative pronoun. This is my father, who lives in Leeds.

120

121

We normally use that, not which, after all, everything, something, anything, a lot, much, little, few, nothing, none, the only... and superlatives. We do not use what in these cases. The conjunction that is never preceded by a comma. This is the only coat that I have. That can be used instead of who: The girl that you were talking to is my sister.

I’ll write to her tomorrow, but I’ll write him a letter. We say: It should be done in a different way / in some other way (not in another way). Also I’d like to say a few words about the article (not some words). He closed the door behind him (not himself). He revenged himself upon everybody. (not He revenged upon everybody.) She behaved badly (not she behaved herself badly).

Sometimes we use that instead of which or who after the same: She wore the same clothes that she wore on Friday. When we talk about more than one thing we use this for more closer or more immediate and that for the further away or more remote in time. If we are only talking about one thing we usually say that. What’s that noise? That’s a nice coat! Don’t do that! We say: Now that I know what you think of it I’ll act (not Now when I know...). Articles, possessives, the words expressing the quantity, pronouns some, any, each, every, such, same, both, all, either, neither stand the farthest from the defined noun. My son’s first three spoken words. Wilson’s / The Wilson new government. Each and every are similar in meaning. Each (but not every) can be used for two things. You can also use each in the middle or at the end of a sentence. Use each for one of two or more things taken one by one. Never use every for two, but always for more than two things taken as a group. Each is more individual and specific, but every is more emphatic. The boys were each given presents. Change both into neither in a negative sentence. Neither of them went to school today. When the direct object of “write” is expressed omit the preposition. 122

123

We normally use that, not which, after all, everything, something, anything, a lot, much, little, few, nothing, none, the only... and superlatives. We do not use what in these cases. The conjunction that is never preceded by a comma. This is the only coat that I have. That can be used instead of who: The girl that you were talking to is my sister.

I’ll write to her tomorrow, but I’ll write him a letter. We say: It should be done in a different way / in some other way (not in another way). Also I’d like to say a few words about the article (not some words). He closed the door behind him (not himself). He revenged himself upon everybody. (not He revenged upon everybody.) She behaved badly (not she behaved herself badly).

Sometimes we use that instead of which or who after the same: She wore the same clothes that she wore on Friday. When we talk about more than one thing we use this for more closer or more immediate and that for the further away or more remote in time. If we are only talking about one thing we usually say that. What’s that noise? That’s a nice coat! Don’t do that! We say: Now that I know what you think of it I’ll act (not Now when I know...). Articles, possessives, the words expressing the quantity, pronouns some, any, each, every, such, same, both, all, either, neither stand the farthest from the defined noun. My son’s first three spoken words. Wilson’s / The Wilson new government. Each and every are similar in meaning. Each (but not every) can be used for two things. You can also use each in the middle or at the end of a sentence. Use each for one of two or more things taken one by one. Never use every for two, but always for more than two things taken as a group. Each is more individual and specific, but every is more emphatic. The boys were each given presents. Change both into neither in a negative sentence. Neither of them went to school today. When the direct object of “write” is expressed omit the preposition. 122

123

Numerals

Fractions are often given in percentages. 90 percent of most food is water. About 30 percent of pupils are girls. Only 10 percent were self employed.

When you want to refer to an exact number of things, you use numbers such as two, three, etc., which are called cardinal numbers. When you want to identify or describe something by indicating where it comes in a series or sequence, you use ordinal numbers such as first, second, etc. When you want to indicate how large a part of something is compared to the whole of it, you use a fraction such as a third, three quarters. Cardinal numbers can be used as part of a compound adjective. I asked my baby for a nickel and she gave a twenty-five dollar bill. Note that the noun remains singular even when the number is two or more and that compound adjectives, which are formed like this cannot be used as complements. So you should use additional adjective.

O’clock is generally omitted after a quarter and a half past, or a quarter to the hour (a quarter past three). For other intermediate times, the word minutes is used (it’s eight minutes to five).But five and multi ples of five minutes (ten, twenty) are used without the word minutes (It’s five past six.). For the twenty-four hour or continental clock, figures are only needed, but it is customary to add the word hours. (The time is now15:45 hours = fifteen forty-five.) We also use the word hundred sometimes. (It’s 18:00 sharp. = It’s eighteen hundred hours sharp.) We could say a ten-mile drive or ten miles’ drive. We usually place ordinal numbers before cardinal ones. I’ve read the first two chapters. We use the shortened form of half of the year.

My essay is three hundred words long. Half the year is nearly finished. When you talk about fractions of a single thing, you use a singular form of a verb afterwards. Two thirds of work is already done. However, when you talk about fractions of a number of things, you use a plural form of a verb afterwards. A quarter of the students were examined. Fractions can also be used after a whole number or amount plus “and”, with a noun placed after the fraction. The number must be plural even if the number is “one.” You’ve got to stay there for one and a half hours.

124

Numerals

Fractions are often given in percentages. 90 percent of most food is water. About 30 percent of pupils are girls. Only 10 percent were self employed.

When you want to refer to an exact number of things, you use numbers such as two, three, etc., which are called cardinal numbers. When you want to identify or describe something by indicating where it comes in a series or sequence, you use ordinal numbers such as first, second, etc. When you want to indicate how large a part of something is compared to the whole of it, you use a fraction such as a third, three quarters. Cardinal numbers can be used as part of a compound adjective. I asked my baby for a nickel and she gave a twenty-five dollar bill. Note that the noun remains singular even when the number is two or more and that compound adjectives, which are formed like this cannot be used as complements. So you should use additional adjective.

O’clock is generally omitted after a quarter and a half past, or a quarter to the hour (a quarter past three). For other intermediate times, the word minutes is used (it’s eight minutes to five).But five and multi ples of five minutes (ten, twenty) are used without the word minutes (It’s five past six.). For the twenty-four hour or continental clock, figures are only needed, but it is customary to add the word hours. (The time is now15:45 hours = fifteen forty-five.) We also use the word hundred sometimes. (It’s 18:00 sharp. = It’s eighteen hundred hours sharp.) We could say a ten-mile drive or ten miles’ drive. We usually place ordinal numbers before cardinal ones. I’ve read the first two chapters. We use the shortened form of half of the year.

My essay is three hundred words long. Half the year is nearly finished. When you talk about fractions of a single thing, you use a singular form of a verb afterwards. Two thirds of work is already done. However, when you talk about fractions of a number of things, you use a plural form of a verb afterwards. A quarter of the students were examined. Fractions can also be used after a whole number or amount plus “and”, with a noun placed after the fraction. The number must be plural even if the number is “one.” You’ve got to stay there for one and a half hours.

124

At

Prepositions

Most sentences that people produce contain at least one preposition; indeed three out of ten most frequent English words are prepositions: of, on and in. Prepositions provide information about place and time, or in a more abstract way about relationshi p between people or things. About About usually refers to a topic or somebody (think, speak, argue, worry, complain about). We use angry / annoyed / furious about something, but we say angry / annoyed / furious with somebody for doing something. We also use excited / worried / upset / nervous / happy, etc. about something. We say surprised / shocked / amazed / astonished at / by something or sorry about something. We usually say we are sorry for doing something, we feel sorry for somebody. We do something about something, care about somebody / something. We dream about somebody / something (I dreamt about her last night) but we dream of being something / doing something (I often dream of a new house). Hear about means to be told about. (Have you heard about the fight in the disco?) Hear of means to know that somebody / something exists. (I’ve never heard about that painter.) Hear from means to receive a letter or phone call from somebody. Think about something is to consider it. (What are you thinking about?) When you think of something, the idea comes to your mind. (I can’t think of it now.) We use think of as well when we ask or give opinion. (What do you think of the book?) When we remind somebody about, we tell them not to forget. (I reminded him about the party.) When we remind somebody of, we cause them to remember. (The place reminds me of France.) After Look after means take care of. 126

At is used for a specific point of time (at midnight), holiday season (at the New Year, at Christmas), familiar fixed events by day and by night (at bed time, at the break of day); at once = immediately. At the end (of something) means at the time when something ends or is at the farthest point or part. Opposite is at the beginning. At indicates a specific locality (an address, a public place or building). (I’ll meet you at the station. Stop at the traffic light.) We also use at in cases in which the location is irrelevant but what we do is what matters (at school / the dentist / dance / class, etc.). It is used for activity connected with a place (at the wheel of a car). We say at the corner of (or on the corner) of a street, but in the corner of the room. We usually say at when we say where an event takes place (for example, a concert / film / party). We use at or in when we think of the place as a point or station on a journey. (We stopped at a small hotel on our way to Paris.) Say angry at something, but angry / annoyed / vexed / indignant with somebody. We use good / bad / brilliant / hopeless / surprised, clever / quick / slow at. However, we say weak in. We look / stare / glance at; laugh / smile at; aim / point something at; shoot / fire (a gun) at (= in the direction of). We shout at somebody, when we are angry but shout to somebody so that they can hear. We throw something at somebody / something, but we throw something to somebody for them to catch. He is good in class means His conduct is good. We sit at a desk / table but also on a chair / bench / sofa and in the tree, in an arm-chair. We say I can’t buy it at such a price. But use for if the actual sum is mentioned and say at if the actual sum isn’t given. If the weight or measure follows the price use at with the actual sum. (The velvet is available at $5 a meter.) At present means now, presently means soon. By By is used in time phrases to indicate a final time by which something is or was to be completed. (I’ll have it done by the end of the week.) We also use by day / night to indicate the time of the day. (You’d better travel by night.) Get paid by the day = have daily pay. 127

At

Prepositions

Most sentences that people produce contain at least one preposition; indeed three out of ten most frequent English words are prepositions: of, on and in. Prepositions provide information about place and time, or in a more abstract way about relationshi p between people or things. About About usually refers to a topic or somebody (think, speak, argue, worry, complain about). We use angry / annoyed / furious about something, but we say angry / annoyed / furious with somebody for doing something. We also use excited / worried / upset / nervous / happy, etc. about something. We say surprised / shocked / amazed / astonished at / by something or sorry about something. We usually say we are sorry for doing something, we feel sorry for somebody. We do something about something, care about somebody / something. We dream about somebody / something (I dreamt about her last night) but we dream of being something / doing something (I often dream of a new house). Hear about means to be told about. (Have you heard about the fight in the disco?) Hear of means to know that somebody / something exists. (I’ve never heard about that painter.) Hear from means to receive a letter or phone call from somebody. Think about something is to consider it. (What are you thinking about?) When you think of something, the idea comes to your mind. (I can’t think of it now.) We use think of as well when we ask or give opinion. (What do you think of the book?) When we remind somebody about, we tell them not to forget. (I reminded him about the party.) When we remind somebody of, we cause them to remember. (The place reminds me of France.) After Look after means take care of. 126

At is used for a specific point of time (at midnight), holiday season (at the New Year, at Christmas), familiar fixed events by day and by night (at bed time, at the break of day); at once = immediately. At the end (of something) means at the time when something ends or is at the farthest point or part. Opposite is at the beginning. At indicates a specific locality (an address, a public place or building). (I’ll meet you at the station. Stop at the traffic light.) We also use at in cases in which the location is irrelevant but what we do is what matters (at school / the dentist / dance / class, etc.). It is used for activity connected with a place (at the wheel of a car). We say at the corner of (or on the corner) of a street, but in the corner of the room. We usually say at when we say where an event takes place (for example, a concert / film / party). We use at or in when we think of the place as a point or station on a journey. (We stopped at a small hotel on our way to Paris.) Say angry at something, but angry / annoyed / vexed / indignant with somebody. We use good / bad / brilliant / hopeless / surprised, clever / quick / slow at. However, we say weak in. We look / stare / glance at; laugh / smile at; aim / point something at; shoot / fire (a gun) at (= in the direction of). We shout at somebody, when we are angry but shout to somebody so that they can hear. We throw something at somebody / something, but we throw something to somebody for them to catch. He is good in class means His conduct is good. We sit at a desk / table but also on a chair / bench / sofa and in the tree, in an arm-chair. We say I can’t buy it at such a price. But use for if the actual sum is mentioned and say at if the actual sum isn’t given. If the weight or measure follows the price use at with the actual sum. (The velvet is available at $5 a meter.) At present means now, presently means soon. By By is used in time phrases to indicate a final time by which something is or was to be completed. (I’ll have it done by the end of the week.) We also use by day / night to indicate the time of the day. (You’d better travel by night.) Get paid by the day = have daily pay. 127

By means not later than. We cannot use until with this meaning. (Tell me by Sunday whether you agree or not.) We use until (till) to say how long the situation continues. (I’ll stay in bed till 10.) By also means next to / beside. (Come and sit by me.) By is also a preposition of instrument, when the agent is remote. (He was hit by a car.) It is a preposition of direct human agent after a passive verb. (The poem was recited by the poet himself.) It is used for means of transportation (go to work by bus). We use by hand, post, by one’s watch, by the hour, by the dozen, by the meter. During Both during and in express continuity over a period of time. (During / in the war, times were hard.) They can also express a point of time in a continuous period. (She was awakened during / in the night by a cry of the baby.) We use during to say when something happens. (not how long.)

something will happen within a time limit. (I’ll see you in an hour.) In time means soon enough (for something / to do something). In the end means finally. We use in in a photograph, in a picture, (look at yourself) in a mirror, in the sky, in the sun, in the shade, in a letter, in ink (we use in when we refer to the final work), in pencil, in my opinion. We say in the front / back of a car, but at the front / back of a building, group of people. We use in when we are thinking about the building itself. (It was cold in the house.) We usually use in with cities, towns and villages. We say an increase / decrease in, a rise / fall in. We are interested in. We believe in, specialize in, succeed in. We say difficult in, interested in, pride in, point in. Into We use break into (burglarise, etc.), crash / drive / bump into, divide / cut / split something into (two or more parts), translate from one language into another.

From We say different from (or to). We suffer from (an illness, etc.), protect somebody / something from (or against) something.

Of

In indicates a period of time, especially months, years, seasons (in May, in the morning), the total length of time taken to complete an activity (I’ll be ready within 15 minutes / in six months’ time), that

Of is used to indicate the cause of something: to die of hunger, happen of itself; personal characteristics: a man of many talents, a man of means. It means made of: a table of solid wood. It is used to indicate the amount or measure of something: a pound of apples, a box of matches. It means “belonging to”: the capital of France. We use of in an (dis)advantage of, a cause of, a picture / plan / photograph of. But we usually say There is an advantage in doing (or to do) something. We also use of in nice / kind / good / silly, etc. of somebody to do something, but we use nice / kind / friendly / cruel, etc. to somebody. We use of in afraid / scared, etc. of; fond / proud / ashamed / envious of; suspicious / critical / tolerant of; aware / conscious of; (in)capable of; full / short of: typical of; tired of; certain / sure of or about. We take care of. We warn somebody of / about a danger, something bad which might happen. We warn somebody about somebody / something, which is dangerous, unusual, etc. We use accuse / suspect somebody of, approve of, die of (an illness), consist of. We cure somebody of illness, but we say there is no cure for that disease. We say: He repented of his crime. But also use repentance for (the sin). We say intuition of.

128

129

For For indicates duration in time. It answers the question “For how long?” (I’m going away for the weekend.) We use for in a cheque / demand / reason for. We use famous for and responsible for. We care for somebody / something, ask somebody for, wait for something to happen, search for, look for, leave a place for another one. We pay somebody for something, but we pay a bill, tax, fare, etc. We thank / forgive somebody for something, apologise (to somebody) for something, blame somebody / something for something; we also use blame something on somebody. In

By means not later than. We cannot use until with this meaning. (Tell me by Sunday whether you agree or not.) We use until (till) to say how long the situation continues. (I’ll stay in bed till 10.) By also means next to / beside. (Come and sit by me.) By is also a preposition of instrument, when the agent is remote. (He was hit by a car.) It is a preposition of direct human agent after a passive verb. (The poem was recited by the poet himself.) It is used for means of transportation (go to work by bus). We use by hand, post, by one’s watch, by the hour, by the dozen, by the meter. During Both during and in express continuity over a period of time. (During / in the war, times were hard.) They can also express a point of time in a continuous period. (She was awakened during / in the night by a cry of the baby.) We use during to say when something happens. (not how long.)

something will happen within a time limit. (I’ll see you in an hour.) In time means soon enough (for something / to do something). In the end means finally. We use in in a photograph, in a picture, (look at yourself) in a mirror, in the sky, in the sun, in the shade, in a letter, in ink (we use in when we refer to the final work), in pencil, in my opinion. We say in the front / back of a car, but at the front / back of a building, group of people. We use in when we are thinking about the building itself. (It was cold in the house.) We usually use in with cities, towns and villages. We say an increase / decrease in, a rise / fall in. We are interested in. We believe in, specialize in, succeed in. We say difficult in, interested in, pride in, point in. Into We use break into (burglarise, etc.), crash / drive / bump into, divide / cut / split something into (two or more parts), translate from one language into another.

From We say different from (or to). We suffer from (an illness, etc.), protect somebody / something from (or against) something.

Of

In indicates a period of time, especially months, years, seasons (in May, in the morning), the total length of time taken to complete an activity (I’ll be ready within 15 minutes / in six months’ time), that

Of is used to indicate the cause of something: to die of hunger, happen of itself; personal characteristics: a man of many talents, a man of means. It means made of: a table of solid wood. It is used to indicate the amount or measure of something: a pound of apples, a box of matches. It means “belonging to”: the capital of France. We use of in an (dis)advantage of, a cause of, a picture / plan / photograph of. But we usually say There is an advantage in doing (or to do) something. We also use of in nice / kind / good / silly, etc. of somebody to do something, but we use nice / kind / friendly / cruel, etc. to somebody. We use of in afraid / scared, etc. of; fond / proud / ashamed / envious of; suspicious / critical / tolerant of; aware / conscious of; (in)capable of; full / short of: typical of; tired of; certain / sure of or about. We take care of. We warn somebody of / about a danger, something bad which might happen. We warn somebody about somebody / something, which is dangerous, unusual, etc. We use accuse / suspect somebody of, approve of, die of (an illness), consist of. We cure somebody of illness, but we say there is no cure for that disease. We say: He repented of his crime. But also use repentance for (the sin). We say intuition of.

128

129

For For indicates duration in time. It answers the question “For how long?” (I’m going away for the weekend.) We use for in a cheque / demand / reason for. We use famous for and responsible for. We care for somebody / something, ask somebody for, wait for something to happen, search for, look for, leave a place for another one. We pay somebody for something, but we pay a bill, tax, fare, etc. We thank / forgive somebody for something, apologise (to somebody) for something, blame somebody / something for something; we also use blame something on somebody. In

Off We turn / switch on or off the light. On On is used for a particular day or date, or part of a day (în Sunday, on the morning of I May). On time means punctual, not late. On is used for surface contact (on the wall), for types of transport involving boarding or climbing. We get on a bus, but get in / into a car. On is used for features of a life style (on a pension, on a diet). We use on for location outside (on a farm, on a hiking holiday). We write on the front / back of a letter / piece of paper. We usually say on a bus / train / plane / shi p / bike / horse but in a car / taxi. We also ride in a bus, train or other public vehicle. On is used in on holiday, on business, on a tour. We can also say go to a place for a holiday. We are keen on, (in)dependent on. We depend on, rely on, live on (money / food), congratulate (someone) on. We use concentrate on, insist on, spend (money) on. Onto, like into is only used with verbs of activity. (Don’t jump onto a moving bus.) Don’t mix books, lectures, notes, facts, stories, articles on something with exams, classes, marks, lessons in something.

We talk / speak to somebody; listen to; write (a letter) to. We use (tele)phone somebody with no preposition. We invite (somebody) to. We explain / describe something to somebody. We apologise to somebody (for), but we thank or ask somebody for something. We apply to a person, organization for something. We complain to somebody about something to say that we are not satisfied but we complain of a pain, illness, etc. We use happen to, prefer one thing / person to another. We conform to the rules, but comply with something. Get to bed means lie down and prepare for going to sleep, go to bed means to fall asleep. Up Up often expresses the idea of greater completeness (burn up, drink up, etc.). With

To is used with verbs of motion to indicate destination or the reci pient. At / in is used to denote the position. We say a damage to, an invitation to, a solution to, a key to, an answer to, an attitude to. We say married / engaged to or similar to.

With is a preposition of accompaniment (She went out with her boyfriend.), possession (having) (See that boy with a limp.), instrument, involving a direct agent or doer (I can open the door with a knife.). We use with in a relationshi p / connection / contact with. We use delighted / pleased / satisfied / disappointed with something. We say impressed with / by somebody / something or fed up / bored with. The place is crowded with people. We collide with, fill something with, provide / supply somebody with. We say covered with / in snow. I’ll speak with him means I’ll have a conversation with him. However, I’ll speak to him means I’ll do all the talking. Deal with means to have to do with something, to take action on a matter, deal in means to buy and sell. Interfere with means to do some damage or be a nuisance to somebody. Interfere in means to concern yourself with something, which you shouldn’t. Don’t interfere in my private business! Paul is always interfering with the equipment. We agree with a person, but to a thing. I agree with Jim. I can’t agree to this plan. We use no preposition after ring, phone, discuss, divorce, marry, lack, tell.

130

131

Out We light or blow out or put out a lamp, a candle or a fire. Over Let’s cross over to the other side of the street. Invite smb. over for a drink. Come over at 5. To

Off We turn / switch on or off the light. On On is used for a particular day or date, or part of a day (în Sunday, on the morning of I May). On time means punctual, not late. On is used for surface contact (on the wall), for types of transport involving boarding or climbing. We get on a bus, but get in / into a car. On is used for features of a life style (on a pension, on a diet). We use on for location outside (on a farm, on a hiking holiday). We write on the front / back of a letter / piece of paper. We usually say on a bus / train / plane / shi p / bike / horse but in a car / taxi. We also ride in a bus, train or other public vehicle. On is used in on holiday, on business, on a tour. We can also say go to a place for a holiday. We are keen on, (in)dependent on. We depend on, rely on, live on (money / food), congratulate (someone) on. We use concentrate on, insist on, spend (money) on. Onto, like into is only used with verbs of activity. (Don’t jump onto a moving bus.) Don’t mix books, lectures, notes, facts, stories, articles on something with exams, classes, marks, lessons in something.

We talk / speak to somebody; listen to; write (a letter) to. We use (tele)phone somebody with no preposition. We invite (somebody) to. We explain / describe something to somebody. We apologise to somebody (for), but we thank or ask somebody for something. We apply to a person, organization for something. We complain to somebody about something to say that we are not satisfied but we complain of a pain, illness, etc. We use happen to, prefer one thing / person to another. We conform to the rules, but comply with something. Get to bed means lie down and prepare for going to sleep, go to bed means to fall asleep. Up Up often expresses the idea of greater completeness (burn up, drink up, etc.). With

To is used with verbs of motion to indicate destination or the reci pient. At / in is used to denote the position. We say a damage to, an invitation to, a solution to, a key to, an answer to, an attitude to. We say married / engaged to or similar to.

With is a preposition of accompaniment (She went out with her boyfriend.), possession (having) (See that boy with a limp.), instrument, involving a direct agent or doer (I can open the door with a knife.). We use with in a relationshi p / connection / contact with. We use delighted / pleased / satisfied / disappointed with something. We say impressed with / by somebody / something or fed up / bored with. The place is crowded with people. We collide with, fill something with, provide / supply somebody with. We say covered with / in snow. I’ll speak with him means I’ll have a conversation with him. However, I’ll speak to him means I’ll do all the talking. Deal with means to have to do with something, to take action on a matter, deal in means to buy and sell. Interfere with means to do some damage or be a nuisance to somebody. Interfere in means to concern yourself with something, which you shouldn’t. Don’t interfere in my private business! Paul is always interfering with the equipment. We agree with a person, but to a thing. I agree with Jim. I can’t agree to this plan. We use no preposition after ring, phone, discuss, divorce, marry, lack, tell.

130

131

Out We light or blow out or put out a lamp, a candle or a fire. Over Let’s cross over to the other side of the street. Invite smb. over for a drink. Come over at 5. To

A Personal Vocabulary-building Program 1. Keep a vocabulary notebook. Jot down the new words you encounter. Record the essential information for each word: spelling, part of speech, pronunciation, definition. 2. Review the words in your notebook. Take a few minutes each day to study them. Set a realistic goal of learning a certain number of new words per week. 3. Study the words actively. Active study means that you use as many senses as possible in studying the word. Say the word. Listen to yourself saying it. See the word in your mind’s eye. Then make sure you use the word as soon as possible in conversation or in writing. A rule of thumb is that if you use a word twice it is yours. 4. Invent your own memory devices. Try to associate the word with other similar words you know. Create a mental image that relates to the word and helps you remember its meaning. 5. Work with different dictionaries. The four most notable English dictionaries are: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Cambridge International Dictionary of English, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Collins Cobuild English Dictionary.

Strategies for Unlocking Word Meaning

What happens when you encounter an unfamiliar word in your reading? If you have a dictionary at hand, you can look up the word. If you don’t have a dictionary, you still have two excellent strategies that can help you make sense of the word: context clues and word parts analysis.

PART A. DETERMINING A WORD’S MEANING FROM CONTEXT Skilled readers often use context clues to determine a word’s meaning. Context refers to the words or sentences before or after a certain word that help clarify what the word means. There are several types of context clues you can look for, including definition and restatement, example, comparison, contrast, and cause and effect.

Definition and Restatement Sometimes a writer will directly define a word, especially if the word is a technical term that may unfamiliar to readers. Future space shuttles to the moon will need to be timed so that trips will occur when the moon is in perigee, the stage in its orbit when it is closest to the earth. More often, a writer will restate the meaning of a word in a less precise form than a dictionary definition. Jane trained herself to be ambidextrous basketball player. In other words, she could dribble, shoot, or pass with either hand. The meaning of ambidextrous — “able to use both hands with equal ease” — becomes obvious through the use of the restatement — “could dribble, shoot, or pass with either hand”. Definition and restatement are often signaled by punctuation (note the comma in the first example) 132

133

A Personal Vocabulary-building Program 1. Keep a vocabulary notebook. Jot down the new words you encounter. Record the essential information for each word: spelling, part of speech, pronunciation, definition. 2. Review the words in your notebook. Take a few minutes each day to study them. Set a realistic goal of learning a certain number of new words per week. 3. Study the words actively. Active study means that you use as many senses as possible in studying the word. Say the word. Listen to yourself saying it. See the word in your mind’s eye. Then make sure you use the word as soon as possible in conversation or in writing. A rule of thumb is that if you use a word twice it is yours. 4. Invent your own memory devices. Try to associate the word with other similar words you know. Create a mental image that relates to the word and helps you remember its meaning. 5. Work with different dictionaries. The four most notable English dictionaries are: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Cambridge International Dictionary of English, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Collins Cobuild English Dictionary.

Strategies for Unlocking Word Meaning

What happens when you encounter an unfamiliar word in your reading? If you have a dictionary at hand, you can look up the word. If you don’t have a dictionary, you still have two excellent strategies that can help you make sense of the word: context clues and word parts analysis.

PART A. DETERMINING A WORD’S MEANING FROM CONTEXT Skilled readers often use context clues to determine a word’s meaning. Context refers to the words or sentences before or after a certain word that help clarify what the word means. There are several types of context clues you can look for, including definition and restatement, example, comparison, contrast, and cause and effect.

Definition and Restatement Sometimes a writer will directly define a word, especially if the word is a technical term that may unfamiliar to readers. Future space shuttles to the moon will need to be timed so that trips will occur when the moon is in perigee, the stage in its orbit when it is closest to the earth. More often, a writer will restate the meaning of a word in a less precise form than a dictionary definition. Jane trained herself to be ambidextrous basketball player. In other words, she could dribble, shoot, or pass with either hand. The meaning of ambidextrous — “able to use both hands with equal ease” — becomes obvious through the use of the restatement — “could dribble, shoot, or pass with either hand”. Definition and restatement are often signaled by punctuation (note the comma in the first example) 132

133

and by certain words and phrases: which is, that is, or, in other words, also known as, also called.

brave.” The following key words and phrases signal contrasts: but, although, on the contrary, on the other hand, unlike, in contrast to, dissimilar, different, however.

Example The context in which a word appears may include one or more examples that unlock the meaning of an unfamiliar word. The work of an agronomist includes the selective breeding of crop plants and the development of methods to preserve soil. The word includes, followed by examples of two types of work, helps reveal the meaning of agronomist –“a person who studies crop production and the management of farmland”. The following words often signal examples: like, including, such as, for instance, especially, other, this, these, these include, for example.

Comparison With this context clue the writer compares the word in question with other, more familiar words. By noting the similarities between the things described, you can get an idea of the meaning of the unfamiliar word. Her penchant for unnecessary explanations, like her fondness for big words, either annoyed or amused her audience. The comparison like her fondness clearly conveys the meaning of penchant — “a strong liking or fondness.” Comparisons are often signaled by these key words: like, as, in the same way, similar to, resembling, likewise, similarity, also, identical, related.

Cause and Effect The cause of an action or event may be stated using an unfamiliar word. If, however, the effect of that action is stated in familiar terms, it can help you understand the unfamiliar word. Since both sides involved in the labor dispute were intransigent in their contract demands, a federal mediator had to be brought in to help reach an agreement. In this sentence, the cause — intransigent contract demands — leads to the effect — bringing in a federal mediator. Therefore, intransigent must mean “refusing to compromise” or “refusing to come to an agreement.” Certain key words and phrases may signal cause and effect: because, since, consequently, therefore, when, as a result.

Inference from General Context Often clues to the meaning of an unfamiliar word are not in the same sentence nor are they obvious as the preceding examples. In such cases, you will need to look at the sentences that surround the word and infer, or draw a conclusion about the word’s meaning. A single piece of information several sentences away from the unfamiliar word may unlock the meaning.

PART B. DETERMINING MEANING THROUGH WORD ANALYSIS

Contrast Contrast may also help reveal the meaning of a word through contrast, as in this example:

In this sentence the word unlike signals a contrast. Therefore, you can assume that intrepid means the opposite of fearful: “unafraid, bold,

Word analysis is another way to determine a new word’s meaning. If you know what each part of a word means, you can often understand the complete word. Prefix is a word that is added to the beginning of another word or word part. Suffix is a word part that is added to the end of another word or word part.

134

135

The intrepid child, unlike her more fearful playmates, never doubted her ability to climb to the top of the tree.

and by certain words and phrases: which is, that is, or, in other words, also known as, also called.

brave.” The following key words and phrases signal contrasts: but, although, on the contrary, on the other hand, unlike, in contrast to, dissimilar, different, however.

Example The context in which a word appears may include one or more examples that unlock the meaning of an unfamiliar word. The work of an agronomist includes the selective breeding of crop plants and the development of methods to preserve soil. The word includes, followed by examples of two types of work, helps reveal the meaning of agronomist –“a person who studies crop production and the management of farmland”. The following words often signal examples: like, including, such as, for instance, especially, other, this, these, these include, for example.

Comparison With this context clue the writer compares the word in question with other, more familiar words. By noting the similarities between the things described, you can get an idea of the meaning of the unfamiliar word. Her penchant for unnecessary explanations, like her fondness for big words, either annoyed or amused her audience. The comparison like her fondness clearly conveys the meaning of penchant — “a strong liking or fondness.” Comparisons are often signaled by these key words: like, as, in the same way, similar to, resembling, likewise, similarity, also, identical, related.

Cause and Effect The cause of an action or event may be stated using an unfamiliar word. If, however, the effect of that action is stated in familiar terms, it can help you understand the unfamiliar word. Since both sides involved in the labor dispute were intransigent in their contract demands, a federal mediator had to be brought in to help reach an agreement. In this sentence, the cause — intransigent contract demands — leads to the effect — bringing in a federal mediator. Therefore, intransigent must mean “refusing to compromise” or “refusing to come to an agreement.” Certain key words and phrases may signal cause and effect: because, since, consequently, therefore, when, as a result.

Inference from General Context Often clues to the meaning of an unfamiliar word are not in the same sentence nor are they obvious as the preceding examples. In such cases, you will need to look at the sentences that surround the word and infer, or draw a conclusion about the word’s meaning. A single piece of information several sentences away from the unfamiliar word may unlock the meaning.

PART B. DETERMINING MEANING THROUGH WORD ANALYSIS

Contrast Contrast may also help reveal the meaning of a word through contrast, as in this example:

In this sentence the word unlike signals a contrast. Therefore, you can assume that intrepid means the opposite of fearful: “unafraid, bold,

Word analysis is another way to determine a new word’s meaning. If you know what each part of a word means, you can often understand the complete word. Prefix is a word that is added to the beginning of another word or word part. Suffix is a word part that is added to the end of another word or word part.

134

135

The intrepid child, unlike her more fearful playmates, never doubted her ability to climb to the top of the tree.

The following chart contains prefixes that have only one meaning.

misnonperperipostpreretro sesubsubsyn-, symtri-

Prefix

The following prefixes have more than one meaning.

Base word is a complete word to which a prefix and / or suffix may be added. Root is a word part to which a prefix and / or a suffix may be added. A root cannot stand alone. Look at a word with a root. Incredulity is made up of the prefix in(“not”), the Latin root cred (“believe”), and the suffix -ity (“condition or state of”). Incredulity means “the state of unbelieving,” or more precisely, “unwilling or inability to believe.”

Prefixes

Meaning

Example

an(a)-, anegative prefix anaup, (several) times benegood bitwo circumaround col-, com-, con- with, together conwith, together contraopposed diathrough dichain two disagainst ecout endoinner, within epi on, upon equiequal ex-, eout extraoutside hemihalf hyperover, above hypo under interbetween, among intrawithin introinto malbad midhalfway 136

anachronism, anodyne anatomy benefit bigamy circumvent, circumlocution collect, compile, conduct incongruous contradict diaphonous dichotomy distrust eccentric endodontist epitome equidistant extract extralegal hemisphere hypercritical, hypersensitive hypodermic, hypotension international intracellular introvert maltreat midday

wrong not through around, surrounding after in time, space before backward, behind apart under, below near, close to with, together three

Prefix

Meaning

a-, ab-

up, out not away motion toward

ad-, aganteanti-

bede-

dis-

em-, en-

il-, im-, in-, ir-

misspell nonworking perambulator periodontist postpone, postscri pt predawn, prescient retroactive separate, segregate subzero, subscribe suburban synchronize trivia

Example

before, prior to in front of against prevents, cures opposite, reverse around, by about away from, off down reverse action of lack of not away to get into, on to make, cause in, into not in, into 137

arise abnormal, atomic absent adopt, aggregate nearness to adjoin antecedent anteroom anticensorshi p antidote antimatter beset bemoan derail decline, describe defrost distrust dishonest dispatch embark, entomologist enfeeble enclose immature, infidelity investigate, insect, inscribe

The following chart contains prefixes that have only one meaning.

misnonperperipostpreretro sesubsubsyn-, symtri-

Prefix

The following prefixes have more than one meaning.

Base word is a complete word to which a prefix and / or suffix may be added. Root is a word part to which a prefix and / or a suffix may be added. A root cannot stand alone. Look at a word with a root. Incredulity is made up of the prefix in(“not”), the Latin root cred (“believe”), and the suffix -ity (“condition or state of”). Incredulity means “the state of unbelieving,” or more precisely, “unwilling or inability to believe.”

Prefixes

Meaning

Example

an(a)-, anegative prefix anaup, (several) times benegood bitwo circumaround col-, com-, con- with, together conwith, together contraopposed diathrough dichain two disagainst ecout endoinner, within epi on, upon equiequal ex-, eout extraoutside hemihalf hyperover, above hypo under interbetween, among intrawithin introinto malbad midhalfway 136

anachronism, anodyne anatomy benefit bigamy circumvent, circumlocution collect, compile, conduct incongruous contradict diaphonous dichotomy distrust eccentric endodontist epitome equidistant extract extralegal hemisphere hypercritical, hypersensitive hypodermic, hypotension international intracellular introvert maltreat midday

wrong not through around, surrounding after in time, space before backward, behind apart under, below near, close to with, together three

Prefix

Meaning

a-, ab-

up, out not away motion toward

ad-, aganteanti-

bede-

dis-

em-, en-

il-, im-, in-, ir-

misspell nonworking perambulator periodontist postpone, postscri pt predawn, prescient retroactive separate, segregate subzero, subscribe suburban synchronize trivia

Example

before, prior to in front of against prevents, cures opposite, reverse around, by about away from, off down reverse action of lack of not away to get into, on to make, cause in, into not in, into 137

arise abnormal, atomic absent adopt, aggregate nearness to adjoin antecedent anteroom anticensorshi p antidote antimatter beset bemoan derail decline, describe defrost distrust dishonest dispatch embark, entomologist enfeeble enclose immature, infidelity investigate, insect, inscribe

Prefix proresemi-

supertransun-

Meaning

Example

forward, ahead in favor of again back half twice in a period partly over and above very large across beyond not reverse of

propel, prognosis prolabor replant, reticent repay semicircle semiannual semiconscious superhuman supertanker transatlantic transcend unhappy unfasten

-itis (inflammation) -ity (quality, condition) -ium (place where) -iozation -ment (attached to verbs) -mony -ness -ory (place where) -osis (abnormal state) -shi p -sion -tude -ty (quality)

neuritis sincerity podium civilization encouragement matrimony, parsimony kindness, fondness factory psychosis ownershi p, worshi p decision gratitude, solitude frailty

Adjective suffixes

Suffixes Noun suffixes that refer to someone who does something.

Suffix -ant -eer -er -ier -ician (expert) -ist -or

Examples commandant, occupant auctioneer manager cavalier beautician, statistician geologist counselor

Noun suffixes that make abstract words. -ance -ancy -ation -cy -dom -ence -hood -ice -ism

vigilance vagrancy, vacancy imagination accuracy freedom, kingdom independence womanhood, brotherhood cowardice, prejudice realism, federalism 138

-able -acious -al -ant -escent -ful -ible -ic -ical -ine-ish -ive -less -like -ly -most -ory -ous -ular

able to full of relating to relating to becoming, growing full of able to pertaining to or like pertaining to like, descri ptive of pertaining to or like pertaining to without like like at the extreme like full of pertaining to

readable vivacious musical triumphant adolescent, convalescent harmful convertible heroic economical leonine foolish descri ptive senseless lifelike scholarly topmost placatory furious cellular

to make to become

activate lengthen

Verb suffixes -ate -en

139

Prefix proresemi-

supertransun-

Meaning

Example

forward, ahead in favor of again back half twice in a period partly over and above very large across beyond not reverse of

propel, prognosis prolabor replant, reticent repay semicircle semiannual semiconscious superhuman supertanker transatlantic transcend unhappy unfasten

-itis (inflammation) -ity (quality, condition) -ium (place where) -iozation -ment (attached to verbs) -mony -ness -ory (place where) -osis (abnormal state) -shi p -sion -tude -ty (quality)

neuritis sincerity podium civilization encouragement matrimony, parsimony kindness, fondness factory psychosis ownershi p, worshi p decision gratitude, solitude frailty

Adjective suffixes

Suffixes Noun suffixes that refer to someone who does something.

Suffix -ant -eer -er -ier -ician (expert) -ist -or

Examples commandant, occupant auctioneer manager cavalier beautician, statistician geologist counselor

Noun suffixes that make abstract words. -ance -ancy -ation -cy -dom -ence -hood -ice -ism

vigilance vagrancy, vacancy imagination accuracy freedom, kingdom independence womanhood, brotherhood cowardice, prejudice realism, federalism 138

-able -acious -al -ant -escent -ful -ible -ic -ical -ine-ish -ive -less -like -ly -most -ory -ous -ular

able to full of relating to relating to becoming, growing full of able to pertaining to or like pertaining to like, descri ptive of pertaining to or like pertaining to without like like at the extreme like full of pertaining to

readable vivacious musical triumphant adolescent, convalescent harmful convertible heroic economical leonine foolish descri ptive senseless lifelike scholarly topmost placatory furious cellular

to make to become

activate lengthen

Verb suffixes -ate -en

139

-esce -fy -ize

begin to to make to become

convalesce simplify crystallize

manner toward like

readily, quickly skyward clockwise

Adverb suffixes -ily, -ly -ward -wise

Roots and Word Families A great many roots in English originally came from Greek or Latin. These roots generate whole families of English words. A word family is a group of words with a common root. Here are the words derived from the Latin root chron, which means “time”: anachronism, chronic, chronicle, chronicler, chronological, chronometer, crony, diachronic, synchronize.

Useful Greek Roots Root adelphos agogos agora akros algos andros anthrop(os) Aphrodite

Meaning

Examples

archein asketes aster, astr(on)

brother leading, leader market place highest pain male human (mankind) Aphrodite, goddess of love to rule monk star

auto(s) baros bibl(ion) bi, bio

self, alone weight book life 140

Philadelphia pedagogy agorophobia acrophobia neuralgia polyandry, androgynous anthropology hermaphrodite patriarch ascetic asterisk, astronomy, disaster automobile barometer bibliography biology, symbiosis

botane cheir (chiro-) chron(os) crac, crat dem(os) derma di psa ephemera ergon eu

plant hand time govern people skin thirst dayfly work good

gamos gen(esis)

marriage birth, race, origin

ge (geo-) geras geron gnosis gnostos gram graph(ein) gyne haima Hermes

earth old age old man knowledge known write write woman blood Hermes, the messenger of the gods the same water horse medical healing bad, harsh beauty heart center thief circle, wheel word, reason word, speech study of, science prediction

homos hydr hi ppos -iatrea kakos kallos kardia kentron klepte kyklos log logos logy, logus mancy

141

botany chiropractor chronology democracy epidemic, demagogue dermatologist, hypodermic di psomania ephemeral energy, synergy euphemism, euphony, eulogy poligamy generation, genetics, genocide geoscience geriatrics gerontologist diagnosis, prognosis agnostic grammar paragraph gynecologist, gynandrous hemoglobin, anemia hermaphroditic

homonym, homophone hydrogen hi ppodrome psychiatry cacophony calligraphy cardiology eccentric, anthropocentric kleptomania unicycle dialogue, monologue philology, epilogue, eulogy geology chiromancy

-esce -fy -ize

begin to to make to become

convalesce simplify crystallize

manner toward like

readily, quickly skyward clockwise

Adverb suffixes -ily, -ly -ward -wise

Roots and Word Families A great many roots in English originally came from Greek or Latin. These roots generate whole families of English words. A word family is a group of words with a common root. Here are the words derived from the Latin root chron, which means “time”: anachronism, chronic, chronicle, chronicler, chronological, chronometer, crony, diachronic, synchronize.

Useful Greek Roots Root adelphos agogos agora akros algos andros anthrop(os) Aphrodite

Meaning

Examples

archein asketes aster, astr(on)

brother leading, leader market place highest pain male human (mankind) Aphrodite, goddess of love to rule monk star

auto(s) baros bibl(ion) bi, bio

self, alone weight book life 140

Philadelphia pedagogy agorophobia acrophobia neuralgia polyandry, androgynous anthropology hermaphrodite patriarch ascetic asterisk, astronomy, disaster automobile barometer bibliography biology, symbiosis

botane cheir (chiro-) chron(os) crac, crat dem(os) derma di psa ephemera ergon eu

plant hand time govern people skin thirst dayfly work good

gamos gen(esis)

marriage birth, race, origin

ge (geo-) geras geron gnosis gnostos gram graph(ein) gyne haima Hermes

earth old age old man knowledge known write write woman blood Hermes, the messenger of the gods the same water horse medical healing bad, harsh beauty heart center thief circle, wheel word, reason word, speech study of, science prediction

homos hydr hi ppos -iatrea kakos kallos kardia kentron klepte kyklos log logos logy, logus mancy

141

botany chiropractor chronology democracy epidemic, demagogue dermatologist, hypodermic di psomania ephemeral energy, synergy euphemism, euphony, eulogy poligamy generation, genetics, genocide geoscience geriatrics gerontologist diagnosis, prognosis agnostic grammar paragraph gynecologist, gynandrous hemoglobin, anemia hermaphroditic

homonym, homophone hydrogen hi ppodrome psychiatry cacophony calligraphy cardiology eccentric, anthropocentric kleptomania unicycle dialogue, monologue philology, epilogue, eulogy geology chiromancy

Root mania mega meter, metr metron misein monos moros nautes naus neo neuron nom(us), nym nostos nymphe octoodontos odyne onyma ophthalmos opsis, optikos ortho(s) osteon otos paidos (ped-) pan pathos phanein pheme phil (ein) phobia phon(e) photos platys polys potamos pous, podus

Meaning

Examples

madness great, large, big measure measurement hate one stupid sailor shi p new nerve name, word, law, order a return bride eight tooth pain name eye vision, sight straight, correct bone ear child all, entire suffering, disease, feeling to show voice love fear, morbid dread sound light broad, flat many river foot 142

monomaniac megalomania barometer optometrist misanthrope, misogynist monogamy sophomore, moron nautical astronaut neophyte neurotic economic, autonomy nostalgia nymphomania octopus orthodontist anodyne patronymic, antonym ophthalmologist optician, optometrist orthodontist osteopath otologist pediatrician panorama, pantheism osteopathic, sympathy sycophant, diaphaneous euphemism philosopher claustrophobia phonograph photograph platypus, platitude, plate polygamy hi ppopotamus tri pod, chiropody, podium

pro psych(e) pyge pyros satyros scope (skopein) soma soph(os) sphygmos stoa sykon tele thanatos theo(s) therm(e) thriskai+deka tome xylon zoion

before mind, soul buttocks fire satyr see, view body wise, wisdom pulse porch fig far, distant death god heat (3 = 10) thirteen a cutting wood animal

prologue, prophet psychology calli pygian pyromania satyromania telescope psychosomatic sophisticated, sophomore sphygmomanometer stoic sycophant television euthanasia theology, pantheism thermometer triskaidekaphobia atom, appendectomy xylophone zoo, zodiac

Useful Latin Roots acuo aequus (equ-) alma alter

sharpen equal soul other

Anglus ambi ambulo

English both to walk

anima

soul, spirit, life princi ple mind water to burn I hear ear uncle to drink

animus aqua ardo, arsus audio auris avunculus bubo

acute equal, inequity, equanimity alma mater altruism, alternate, altercation Anglophile ambivalent, ambiguous amble, ambulatory, preamble animal, animate equanimity, magnanimous aquatic arson audience auricle avuncular imbibe, bibulous 143

Root mania mega meter, metr metron misein monos moros nautes naus neo neuron nom(us), nym nostos nymphe octoodontos odyne onyma ophthalmos opsis, optikos ortho(s) osteon otos paidos (ped-) pan pathos phanein pheme phil (ein) phobia phon(e) photos platys polys potamos pous, podus

Meaning

Examples

madness great, large, big measure measurement hate one stupid sailor shi p new nerve name, word, law, order a return bride eight tooth pain name eye vision, sight straight, correct bone ear child all, entire suffering, disease, feeling to show voice love fear, morbid dread sound light broad, flat many river foot 142

monomaniac megalomania barometer optometrist misanthrope, misogynist monogamy sophomore, moron nautical astronaut neophyte neurotic economic, autonomy nostalgia nymphomania octopus orthodontist anodyne patronymic, antonym ophthalmologist optician, optometrist orthodontist osteopath otologist pediatrician panorama, pantheism osteopathic, sympathy sycophant, diaphaneous euphemism philosopher claustrophobia phonograph photograph platypus, platitude, plate polygamy hi ppopotamus tri pod, chiropody, podium

pro psych(e) pyge pyros satyros scope (skopein) soma soph(os) sphygmos stoa sykon tele thanatos theo(s) therm(e) thriskai+deka tome xylon zoion

before mind, soul buttocks fire satyr see, view body wise, wisdom pulse porch fig far, distant death god heat (3 = 10) thirteen a cutting wood animal

prologue, prophet psychology calli pygian pyromania satyromania telescope psychosomatic sophisticated, sophomore sphygmomanometer stoic sycophant television euthanasia theology, pantheism thermometer triskaidekaphobia atom, appendectomy xylophone zoo, zodiac

Useful Latin Roots acuo aequus (equ-) alma alter

sharpen equal soul other

Anglus ambi ambulo

English both to walk

anima

soul, spirit, life princi ple mind water to burn I hear ear uncle to drink

animus aqua ardo, arsus audio auris avunculus bubo

acute equal, inequity, equanimity alma mater altruism, alternate, altercation Anglophile ambivalent, ambiguous amble, ambulatory, preamble animal, animate equanimity, magnanimous aquatic arson audience auricle avuncular imbibe, bibulous 143

bonus, bene caballus (caval) cado

good, well horse to fall

canis capitulum capt caput, capitis carnis

dog little head take, hold, seize head flesh

cede, ceed, cess centrum (kentrum) centum cheval -cide cilium clam clamo claustrum corrigo cred(o) creo curro decem dexter dic(o), dict(us) doleo dono dorsum duc, duct ego eikon equus fac(io,us), fec-, fic-, -fy) felis fero fides finis

go, yield, give away center hundred horse killing eyelid secretly I shout enclosed place correct, set straight believe create I run ten right hand speak, say, tell to suffer give back lead self, I religious image horse do, make cat bear, carry faith an end 144

benign, beneficent cavalcade, cavalier cadaver, decadent, occident canine recapitulate, capitulate capture captain, capital, decapitate carnivorous, carnelian, carnal recession, proceed concentrate centenarian chivalry patricide supercilious clandestine exclaim, clamour claustrophobia incorrigible credit, credible, credulous creation, creature current, excursion decimal, December ambidextrous dictate, dictionary dolorous, condole, doleful condone dorsal, endorse induce, conductor egoist, egotist iconoclast equestrian, equine factory, defect, fiction, clarify feline vociferous, somniferous fidelity final, infinite

fluo fortis frater, fratris garrio grandis grex, gregis homo impero incendo, incensus infans, infantis internus intimus ject junct klaein lascivia laus, lateris leo levis liber libra libido licere lingua loquor, locutus lubricis lupus magnus malus manus maritus mater, matris militis miser miss, mit mot, mow multus navis nego

to flow strong brother chatter grand herd, flock person, human I command to set fire baby inside innermost throw, hurl join to break fun side lion light free balance, weight, pound joy allow tongue speak sli ppery wolf large bad, evil hand husband mother soldier wretched send move many shi p to deny 145

affluent, influence, fluent fort, fortify fraternity garrulous grandiloquent egregious, gregarious homicide, human empire, imperial incendiary infant, infanticide internal, internist, intern intimate, intimacy eject, inject junction, conjunction iconoclastic lascivious equilateral leonine elevate, alleviate liberal, liberty equilibrium libidinous licentious, illicit bilingual loquacious, colloquial lubricious lupine magnanimous malign, malignant, malaria manuscri pt mariticide matrimony, matriarch militate, military, militia misery, commiserate dismiss, admit motion, movie multilingual navigate, navy negate, self-abnegation

bonus, bene caballus (caval) cado

good, well horse to fall

canis capitulum capt caput, capitis carnis

dog little head take, hold, seize head flesh

cede, ceed, cess centrum (kentrum) centum cheval -cide cilium clam clamo claustrum corrigo cred(o) creo curro decem dexter dic(o), dict(us) doleo dono dorsum duc, duct ego eikon equus fac(io,us), fec-, fic-, -fy) felis fero fides finis

go, yield, give away center hundred horse killing eyelid secretly I shout enclosed place correct, set straight believe create I run ten right hand speak, say, tell to suffer give back lead self, I religious image horse do, make cat bear, carry faith an end 144

benign, beneficent cavalcade, cavalier cadaver, decadent, occident canine recapitulate, capitulate capture captain, capital, decapitate carnivorous, carnelian, carnal recession, proceed concentrate centenarian chivalry patricide supercilious clandestine exclaim, clamour claustrophobia incorrigible credit, credible, credulous creation, creature current, excursion decimal, December ambidextrous dictate, dictionary dolorous, condole, doleful condone dorsal, endorse induce, conductor egoist, egotist iconoclast equestrian, equine factory, defect, fiction, clarify feline vociferous, somniferous fidelity final, infinite

fluo fortis frater, fratris garrio grandis grex, gregis homo impero incendo, incensus infans, infantis internus intimus ject junct klaein lascivia laus, lateris leo levis liber libra libido licere lingua loquor, locutus lubricis lupus magnus malus manus maritus mater, matris militis miser miss, mit mot, mow multus navis nego

to flow strong brother chatter grand herd, flock person, human I command to set fire baby inside innermost throw, hurl join to break fun side lion light free balance, weight, pound joy allow tongue speak sli ppery wolf large bad, evil hand husband mother soldier wretched send move many shi p to deny 145

affluent, influence, fluent fort, fortify fraternity garrulous grandiloquent egregious, gregarious homicide, human empire, imperial incendiary infant, infanticide internal, internist, intern intimate, intimacy eject, inject junction, conjunction iconoclastic lascivious equilateral leonine elevate, alleviate liberal, liberty equilibrium libidinous licentious, illicit bilingual loquacious, colloquial lubricious lupine magnanimous malign, malignant, malaria manuscri pt mariticide matrimony, matriarch militate, military, militia misery, commiserate dismiss, admit motion, movie multilingual navigate, navy negate, self-abnegation

nervous notus nox, noctis obstetrix octo oculus omnis opus, opero

nerve known night midwife eight eye all work

opulentus orior oscillum ovum par par pareo pater, patris pecus pedis pello pendeo penuria phanein piscis plac-

wealthy to rise a swing egg get ready equal give birth, produce father cattle foot I drive I hang need, neediness to show fish please, appease, soothe, pacify level more place, put pig carry powerful I drink first to itch, long for throb, urge point to pierce sharply tiny to complain

planus plus pon, pos, posit porcus port potens, potentis poto primus prurio puls punctus pungo pusillus queror

146

enervate noted, notorious equinox, nocturnal obstetrician octagon, October oculist omniscient, omni present magnum opus, opera, operate opulent Orient, orientate oscillate ovary, ovulation prepare, repair parity, disparage, pair, peer parent patrimony, patronize impecunious pedestal, pedal, pedestrian expel, propel depend, suspend penurious sycophant, diaphaneous piscine placate, placid, implacable plain, plane, plan plural, surplus component, deposit porcine, pork porter, portable omni potent poison, potion primitive, primer prurient pulsate, compulsory acupuncture pungent pusillanimous querolous

rex, regis rota ruptum rus, ruris scrib(o), scri pt(us) sciens scintilla scio sectus senex sequor sexagintu simiis simulo sinister socius solus somnus soror spoor spec(to), spic stat strepo sui summus taceo ten tract trepido ubique unus urbs ursus uxor vacillo vale vanesco vegeto venio

king wheel break country, farmlands write

regal, regicide rotate, rotund eruption, rupture, interrupt rural, rustic scribble, scri pture, describe

knowing a spark know cut old to follow sixty like, similar to copy left hand companion alone sleep sister sleep look, see stand, pit in a place to make a noise of oneself highest be silent stretch, hold pull, move to tremble everywhere one city bear wife to swing back and forth farewell vanish to live and grow I come

science, conscience scintillate unconscionable insect senile, senior, senate sequence, obsequies, sequel sexaginarian similar simulate, dissimulate sinister sociology soliloquy insomnia sorority soporific spectacle, conspicuous statue, stature obstreperous suicide summit, consummate taciturn, tacit, reticent tendon, tenant tractor, retract intrepid, trepidate ubiquitous unanimous urban, suburb, urbane ursine, Ursa Major / Minor uxoricide vacillate carnival evanescent vegetable, vegetate adventure, prevent

147

nervous notus nox, noctis obstetrix octo oculus omnis opus, opero

nerve known night midwife eight eye all work

opulentus orior oscillum ovum par par pareo pater, patris pecus pedis pello pendeo penuria phanein piscis plac-

wealthy to rise a swing egg get ready equal give birth, produce father cattle foot I drive I hang need, neediness to show fish please, appease, soothe, pacify level more place, put pig carry powerful I drink first to itch, long for throb, urge point to pierce sharply tiny to complain

planus plus pon, pos, posit porcus port potens, potentis poto primus prurio puls punctus pungo pusillus queror

146

enervate noted, notorious equinox, nocturnal obstetrician octagon, October oculist omniscient, omni present magnum opus, opera, operate opulent Orient, orientate oscillate ovary, ovulation prepare, repair parity, disparage, pair, peer parent patrimony, patronize impecunious pedestal, pedal, pedestrian expel, propel depend, suspend penurious sycophant, diaphaneous piscine placate, placid, implacable plain, plane, plan plural, surplus component, deposit porcine, pork porter, portable omni potent poison, potion primitive, primer prurient pulsate, compulsory acupuncture pungent pusillanimous querolous

rex, regis rota ruptum rus, ruris scrib(o), scri pt(us) sciens scintilla scio sectus senex sequor sexagintu simiis simulo sinister socius solus somnus soror spoor spec(to), spic stat strepo sui summus taceo ten tract trepido ubique unus urbs ursus uxor vacillo vale vanesco vegeto venio

king wheel break country, farmlands write

regal, regicide rotate, rotund eruption, rupture, interrupt rural, rustic scribble, scri pture, describe

knowing a spark know cut old to follow sixty like, similar to copy left hand companion alone sleep sister sleep look, see stand, pit in a place to make a noise of oneself highest be silent stretch, hold pull, move to tremble everywhere one city bear wife to swing back and forth farewell vanish to live and grow I come

science, conscience scintillate unconscionable insect senile, senior, senate sequence, obsequies, sequel sexaginarian similar simulate, dissimulate sinister sociology soliloquy insomnia sorority soporific spectacle, conspicuous statue, stature obstreperous suicide summit, consummate taciturn, tacit, reticent tendon, tenant tractor, retract intrepid, trepidate ubiquitous unanimous urban, suburb, urbane ursine, Ursa Major / Minor uxoricide vacillate carnival evanescent vegetable, vegetate adventure, prevent

147

ven, vert(o), versus venter, ventris verbum vetus via vid, vis vinco vir vita vivo voc, vok vol(o) volv(o), volutus voro vox, vocis vulpus

to turn

versatile, invert, extravert

belly word old road see I overcome man (male) life to live call wish, will, be willing roll to devour voice fox

ventriloquist, ventricle verbose, verbal veteran, inveterate obvious, obviate, trivial video, vista convince, victory virago vital, revitalize vivacious, vivid, revive vocation, invoke volunteer, malevolent revolve, involve, voluble omnivorous equivocate vulpine

Useful French Roots bon droit gauche lechier

good right hand left hand to lick

bon vivant adroit gauche lecherous

Some Recommendations and Preparation Tips for Exams

READING There may be some words in the passage with which you are unfamiliar. Try to work out the meaning of these words. Be aware of the use of connective words. These will help you with the general meaning of the text. Common connective words are for addition: in addition, and, similarly, likewise, as well as, besides, furthermore, also, moreover, and then, too, not only...but, even, besides this / that; for sequence: first(ly), initially, second(ly), etc., to begin with, then, next, earlier / later, after this / that, following this / that, afterwards; for consequence: as a result, thus, so, therefore, consequently, it follows that, thereby, eventually, then, in that case, admittedly; for contrast: however, on the other hand, despite, in spite of, though, although, but, on the contrary, otherwise, yet, instead of, rather, whereas, nonetheless, even though, compared with, in contrast, alternatively; for certainty: obviously, certainly, plainly, of course, undoubtedly; for condition: if, unless, whether, provided that, for, so that, whether, depending on; for definition: is, refers to, means, that is, consists of; for example: for instance, one example, for example, just as, in particular, such as, namely, to illustrate; for reason: since, as, so, because (of), due to, owing to, the reason why, in other words, leads to, cause; for time: before, since, as, until, meanwhile, at the moment, when, whenever; for summary: in conclusion, in summary, lastly, finally, to sum up, to conclude, to recapitulate, in short. The following phrases are also useful in writing an essay: it is generally believed (known)..., as a matter of fact..., they say..., on the whole..., there are lots of examples..., what I really doubt..., basically / generally / generally speaking / strictly speaking..., I believe that..., as far as I remember (know). 149

ven, vert(o), versus venter, ventris verbum vetus via vid, vis vinco vir vita vivo voc, vok vol(o) volv(o), volutus voro vox, vocis vulpus

to turn

versatile, invert, extravert

belly word old road see I overcome man (male) life to live call wish, will, be willing roll to devour voice fox

ventriloquist, ventricle verbose, verbal veteran, inveterate obvious, obviate, trivial video, vista convince, victory virago vital, revitalize vivacious, vivid, revive vocation, invoke volunteer, malevolent revolve, involve, voluble omnivorous equivocate vulpine

Useful French Roots bon droit gauche lechier

good right hand left hand to lick

bon vivant adroit gauche lecherous

Some Recommendations and Preparation Tips for Exams

READING There may be some words in the passage with which you are unfamiliar. Try to work out the meaning of these words. Be aware of the use of connective words. These will help you with the general meaning of the text. Common connective words are for addition: in addition, and, similarly, likewise, as well as, besides, furthermore, also, moreover, and then, too, not only...but, even, besides this / that; for sequence: first(ly), initially, second(ly), etc., to begin with, then, next, earlier / later, after this / that, following this / that, afterwards; for consequence: as a result, thus, so, therefore, consequently, it follows that, thereby, eventually, then, in that case, admittedly; for contrast: however, on the other hand, despite, in spite of, though, although, but, on the contrary, otherwise, yet, instead of, rather, whereas, nonetheless, even though, compared with, in contrast, alternatively; for certainty: obviously, certainly, plainly, of course, undoubtedly; for condition: if, unless, whether, provided that, for, so that, whether, depending on; for definition: is, refers to, means, that is, consists of; for example: for instance, one example, for example, just as, in particular, such as, namely, to illustrate; for reason: since, as, so, because (of), due to, owing to, the reason why, in other words, leads to, cause; for time: before, since, as, until, meanwhile, at the moment, when, whenever; for summary: in conclusion, in summary, lastly, finally, to sum up, to conclude, to recapitulate, in short. The following phrases are also useful in writing an essay: it is generally believed (known)..., as a matter of fact..., they say..., on the whole..., there are lots of examples..., what I really doubt..., basically / generally / generally speaking / strictly speaking..., I believe that..., as far as I remember (know). 149

Some Strategies to Know the Meaning of an Unfamiliar Word Check the context Are there any clues in the surrounding words or phrases? Look particularly at the words just before and just after the unfamiliar words. Look for a definition Sometimes the writers realize that the word is an uncommon one so they define, restate, explain or give an example of it. Words that signal meaning often include “is”, “means”, “refers to”, “that is”, “consists of.” Identify the word’s place and purpose Is it a noun, adjective or adverb in the sentence? Are there any punctuation clues, for example, semicolons or question marks? Look for connective words mentioned earlier They are often near the unknown words and will usually help to identify the general direction of the argument, which will help to give some understanding of the unknown word. Break the word down into syllables Sometimes knowledge of common roots, affixes and possible similarity of words in your own language can help to identify the meaning. Treat the unknown word as an algebraic entity “X” Observe the relationshi p of the unknown word, “X”, to other words and concepts with which you are more familiar. Often this is enough to answer questions that include “X.”

An introductory paragraph (introduction) should begin with a general statement or idea of your own that takes into account the key topic words or their synonyms. The last sentence of the introduction should include a thesis statement, which shows the point of view or direction that will be taken in the answer. In order to write a thesis statement describing the main idea of an essay, you have to address three questions: 1. Why are we writing? 2. Who is our audience? 3. What is the main point we want our readers to know? First, introduce the topic in general. Then narrow the topic down to focus more on the question. Restate the question in your own words and in statement form. The concluding statement is the thesis statement and indicates the controlling idea of the essay. A good thesis statement: states a narrowed subject, has a controlling idea, which expresses the writer’s attitude or belief about the topic, offers a method of organization, may include a modal auxiliary such as should, could, would, or might, is always a sentence — not a question, is not a simple statement of fact, does not “announce” the writer’s intention, begins with a real subject. The topic sentence of the paragraph states the topic and a controlling idea concerning that topic. For example: People give many ideas for owning a car.

The composition must be clearly structured in paragraphs (introductory paragraph, body paragraphs and conclusion).

The topic of a sentence is “owning a car.” The controlling idea is “reasons.” All the supporting ideas in the paragraph should be “the reasons for owning a car.” The following phrases, or ones similar to these, can be used in your topic sentence to express the controlling idea:

150

151

WRITING

Some Strategies to Know the Meaning of an Unfamiliar Word Check the context Are there any clues in the surrounding words or phrases? Look particularly at the words just before and just after the unfamiliar words. Look for a definition Sometimes the writers realize that the word is an uncommon one so they define, restate, explain or give an example of it. Words that signal meaning often include “is”, “means”, “refers to”, “that is”, “consists of.” Identify the word’s place and purpose Is it a noun, adjective or adverb in the sentence? Are there any punctuation clues, for example, semicolons or question marks? Look for connective words mentioned earlier They are often near the unknown words and will usually help to identify the general direction of the argument, which will help to give some understanding of the unknown word. Break the word down into syllables Sometimes knowledge of common roots, affixes and possible similarity of words in your own language can help to identify the meaning. Treat the unknown word as an algebraic entity “X” Observe the relationshi p of the unknown word, “X”, to other words and concepts with which you are more familiar. Often this is enough to answer questions that include “X.”

An introductory paragraph (introduction) should begin with a general statement or idea of your own that takes into account the key topic words or their synonyms. The last sentence of the introduction should include a thesis statement, which shows the point of view or direction that will be taken in the answer. In order to write a thesis statement describing the main idea of an essay, you have to address three questions: 1. Why are we writing? 2. Who is our audience? 3. What is the main point we want our readers to know? First, introduce the topic in general. Then narrow the topic down to focus more on the question. Restate the question in your own words and in statement form. The concluding statement is the thesis statement and indicates the controlling idea of the essay. A good thesis statement: states a narrowed subject, has a controlling idea, which expresses the writer’s attitude or belief about the topic, offers a method of organization, may include a modal auxiliary such as should, could, would, or might, is always a sentence — not a question, is not a simple statement of fact, does not “announce” the writer’s intention, begins with a real subject. The topic sentence of the paragraph states the topic and a controlling idea concerning that topic. For example: People give many ideas for owning a car.

The composition must be clearly structured in paragraphs (introductory paragraph, body paragraphs and conclusion).

The topic of a sentence is “owning a car.” The controlling idea is “reasons.” All the supporting ideas in the paragraph should be “the reasons for owning a car.” The following phrases, or ones similar to these, can be used in your topic sentence to express the controlling idea:

150

151

WRITING

The The The The The The The The The The The

reasons for causes of (the effects of) steps for (the procedure for) advantages of (the disadvantages of) ways to (the methods of) different sections (parts, kinds, types) of characteristics (traits, qualities) of problems of precautions for changes to examples of

We can also begin the introduction by recounting a story that leads into the main idea, by giving an appropriate quotation, by making a prediction, by defining a term and so on. Body paragraph consists of several sentences that are arranged in a logical way to develop a main idea. It supports the controlling idea mentioned that was identified in the introduction. Each of the body paragraphs contains an appropriate connective word to insure a smooth transition between paragraphs. The connective is then put in a topic sentence, which is the main point of the paragraph clearly stated in a sentence. Every supporting sentence in the paragraph must be directly related to it. Try to develop every paragraph adequately. This may be done through the use of examples, explanations, detail, logical inference, cause and effect or making comparisons or contrasts. There are many different ways to organize your ideas for body paragraphs. Be confident of the ideas you choose. A well-written paragraph usually consists of (1) a topic sentence, which expresses the main idea, (2) supporting sentences, which relate directly to the central idea, and (3) a concluding sentence. Thus, every paragraph should have a topic sentence that refers us back to the thesis and supports the thesis. The details, examples, or story that follow the topic sentence, in turn, support it. The result of this organization creates a unified, cohesive, logical essay. In fact, we might think of the thesis statement as an umbrella that covers everything we write about in a composition. If the thesis statement is an umbrella, then the topic sentences are the ribs that hold the umbrella up. 152

A good conclusion serves several purposes: It indicates the end of your essay. It gives your final thoughts and assessments on the essay subject. It weighs up the points in your essay and should strengthen your thesis statement. Do not simply repeat your opening paragraph. This appears too mechanical and superficial. The common ways to finish an essay are: restate the thesis, make a prediction, ask a question, quote, narrate a relevant matter. When you are asked to look at a diagram, table, graph or short piece of text and describe the information in your own words, write the introductory sentence explaining what you are describing. When discussing the data presented in the task in the body paragraphs, identify significant trends and give examples that relate directly to the given information to support your statements. If you are explaining a process or an object and how it works, you need to group your information so that it follows a definite logical order. Use common sequential connectives. Remember that the use of verbs expressed in the present passive voice is often appropriate when giving a descri ption of a process or procedure. Concluding sentence (optional) could include any of the following, where relevant: significant comments, an overall summary of the ideas, a potential solution, future implications. You may use the following phrases in describing graphs that illustrate past events: increased / rose / climbed gradually / slowly / minimally or sharply / rapidly / dramatically, leapt, soared, shot up, rocketed; dropped / fell / declined sharply / rapidly / dramatically or slumped / plummeted; stabilized / leveled off / remained constant; dropped / fell / declined slightly / gradually, minimally, slowly. When discussing the future, the following expressions would be useful: ...is projected to rise sharply, ...is forecast to drop lightly, ...is expected to fall dramatically, ...is predicted to decline steadily.

LISTENING AND SPEAKING Before you listen to the recording, think about the following points when previewing the questions:

153

The The The The The The The The The The The

reasons for causes of (the effects of) steps for (the procedure for) advantages of (the disadvantages of) ways to (the methods of) different sections (parts, kinds, types) of characteristics (traits, qualities) of problems of precautions for changes to examples of

We can also begin the introduction by recounting a story that leads into the main idea, by giving an appropriate quotation, by making a prediction, by defining a term and so on. Body paragraph consists of several sentences that are arranged in a logical way to develop a main idea. It supports the controlling idea mentioned that was identified in the introduction. Each of the body paragraphs contains an appropriate connective word to insure a smooth transition between paragraphs. The connective is then put in a topic sentence, which is the main point of the paragraph clearly stated in a sentence. Every supporting sentence in the paragraph must be directly related to it. Try to develop every paragraph adequately. This may be done through the use of examples, explanations, detail, logical inference, cause and effect or making comparisons or contrasts. There are many different ways to organize your ideas for body paragraphs. Be confident of the ideas you choose. A well-written paragraph usually consists of (1) a topic sentence, which expresses the main idea, (2) supporting sentences, which relate directly to the central idea, and (3) a concluding sentence. Thus, every paragraph should have a topic sentence that refers us back to the thesis and supports the thesis. The details, examples, or story that follow the topic sentence, in turn, support it. The result of this organization creates a unified, cohesive, logical essay. In fact, we might think of the thesis statement as an umbrella that covers everything we write about in a composition. If the thesis statement is an umbrella, then the topic sentences are the ribs that hold the umbrella up. 152

A good conclusion serves several purposes: It indicates the end of your essay. It gives your final thoughts and assessments on the essay subject. It weighs up the points in your essay and should strengthen your thesis statement. Do not simply repeat your opening paragraph. This appears too mechanical and superficial. The common ways to finish an essay are: restate the thesis, make a prediction, ask a question, quote, narrate a relevant matter. When you are asked to look at a diagram, table, graph or short piece of text and describe the information in your own words, write the introductory sentence explaining what you are describing. When discussing the data presented in the task in the body paragraphs, identify significant trends and give examples that relate directly to the given information to support your statements. If you are explaining a process or an object and how it works, you need to group your information so that it follows a definite logical order. Use common sequential connectives. Remember that the use of verbs expressed in the present passive voice is often appropriate when giving a descri ption of a process or procedure. Concluding sentence (optional) could include any of the following, where relevant: significant comments, an overall summary of the ideas, a potential solution, future implications. You may use the following phrases in describing graphs that illustrate past events: increased / rose / climbed gradually / slowly / minimally or sharply / rapidly / dramatically, leapt, soared, shot up, rocketed; dropped / fell / declined sharply / rapidly / dramatically or slumped / plummeted; stabilized / leveled off / remained constant; dropped / fell / declined slightly / gradually, minimally, slowly. When discussing the future, the following expressions would be useful: ...is projected to rise sharply, ...is forecast to drop lightly, ...is expected to fall dramatically, ...is predicted to decline steadily.

LISTENING AND SPEAKING Before you listen to the recording, think about the following points when previewing the questions:

153

I have read the instructions carefully. I know what form the answer must take. I have a good idea of what the recording is about. I have predicted some of the vocabulary I might hear by putting pictures or diagrams into words. I have predicted the type of information I am looking for. I have antici pated some of the answers in the gap-filling questions by looking at words before and after the gaps. I have used other clues, such as context or grammar to help me predict the information for which I am listening. I know what information I need to listen for. You may use phrases in the chapter “Functional English” for your listening and speaking exam.

Functional English

1. Addressing People When you know people well, you call them by their first name; if your relationshi p is more formal you use Ms, Mr, Mrs. Smith, etc. Ms is a title for a woman who doesn’t wish to be called either Miss or Mrs. Note that Ms, Mr, Mrs, Miss are not usually used alone but are followed by the family name. In British English, Sir and Madam are too formal for most situations. They are used mostly to customers in shops, restaurants, etc. Sir and Madam used alone show respect for position or seniority. When Sir is a title we always use it as part of the name. In that case Sir is used with the first name, the Christian name only, and we say Sir Francis, never Sir Drake. Schoolchildren in Great Britain call their men teachers Sir and their unmarried women teachers Miss. In American English Sir and Ma’am are not as formal and are commonly used in conversations with strangers, especially with older people whose names you don’t know. Among the names of occupation Doctor and Nurse can be used as forms of address. Porter and Waiter are also sometimes used as forms of address. As for Professor, in Britain a professor is nearly always a University professor. You can call him Professor with or without his name according to how formal or informal you want to be. Soldiers, sailors and airmen address their officers as Sir, but in ordinary life we just say Colonel, Captain, or Commander as the case may be. Administrative or Commercial titles like Director or Manager are never used at all as a form of address. When you are working for such a person you call him Sir. We address our traffic policeman with an Officer. There are special forms of address used in formal situations: Ladies and gentlemen (a formal opening of a speech). Politeness requires first to address the one presiding over the meeting, for instance, Mr. Chairman and then Ladies and gentlemen!). Your Excellency (to an ambassador). Your Highness (for a prince or princess).

154

155

I have read the instructions carefully. I know what form the answer must take. I have a good idea of what the recording is about. I have predicted some of the vocabulary I might hear by putting pictures or diagrams into words. I have predicted the type of information I am looking for. I have antici pated some of the answers in the gap-filling questions by looking at words before and after the gaps. I have used other clues, such as context or grammar to help me predict the information for which I am listening. I know what information I need to listen for. You may use phrases in the chapter “Functional English” for your listening and speaking exam.

Functional English

1. Addressing People When you know people well, you call them by their first name; if your relationshi p is more formal you use Ms, Mr, Mrs. Smith, etc. Ms is a title for a woman who doesn’t wish to be called either Miss or Mrs. Note that Ms, Mr, Mrs, Miss are not usually used alone but are followed by the family name. In British English, Sir and Madam are too formal for most situations. They are used mostly to customers in shops, restaurants, etc. Sir and Madam used alone show respect for position or seniority. When Sir is a title we always use it as part of the name. In that case Sir is used with the first name, the Christian name only, and we say Sir Francis, never Sir Drake. Schoolchildren in Great Britain call their men teachers Sir and their unmarried women teachers Miss. In American English Sir and Ma’am are not as formal and are commonly used in conversations with strangers, especially with older people whose names you don’t know. Among the names of occupation Doctor and Nurse can be used as forms of address. Porter and Waiter are also sometimes used as forms of address. As for Professor, in Britain a professor is nearly always a University professor. You can call him Professor with or without his name according to how formal or informal you want to be. Soldiers, sailors and airmen address their officers as Sir, but in ordinary life we just say Colonel, Captain, or Commander as the case may be. Administrative or Commercial titles like Director or Manager are never used at all as a form of address. When you are working for such a person you call him Sir. We address our traffic policeman with an Officer. There are special forms of address used in formal situations: Ladies and gentlemen (a formal opening of a speech). Politeness requires first to address the one presiding over the meeting, for instance, Mr. Chairman and then Ladies and gentlemen!). Your Excellency (to an ambassador). Your Highness (for a prince or princess).

154

155

doing?; How are things?; How have you been?; You often hear in possible replies: Fine (quite well), thank you!; And what about you? or among friends Great (Not bad, all right), thank you.; Can’t complain; Not very well, I’m afraid.

Mr / Madam President. Prime Minister. Dear Friends!

2. Arresting Someone’s Attention and Interrupting Usually, if you want to attract the attention of a stranger it is necessary to use phrases such as Excuse me. If you address a perfect stranger, an elderly person, or a person of higher rank or position, use the formulas: Excuse me; Pardon me; Can you help me?; Do you happen to know? May I ask (you) a question? May I see you a moment? Sorry to intrude (interrupt, interfere, etc.) but...; Look here (Look here, see here often means pay attention to my warning); (I) say; I beg your pardon, Sir (Mrs. Smith); Just a minute. When addressing intimate friends use Hi!; Hey! You may hear among possible replies: Yes? What is it? Well? What can I do? What do you want? (Which is a bit rude.) What? (used in careless speech and mostly among friends); What do (did) you say?; What were you saying?; Hmm? Pardon me / Excuse me for interrupting, but (I think)..., May / could I say something here? If I might / may / could come in here / again?, I’d like to say something about that (if I may), May I ask you a question? To get back to the original topic after being interrupted by someone we can use such expressions: Getting / Going back to..., As I was saying (before)..., Where was I? To get the speaker back to the original topic we can use such expressions: Please go on / continue, As you were saying...

3. Greetings How do you do? (a generous way of greeting people, especially someone you have just met for the first time; this person replies with the same phrase. People usually shake hands at the same time). Hallo (hello, hullo). Hallo is used in an informal way, usually with the person’s name. Cheer-oh! (Good) Morning! (used till noon); Good Afternoon! (used from noon till 6 p.m.); Good Evening! (used after 6 p.m.). Good Day is an expression used when meeting, or being met by someone, esp. in the morning or afternoon in Australia and the United States. When we address some acquaintances we often add such expressions as: Haven’t seen you for ages!; It’s good to see you again!; How nice to see you again!; I’m glad we’ve met.; How are you?; How are you 156

4. Words of Parting The usual form of leave-taking is saying Good-bye (for the present, for now); Good Night (used not only when going to bed, but also as words of parting late in the evening); See you (soon, round, later)!; I hope we’ll see more of you. We don’t suddenly say good-bye. We first of all signal that we are about to finish talking. We say: It was nice talking to you. I enjoyed talking to you. I have to go now. Well, I’ll let you go now. Sorry, I’ve got to run. Sorry to rush off, but I have to be going. Sorry, but I must go. You may hear such forms among friends as: Bye- (Bye); Tata, Cheerio (Br. informal); So long; Take care (Am. informal). Among more official formulas of parting you may hear: Good Morning; Good Afternoon; Good Evening; When intimate friends meet each other they just shake hands and separate with some such remarks as: Good-bye; I must be off now; Must go; I’ve got to be going; Give me a call (ring); Can’t wait; Must dash; I’ve got to run; There’s work to do; Now I must say good-bye; Then good-bye; Till tomorrow; Till Friday; Till Friday week (a week next Friday); See you again; Have a good time (day, week, etc.); I’ve enjoyed meeting (seeing) you; It’s been good seeing you again; It was nice talking to you; I hope we meet again; I’m glad you could come. My friend may send his compliments to my family and friends saying: (Give my) kind regards (or respects) to Mrs. Smith; (Kindly) remember me to your father; Give my love to... The usual reply to these formulas is: Thanks (Certainly) I will; With pleasure.

5. Introducing People Formal forms of address in this case are: May I ( Allow me to) introduce Mr. Smith to you; Allow me to introduce you to my friend; Mr. X. Allow me to (May I) introduce myself, I am D. (My name is D). Please, introduce me to your friend; Will you (please) introduce me to your friend (please). Mr. Smith, let me introduce Mr. Fink, Mr. Smith. Let me introduce you to Doctor M. I’d like you to meet Dr. M; Mrs. H., this is Mr. G.; Let me introduce the members of the group to you. Among informal forms of address you may hear: Meet my friend, 157

doing?; How are things?; How have you been?; You often hear in possible replies: Fine (quite well), thank you!; And what about you? or among friends Great (Not bad, all right), thank you.; Can’t complain; Not very well, I’m afraid.

Mr / Madam President. Prime Minister. Dear Friends!

2. Arresting Someone’s Attention and Interrupting Usually, if you want to attract the attention of a stranger it is necessary to use phrases such as Excuse me. If you address a perfect stranger, an elderly person, or a person of higher rank or position, use the formulas: Excuse me; Pardon me; Can you help me?; Do you happen to know? May I ask (you) a question? May I see you a moment? Sorry to intrude (interrupt, interfere, etc.) but...; Look here (Look here, see here often means pay attention to my warning); (I) say; I beg your pardon, Sir (Mrs. Smith); Just a minute. When addressing intimate friends use Hi!; Hey! You may hear among possible replies: Yes? What is it? Well? What can I do? What do you want? (Which is a bit rude.) What? (used in careless speech and mostly among friends); What do (did) you say?; What were you saying?; Hmm? Pardon me / Excuse me for interrupting, but (I think)..., May / could I say something here? If I might / may / could come in here / again?, I’d like to say something about that (if I may), May I ask you a question? To get back to the original topic after being interrupted by someone we can use such expressions: Getting / Going back to..., As I was saying (before)..., Where was I? To get the speaker back to the original topic we can use such expressions: Please go on / continue, As you were saying...

3. Greetings How do you do? (a generous way of greeting people, especially someone you have just met for the first time; this person replies with the same phrase. People usually shake hands at the same time). Hallo (hello, hullo). Hallo is used in an informal way, usually with the person’s name. Cheer-oh! (Good) Morning! (used till noon); Good Afternoon! (used from noon till 6 p.m.); Good Evening! (used after 6 p.m.). Good Day is an expression used when meeting, or being met by someone, esp. in the morning or afternoon in Australia and the United States. When we address some acquaintances we often add such expressions as: Haven’t seen you for ages!; It’s good to see you again!; How nice to see you again!; I’m glad we’ve met.; How are you?; How are you 156

4. Words of Parting The usual form of leave-taking is saying Good-bye (for the present, for now); Good Night (used not only when going to bed, but also as words of parting late in the evening); See you (soon, round, later)!; I hope we’ll see more of you. We don’t suddenly say good-bye. We first of all signal that we are about to finish talking. We say: It was nice talking to you. I enjoyed talking to you. I have to go now. Well, I’ll let you go now. Sorry, I’ve got to run. Sorry to rush off, but I have to be going. Sorry, but I must go. You may hear such forms among friends as: Bye- (Bye); Tata, Cheerio (Br. informal); So long; Take care (Am. informal). Among more official formulas of parting you may hear: Good Morning; Good Afternoon; Good Evening; When intimate friends meet each other they just shake hands and separate with some such remarks as: Good-bye; I must be off now; Must go; I’ve got to be going; Give me a call (ring); Can’t wait; Must dash; I’ve got to run; There’s work to do; Now I must say good-bye; Then good-bye; Till tomorrow; Till Friday; Till Friday week (a week next Friday); See you again; Have a good time (day, week, etc.); I’ve enjoyed meeting (seeing) you; It’s been good seeing you again; It was nice talking to you; I hope we meet again; I’m glad you could come. My friend may send his compliments to my family and friends saying: (Give my) kind regards (or respects) to Mrs. Smith; (Kindly) remember me to your father; Give my love to... The usual reply to these formulas is: Thanks (Certainly) I will; With pleasure.

5. Introducing People Formal forms of address in this case are: May I ( Allow me to) introduce Mr. Smith to you; Allow me to introduce you to my friend; Mr. X. Allow me to (May I) introduce myself, I am D. (My name is D). Please, introduce me to your friend; Will you (please) introduce me to your friend (please). Mr. Smith, let me introduce Mr. Fink, Mr. Smith. Let me introduce you to Doctor M. I’d like you to meet Dr. M; Mrs. H., this is Mr. G.; Let me introduce the members of the group to you. Among informal forms of address you may hear: Meet my friend, 157

Doctor M.; I’d like you to meet Doctor M.; May I ask your name? Hello, I am...; Please meet my colleague (friend, wife, husband); Call me Victor; Here is my card. The possible replies are: How do you do!: Glad (Pleased, happy, delighted) to meet you; Hallo (used mostly among young people). We have met; We know each other. We met last year in Moscow.

6. Congratulations and Wishes Congratulations is a most general expression used on any occasion but the New Year and other holidays. Congratulations to you! My (heartiest, best) congratulations to you on...Happy Birthday; Many happy returns (of the day)! (this formula is answered only with a Thank you or its variations without adding The same to you).; (A) Happy New Year! (the main answer to this phrase is to repeat the wish); Merry Xmas; My best wishes to you! May all your dreams come true!; I wish you all the happiness in the world!; I wish you luck!; All the best; A very enjoyable holiday to you! The answer to most of these formulas is Thank you (very much) or Thanks; Thank you; The same to you. The other expressions of congratulations are: I’d like to offer my congratulations on your new book (son’s graduation, daughter’s engagement, anniversary); I’ll bet you’re (all) very happy (excited) about the new job! (informal): I wish you happiness (health); I wish you every success; Please accept my congratulations!; And this is for you; To your health!; To you!

7. Invitations, Arrangements, Offers, Suggestions Politeness in Invitations When it is not clear whether an invitation will be acceptable, it is often safer to use an indirect expression. This makes it possible for the hearer to refuse without creating an uncomfortable situation. Would you like some coffee?; We were wondering if you’d like to come to dinner; How about coming to the movies tonight? (informal); Why don’t you come and eat with us? When the speaker feels sure that the invitation will be to the hearer’s advantage, it is also polite to give invitations in a very direct way. Have a cup of tea; Help yourself; Come and see us next time you’re in town. Try some of this cake. 158

Politeness in Offers If speaker and hearer do not know each other very well, it is usual to use an indirect expression. May I give you a hand with the dishes?; Would you like me to bring any food to the party? I was wondering whether you’d like me to check the figures with you. Direct form is used when the speaker feels that an offer will be to the advantage of the hearer. I’ll get you a taxi; Leave the dishes to me; Give me that heavy bag; (You must) phone me if you need any help. Here are some useful phrases to remember: What about...?; How about...?; What do you say to... (thåså phrases can be followed by a noun or a gerund); What are you doing...? What have you on...? Have you got anything special on...?; Are you engaged? These formulas require some adverb or an adverbial phrase after them: May I invite you (for a dance) to...?; May I take you out?; Shall I take you out?; Will that suit you?; Will it be all right for you?; Will you... (+ infinitive)?; Would you care to...? Let’s...; May I see you home?; Shall I see you part of the way?; Agreed!; I’ll arrange it for you; I’ll fetch a chair from the next room for you; I’ll telephone them for you; I’ll collect the books from the library for you; I’ll buy milk for you; I’ll repair the car for you; I’ll attend to it; I’ll go there for you; Can I help you...?; Please help yourself!; Make yourself at home; Would you like to have a walk (have a cup of coffee)? Why don’t we meet tomorrow?; Why don’t we visit the exhibition? Are you free this evening?; What are you going to do today? I want to invite you to dinner. Some of the Positive Replies to Invitations and Offers All right, with pleasure; Yes, I don’t mind; Most willingly; That’s fine; That’s all right; That’s a good idea!; Not a bad idea, I’d love to; I’ll be most delighted; Nothing would please me more; I happen to be at a loose end (= I have no definite plans); That’s kind of you; That’s all right with me; That suits me very well; That’s settled; Perfectly; Oh, nothing much; oh, nothing special; You are so considerate; Yes, (of course), Okay, with (great) pleasure; Thanks a lot. 159

Doctor M.; I’d like you to meet Doctor M.; May I ask your name? Hello, I am...; Please meet my colleague (friend, wife, husband); Call me Victor; Here is my card. The possible replies are: How do you do!: Glad (Pleased, happy, delighted) to meet you; Hallo (used mostly among young people). We have met; We know each other. We met last year in Moscow.

6. Congratulations and Wishes Congratulations is a most general expression used on any occasion but the New Year and other holidays. Congratulations to you! My (heartiest, best) congratulations to you on...Happy Birthday; Many happy returns (of the day)! (this formula is answered only with a Thank you or its variations without adding The same to you).; (A) Happy New Year! (the main answer to this phrase is to repeat the wish); Merry Xmas; My best wishes to you! May all your dreams come true!; I wish you all the happiness in the world!; I wish you luck!; All the best; A very enjoyable holiday to you! The answer to most of these formulas is Thank you (very much) or Thanks; Thank you; The same to you. The other expressions of congratulations are: I’d like to offer my congratulations on your new book (son’s graduation, daughter’s engagement, anniversary); I’ll bet you’re (all) very happy (excited) about the new job! (informal): I wish you happiness (health); I wish you every success; Please accept my congratulations!; And this is for you; To your health!; To you!

7. Invitations, Arrangements, Offers, Suggestions Politeness in Invitations When it is not clear whether an invitation will be acceptable, it is often safer to use an indirect expression. This makes it possible for the hearer to refuse without creating an uncomfortable situation. Would you like some coffee?; We were wondering if you’d like to come to dinner; How about coming to the movies tonight? (informal); Why don’t you come and eat with us? When the speaker feels sure that the invitation will be to the hearer’s advantage, it is also polite to give invitations in a very direct way. Have a cup of tea; Help yourself; Come and see us next time you’re in town. Try some of this cake. 158

Politeness in Offers If speaker and hearer do not know each other very well, it is usual to use an indirect expression. May I give you a hand with the dishes?; Would you like me to bring any food to the party? I was wondering whether you’d like me to check the figures with you. Direct form is used when the speaker feels that an offer will be to the advantage of the hearer. I’ll get you a taxi; Leave the dishes to me; Give me that heavy bag; (You must) phone me if you need any help. Here are some useful phrases to remember: What about...?; How about...?; What do you say to... (thåså phrases can be followed by a noun or a gerund); What are you doing...? What have you on...? Have you got anything special on...?; Are you engaged? These formulas require some adverb or an adverbial phrase after them: May I invite you (for a dance) to...?; May I take you out?; Shall I take you out?; Will that suit you?; Will it be all right for you?; Will you... (+ infinitive)?; Would you care to...? Let’s...; May I see you home?; Shall I see you part of the way?; Agreed!; I’ll arrange it for you; I’ll fetch a chair from the next room for you; I’ll telephone them for you; I’ll collect the books from the library for you; I’ll buy milk for you; I’ll repair the car for you; I’ll attend to it; I’ll go there for you; Can I help you...?; Please help yourself!; Make yourself at home; Would you like to have a walk (have a cup of coffee)? Why don’t we meet tomorrow?; Why don’t we visit the exhibition? Are you free this evening?; What are you going to do today? I want to invite you to dinner. Some of the Positive Replies to Invitations and Offers All right, with pleasure; Yes, I don’t mind; Most willingly; That’s fine; That’s all right; That’s a good idea!; Not a bad idea, I’d love to; I’ll be most delighted; Nothing would please me more; I happen to be at a loose end (= I have no definite plans); That’s kind of you; That’s all right with me; That suits me very well; That’s settled; Perfectly; Oh, nothing much; oh, nothing special; You are so considerate; Yes, (of course), Okay, with (great) pleasure; Thanks a lot. 159

Some of the Negative Replies to Invitations and Offers

Explaining

(Sorry) I’m afraid I can’t; I’m sorry, but I can’t manage it; I’m otherwise engaged, I’m afraid; I’m booked up every day (this week); I wish I could but...; I’m afraid I’m not free on that day; I’m afraid it’s impossible; I’m very sorry but I must refuse (turn down your offer).

When thanking someone for something, which has already happened, the speaker needs to remind the hearer of this situation: Thank you for all your hard work last week. I don’t think we could manage without you; My mother was thrilled to get those flowers on her birthday; Thanks a lot, it was really thoughtful of you; It was very good of you to give Billy a lift home from school yesterday. We are really grateful for all your help while Arthur was ill; Thank you very much.

Here are some useful expressions for making direct suggestions: I suggest (that) (you)..., Try..., I would (I’d)..., You had better (You’d better)..., You could... Here are some expressions to use when you want to make a tactful suggestion: Why don’t you / we..., Do you think..., Don’t you think it might be a good idea / an excellent solution to.., Why not..., We could always...Perhaps you / we could..., One way would / could be to..., You really should...On the other hand..., That’s very true but..., However..., Still..., Nevertheless..., Instead...

8. Thanks Quick Thanks When someone does something small for you, which is a part of normal polite behaviour, it is usual to say Thank you: Thanks. The usual responses are You are welcome (esp. Am.); That’s all right; That’s OK (informal); No Problem (Am. informal); Not at all (Note that in British English it is not always necessary to respond). Stronger Ways of Thanking When someone gives you a present or does something special for you, it is usual to thank them in a stronger way by making the expression stronger and adding a comment. Popular stronger expressions are Thank you very much; (Oh, great!); Thanks a lot (informal); Many thanks. Among the comments we often find: It’s wonderful; Just what I wanted (comment on receiving a present); That’s really kind of you; You didn’t have to, you know (comment on hearer’s generosity); I don’t know what I’d have done without you; I’d never have managed on my own (when someone helped you to do something). 160

Written and Formal Thanks I am writing to thank you for...I am writing to say how grateful we are; Please accept our (grateful) thanks...; We would like to express our gratitude for your cooperation. The management would like to express its gratitude to the following people for their work in the fund-raising campaign. Note that if you’re offered something that you do not want, you reply No, thank you. If you say only thank you it means that you want it. If you agree it’s better to say Yes, please or otherwise No, thank you. The usual forms of thanks are: Thank you; Thanks; Many thanks; Thanks a lot; A thousand thanks; Thank you ever so much (for your help, for your present, for coming, for the call (visit, letter), for keeping in touch); Thank you in advance; You’ve been so considerate; I can never thank you enough; I don’t know how to thank you; My best (hearty) thanks; That’s very nice of you. More Official Forms of Thanks (I am very) Much obliged (to you); I am very grateful to you; I am deeply (awfully) indebted to you; How good of you; It’s awfully good (kind) of you; You are very (awfully) obliging; You’ve done me a great favour; I can never thank you enough; You’re kindness itself; Thank you for the pleasure. Possible Replies A reply to these forms of thanks is not expected in English, but can be given by the form: Not at all; That’s all right; Don’t mention it; It’s no trouble whatever; That’s really nothing; It was a real pleasure for me to 161

Some of the Negative Replies to Invitations and Offers

Explaining

(Sorry) I’m afraid I can’t; I’m sorry, but I can’t manage it; I’m otherwise engaged, I’m afraid; I’m booked up every day (this week); I wish I could but...; I’m afraid I’m not free on that day; I’m afraid it’s impossible; I’m very sorry but I must refuse (turn down your offer).

When thanking someone for something, which has already happened, the speaker needs to remind the hearer of this situation: Thank you for all your hard work last week. I don’t think we could manage without you; My mother was thrilled to get those flowers on her birthday; Thanks a lot, it was really thoughtful of you; It was very good of you to give Billy a lift home from school yesterday. We are really grateful for all your help while Arthur was ill; Thank you very much.

Here are some useful expressions for making direct suggestions: I suggest (that) (you)..., Try..., I would (I’d)..., You had better (You’d better)..., You could... Here are some expressions to use when you want to make a tactful suggestion: Why don’t you / we..., Do you think..., Don’t you think it might be a good idea / an excellent solution to.., Why not..., We could always...Perhaps you / we could..., One way would / could be to..., You really should...On the other hand..., That’s very true but..., However..., Still..., Nevertheless..., Instead...

8. Thanks Quick Thanks When someone does something small for you, which is a part of normal polite behaviour, it is usual to say Thank you: Thanks. The usual responses are You are welcome (esp. Am.); That’s all right; That’s OK (informal); No Problem (Am. informal); Not at all (Note that in British English it is not always necessary to respond). Stronger Ways of Thanking When someone gives you a present or does something special for you, it is usual to thank them in a stronger way by making the expression stronger and adding a comment. Popular stronger expressions are Thank you very much; (Oh, great!); Thanks a lot (informal); Many thanks. Among the comments we often find: It’s wonderful; Just what I wanted (comment on receiving a present); That’s really kind of you; You didn’t have to, you know (comment on hearer’s generosity); I don’t know what I’d have done without you; I’d never have managed on my own (when someone helped you to do something). 160

Written and Formal Thanks I am writing to thank you for...I am writing to say how grateful we are; Please accept our (grateful) thanks...; We would like to express our gratitude for your cooperation. The management would like to express its gratitude to the following people for their work in the fund-raising campaign. Note that if you’re offered something that you do not want, you reply No, thank you. If you say only thank you it means that you want it. If you agree it’s better to say Yes, please or otherwise No, thank you. The usual forms of thanks are: Thank you; Thanks; Many thanks; Thanks a lot; A thousand thanks; Thank you ever so much (for your help, for your present, for coming, for the call (visit, letter), for keeping in touch); Thank you in advance; You’ve been so considerate; I can never thank you enough; I don’t know how to thank you; My best (hearty) thanks; That’s very nice of you. More Official Forms of Thanks (I am very) Much obliged (to you); I am very grateful to you; I am deeply (awfully) indebted to you; How good of you; It’s awfully good (kind) of you; You are very (awfully) obliging; You’ve done me a great favour; I can never thank you enough; You’re kindness itself; Thank you for the pleasure. Possible Replies A reply to these forms of thanks is not expected in English, but can be given by the form: Not at all; That’s all right; Don’t mention it; It’s no trouble whatever; That’s really nothing; It was a real pleasure for me to 161

do it; The pleasure is entirely mine; My pleasure (used as an answer to Thank you for the pleasure); (You’re) welcome (to it).

or by introducing the emphatic do. Come here, will you? (I ask you); Come here, won’t you? (Why don’t you come here?); Do come up.

9. How to Introduce a Request

Possible Replies

The usual forms of requests are: Please...Will you (please)...?; Be so kind as to...?; Be good enough to...; Would you (kindly, please)...? Would you be so good as...?; Would (Do) you mind not smoking here (writing it on paper, retyping an application); Could you possibly...please; Could I trouble you for...? Could you do me a favour? May I ask you to...? May I trouble you for...? You would oblige me by (or if)...; I would be much obliged if...; I’ll thank you if...(this formula implies irony and is rude). Could (Would, Will, Can) you (please) listen to me (post the letter, give me a lift, wait a minute, take (leave) a message, keep me company, answer the phone while I’m out; Can I help you?; Please, sit down, come in, speak louder (more slowly); Could you wait for me (shut the door); Do you mind if I smoke? (take this seat); Would you like to have a walk (have a cup of coffee); Tell me, (if you) please, what you know about (or of)...; You would oblige me by telling me...:You might give me some details about...; Please, tell me...; You might give me some details about..., will you?; That won’t do (be enough) for me; Explain yourself; Very good; Go on, please. Here are some examples from spoken English: Put your plate in the kitchen when you’ve finished eating (father to a child); I want you to stop talking and listen to me (teacher to a class); Give me a hand with this box, Joe (friend to friend); Could you check these letters before I send them out, Mrs. Wells (employer to employee); Could you buy some more milk on your way home from work? (friend to friend); Could you possibly explain that point again? (student to professor); Do you think you could possibly stay late to type these letters? (employer to employee); Could you spare a moment?; We were wondering whether you would be able to advise us on a small problem (junior manager to managing director); I was wondering if you could possibly lend me your car tomorrow (friend to friend).

Why, yes; (Why), Certainly; Of course (Certainly is unemotional and more formal of the last two). Of course implies: (a) How could it be otherwise? or Who do you take me for? (b). How foolish of you to ask a question; The answer is obvious; Sure; Naturally; Not at all; With pleasure; By all means; (Most) Willingly; You can count on me; You can rely on me; Here you are (this formula is used when handing over a thing in answer to a request); All right!; Right!; No trouble at all; Yes, (you are) welcome; Well. I’ll do that; Sure; OK; Don’t worry; My pleasure; Sorry; No problem; That’s a good idea!; Okay; With (great) pleasure; I’ll try; I’m sorry but I can’t; I’m afraid it’s impossible; I’m very sorry but I must refuse; Very well; I’ll do my best, but I fear I shall not be able to...; I’m sorry to say, I’m rather ignorant upon that subject; Well, I would if I could, but I’m afraid I’ve forgotten; That’s a very difficult task (or business) which wants thinking over; Sorry I can’t tell you; You ought to know that; I’ll do what I can to satisfy you; Quite at your disposal; It’s as plain as possible.

Ways of Asking a Person not to do Something

Explaining an Apology

Don’t! Please don’t... (+gerund)...; Do you mind...?; Would you mind not (doing it)...?; A request can be emphasized by adding a question tag

John, about the meeting. I’m sorry I was late. I missed the bus; I really must apologize for my behaviour last night. I’m afraid I was rather in

162

163

10. Apologies Quick Apologies (I am) sorry (Br.); Excuse me (Am.); Pardon me (Am.) (used for something small such as bumping into someone on a bus); I beg your pardon (Br.). The usual responses are: It’s (That’s) all right; It’s (That’s) OK; Don’t worry; It’s all right (the last three informal apologies). For something bigger (such as spilling coffee all over someone’s new clothes), it is usual to add a comment: (Oh!) I’m sorry I didn’t see you sitting there (explanation, excuse); Are you all right?; I’ll fetch a cloth (offer of help); That was really clumsy of me (self-criticism). It is also possible to add words to make the apology stronger. I’m really (awfully, so, terribly (Br.) sorry; I do beg your pardon (Br. informal).

do it; The pleasure is entirely mine; My pleasure (used as an answer to Thank you for the pleasure); (You’re) welcome (to it).

or by introducing the emphatic do. Come here, will you? (I ask you); Come here, won’t you? (Why don’t you come here?); Do come up.

9. How to Introduce a Request

Possible Replies

The usual forms of requests are: Please...Will you (please)...?; Be so kind as to...?; Be good enough to...; Would you (kindly, please)...? Would you be so good as...?; Would (Do) you mind not smoking here (writing it on paper, retyping an application); Could you possibly...please; Could I trouble you for...? Could you do me a favour? May I ask you to...? May I trouble you for...? You would oblige me by (or if)...; I would be much obliged if...; I’ll thank you if...(this formula implies irony and is rude). Could (Would, Will, Can) you (please) listen to me (post the letter, give me a lift, wait a minute, take (leave) a message, keep me company, answer the phone while I’m out; Can I help you?; Please, sit down, come in, speak louder (more slowly); Could you wait for me (shut the door); Do you mind if I smoke? (take this seat); Would you like to have a walk (have a cup of coffee); Tell me, (if you) please, what you know about (or of)...; You would oblige me by telling me...:You might give me some details about...; Please, tell me...; You might give me some details about..., will you?; That won’t do (be enough) for me; Explain yourself; Very good; Go on, please. Here are some examples from spoken English: Put your plate in the kitchen when you’ve finished eating (father to a child); I want you to stop talking and listen to me (teacher to a class); Give me a hand with this box, Joe (friend to friend); Could you check these letters before I send them out, Mrs. Wells (employer to employee); Could you buy some more milk on your way home from work? (friend to friend); Could you possibly explain that point again? (student to professor); Do you think you could possibly stay late to type these letters? (employer to employee); Could you spare a moment?; We were wondering whether you would be able to advise us on a small problem (junior manager to managing director); I was wondering if you could possibly lend me your car tomorrow (friend to friend).

Why, yes; (Why), Certainly; Of course (Certainly is unemotional and more formal of the last two). Of course implies: (a) How could it be otherwise? or Who do you take me for? (b). How foolish of you to ask a question; The answer is obvious; Sure; Naturally; Not at all; With pleasure; By all means; (Most) Willingly; You can count on me; You can rely on me; Here you are (this formula is used when handing over a thing in answer to a request); All right!; Right!; No trouble at all; Yes, (you are) welcome; Well. I’ll do that; Sure; OK; Don’t worry; My pleasure; Sorry; No problem; That’s a good idea!; Okay; With (great) pleasure; I’ll try; I’m sorry but I can’t; I’m afraid it’s impossible; I’m very sorry but I must refuse; Very well; I’ll do my best, but I fear I shall not be able to...; I’m sorry to say, I’m rather ignorant upon that subject; Well, I would if I could, but I’m afraid I’ve forgotten; That’s a very difficult task (or business) which wants thinking over; Sorry I can’t tell you; You ought to know that; I’ll do what I can to satisfy you; Quite at your disposal; It’s as plain as possible.

Ways of Asking a Person not to do Something

Explaining an Apology

Don’t! Please don’t... (+gerund)...; Do you mind...?; Would you mind not (doing it)...?; A request can be emphasized by adding a question tag

John, about the meeting. I’m sorry I was late. I missed the bus; I really must apologize for my behaviour last night. I’m afraid I was rather in

162

163

10. Apologies Quick Apologies (I am) sorry (Br.); Excuse me (Am.); Pardon me (Am.) (used for something small such as bumping into someone on a bus); I beg your pardon (Br.). The usual responses are: It’s (That’s) all right; It’s (That’s) OK; Don’t worry; It’s all right (the last three informal apologies). For something bigger (such as spilling coffee all over someone’s new clothes), it is usual to add a comment: (Oh!) I’m sorry I didn’t see you sitting there (explanation, excuse); Are you all right?; I’ll fetch a cloth (offer of help); That was really clumsy of me (self-criticism). It is also possible to add words to make the apology stronger. I’m really (awfully, so, terribly (Br.) sorry; I do beg your pardon (Br. informal).

a bad mood. I’ve got something awful to tell you. I lost that book you lent me. I’m really sorry. I’ll buy you another. I feel dreadful about what I said on the phone. I didn’t really mean it, you know. Written and Formal Apologies I’m writing to apologize for my absence from last week’s meeting. I was unexpectedly held up at work and was not able to contact you; British Railways do (would like to) apologize for the late running of this train (announcement at a station or on a train); Please accept our (sincere) apologies for any inconvenience caused by the delay in delivery of your order; The goods have now been shi pped to you. The usual forms of apology are: (I’m) sorry; So sorry (Sorry is an apology used after doing something); Sorry I’ve kept you waiting; Sorry to have kept you waiting; I beg you pardon (This apology is likewise used after doing something); I beg your pardon for being late (for being, for having been) so rude; Beg(ging) your pardon; A thousand pardons; Pardon me (this apology is used when correcting someone’s mistake, for example: Pardon me, madam, your seats are in the dress-circle); Excuse me (this apology is used before doing something, e.g. You say in a crowded tram: Excuse me, would you let me pass?); Excuse my intrusion; Excuse my coming at such an hour; Forgive me; Excuse (Forgive) my glove (hat); Excuse me to...; Give my excuses (to...); I’m afraid, I fear and I hope are usually followed by subordinate clauses where that is omitted; I’m afraid I’ve kept you waiting; I hope I haven’t hurt you; Would you mind (this formula is used when you ask a person to cease doing something, e.g. Would you mind... You are sitting on my coat); If you don’t mind my saying so usually expresses reprove or dissatisfaction and is meant to take the edge off the reproach (I think you are both wrong, if you don’t mind my saying so); Allow me is an apology used when you are coming forward to do a service; I must apologize (to you for being late). Apologies may be made more emphatic by stressing the link verbs, auxiliary verbs or modal verbs, by introducing do, by adding such emphasizers as: So, awfully, terribly, quite, indeed, really, most, unpardonable, horrid and the like. Here are some more examples of apologies: Excuse me for disturbing (interrupting) you; Excuse me for being late; Sorry to keep you waiting; Sorry to disturb you but I would like to talk to you; I’m sorry that’s my fault; What a pity; Sorry 164

to trouble you, Sir; Excuse (Pardon) me, Madam; I didn’t do it on purpose; I have to apologize for not answering your letter in time; Will you kindly excuse me troubling you with a private matter?; I’m afraid (I think, I believe), Sir, I haven’t learnt my lesson; Please (or kindly) excuse me to your brother; The apologies are very often not replied to at all; he or she whose pardon has thus been asked, simply makes a slight bow in return; That’s all right; Never mind; No harm done; It wasn’t your fault; Please, don’t worry. Special Cases of Replies to Some Apologies To Sorry we usually reply No need to be sorry; To Apologies like Sorry to trouble you, excuse my troubling you, I must apologize for troubling you; the usual replies are It’s no trouble, no trouble for me, no trouble whatever, not the slightest (least) trouble. To I beg your pardon we usually reply No pardon needed, I beg yours; to I beg your pardon for being late, I hope I’m not disturbing you we reply Better late than never, oh, certainly not, not in the least; to such apologies like: Give her my excuses, Will you? the usual reply is I will, by all means; to I must apologize we reply You needn’t, why should you? It’s nothing to speak of. Replies Expressing Anger It’s unforgettable!; It’s unpardonable!; It’s inexcusable!; How could you!; How dared you! Being sorry doesn’t alter things. Replies Expressing Irony or Disbelief To I’m sorry we usually say Oh, you are, Are you?; to I must apologize we reply Oh, you must!, Must you?; to I beg your pardon we usually reply Oh, you do!, Do you?

11. Agreement, Certainty, Approval, Solidarity I (fully, quite) agree (here) with you, to your proposal; Agreed!; Settled!; I am of the same opinion: Yes, indeed! OK, that’s right!; All right!; Right (you are)!; Righto; I see; At all costs; That’s it; Just so; Exactly so; Quite so; Naturally; Precisely (so); Decidedly; Definitely; That’s just it; That’s just what I was going to say; Willingly; With 165

a bad mood. I’ve got something awful to tell you. I lost that book you lent me. I’m really sorry. I’ll buy you another. I feel dreadful about what I said on the phone. I didn’t really mean it, you know. Written and Formal Apologies I’m writing to apologize for my absence from last week’s meeting. I was unexpectedly held up at work and was not able to contact you; British Railways do (would like to) apologize for the late running of this train (announcement at a station or on a train); Please accept our (sincere) apologies for any inconvenience caused by the delay in delivery of your order; The goods have now been shi pped to you. The usual forms of apology are: (I’m) sorry; So sorry (Sorry is an apology used after doing something); Sorry I’ve kept you waiting; Sorry to have kept you waiting; I beg you pardon (This apology is likewise used after doing something); I beg your pardon for being late (for being, for having been) so rude; Beg(ging) your pardon; A thousand pardons; Pardon me (this apology is used when correcting someone’s mistake, for example: Pardon me, madam, your seats are in the dress-circle); Excuse me (this apology is used before doing something, e.g. You say in a crowded tram: Excuse me, would you let me pass?); Excuse my intrusion; Excuse my coming at such an hour; Forgive me; Excuse (Forgive) my glove (hat); Excuse me to...; Give my excuses (to...); I’m afraid, I fear and I hope are usually followed by subordinate clauses where that is omitted; I’m afraid I’ve kept you waiting; I hope I haven’t hurt you; Would you mind (this formula is used when you ask a person to cease doing something, e.g. Would you mind... You are sitting on my coat); If you don’t mind my saying so usually expresses reprove or dissatisfaction and is meant to take the edge off the reproach (I think you are both wrong, if you don’t mind my saying so); Allow me is an apology used when you are coming forward to do a service; I must apologize (to you for being late). Apologies may be made more emphatic by stressing the link verbs, auxiliary verbs or modal verbs, by introducing do, by adding such emphasizers as: So, awfully, terribly, quite, indeed, really, most, unpardonable, horrid and the like. Here are some more examples of apologies: Excuse me for disturbing (interrupting) you; Excuse me for being late; Sorry to keep you waiting; Sorry to disturb you but I would like to talk to you; I’m sorry that’s my fault; What a pity; Sorry 164

to trouble you, Sir; Excuse (Pardon) me, Madam; I didn’t do it on purpose; I have to apologize for not answering your letter in time; Will you kindly excuse me troubling you with a private matter?; I’m afraid (I think, I believe), Sir, I haven’t learnt my lesson; Please (or kindly) excuse me to your brother; The apologies are very often not replied to at all; he or she whose pardon has thus been asked, simply makes a slight bow in return; That’s all right; Never mind; No harm done; It wasn’t your fault; Please, don’t worry. Special Cases of Replies to Some Apologies To Sorry we usually reply No need to be sorry; To Apologies like Sorry to trouble you, excuse my troubling you, I must apologize for troubling you; the usual replies are It’s no trouble, no trouble for me, no trouble whatever, not the slightest (least) trouble. To I beg your pardon we usually reply No pardon needed, I beg yours; to I beg your pardon for being late, I hope I’m not disturbing you we reply Better late than never, oh, certainly not, not in the least; to such apologies like: Give her my excuses, Will you? the usual reply is I will, by all means; to I must apologize we reply You needn’t, why should you? It’s nothing to speak of. Replies Expressing Anger It’s unforgettable!; It’s unpardonable!; It’s inexcusable!; How could you!; How dared you! Being sorry doesn’t alter things. Replies Expressing Irony or Disbelief To I’m sorry we usually say Oh, you are, Are you?; to I must apologize we reply Oh, you must!, Must you?; to I beg your pardon we usually reply Oh, you do!, Do you?

11. Agreement, Certainty, Approval, Solidarity I (fully, quite) agree (here) with you, to your proposal; Agreed!; Settled!; I am of the same opinion: Yes, indeed! OK, that’s right!; All right!; Right (you are)!; Righto; I see; At all costs; That’s it; Just so; Exactly so; Quite so; Naturally; Precisely (so); Decidedly; Definitely; That’s just it; That’s just what I was going to say; Willingly; With 165

pleasure; With all my heart; Heart and Soul; I should think so! I thought as much; It stands to reason; That beats me; Undoubtedly; Without doubt; Beyond all doubt; Highly probable; Very likely; Most likely; Looks like that; In a way yes; I won’t deny...; I think so; I suppose; I believe so; I hope so; I’m afraid so; Of course; Certainly (For certain); Sure (enough); Surely; No fear; Wouldn’t I (just)!; Rather; Without fail; It’s a good thing; Sounds good (to me); (Very) good (well); So much the better!; Fabulous!; Fine! Hear! Hear! (at meetings); That’ll do (very well, nicely); Bravo!; That’s a fine way of putting it!; That would be fine; How nice of you!; I’m glad to hear it!; Positively; I’m positive of it; There’s not the shadow of a doubt, that’s true; (That’s) Quite correct (or right); I admit that I am altogether of your opinion; That’s a matter of course; That goes without saying; That’s evident (or clear, obvious); Evidently; Yes, in any case; By all means; Yes, as far as I know; That’s a good suggestion. Here are some more words and expressions for agreeing strongly: Absolutely!; It’s true.; No doubt about it.; Sounds great.; I agree entirely.; I agree 100 per cent.; I couldn’t agree with you more.; That’s just what I think.; That’s exactly what I was thinking.; I agree with you completely.; You know, that’s exactly what I think. The following expressions are also used for weak agreement: I don’t mind.; I suppose so.; If you have to.; If you must.; Okay.; Sure, but... Agreement Mixed with Surprise You have some ink on your dress. Your nose is white. Mr. Black speaks Russian perfectly.

So I have! So it is! So he does!

Agreement Supported by a Question Tag It is warm. You are not late.

Yes it is, isn’t it? No, I am not, am I?

Formulas to Express Solidarity Glad to see you. I must be going. I love music.

So am I. So must I. So do I. 166

He is not old. She can’t swim. She doesn’t sing.

Neither is she. Neither can I. Neither do I.

So is used after the verbs think, believe, suppose, etc. in answer to an affirmative remark, for example: You ought to be starting. — I suppose so. When you agree with a negative remark use not, for example: He is not to be relied upon. — I suppose not.

12. Disagreement No! (Yes.); Oh, no (yes); (Disagreeing with an affirmative remark you say No, e.g. You locked the door? — No, I didn’t. But when you protest against a negative remark you say Yes, e.g. You didn’t lock the door. — Oh, yes, I did. But..., I disagree with you on that point; I don’t agree with you (that)...; I don’t think that’s right...; I differ from you; I’m against it; I object to it: I protest: I refuse point blank; You are wrong (mistaken); That’s all very well for you; There’s something in what you say, but...; Why (should I (he, we, etc.)?; I can’t (couldn’t), I couldn’t possibly; I’d rather not; No good (at all). Come! Come! (Come now!) is a mild form of disagreeing with some foolish or rash statement. That won’t do (work)!; No go!; Nothing doing!; It’s no use; What’s the use of...?; What’s the good of...? — are mostly followed by a gerund. It isn’t worth talking about!; It makes no sense!; Not me!; By no means!; By no account!; Under no circumstances!; Far from it!; Not at all!; Certainly (surely) not; Decidedly not! Not in the least!; Not for the world!; Not if I could help it; It’s out of question; Impossible!; Improbable!; Unlikely; It’s unfair; It’s unjust. “Nothing of the kind” sounds rude when speaking to your elders or superiors; On the contrary; Just the reverse!; Just the other way around!; Stuff (and nonsense); Nonsense; Rubbish; Humbug; Fiddle (sticks); Pah!; Pooh!; Ugh!; You err; Surely not; Not that I know of; I’m very doubtful about that; I’m of a different opinion; I beg to differ; We’ll (or Let us) agree to differ; On no account; I fear I can hardly agree with you there; That’s very (or rather) doubtful; That’s a matter of taste; I’ve never seriously thought about it; I hate to say “no”, but...; You’re joking; You must be joking; I don’t agree with you completely; I can’t permit; Absolutely not!; I doubt it; That’s very unlikely; That’s just not the case; I don’t agree. 167

pleasure; With all my heart; Heart and Soul; I should think so! I thought as much; It stands to reason; That beats me; Undoubtedly; Without doubt; Beyond all doubt; Highly probable; Very likely; Most likely; Looks like that; In a way yes; I won’t deny...; I think so; I suppose; I believe so; I hope so; I’m afraid so; Of course; Certainly (For certain); Sure (enough); Surely; No fear; Wouldn’t I (just)!; Rather; Without fail; It’s a good thing; Sounds good (to me); (Very) good (well); So much the better!; Fabulous!; Fine! Hear! Hear! (at meetings); That’ll do (very well, nicely); Bravo!; That’s a fine way of putting it!; That would be fine; How nice of you!; I’m glad to hear it!; Positively; I’m positive of it; There’s not the shadow of a doubt, that’s true; (That’s) Quite correct (or right); I admit that I am altogether of your opinion; That’s a matter of course; That goes without saying; That’s evident (or clear, obvious); Evidently; Yes, in any case; By all means; Yes, as far as I know; That’s a good suggestion. Here are some more words and expressions for agreeing strongly: Absolutely!; It’s true.; No doubt about it.; Sounds great.; I agree entirely.; I agree 100 per cent.; I couldn’t agree with you more.; That’s just what I think.; That’s exactly what I was thinking.; I agree with you completely.; You know, that’s exactly what I think. The following expressions are also used for weak agreement: I don’t mind.; I suppose so.; If you have to.; If you must.; Okay.; Sure, but... Agreement Mixed with Surprise You have some ink on your dress. Your nose is white. Mr. Black speaks Russian perfectly.

So I have! So it is! So he does!

Agreement Supported by a Question Tag It is warm. You are not late.

Yes it is, isn’t it? No, I am not, am I?

Formulas to Express Solidarity Glad to see you. I must be going. I love music.

So am I. So must I. So do I. 166

He is not old. She can’t swim. She doesn’t sing.

Neither is she. Neither can I. Neither do I.

So is used after the verbs think, believe, suppose, etc. in answer to an affirmative remark, for example: You ought to be starting. — I suppose so. When you agree with a negative remark use not, for example: He is not to be relied upon. — I suppose not.

12. Disagreement No! (Yes.); Oh, no (yes); (Disagreeing with an affirmative remark you say No, e.g. You locked the door? — No, I didn’t. But when you protest against a negative remark you say Yes, e.g. You didn’t lock the door. — Oh, yes, I did. But..., I disagree with you on that point; I don’t agree with you (that)...; I don’t think that’s right...; I differ from you; I’m against it; I object to it: I protest: I refuse point blank; You are wrong (mistaken); That’s all very well for you; There’s something in what you say, but...; Why (should I (he, we, etc.)?; I can’t (couldn’t), I couldn’t possibly; I’d rather not; No good (at all). Come! Come! (Come now!) is a mild form of disagreeing with some foolish or rash statement. That won’t do (work)!; No go!; Nothing doing!; It’s no use; What’s the use of...?; What’s the good of...? — are mostly followed by a gerund. It isn’t worth talking about!; It makes no sense!; Not me!; By no means!; By no account!; Under no circumstances!; Far from it!; Not at all!; Certainly (surely) not; Decidedly not! Not in the least!; Not for the world!; Not if I could help it; It’s out of question; Impossible!; Improbable!; Unlikely; It’s unfair; It’s unjust. “Nothing of the kind” sounds rude when speaking to your elders or superiors; On the contrary; Just the reverse!; Just the other way around!; Stuff (and nonsense); Nonsense; Rubbish; Humbug; Fiddle (sticks); Pah!; Pooh!; Ugh!; You err; Surely not; Not that I know of; I’m very doubtful about that; I’m of a different opinion; I beg to differ; We’ll (or Let us) agree to differ; On no account; I fear I can hardly agree with you there; That’s very (or rather) doubtful; That’s a matter of taste; I’ve never seriously thought about it; I hate to say “no”, but...; You’re joking; You must be joking; I don’t agree with you completely; I can’t permit; Absolutely not!; I doubt it; That’s very unlikely; That’s just not the case; I don’t agree. 167

We use such questions to find out if someone agrees with us: What do you think?; Do you agree?; Don’t you think so? Usually when we disagree with something in English, It’s followed by some reason or explanation of why we disagree, otherwise people may think we are rude or they probably will not accept our opinion easily. We can also use in an answer to the statement the expression “I think...” and then say the opposite of what was said by another person with the meaning of: “I disagree with you...”

(Just, only) Fancy!; Well, I never...; Well, if it isn’t...; Who’d have thought it?; I am surprised (astonished, shocked); How surprising!; What a surprise you’ve given me!; What a shock you’ve given me!; It’s amazing (incredible); My God!; Good God!; Good Lord!; Good Gracious!; Good Heavens!; Oh, dear me, how strange; Well, I’m sure.

13. Doubt, Hesitation, Disbelief

Good (for you)!; There’s a good boy (girl)!; Come! Come!; Tut, tut; Well, well; Now, now; There, there; Come on; Get on; Get your own way; Cheer up!; Never say die!; Keep up your spirits!; Keep your chin up!; Make the best of it!; Pluck up your courage; Pull yourself together; Things will come right; It will all come round; It will blow over; There’s no harm done; I hope you will get on all right; Poor thing!; Poor me!; Alas!; Oh, it’s too bad; How dreadful (awful, etc.); What a shame (a pity); I am so sorry (for you); I sympathize with you; I’m feeling for you; I wish I could do something for you; Could I help you in any way?; Take it easy; Don’t take it so much to heart; Don’t worry; There’s no getting away from it; It can’t be helped; It might have been worse; Hard (Bad) luck!; Better luck next time; Let’s hope for the best; Things do happen; You’ll get over it; Never mind; Don’t let that distress (upset, worry, vex, annoy you); I’ll lend you a hand.

Doubt may be expressed by such questions as Do I, am I, is it, must I, etc. in answer to statements, for example, You look well today. — Do I?; Really? Do you really mean it?; Indeed?; Is it true? Is that so?; Is it a fact?; Are you sure?; How can you be sure?; You can never tell; I don’t believe it; I doubt it; I hesitate; Now, let me think; I have half a mind to...; I’m in two minds; I don’t think so; I shouldn’t say so; I can (could) hardly believe my ears; Too good to be true. Possible Answers, which May either Confirm the Doubt or Turn It Down Have you got (or caught) it at last?; Do you see the drift of it?; Repeat my question, that I may see whether you understand me; Perhaps; May be; Possible; I daresay it is: Yes, I should say so; It seems so; It looks very much like it; I suppose so; I think so; I fancy so but...; Yes, no doubt whatever; Probably; I thought as much; I guessed as much (Am.); You know better; I know better; Why, what’s wrong with it?; Yes and No; To some extent (degree); Up to a point; I’ve no idea; I haven’t the slightest idea; Goodness knows; I daresay it is (true); I’m not quite sure (about that); That depends; Yes, I should say so; It seems so; It looks (very) much like that; Quite possible; That’s very likely (or probable); People say so; That’s hard to tell; To all appearance it is so; I’m afraid you may be mistaken; I fear I can hardly agree with you there; Do you really think so?; Are you quite sure of it?; I’ve no settled opinion about that; Sounds promising, but...; Kindly speak more slowly ; “ to err is human, to forgive divine.”

15. Encouragement, Consolation, Sympathy, Regret

16. Advice and Prohibition I’ll advise you on this; I will give you good advice; Take my advice; Take it easy; Take your time; Mind your own business; Let him alone; Make the best of it; Don’t leave him in the lurch; Don’t take it too much to heart; Don’t let that upset you; You go home now; Make sure...; Be sure...; Try and...; You must (have to)...; You’ve got to...; You mustn’t...; You needn’t...; You don’t have (to)...; Don’t; There’s no need to...; You should (n’t) (to)...; You ought (n’t) (to); You’d better...; Hadn’t you better...; If I were you I shouldn’t...; Why not...; What (How) about...; It’s high time (to)...; I’ll tell you what.

14. Surprise

17. Warnings

Oh!; Indeed?; Well!; Why!; Is that (really) so?; I say...; You don’t say so!; You don’t mean it, do you?; You don’t mean to say it!; Dear me!;

Look out!; Look sharp! Look out for...; Beware of...; Be careful! Mind your head (the steps, your spelling); Mind you don’t (e.g. cross the

168

169

We use such questions to find out if someone agrees with us: What do you think?; Do you agree?; Don’t you think so? Usually when we disagree with something in English, It’s followed by some reason or explanation of why we disagree, otherwise people may think we are rude or they probably will not accept our opinion easily. We can also use in an answer to the statement the expression “I think...” and then say the opposite of what was said by another person with the meaning of: “I disagree with you...”

(Just, only) Fancy!; Well, I never...; Well, if it isn’t...; Who’d have thought it?; I am surprised (astonished, shocked); How surprising!; What a surprise you’ve given me!; What a shock you’ve given me!; It’s amazing (incredible); My God!; Good God!; Good Lord!; Good Gracious!; Good Heavens!; Oh, dear me, how strange; Well, I’m sure.

13. Doubt, Hesitation, Disbelief

Good (for you)!; There’s a good boy (girl)!; Come! Come!; Tut, tut; Well, well; Now, now; There, there; Come on; Get on; Get your own way; Cheer up!; Never say die!; Keep up your spirits!; Keep your chin up!; Make the best of it!; Pluck up your courage; Pull yourself together; Things will come right; It will all come round; It will blow over; There’s no harm done; I hope you will get on all right; Poor thing!; Poor me!; Alas!; Oh, it’s too bad; How dreadful (awful, etc.); What a shame (a pity); I am so sorry (for you); I sympathize with you; I’m feeling for you; I wish I could do something for you; Could I help you in any way?; Take it easy; Don’t take it so much to heart; Don’t worry; There’s no getting away from it; It can’t be helped; It might have been worse; Hard (Bad) luck!; Better luck next time; Let’s hope for the best; Things do happen; You’ll get over it; Never mind; Don’t let that distress (upset, worry, vex, annoy you); I’ll lend you a hand.

Doubt may be expressed by such questions as Do I, am I, is it, must I, etc. in answer to statements, for example, You look well today. — Do I?; Really? Do you really mean it?; Indeed?; Is it true? Is that so?; Is it a fact?; Are you sure?; How can you be sure?; You can never tell; I don’t believe it; I doubt it; I hesitate; Now, let me think; I have half a mind to...; I’m in two minds; I don’t think so; I shouldn’t say so; I can (could) hardly believe my ears; Too good to be true. Possible Answers, which May either Confirm the Doubt or Turn It Down Have you got (or caught) it at last?; Do you see the drift of it?; Repeat my question, that I may see whether you understand me; Perhaps; May be; Possible; I daresay it is: Yes, I should say so; It seems so; It looks very much like it; I suppose so; I think so; I fancy so but...; Yes, no doubt whatever; Probably; I thought as much; I guessed as much (Am.); You know better; I know better; Why, what’s wrong with it?; Yes and No; To some extent (degree); Up to a point; I’ve no idea; I haven’t the slightest idea; Goodness knows; I daresay it is (true); I’m not quite sure (about that); That depends; Yes, I should say so; It seems so; It looks (very) much like that; Quite possible; That’s very likely (or probable); People say so; That’s hard to tell; To all appearance it is so; I’m afraid you may be mistaken; I fear I can hardly agree with you there; Do you really think so?; Are you quite sure of it?; I’ve no settled opinion about that; Sounds promising, but...; Kindly speak more slowly ; “ to err is human, to forgive divine.”

15. Encouragement, Consolation, Sympathy, Regret

16. Advice and Prohibition I’ll advise you on this; I will give you good advice; Take my advice; Take it easy; Take your time; Mind your own business; Let him alone; Make the best of it; Don’t leave him in the lurch; Don’t take it too much to heart; Don’t let that upset you; You go home now; Make sure...; Be sure...; Try and...; You must (have to)...; You’ve got to...; You mustn’t...; You needn’t...; You don’t have (to)...; Don’t; There’s no need to...; You should (n’t) (to)...; You ought (n’t) (to); You’d better...; Hadn’t you better...; If I were you I shouldn’t...; Why not...; What (How) about...; It’s high time (to)...; I’ll tell you what.

14. Surprise

17. Warnings

Oh!; Indeed?; Well!; Why!; Is that (really) so?; I say...; You don’t say so!; You don’t mean it, do you?; You don’t mean to say it!; Dear me!;

Look out!; Look sharp! Look out for...; Beware of...; Be careful! Mind your head (the steps, your spelling); Mind you don’t (e.g. cross the

168

169

street here); Be sure you don’t...; Be sure not to...; Remember not to...; You’d better not...; Mark my words!; One can never be too careful; Mind your P’s and Q’s; You’ve been warned.

18. Threats and Reprimands I won’t have you do (or doing it); I won’t hear it again!; You ought to...; You should...(Reprimand is expressed by ought and should be followed by the perfect infinitive); You oughtn’t to...; You shouldn’t...; I won’t have it; I won’t have that sort of thing again!; You’d better not...; If you are thinking of... you’d better think again; Did you hear me?; Don’t you dare!; If you dare!; If I catch you...; Do that again!; I’ll give it hot to you!; You’ll catch it hot!; You’ll get it hot!; Well, one day I’ll...

19. Anger, Indignation, Irritation It’s awful (terrible, ghastly, appalling, etc.); How awful (dreadful, terrible, etc.)!; It’s monstrous!; It’s ludicrous!; How annoying!; What a nuisance!; How boring!; What a bore!; What a shame!; For shame!; Shame (up)on you!; What a cheek!; There you are!; There it is!; There you go again!; What next (I wonder)?; I like that...; Of all the lazy boys!; (Keep quiet)...can’t you?; Leave me alone!; I say...; May I ask...; It’s none of your business!; Who do you think you are!; Who do you take me for?; You’re the limit!; It’s the limit!; It’s the last straw!; It’s a nightmare!; Hang it!; Oh, bother (it)!; You have come, you have!

20. General Formulas

occurred to me that...; To tell the truth...; I don’t quite follow you; I see; What do you mean / ; Do you mean to say...; I mean to say...; On the surface (of it)...; What do you think of...; One would think...; I take it for granted that...; I’m inclined to think..; Apparently; Obviously; Evidently...; It’s not to the point; That’s neither here nor there; You’ve got it all wrong; What’s that got to do with it?; Keep to the point; Stick to the point; I’m coming to it; (I) Suppose...; The way things are...; As things are...; Generally (Practically, Strictly) speaking...; Putting it mildly...; To put it mildly...; To say the least...; It doesn’t hold water; What with one thing and another...; What with this and that...; It comes to the same thing; As far as I know (remember, can see, can gather); As far as I am concerned...; May I have my say?; As to...; As for...; Actually...; As a matter of fact...; In fact...; The matter (thing, fact, point) is that...; I want to press the point...; What beats me is...; What matters is...; It’s like this...; Under the circumstances...; In case...; Just in case...; In this case...; In that case...; As the case may be...; If that’s the case...; In any case...; For that matter...; Go ahead; On the one hand; On the other hand; Mind you...; For one thing...; Above all...; More than that...; What’s more (is)...and so on (and so forth); And the like; And now (for)... (c) Summing up To some it up; summing it up; On the whole...; All (things) considered; All in all; After all...; In the long run...; In short...; The long and short of it is...; To cut a long story short...; To put the matter in a nutshell...; That explains it; (So) that’s it (that); There it is; And so...; Now then...; Well then...; That’s all...; That’s about all there is to it; So much for that; Let’s round off.

(a) Introductory Well, now...;Well..; Let me see (think)...; Just a minute (moment)...; By the way,...; Incidentally...; They say...; First...; First of all...; To begin with...; Talking (Speaking) of...; That reminds me...; To come back to...

(d) Conversational ticks Oh...; Well just...;...Simply...; Now...; You see...; You know...; So to say.

Expressing Likes and Dislikes (b) Expressing an opinion In my opinion; To my mind...; Personally, I...; I dare say...; If you ask me...; If you (really) must know...; I don’t mind telling you...; It just

Strong like: I (really) love / adore...Great!, Terrific!, Super!, Marvelous!, Wonderful!, Just a great idea!, It certainly was original!, Weak like: I like..., It’s all right., It’s okay., Nice., Not bad.

170

171

street here); Be sure you don’t...; Be sure not to...; Remember not to...; You’d better not...; Mark my words!; One can never be too careful; Mind your P’s and Q’s; You’ve been warned.

18. Threats and Reprimands I won’t have you do (or doing it); I won’t hear it again!; You ought to...; You should...(Reprimand is expressed by ought and should be followed by the perfect infinitive); You oughtn’t to...; You shouldn’t...; I won’t have it; I won’t have that sort of thing again!; You’d better not...; If you are thinking of... you’d better think again; Did you hear me?; Don’t you dare!; If you dare!; If I catch you...; Do that again!; I’ll give it hot to you!; You’ll catch it hot!; You’ll get it hot!; Well, one day I’ll...

19. Anger, Indignation, Irritation It’s awful (terrible, ghastly, appalling, etc.); How awful (dreadful, terrible, etc.)!; It’s monstrous!; It’s ludicrous!; How annoying!; What a nuisance!; How boring!; What a bore!; What a shame!; For shame!; Shame (up)on you!; What a cheek!; There you are!; There it is!; There you go again!; What next (I wonder)?; I like that...; Of all the lazy boys!; (Keep quiet)...can’t you?; Leave me alone!; I say...; May I ask...; It’s none of your business!; Who do you think you are!; Who do you take me for?; You’re the limit!; It’s the limit!; It’s the last straw!; It’s a nightmare!; Hang it!; Oh, bother (it)!; You have come, you have!

20. General Formulas

occurred to me that...; To tell the truth...; I don’t quite follow you; I see; What do you mean / ; Do you mean to say...; I mean to say...; On the surface (of it)...; What do you think of...; One would think...; I take it for granted that...; I’m inclined to think..; Apparently; Obviously; Evidently...; It’s not to the point; That’s neither here nor there; You’ve got it all wrong; What’s that got to do with it?; Keep to the point; Stick to the point; I’m coming to it; (I) Suppose...; The way things are...; As things are...; Generally (Practically, Strictly) speaking...; Putting it mildly...; To put it mildly...; To say the least...; It doesn’t hold water; What with one thing and another...; What with this and that...; It comes to the same thing; As far as I know (remember, can see, can gather); As far as I am concerned...; May I have my say?; As to...; As for...; Actually...; As a matter of fact...; In fact...; The matter (thing, fact, point) is that...; I want to press the point...; What beats me is...; What matters is...; It’s like this...; Under the circumstances...; In case...; Just in case...; In this case...; In that case...; As the case may be...; If that’s the case...; In any case...; For that matter...; Go ahead; On the one hand; On the other hand; Mind you...; For one thing...; Above all...; More than that...; What’s more (is)...and so on (and so forth); And the like; And now (for)... (c) Summing up To some it up; summing it up; On the whole...; All (things) considered; All in all; After all...; In the long run...; In short...; The long and short of it is...; To cut a long story short...; To put the matter in a nutshell...; That explains it; (So) that’s it (that); There it is; And so...; Now then...; Well then...; That’s all...; That’s about all there is to it; So much for that; Let’s round off.

(a) Introductory Well, now...;Well..; Let me see (think)...; Just a minute (moment)...; By the way,...; Incidentally...; They say...; First...; First of all...; To begin with...; Talking (Speaking) of...; That reminds me...; To come back to...

(d) Conversational ticks Oh...; Well just...;...Simply...; Now...; You see...; You know...; So to say.

Expressing Likes and Dislikes (b) Expressing an opinion In my opinion; To my mind...; Personally, I...; I dare say...; If you ask me...; If you (really) must know...; I don’t mind telling you...; It just

Strong like: I (really) love / adore...Great!, Terrific!, Super!, Marvelous!, Wonderful!, Just a great idea!, It certainly was original!, Weak like: I like..., It’s all right., It’s okay., Nice., Not bad.

170

171

Strong dislike: I hate / detest..., I can’t stand..., Forget it!, Not at all!, Not my type of thing!, Awful!, Terrible!, Dreadful!, Yuk! Weak dislike: Not particularly., (But then) I’m not mad / crazy about..., I’m not very fond of..., I don’t like..., I dislike..., I don’t (particularly) care for..., It’ll do., Not much., It’s so-so., I prefer X to Y., It was a very poor idea!

Giving Opinions Questions used to get opinions: What do you think?; What’s your opinion?; How do you feel about...?; What do you think of / about...? Expressions for giving opinions: If you ask me...; As I see it, it is...; (Personally,) I think / believe / feel that...; In my opinion...; I’m (pretty) sure (that)...; I’m positive (that)...; I have an idea that... Ways of asking an explanation of an opinion: Why?; Why do you say / think that / so?; What makes you say that?; What are your reasons (for saying that)?; Are you sure that...; Are you sure of that?; How come? Ways of restating someone else’s opinion: She / he thinks / feels / says that...; His / her opinion is that...

Persuading Some useful expressions: I’ll do X if you’ll do Y.; Wouldn’t it be better if...; How about...; Well, look at it this way...; Yes / sure / okay, but...; That’s (probably) true, but...; That’s a good idea, but...; Look, there are many reasons why, but...; Possibly, but...; You might do X.

Developing an Idea Useful words and expressions: (for adding information) and, in addition, besides, another thing, also, as well; (for saying the “opposite”) but, however; (for giving a lot of reasons or facts) first, second, third, then, next, finally; (for giving an example) for example, that is, such as, for instance; (for summing up) so, to summarize, to sum up.

travel, news, entertainment, sports, tourist attractions, your surroundings. We may also discuss such personal topics: health, job, family, friends, hobbies and weekend activities. In breaking the ice we can use regular questions such as “Is it going to rain tomorrow?”, “Do you know if this terrible weather will continue?” or special and tag questions: “How did you get here tonight in all that rain?”, “What are your plans for the future?”, “Where are you studying?”, “This is your first visit here, isn’t it?”, “It’s been hot lately, hasn’t it?” or we can ask people their opinion of something: “What do you think of John?”, “Do you like your job?”

Describing In describing an object we usually say about its shape, size, what it is made of, colour, what it is used for and where it is found. In describing a scene we talk about its location, time, details, action, sounds. It is helpful to start with the most important detail. Start the descri ption at one point and go around. You can describe a picture: top to bottom, right to left, left to right, near to far, far to near. Use the Present Simple for most of descri ption, except when there is some action that is usually described by using the Present Progressive. In describing a person we talk about what they look like, about their age, about what they are wearing and about our opinion of them. We say: She / he is (about) 30 (years old); tall / short; fat / thin; bald, curly / straight hair; She / he is blonde / dark; She / he wears glasses; He has a beard / moustache; She / he looks / seems very...(kind, strong, angry, rich, etc.); smartly / casually dressed; He is (very) handsome; She is (very) pretty / beautiful / plain; She has a good figure. USEFUL LANGUAGE IN SOME SPECIAL CASES In the Hotel

Small talk is a light conversation on unimportant or non-serious subjects. We usually talk on such impersonal topics: the weather, inflation,

Can I help you? Have you booked a room? With or without bath / shower? Just for tonight. madam / sir? Yes, that’s right. One single, with private bath, from today for four days. I’m afraid we’re(fully) backed up. The room got radio / TV / telephone; How much is it / are they? Is it with breakfast / service? What time do you serve breakfast? When is lunch? What time does the restaurant / bar open / close? Oh, that’s nice. I’d prefer it in my room. If you’d send it up at about eight,

172

173

Making Small Talk

Strong dislike: I hate / detest..., I can’t stand..., Forget it!, Not at all!, Not my type of thing!, Awful!, Terrible!, Dreadful!, Yuk! Weak dislike: Not particularly., (But then) I’m not mad / crazy about..., I’m not very fond of..., I don’t like..., I dislike..., I don’t (particularly) care for..., It’ll do., Not much., It’s so-so., I prefer X to Y., It was a very poor idea!

Giving Opinions Questions used to get opinions: What do you think?; What’s your opinion?; How do you feel about...?; What do you think of / about...? Expressions for giving opinions: If you ask me...; As I see it, it is...; (Personally,) I think / believe / feel that...; In my opinion...; I’m (pretty) sure (that)...; I’m positive (that)...; I have an idea that... Ways of asking an explanation of an opinion: Why?; Why do you say / think that / so?; What makes you say that?; What are your reasons (for saying that)?; Are you sure that...; Are you sure of that?; How come? Ways of restating someone else’s opinion: She / he thinks / feels / says that...; His / her opinion is that...

Persuading Some useful expressions: I’ll do X if you’ll do Y.; Wouldn’t it be better if...; How about...; Well, look at it this way...; Yes / sure / okay, but...; That’s (probably) true, but...; That’s a good idea, but...; Look, there are many reasons why, but...; Possibly, but...; You might do X.

Developing an Idea Useful words and expressions: (for adding information) and, in addition, besides, another thing, also, as well; (for saying the “opposite”) but, however; (for giving a lot of reasons or facts) first, second, third, then, next, finally; (for giving an example) for example, that is, such as, for instance; (for summing up) so, to summarize, to sum up.

travel, news, entertainment, sports, tourist attractions, your surroundings. We may also discuss such personal topics: health, job, family, friends, hobbies and weekend activities. In breaking the ice we can use regular questions such as “Is it going to rain tomorrow?”, “Do you know if this terrible weather will continue?” or special and tag questions: “How did you get here tonight in all that rain?”, “What are your plans for the future?”, “Where are you studying?”, “This is your first visit here, isn’t it?”, “It’s been hot lately, hasn’t it?” or we can ask people their opinion of something: “What do you think of John?”, “Do you like your job?”

Describing In describing an object we usually say about its shape, size, what it is made of, colour, what it is used for and where it is found. In describing a scene we talk about its location, time, details, action, sounds. It is helpful to start with the most important detail. Start the descri ption at one point and go around. You can describe a picture: top to bottom, right to left, left to right, near to far, far to near. Use the Present Simple for most of descri ption, except when there is some action that is usually described by using the Present Progressive. In describing a person we talk about what they look like, about their age, about what they are wearing and about our opinion of them. We say: She / he is (about) 30 (years old); tall / short; fat / thin; bald, curly / straight hair; She / he is blonde / dark; She / he wears glasses; He has a beard / moustache; She / he looks / seems very...(kind, strong, angry, rich, etc.); smartly / casually dressed; He is (very) handsome; She is (very) pretty / beautiful / plain; She has a good figure. USEFUL LANGUAGE IN SOME SPECIAL CASES In the Hotel

Small talk is a light conversation on unimportant or non-serious subjects. We usually talk on such impersonal topics: the weather, inflation,

Can I help you? Have you booked a room? With or without bath / shower? Just for tonight. madam / sir? Yes, that’s right. One single, with private bath, from today for four days. I’m afraid we’re(fully) backed up. The room got radio / TV / telephone; How much is it / are they? Is it with breakfast / service? What time do you serve breakfast? When is lunch? What time does the restaurant / bar open / close? Oh, that’s nice. I’d prefer it in my room. If you’d send it up at about eight,

172

173

Making Small Talk

that’d be fine. Yes, I’d like..., if you’d be so kind. Could you wake me up at..., please? Where can I make a telephone call? Are there any messages for me? Would you call me a taxi? Could you get me a porter? I’m afraid my room’s too cold / noisy. I’m going away tomorrow. When / what time must I leave the room? I’d like to keep the room till... if possible. Could / can I possibly leave my luggage somewhere? I’d like my bill / to check out. In the Shop Are you being served / attended to? May I / Let me show you (a)...? May I help you? What can I do for you? Would you like some help? Can I help you? Are you looking for something? What colour (would you like)? How do you like this (red) one? How much do you want to pay / spend? What kind / sort of...do you want? What size do you take? Is that the right size? Does it fit? It suits you well. Yes, we’ve got some very nice shirts. I’m afraid, we don’t have any (at the moment). We are expecting to get some next week. Would you like to try this...on? They are...(a pound). They cost...each. That makes...(altogether). Well, that’ll be...I’m just looking, thank you. We’d like to have a look round. Thanks, but I can manage myself. No, thank you. I’m all right. I wonder if you could help me... I’d like to know..., I wonder if you could tell me..., Excuse me, could you tell me..., I’m looking for... / I’d like / I want...Can you tell me where I can get...? Could you show me...? Excuse me, how much is that? Oh, that’s awfully nice / kind of you. Could you show me another? Haven’t you got some others / some more? Do you have something cheaper? I don’t really like the colour? (Thank you for your help but) it’s not quite what I wanted. They are the wrong colour / size / shape / sort. Have you got that in size...? It’s a bit too long / short / tight / wide. I’d like the next size up / down. I’ll take it / them. I think I’ll take that one. That’s all, thank you. How much is that / it (altogether)? How much does it cost? That’s (too) expensive / cheap. What’s the difference in price? Can I pay by cheque? May I have a recei pt? Is this right? You’ve given me the wrong change. I’d like my money back. Wasn’t this a good buy?

Could you tell me / do you know where I can find...? Pardon me. I’m looking for (the)...? Perhaps you can tell me where / how / when...? Which is the best way to...? Do you think it’s easier / best to...? I want to go to...? Excuse me. How would I get to the theatre from here? Does this bus go to the market? Can / could you tell me how far it is to...? How long does it take to... / get there? Is it a long way / far from here? Yes, it’s near / next to / opposite (the)...Go down this street to the next corner / to the end of this road. Drive / walk / go down / up / to the...Turn left / right at the supermarket / bank. Take the left / right road / turning. Take the second street on your right. That is the first street on your left. Go this / that way. Walk two lights west. Three blocks north. Go along this road. Then turn right at the first lights. At the corner, turn left. Drive until you come to / as far as...Drive / go / keep straight on (down). Make a left onto Highway 15. Exit at Highway 20. Cross the bridge / park. The...is on the right / left. It’s on the right / left-hand side (of the road). You’ll see the...on the left / right / in front of you. You can’t miss it / go wrong. It’s at that street at the right / at the end of the road on the left. You’ll have to get off the bus at the next stop, cross over to the other side of the street, and catch the bus in the opposite direction. I’ll give you a transfer. Don’t mention it. Pleased to have been able to help you. That’s all right. It’s only (a)...minutes’ walk / ...minutes on foot. It’s a long way / ...miles / minutes from here / quite near here (actually). It only takes about...minutes (or so) (if you walk). Well, it’s a long way to walk. It won’t take you (very) long (to get there). No, I’m sorry / I’m afraid / I can’t tell / help you. Sorry I don’t know this town. I’ve no idea. I’m not sure. I’m a stranger here myself. I’m new here as well. Let’s look it up (on the map). Ask the policeman / postman over there... At the Doctor’s

Can / could / would you help me, please. Excuse me, please. Where is...? How do / can I get from here to...? Can you tell me where... is?

Well, what’s wrong with you? What’s the trouble? What’s troubling you? What can I do for you? Well, tell me what the trouble is? How are you feeling? Have you got a temperature / pains in your throat / a cough? I’ll examine you. Will you please take your clothes off and lie down on the couch over there? Stri p to the waist, please. I’d like to listen to your chest / examine your throat. Would you open your mouth, please. Now breathe in / cough / say “A.” Have you taken your temperature? Now just put the thermometer under your tongue / arm. Can you show me exactly where the pain is? Show me where it hurts most? Your throat’s

174

175

In the Street

that’d be fine. Yes, I’d like..., if you’d be so kind. Could you wake me up at..., please? Where can I make a telephone call? Are there any messages for me? Would you call me a taxi? Could you get me a porter? I’m afraid my room’s too cold / noisy. I’m going away tomorrow. When / what time must I leave the room? I’d like to keep the room till... if possible. Could / can I possibly leave my luggage somewhere? I’d like my bill / to check out. In the Shop Are you being served / attended to? May I / Let me show you (a)...? May I help you? What can I do for you? Would you like some help? Can I help you? Are you looking for something? What colour (would you like)? How do you like this (red) one? How much do you want to pay / spend? What kind / sort of...do you want? What size do you take? Is that the right size? Does it fit? It suits you well. Yes, we’ve got some very nice shirts. I’m afraid, we don’t have any (at the moment). We are expecting to get some next week. Would you like to try this...on? They are...(a pound). They cost...each. That makes...(altogether). Well, that’ll be...I’m just looking, thank you. We’d like to have a look round. Thanks, but I can manage myself. No, thank you. I’m all right. I wonder if you could help me... I’d like to know..., I wonder if you could tell me..., Excuse me, could you tell me..., I’m looking for... / I’d like / I want...Can you tell me where I can get...? Could you show me...? Excuse me, how much is that? Oh, that’s awfully nice / kind of you. Could you show me another? Haven’t you got some others / some more? Do you have something cheaper? I don’t really like the colour? (Thank you for your help but) it’s not quite what I wanted. They are the wrong colour / size / shape / sort. Have you got that in size...? It’s a bit too long / short / tight / wide. I’d like the next size up / down. I’ll take it / them. I think I’ll take that one. That’s all, thank you. How much is that / it (altogether)? How much does it cost? That’s (too) expensive / cheap. What’s the difference in price? Can I pay by cheque? May I have a recei pt? Is this right? You’ve given me the wrong change. I’d like my money back. Wasn’t this a good buy?

Could you tell me / do you know where I can find...? Pardon me. I’m looking for (the)...? Perhaps you can tell me where / how / when...? Which is the best way to...? Do you think it’s easier / best to...? I want to go to...? Excuse me. How would I get to the theatre from here? Does this bus go to the market? Can / could you tell me how far it is to...? How long does it take to... / get there? Is it a long way / far from here? Yes, it’s near / next to / opposite (the)...Go down this street to the next corner / to the end of this road. Drive / walk / go down / up / to the...Turn left / right at the supermarket / bank. Take the left / right road / turning. Take the second street on your right. That is the first street on your left. Go this / that way. Walk two lights west. Three blocks north. Go along this road. Then turn right at the first lights. At the corner, turn left. Drive until you come to / as far as...Drive / go / keep straight on (down). Make a left onto Highway 15. Exit at Highway 20. Cross the bridge / park. The...is on the right / left. It’s on the right / left-hand side (of the road). You’ll see the...on the left / right / in front of you. You can’t miss it / go wrong. It’s at that street at the right / at the end of the road on the left. You’ll have to get off the bus at the next stop, cross over to the other side of the street, and catch the bus in the opposite direction. I’ll give you a transfer. Don’t mention it. Pleased to have been able to help you. That’s all right. It’s only (a)...minutes’ walk / ...minutes on foot. It’s a long way / ...miles / minutes from here / quite near here (actually). It only takes about...minutes (or so) (if you walk). Well, it’s a long way to walk. It won’t take you (very) long (to get there). No, I’m sorry / I’m afraid / I can’t tell / help you. Sorry I don’t know this town. I’ve no idea. I’m not sure. I’m a stranger here myself. I’m new here as well. Let’s look it up (on the map). Ask the policeman / postman over there... At the Doctor’s

Can / could / would you help me, please. Excuse me, please. Where is...? How do / can I get from here to...? Can you tell me where... is?

Well, what’s wrong with you? What’s the trouble? What’s troubling you? What can I do for you? Well, tell me what the trouble is? How are you feeling? Have you got a temperature / pains in your throat / a cough? I’ll examine you. Will you please take your clothes off and lie down on the couch over there? Stri p to the waist, please. I’d like to listen to your chest / examine your throat. Would you open your mouth, please. Now breathe in / cough / say “A.” Have you taken your temperature? Now just put the thermometer under your tongue / arm. Can you show me exactly where the pain is? Show me where it hurts most? Your throat’s

174

175

In the Street

very red. It does look a bit sore. What’s your appetite like? Give me your wrist, please? I’ll put a bandage on it. You must stay in bed / at home / indoors. You’d better have a couple of days in bed. I’ll give you an injection / prescri ption. You can get the tablets at the chemist’s.I don’t feel (too / at all) well. I’m not well / myself today. I’m feeling poorly / terrible / awful / ill. I feel a bit under the weather / run-down. I’m terribly tired. I’m ill / awful / sick / hot / miserable. I haven’t been feeling at all well lately. There’s something wrong with me. I’ve got a bad cold. I have an awful headache / a very high temperature / a very bad cough, a (terribly) sore throat. I’ve caught a cold. I’ve got pains in my stomach / neck / , (left) ear / knees / chest. My legs / feet hurt / ache. My feet are aching. I’ve hurt / cut my finger / arm. I think I’ve broken my arm. I’m afraid that I’ve sprained my wrist. I’ve had quite a lot of pain in the stomach. I find it hard to breathe. I can’t move (my) arm. Yesterday I fainted and was unconscious for...I had an accident. I was injured. It hurts when I move / walk. I’m just ringing to make an appointment for / with...I’d like to confirm my appointment with...Could I have an earlier / later appointment?

When money talks, nobody walks. When the cat’s away, the mice will play. No pain, no gain.

At the Railway Station

Repetitive Proverbs

First or second class? Day return? Two returns to...That’ll be..., please. The train leaves at...from platform... Yes, you have to change at...You’d better hurry up or you’ll miss the train. It’s on time / late. How much is the single / return fare? Is the return fare cheaper than two singles? How much extra is the first class? When does the train for...go? And what time / when does it arrive in / at...? Which platform is it / does it leave from? Excuse me, is that the train to...? Does this train stop at...? Useful words. Booking-office clerk, guard, ticket collector, single / return ticket, day return, (non-)smoker, coach, compartment, buffet car, diner, dining-car, platform, gate, terminus, (air) terminal, season ticket, fare, break of journey.

Some Popular English Proverbs Trouble comes double. A friend in words and not on deeds is like a garden full of weeds. Red sky at night, sailor’s delight; red sky in the morning to sailors a warning. 176

Alliterative Proverbs Live and learn. Where there’s a will there’s a way. All that glistens is not gold. All roads lead to Rome. Look before you leap. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Penny wise, pound foolish. Poor planning makes for poor performance. In for a penny, in for a pound. The more the merrier. Waste not, want not. What gets measured is what gets managed.

First come, first served. You win some, you lose some. There’s no fool like an old fool. A penny saved is a penny earned. All is well that ends well. What’s done is done. The past is past. Don’t get mad, get even. If it’s worth doing, it’s worth doing well. Like father, like son. Nothing ventured, nothing gained. Winners never quit, quitters never win. Plan your work, work your plan. Other Proverbs There’s an exception to every rule. A leopard never changes its spots. 177

very red. It does look a bit sore. What’s your appetite like? Give me your wrist, please? I’ll put a bandage on it. You must stay in bed / at home / indoors. You’d better have a couple of days in bed. I’ll give you an injection / prescri ption. You can get the tablets at the chemist’s.I don’t feel (too / at all) well. I’m not well / myself today. I’m feeling poorly / terrible / awful / ill. I feel a bit under the weather / run-down. I’m terribly tired. I’m ill / awful / sick / hot / miserable. I haven’t been feeling at all well lately. There’s something wrong with me. I’ve got a bad cold. I have an awful headache / a very high temperature / a very bad cough, a (terribly) sore throat. I’ve caught a cold. I’ve got pains in my stomach / neck / , (left) ear / knees / chest. My legs / feet hurt / ache. My feet are aching. I’ve hurt / cut my finger / arm. I think I’ve broken my arm. I’m afraid that I’ve sprained my wrist. I’ve had quite a lot of pain in the stomach. I find it hard to breathe. I can’t move (my) arm. Yesterday I fainted and was unconscious for...I had an accident. I was injured. It hurts when I move / walk. I’m just ringing to make an appointment for / with...I’d like to confirm my appointment with...Could I have an earlier / later appointment?

When money talks, nobody walks. When the cat’s away, the mice will play. No pain, no gain.

At the Railway Station

Repetitive Proverbs

First or second class? Day return? Two returns to...That’ll be..., please. The train leaves at...from platform... Yes, you have to change at...You’d better hurry up or you’ll miss the train. It’s on time / late. How much is the single / return fare? Is the return fare cheaper than two singles? How much extra is the first class? When does the train for...go? And what time / when does it arrive in / at...? Which platform is it / does it leave from? Excuse me, is that the train to...? Does this train stop at...? Useful words. Booking-office clerk, guard, ticket collector, single / return ticket, day return, (non-)smoker, coach, compartment, buffet car, diner, dining-car, platform, gate, terminus, (air) terminal, season ticket, fare, break of journey.

Some Popular English Proverbs Trouble comes double. A friend in words and not on deeds is like a garden full of weeds. Red sky at night, sailor’s delight; red sky in the morning to sailors a warning. 176

Alliterative Proverbs Live and learn. Where there’s a will there’s a way. All that glistens is not gold. All roads lead to Rome. Look before you leap. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Penny wise, pound foolish. Poor planning makes for poor performance. In for a penny, in for a pound. The more the merrier. Waste not, want not. What gets measured is what gets managed.

First come, first served. You win some, you lose some. There’s no fool like an old fool. A penny saved is a penny earned. All is well that ends well. What’s done is done. The past is past. Don’t get mad, get even. If it’s worth doing, it’s worth doing well. Like father, like son. Nothing ventured, nothing gained. Winners never quit, quitters never win. Plan your work, work your plan. Other Proverbs There’s an exception to every rule. A leopard never changes its spots. 177

You can’t teach an old dog new tricks. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. Rome wasn’t built in a day. Experience is the best teacher. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched. Charity begins at home. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. A new broom sweeps clean. Clothes make the man. Don’t judge a book by its cover. Where there’s a smoke there’s a fire. There’s more than one way to skin a cat. A man’s home is his castle. It’s the early bird that catches the worm. If the shoe fits, wear it. Too many cooks spoil the broth. Two heads are better than one. Many hands make light work. Silence is golden. Children should be seen and not heard. People in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. A rolling stone gathers no moss. Every cloud has a silver lining. Into every life a little rain must fall. It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. Bad luck comes in threes. Lightning never strikes twice in the same place. Once bitten, twice shy. You can’t get blood from a stone. You can’t make a silk purse from a sow’s ear. It’s a poor workman who blames his tools. Money isn’t everything. Honesty is the best policy. When poverty comes in the door, love flies out of the window. Time flies when you’re having a good time. You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink. A watched pot never boils. A change is as good as a rest. 178

One good turn deserves another. Let sleeping dogs lie. There’s no place like home. The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence. You are what you eat. The fruit doesn’t fall far from the tree. He who can, does. He who cannot, teaches. G.B. Shaw. Teacher — The child’s third parent. H.M. Berston. Teacher — The man who can make hard things easy. R.W. Emerson.

179

You can’t teach an old dog new tricks. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. Rome wasn’t built in a day. Experience is the best teacher. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched. Charity begins at home. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. A new broom sweeps clean. Clothes make the man. Don’t judge a book by its cover. Where there’s a smoke there’s a fire. There’s more than one way to skin a cat. A man’s home is his castle. It’s the early bird that catches the worm. If the shoe fits, wear it. Too many cooks spoil the broth. Two heads are better than one. Many hands make light work. Silence is golden. Children should be seen and not heard. People in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. A rolling stone gathers no moss. Every cloud has a silver lining. Into every life a little rain must fall. It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. Bad luck comes in threes. Lightning never strikes twice in the same place. Once bitten, twice shy. You can’t get blood from a stone. You can’t make a silk purse from a sow’s ear. It’s a poor workman who blames his tools. Money isn’t everything. Honesty is the best policy. When poverty comes in the door, love flies out of the window. Time flies when you’re having a good time. You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink. A watched pot never boils. A change is as good as a rest. 178

One good turn deserves another. Let sleeping dogs lie. There’s no place like home. The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence. You are what you eat. The fruit doesn’t fall far from the tree. He who can, does. He who cannot, teaches. G.B. Shaw. Teacher — The child’s third parent. H.M. Berston. Teacher — The man who can make hard things easy. R.W. Emerson.

179

British Navy comprises numerous vessels of various classes, that is, strongly armoured first-class battleshi ps, cruisers, and unprotected shi ps (gunboats, scouts, torpedo-boat destroyers, submarines, etc.). 4 or 5 large vessels form a division, several divisions are a squadron, several squadrons, a fleet.

Some Common Topics

Army and Navy The service in the British army and in that of the United States is voluntary. “Recruiting sergeants” are on the look-out for young men able and willing to join the standing army. Every private (or common soldier) receives his meals free every day along with his daily pay. When he proves a good soldier, he can rise to the rank of sergeantmajor — the highest non-commissioned (or warrant) officer. The commissioned officers, too, are well paid; their ranks are: second lieutenant, lieutenant, captain, major, lieutenant-colonel, colonel, major-general (or brigadier-general), lieutenant-general, general. They are addressed as “Sir.” The direct control of every branch of Army administration is vested in the Army Council of which the Secretary of State for War is President. The modern army is made up of 5 branches, called arms and services, that is, infantry, cavalry, artillery, air force and engineers. Besides these, there are tank corps, medical corps, and transport and supply columns, etc. All these troops are grouped together into army-corps, each composed of several divisions, a division having 2 or more brigades, a brigade consists of 2 or more regiments. A regiment generally consists of several battalions subdivided into companies, squadrons, or batteries (6 guns). The British Army is divided into a field force and a Territorial (or Home) Army, both recruited on the voluntary system. All great powers have a navy. The recruitment is voluntary as in the army, but “Jack (Tar)” (blue-jackets, i.e. seamen, sailors) is more popular than “Tommy (Atkins)” (i.e. the foot soldiers). All ranks are very well paid. On every man-of-war (or warshi p) there are officers, and a crew. The officers are: a captain, a commander, and several lieutenants. The rear-admiral, vice-admiral and admiral of the fleet are called flag-officers. The crew consists of warrant officers, petty officers, AB’s (i.e. able-bodied seamen), ordinary seamen and boys. One sixth of the crew are Royal Marines, i.e. artillery and infantry soldiers in the Navy. The officers are very carefully trained. Before being appointed lieutenants, they must have been naval cadets and midshi pmen. The 180

Useful Phrases To enlist in the Navy, to enter the Army, to be drafted for (into) military service, to enlist in the infantry, to be decorated.

The Human Body Every human being has a head, a trunk and limbs. The head consists of two parts, the scull and the face. The skull is covered with (dark, fair, light, auburn, chestnut, brown, red, grey, white) hair, or it is bald. Many bald-headed persons wear a wig made of false hair. The skull contains the brain. The face consists of the forehead, the eyes, the nose, the ears, the temples, the cheeks, the mouth with the li ps and with the chin.The eye is the organ of sight.Its princi pal part is the eyeball (or apple of the eye) with the pupil. The eye-lids with the eyelashes and the eye-brows serve to protect the eyes. Many people have bad eye-sight and must wear glasses. The nose is the organ of smell. Some people have a long nose, others a short, a pointed, or a Roman nose, others a snub (or a pug) nose. By means of mouth man utters his speech and receives his food. Inside the mouth are 32 teeth (16 in each jaw: incisors and grinders) with which the food is masticated before being swallowed. The tongue and palate, which are the organs of taste, enable us to distinguish the taste of anything put in (to) our mouth. The tongue, palate and uvula are also the most important organs of speech. Some people cannot speak at all; they are dumb (or mute); others are not able to speak clearly, they either lisp or stutter (or stammer). The ear is the organ of hearing. Numerous people are hard of hearing; others have no sense of hearing at all or have lost it by illness; they are deaf. In the face of many people we see a dimple in each cheek, and sometimes in the chin, too. The face of a grown-up man is sometimes ornamented with a beard; others wear only whiskers, a moustache, or an imperial; others again prefer going clean-shaved and therefore shave every (other) day. 181

British Navy comprises numerous vessels of various classes, that is, strongly armoured first-class battleshi ps, cruisers, and unprotected shi ps (gunboats, scouts, torpedo-boat destroyers, submarines, etc.). 4 or 5 large vessels form a division, several divisions are a squadron, several squadrons, a fleet.

Some Common Topics

Army and Navy The service in the British army and in that of the United States is voluntary. “Recruiting sergeants” are on the look-out for young men able and willing to join the standing army. Every private (or common soldier) receives his meals free every day along with his daily pay. When he proves a good soldier, he can rise to the rank of sergeantmajor — the highest non-commissioned (or warrant) officer. The commissioned officers, too, are well paid; their ranks are: second lieutenant, lieutenant, captain, major, lieutenant-colonel, colonel, major-general (or brigadier-general), lieutenant-general, general. They are addressed as “Sir.” The direct control of every branch of Army administration is vested in the Army Council of which the Secretary of State for War is President. The modern army is made up of 5 branches, called arms and services, that is, infantry, cavalry, artillery, air force and engineers. Besides these, there are tank corps, medical corps, and transport and supply columns, etc. All these troops are grouped together into army-corps, each composed of several divisions, a division having 2 or more brigades, a brigade consists of 2 or more regiments. A regiment generally consists of several battalions subdivided into companies, squadrons, or batteries (6 guns). The British Army is divided into a field force and a Territorial (or Home) Army, both recruited on the voluntary system. All great powers have a navy. The recruitment is voluntary as in the army, but “Jack (Tar)” (blue-jackets, i.e. seamen, sailors) is more popular than “Tommy (Atkins)” (i.e. the foot soldiers). All ranks are very well paid. On every man-of-war (or warshi p) there are officers, and a crew. The officers are: a captain, a commander, and several lieutenants. The rear-admiral, vice-admiral and admiral of the fleet are called flag-officers. The crew consists of warrant officers, petty officers, AB’s (i.e. able-bodied seamen), ordinary seamen and boys. One sixth of the crew are Royal Marines, i.e. artillery and infantry soldiers in the Navy. The officers are very carefully trained. Before being appointed lieutenants, they must have been naval cadets and midshi pmen. The 180

Useful Phrases To enlist in the Navy, to enter the Army, to be drafted for (into) military service, to enlist in the infantry, to be decorated.

The Human Body Every human being has a head, a trunk and limbs. The head consists of two parts, the scull and the face. The skull is covered with (dark, fair, light, auburn, chestnut, brown, red, grey, white) hair, or it is bald. Many bald-headed persons wear a wig made of false hair. The skull contains the brain. The face consists of the forehead, the eyes, the nose, the ears, the temples, the cheeks, the mouth with the li ps and with the chin.The eye is the organ of sight.Its princi pal part is the eyeball (or apple of the eye) with the pupil. The eye-lids with the eyelashes and the eye-brows serve to protect the eyes. Many people have bad eye-sight and must wear glasses. The nose is the organ of smell. Some people have a long nose, others a short, a pointed, or a Roman nose, others a snub (or a pug) nose. By means of mouth man utters his speech and receives his food. Inside the mouth are 32 teeth (16 in each jaw: incisors and grinders) with which the food is masticated before being swallowed. The tongue and palate, which are the organs of taste, enable us to distinguish the taste of anything put in (to) our mouth. The tongue, palate and uvula are also the most important organs of speech. Some people cannot speak at all; they are dumb (or mute); others are not able to speak clearly, they either lisp or stutter (or stammer). The ear is the organ of hearing. Numerous people are hard of hearing; others have no sense of hearing at all or have lost it by illness; they are deaf. In the face of many people we see a dimple in each cheek, and sometimes in the chin, too. The face of a grown-up man is sometimes ornamented with a beard; others wear only whiskers, a moustache, or an imperial; others again prefer going clean-shaved and therefore shave every (other) day. 181

The neck connects the head and the trunk. The part of the neck through which the breath passes is the throat, which shows a protuberance known as the “Adam’s Apple”; the back of the neck is the nape. Inside the neck are the windpi pe, communicating with the lungs, and the gullet, or alimentary canal, conveying the food to the stomach. The upper end of the windpi pe is the larynx which contains the vocal cords, the vibration of which produces the voice. On both sides of the neck are the shoulders. The trunk comprises the chest, the back, and the belly. In the chest are the heart and the two lungs. The belly contains the stomach (the receptacle of food and the seat of digestion), the liver, the kidneys, and the bowels (or intestines). The limbs, the two arms and legs are connected with the trunk. Each arm consists of the upper arm, the elbow, the forearm (or lower arm), the wrist, and the hand (called fist, when it is clenched). On each hand we have five fingers, which are the thumb, first finger (or forefinger / index finger), middle finger, third finger, and little finger / pinkie. The finger-ti ps are covered with nails, which are pared from time to time. The parts of each leg are thigh, knee, shin and calf, ankle and foot. Each foot has a heel, an instep, five toes with nails and the sole. We work with our hands, touch with our finger-ti ps, stand, walk, and run on (or with) our feet. When we do not wish anyone to hear us coming, we walk on ti p-toe. The human body is not all flesh or blood. A framework of bones, the skeleton with the spinal column as centre, goes from top to toe, supporting the soft materials, and protecting delicate parts from getting hurt (or injured). The bones are covered with flesh or muscles and a skin upon which short, soft hair grows. Impressions made upon certain organs of the human body are realised (or perceived) by one of the five senses; these are (the senses of) sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch (or feeling).

one’s stomach / behind one’s back), cross one’s arms, put one’s arms across one’s body in order to play with a handbag or bracelet, grasp somebody firmly by the arm, pat somebody on the shoulder, touch somebody lightly on the elbow, touch one’s face, place one’s hand near the mouth or eye, she put her arm through his, she tucked her hand through the crook of his arm, tap the glass with one’s finger, stuff a finger into the ears to drown the noise, the ti p / end of one’s finger, lean one’s elbow on the counter, finger a button, wi pe one’s hands on the towel, wi pe one’s face with a towel, wi pe one’s hand against the side of one’s overall, raise oneself up to a sitting position, stack pillows against the wall at the head of a couch and to sit against them, prop pillows behind one’s back, settle back against the pillows, rise on one elbow, prop oneself upon one’s elbows, lean one’s head against the seat, click the arm-switch so that seat reclines, tug one’s legs beneath a table, tuck one’s hands between his / her crossed legs, stretch one’s legs, take up much space sitting down, sit on a sofa with one’s arms stretched along the back of it, she curved her legs underneath her, with one leg crossed over the other, with the knees folded one over the other, set one’s leg across the other, get / rise to one’s feet, stamp one’s feet, move the weight of the body from one foot to the other, lean against the wall, rock back and forth, heel to toe, start / leap / spring to one’s feet, help one to one’s feet, set one on one’s feet, stretch out on the bed, lie on one’s side with one arm under the head, with feet out-turned, lean upon the walking-stick, to ti ptoe, quicken one’s steps, elbow one’s way, recognize the walk, each physical action was full of ease and grace, his motions were tight and restricted, pace the floor. Some proverbs. Many hands make light work. Better to sli p with the foot than with tongue. Keep your fingers crossed. His fingers are all thumbs. Put not your hand between the bark and the tree.

Callings Useful Phrases Do many motions with one’s hands, sling the coat over one’s arm, raise a hand for silence, bump one’s elbow, shade one’s eyes with the palm of the hand, slam / bang one’s fist down upon the table, the flat / palm / back of the hand, slap somebody against his / her cheeks, clench one’s hands into cheeks, rub one’s hands with satisfaction, stroke one’s moustache, fold one’s arms (across one’s chest / over

The vast majority of people have to follow a certain calling, occupation, or employment, in order to make their living. There are brain-workers of various kinds (lawyers, teachers, etc.), manufacturers and merchants, mechanics (requiring technical knowledge), and factory-hands (or workmen in factories, mills, etc.). And then, in the various institutions, there are numbers of officials, high and low. Lastly there is the destitute and criminal class (beggars, tramps, gaol-birds, etc.).

182

183

The neck connects the head and the trunk. The part of the neck through which the breath passes is the throat, which shows a protuberance known as the “Adam’s Apple”; the back of the neck is the nape. Inside the neck are the windpi pe, communicating with the lungs, and the gullet, or alimentary canal, conveying the food to the stomach. The upper end of the windpi pe is the larynx which contains the vocal cords, the vibration of which produces the voice. On both sides of the neck are the shoulders. The trunk comprises the chest, the back, and the belly. In the chest are the heart and the two lungs. The belly contains the stomach (the receptacle of food and the seat of digestion), the liver, the kidneys, and the bowels (or intestines). The limbs, the two arms and legs are connected with the trunk. Each arm consists of the upper arm, the elbow, the forearm (or lower arm), the wrist, and the hand (called fist, when it is clenched). On each hand we have five fingers, which are the thumb, first finger (or forefinger / index finger), middle finger, third finger, and little finger / pinkie. The finger-ti ps are covered with nails, which are pared from time to time. The parts of each leg are thigh, knee, shin and calf, ankle and foot. Each foot has a heel, an instep, five toes with nails and the sole. We work with our hands, touch with our finger-ti ps, stand, walk, and run on (or with) our feet. When we do not wish anyone to hear us coming, we walk on ti p-toe. The human body is not all flesh or blood. A framework of bones, the skeleton with the spinal column as centre, goes from top to toe, supporting the soft materials, and protecting delicate parts from getting hurt (or injured). The bones are covered with flesh or muscles and a skin upon which short, soft hair grows. Impressions made upon certain organs of the human body are realised (or perceived) by one of the five senses; these are (the senses of) sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch (or feeling).

one’s stomach / behind one’s back), cross one’s arms, put one’s arms across one’s body in order to play with a handbag or bracelet, grasp somebody firmly by the arm, pat somebody on the shoulder, touch somebody lightly on the elbow, touch one’s face, place one’s hand near the mouth or eye, she put her arm through his, she tucked her hand through the crook of his arm, tap the glass with one’s finger, stuff a finger into the ears to drown the noise, the ti p / end of one’s finger, lean one’s elbow on the counter, finger a button, wi pe one’s hands on the towel, wi pe one’s face with a towel, wi pe one’s hand against the side of one’s overall, raise oneself up to a sitting position, stack pillows against the wall at the head of a couch and to sit against them, prop pillows behind one’s back, settle back against the pillows, rise on one elbow, prop oneself upon one’s elbows, lean one’s head against the seat, click the arm-switch so that seat reclines, tug one’s legs beneath a table, tuck one’s hands between his / her crossed legs, stretch one’s legs, take up much space sitting down, sit on a sofa with one’s arms stretched along the back of it, she curved her legs underneath her, with one leg crossed over the other, with the knees folded one over the other, set one’s leg across the other, get / rise to one’s feet, stamp one’s feet, move the weight of the body from one foot to the other, lean against the wall, rock back and forth, heel to toe, start / leap / spring to one’s feet, help one to one’s feet, set one on one’s feet, stretch out on the bed, lie on one’s side with one arm under the head, with feet out-turned, lean upon the walking-stick, to ti ptoe, quicken one’s steps, elbow one’s way, recognize the walk, each physical action was full of ease and grace, his motions were tight and restricted, pace the floor. Some proverbs. Many hands make light work. Better to sli p with the foot than with tongue. Keep your fingers crossed. His fingers are all thumbs. Put not your hand between the bark and the tree.

Callings Useful Phrases Do many motions with one’s hands, sling the coat over one’s arm, raise a hand for silence, bump one’s elbow, shade one’s eyes with the palm of the hand, slam / bang one’s fist down upon the table, the flat / palm / back of the hand, slap somebody against his / her cheeks, clench one’s hands into cheeks, rub one’s hands with satisfaction, stroke one’s moustache, fold one’s arms (across one’s chest / over

The vast majority of people have to follow a certain calling, occupation, or employment, in order to make their living. There are brain-workers of various kinds (lawyers, teachers, etc.), manufacturers and merchants, mechanics (requiring technical knowledge), and factory-hands (or workmen in factories, mills, etc.). And then, in the various institutions, there are numbers of officials, high and low. Lastly there is the destitute and criminal class (beggars, tramps, gaol-birds, etc.).

182

183

Among this large number of callings, several may be classed under two special heads: they are either “professions”, or “trades.” The learned professions include (wo)men who have gone in for a regular training to fit them for their special work. Clergymen, lawyers, medical men, pharmaceutical chemists, school-masters and professors, civil engineers and architects, airmen, artist(e)s and actors — all these are “professional men.” Officers in the Army or Navy belong to the “profession of arms.” Those who, from a humble origin, and without going through a regular course of preparation, have made their mark and “their pile” in a profession or in a trade, are called “self-made men.” The trades include all industrial, mechanical, and commercial occupations. The various branches of industry are carried on in mines, factories, mills, and similar establishments. The manufacturer as a rule has machines to do the greater part of the work. These machines are set in motion by steam, electricity, gas, wind or water. Workmen (or hands) attend to the machines. The manufacturer pays his hands (or workmen) their wages every week. Mechanics make various articles in workshops. They use tools for their work; some work is done by machinery. The employees are journeymen (workmen paid by the day) and apprentices. Some mechanics have their own shop, and sell their articles to their customers. Tradesmen engaging in the various branches of manual work are e.g.: the tailor, the carpenter, the bricklayer, the mason, the painter, the plumber, the cobbler, the printer, etc. Publishers, photographers, bankers, agents, and brokers who do commercial business for others, undertakers and many besides who engage in business of any kind, are also said to be “in trade”. There are a lot of persons who cannot be assigned to one of the above groups, e.g., the officials of Government departments, Corporations, limited companies, etc., such as custom-house officials, post-office clerks, railway servants, policemen, city clerks, domestic servants, and others. When workers are not satisfied with their earnings (or wages), they (go out on) strike. Those who decline to join in a strike are called “blacklegs.” As a rule strikers after some time take their work up again, sometimes on the old conditions. What you do to earn your living is your job (countable noun), your work (uncountable noun), or (more formal) your occupation. Post and position are more formal words for a particular job. A trade is a skilled job in which you use your hands. A profession is a job such as

that of doctor or lawyer, for which you need special training and a good education. Some professions, such as teaching and nursing, are also called vocations, which suggests that people do them in order to help others. A career is a job that you hope to do all your life, with more and more success. Pay is a general word for the money you receive for work, but income means any money you receive regularly, whether from work or from rents, etc. A salary is paid monthly into the bank (especially to professional people) and wages are paid weekly in cash (especially to people who work with their hands). Money paid for certain professional services (e.g. to a lawyer) is a fee. In the end countries live and die according to their comparative advantage. Comparative advantage means that there is something for which others will pay a price, be it in oil and minerals, cheap labour, golden sun or brains. For Britain and the rest of industrialized world it has, increasingly, to be brains. Clever people making clever things or providing clever services add value, sometimes lots of value, to minimal amounts of raw material. Organizations making or doing clever things spend much of their time handling information in all sorts of forms. The typical activities of our time are: teaching, research, office work, public service, communications, the media, films, creative arts and architecture, theatre, photography, post and telecommunications, book publishing, printing, banking, real estate, administration, museums and television, law, psychiatry and psychology, social work, management, advertising, church, science, trade unions, parliament. We could add to it: stockbroking, consultancy, journalism, conference organizing, secretarial work, medicine, politics and local government. In future, what will change is the length of workers’ job life. To get one of those increasingly rare jobs in the core or the professions (less than half of all jobs by 2000) they will need to be both well-qualified and experienced. In Germany today, a six or seven-year university course is piled on top of 18 months of military or community service so that the average entrant into the job market is 27 years of age. In the USA, a postgraduate qualification of some sort, after a four-year degree, is increasingly becoming a prerequisite of a good job, making 24 the normal starting age in a proper job. Britain still has three-year degree course (except in Scotland) and no military service, but employers increasingly look for further qualifications of a more vocational or professional nature and for relevant experience in vocations or “gap” years. It has, after all, been the established practice in the older professions of

184

185

Among this large number of callings, several may be classed under two special heads: they are either “professions”, or “trades.” The learned professions include (wo)men who have gone in for a regular training to fit them for their special work. Clergymen, lawyers, medical men, pharmaceutical chemists, school-masters and professors, civil engineers and architects, airmen, artist(e)s and actors — all these are “professional men.” Officers in the Army or Navy belong to the “profession of arms.” Those who, from a humble origin, and without going through a regular course of preparation, have made their mark and “their pile” in a profession or in a trade, are called “self-made men.” The trades include all industrial, mechanical, and commercial occupations. The various branches of industry are carried on in mines, factories, mills, and similar establishments. The manufacturer as a rule has machines to do the greater part of the work. These machines are set in motion by steam, electricity, gas, wind or water. Workmen (or hands) attend to the machines. The manufacturer pays his hands (or workmen) their wages every week. Mechanics make various articles in workshops. They use tools for their work; some work is done by machinery. The employees are journeymen (workmen paid by the day) and apprentices. Some mechanics have their own shop, and sell their articles to their customers. Tradesmen engaging in the various branches of manual work are e.g.: the tailor, the carpenter, the bricklayer, the mason, the painter, the plumber, the cobbler, the printer, etc. Publishers, photographers, bankers, agents, and brokers who do commercial business for others, undertakers and many besides who engage in business of any kind, are also said to be “in trade”. There are a lot of persons who cannot be assigned to one of the above groups, e.g., the officials of Government departments, Corporations, limited companies, etc., such as custom-house officials, post-office clerks, railway servants, policemen, city clerks, domestic servants, and others. When workers are not satisfied with their earnings (or wages), they (go out on) strike. Those who decline to join in a strike are called “blacklegs.” As a rule strikers after some time take their work up again, sometimes on the old conditions. What you do to earn your living is your job (countable noun), your work (uncountable noun), or (more formal) your occupation. Post and position are more formal words for a particular job. A trade is a skilled job in which you use your hands. A profession is a job such as

that of doctor or lawyer, for which you need special training and a good education. Some professions, such as teaching and nursing, are also called vocations, which suggests that people do them in order to help others. A career is a job that you hope to do all your life, with more and more success. Pay is a general word for the money you receive for work, but income means any money you receive regularly, whether from work or from rents, etc. A salary is paid monthly into the bank (especially to professional people) and wages are paid weekly in cash (especially to people who work with their hands). Money paid for certain professional services (e.g. to a lawyer) is a fee. In the end countries live and die according to their comparative advantage. Comparative advantage means that there is something for which others will pay a price, be it in oil and minerals, cheap labour, golden sun or brains. For Britain and the rest of industrialized world it has, increasingly, to be brains. Clever people making clever things or providing clever services add value, sometimes lots of value, to minimal amounts of raw material. Organizations making or doing clever things spend much of their time handling information in all sorts of forms. The typical activities of our time are: teaching, research, office work, public service, communications, the media, films, creative arts and architecture, theatre, photography, post and telecommunications, book publishing, printing, banking, real estate, administration, museums and television, law, psychiatry and psychology, social work, management, advertising, church, science, trade unions, parliament. We could add to it: stockbroking, consultancy, journalism, conference organizing, secretarial work, medicine, politics and local government. In future, what will change is the length of workers’ job life. To get one of those increasingly rare jobs in the core or the professions (less than half of all jobs by 2000) they will need to be both well-qualified and experienced. In Germany today, a six or seven-year university course is piled on top of 18 months of military or community service so that the average entrant into the job market is 27 years of age. In the USA, a postgraduate qualification of some sort, after a four-year degree, is increasingly becoming a prerequisite of a good job, making 24 the normal starting age in a proper job. Britain still has three-year degree course (except in Scotland) and no military service, but employers increasingly look for further qualifications of a more vocational or professional nature and for relevant experience in vocations or “gap” years. It has, after all, been the established practice in the older professions of

184

185

medicine, architecture and the law for centuries — a long (sevenyear) mix of education, experience and vocational training. We can expect to see it extend to many other occupations, with the result that British parents must increasingly expect to wait until the offspring are 24 or 25 before they are established in a full-time job, if that is what they want. The next generation of full-time core workers, therefore, be they professionals, managers, technicians or skilled workers, can expect to start their full-time careers later and to leave them earlier. They will leave full-time employment in their late forties or early fifties, partly because they no longer want the pressure that such jobs will increasingly entail, but mainly because there will be younger more qualified and more energetic people available for these core jobs. It will be a shorter life but a more furious one for the full-timers, as the new professionals in business are already discovering. In 1988 the Henley Forecasting Centre in Britain surveyed the attitudes to work of 2000 people. They asked them to give a percentage ranking to what they found the most important aspect of their work. The list came out like this:

hands, take things apart, hammer a nail, hang a picture up, drive a nail into the wall, pin a note, Scotch-tape a notice to the wall, thumb-tack a photo to the door, sew on a button, poke the thread at the needleeye, be a great knitter, a place hunter, a job jumper, shirk work, work by fits and starts. Some proverbs. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. As is the workman so is the work. A woman’s work is never done. Soon learnt, soon forgotten. Little knowledge is a dangerous thing. The busiest man finds the most leisure.

Education

Help Wanted advertisements, applicants, application, employer, promotion, interview, employment, salary, experience, unemployed, post, employees training, personal career, truancy, do a secretarial work, take a shorthand, be suited for teaching as a career, work hard, part-time / full-time job, be on piece-work, make a career, be offered a post as assistant lecturer, have shift work, receive compensatory time for one’s overtime, to retire, have vacancies for full-time staff, be straight from school, a part-timer, need references, curriculum vitae / resume, to teach the first grade, attend classes in tapestry work, do courses in dressmaking, learn shorthand at home as an external student, have skill in one’s work, to be irreplaceable, be a man of great skill, waste one’s gifts, to be suited for the profession of law, to be a born politician, to be given to all kinds of interests, be very good with one’s

English education (primary, secondary and higher, not including that of the Universities) is fully organized, and under some government control. The central authority is the Board of Education. There are, besides, staffs of inspectors for primary and for secondary education, in addition to the other officials required for the purpose of administration. The local education authority is the Council of every county or of every county borough. Now education in Britain is provided by the Local Education Authority (LEA) in each county. It is financed partly by the government and partly by local taxes. Education is compulsory, and no fees are paid in the elementary schools. There are two subjects which must be taught in every state or stateaided school: these are religious knowledge and physical education. In the primary schools, where the children start at the age of five years, the first two years are mainly taken up with learning to read, write and do some arithmetic. As you know, English is not as simple to read and spell as Russian. In addition, the children draw, paint, model, act and sing. The princi pal subjects taught are the three R’s: Reading, writing, arithmetic. Arrangements are made for instruction in religious knowledge, English grammar, history, geography, natural history (nature study), drawing, manual instruction (handicraft or mechanical work done by hand), singing, physical training. Some of these subjects are optional. Usually the teacher does not have too rigid a timetable and can arrange the lessons to suit himself / herself. There are seven forms (classes, standards). Most children attend school from the age of five to fourteen every day except Saturday and Sunday. The school hours as a rule are from 9 to 12, and from 1:30 to 4. There are also infant schools and kindergartens (or nursery schools) for children from 3 to 6 years of age.

186

187

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

having control over what to do using knowledge and experience to make decisions having a variety of things to do amount you earn being with and making friends doing a job that you know people respect

50% 50% 39% 35% 21% 19%

Useful Phrases

medicine, architecture and the law for centuries — a long (sevenyear) mix of education, experience and vocational training. We can expect to see it extend to many other occupations, with the result that British parents must increasingly expect to wait until the offspring are 24 or 25 before they are established in a full-time job, if that is what they want. The next generation of full-time core workers, therefore, be they professionals, managers, technicians or skilled workers, can expect to start their full-time careers later and to leave them earlier. They will leave full-time employment in their late forties or early fifties, partly because they no longer want the pressure that such jobs will increasingly entail, but mainly because there will be younger more qualified and more energetic people available for these core jobs. It will be a shorter life but a more furious one for the full-timers, as the new professionals in business are already discovering. In 1988 the Henley Forecasting Centre in Britain surveyed the attitudes to work of 2000 people. They asked them to give a percentage ranking to what they found the most important aspect of their work. The list came out like this:

hands, take things apart, hammer a nail, hang a picture up, drive a nail into the wall, pin a note, Scotch-tape a notice to the wall, thumb-tack a photo to the door, sew on a button, poke the thread at the needleeye, be a great knitter, a place hunter, a job jumper, shirk work, work by fits and starts. Some proverbs. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. As is the workman so is the work. A woman’s work is never done. Soon learnt, soon forgotten. Little knowledge is a dangerous thing. The busiest man finds the most leisure.

Education

Help Wanted advertisements, applicants, application, employer, promotion, interview, employment, salary, experience, unemployed, post, employees training, personal career, truancy, do a secretarial work, take a shorthand, be suited for teaching as a career, work hard, part-time / full-time job, be on piece-work, make a career, be offered a post as assistant lecturer, have shift work, receive compensatory time for one’s overtime, to retire, have vacancies for full-time staff, be straight from school, a part-timer, need references, curriculum vitae / resume, to teach the first grade, attend classes in tapestry work, do courses in dressmaking, learn shorthand at home as an external student, have skill in one’s work, to be irreplaceable, be a man of great skill, waste one’s gifts, to be suited for the profession of law, to be a born politician, to be given to all kinds of interests, be very good with one’s

English education (primary, secondary and higher, not including that of the Universities) is fully organized, and under some government control. The central authority is the Board of Education. There are, besides, staffs of inspectors for primary and for secondary education, in addition to the other officials required for the purpose of administration. The local education authority is the Council of every county or of every county borough. Now education in Britain is provided by the Local Education Authority (LEA) in each county. It is financed partly by the government and partly by local taxes. Education is compulsory, and no fees are paid in the elementary schools. There are two subjects which must be taught in every state or stateaided school: these are religious knowledge and physical education. In the primary schools, where the children start at the age of five years, the first two years are mainly taken up with learning to read, write and do some arithmetic. As you know, English is not as simple to read and spell as Russian. In addition, the children draw, paint, model, act and sing. The princi pal subjects taught are the three R’s: Reading, writing, arithmetic. Arrangements are made for instruction in religious knowledge, English grammar, history, geography, natural history (nature study), drawing, manual instruction (handicraft or mechanical work done by hand), singing, physical training. Some of these subjects are optional. Usually the teacher does not have too rigid a timetable and can arrange the lessons to suit himself / herself. There are seven forms (classes, standards). Most children attend school from the age of five to fourteen every day except Saturday and Sunday. The school hours as a rule are from 9 to 12, and from 1:30 to 4. There are also infant schools and kindergartens (or nursery schools) for children from 3 to 6 years of age.

186

187

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

having control over what to do using knowledge and experience to make decisions having a variety of things to do amount you earn being with and making friends doing a job that you know people respect

50% 50% 39% 35% 21% 19%

Useful Phrases

At the age of 10 (in former times), children in the top class of the primary school take an examination so as to choose what type of secondary education they will go. This examination at that time dominates the curriculum of the primary school and forces it to put too much emphasis on the “three R’s.” The 20 to 25 per cent of children receiving the highest marks in this examination can go to one type of secondary school — the grammar school, where the courses lead to the university and prepare the pupils for all the necessary examinations. Most of the rest of the children must go to other types of secondary schools, most of which do not have courses beyond the age 15. Technical schools (or colleges) and commercial schools have been organized in the large towns in order to enable the coming generations to cope with the keen competition of other nations in the markets of the world. The English Secondary Schools (Grammar, County and Munici pal Schools) are managed by a special committee or board of governors. In all grammar schools the curriculum includes, besides religious knowledge and physical education, the sciences, mathematics, a foreign language or even two, Latin, history, geography, English language and literature, domestic science, woodwork, metalwork, art, music, and maybe others. The pupils do not necessarily take all these all the time, and they usually begin to specialize at the age of 13, dropping some subjects and taking up others. Private schools, that is, schools conducted for private profit (there are about 500 of them in England and Wales), still exist but are decreasing in number. Most of these schools are boarding schools, they receive boarders (or regular pupils) who have full board, i.e. board and lodging, at the establishment. Schools attended by (non-resident) “day-boys” are termed “Day Schools”. In secondary schools games (or sports) receive great attention. The nine so-called Great(er) Public Schools, like Eaton college, Harrow school, etc. which are independent of external control, have a particularly good reputation. All of them can boast of “Old Boys” (e.g. old Etonians, old Harrovians) who have become famous in the different vocations of life. The pupils are for the most part sons of aristocracy and gentry. Classics (Latin and Greek) and modern languages (French, German), mathematics (geometry, trigonometry and algebra), natural science, Bible, English history, and geography are the main subjects at secondary schools. Most secondary schools have two sides, a classical and a modern

side. In the modern or commercial side, less attention is paid to classics, and more importance is attached to chemistry, modern languages and mathematics. There are six forms (grades, classes).The school year lasts from autumn to midsummer and is divided into three terms. At the end of every term each pupil gets a report (written account of the progress made). Before the beginning of the holidays, there is a Speech Day and Prize Distribution. In the ordinary secondary schools inspections are regularly made by government inspectors. Surprise visits are paid from time to time to test the quality of the instruction given. The normal school day in Britain is from 9 o’clock to half past three. Pupils must stay at school all the time. The day starts with registration. The class teachers check who is at school and who is absent. Then, there is assembly. All the pupils come together for a religious service. The headmaster or headmistress reads out any important notices. Lessons begin after assembly. At lunchtime some pupils go home for lunch, but most pupils have their lunch at school. The afternoon begins with registration again. School finishes at half past three. Pupils don’t go to school on Saturday or Sunday. Before being admitted into one of the colleges, the candidate, except those who have obtained scholarshi ps, has to pass an entrance examination. After being admitted, the freshman (fresher) can matriculate, i.e. become a member of the University. The college (or academic) year practically doesn’t last more than six months, seeing that most students are for the summer months partly absorbed in sports and in being examined for their degrees, partly in their vacations, which comprehend altogether about 20 weeks yearly (three or four weeks at Christmas, two or three weeks at Easter, and fourteen weeks during Midsummer (July till October) — the so-called “Long” (vacations). The degree of B.A. (Bachelor of Arts), which is the ordinary English University degree, cannot be taken in less than three years. The instruction is mainly given by the college tutors and lecturers and by university professors and readers. Many students receive private tuition or take a “coach.” The second degree, that of M.A. (Master of Arts) is mostly conferred without an examination, on all Bachelors of Arts who have had their names on the books for a certain number of terms since their matriculation, and have paid certain fees. There are three basic levels in the US educational system — elementary school, which usually goes from kindergarten to sixth grade; junior high school from seventh through eighth or ninth grade; and senior

188

189

At the age of 10 (in former times), children in the top class of the primary school take an examination so as to choose what type of secondary education they will go. This examination at that time dominates the curriculum of the primary school and forces it to put too much emphasis on the “three R’s.” The 20 to 25 per cent of children receiving the highest marks in this examination can go to one type of secondary school — the grammar school, where the courses lead to the university and prepare the pupils for all the necessary examinations. Most of the rest of the children must go to other types of secondary schools, most of which do not have courses beyond the age 15. Technical schools (or colleges) and commercial schools have been organized in the large towns in order to enable the coming generations to cope with the keen competition of other nations in the markets of the world. The English Secondary Schools (Grammar, County and Munici pal Schools) are managed by a special committee or board of governors. In all grammar schools the curriculum includes, besides religious knowledge and physical education, the sciences, mathematics, a foreign language or even two, Latin, history, geography, English language and literature, domestic science, woodwork, metalwork, art, music, and maybe others. The pupils do not necessarily take all these all the time, and they usually begin to specialize at the age of 13, dropping some subjects and taking up others. Private schools, that is, schools conducted for private profit (there are about 500 of them in England and Wales), still exist but are decreasing in number. Most of these schools are boarding schools, they receive boarders (or regular pupils) who have full board, i.e. board and lodging, at the establishment. Schools attended by (non-resident) “day-boys” are termed “Day Schools”. In secondary schools games (or sports) receive great attention. The nine so-called Great(er) Public Schools, like Eaton college, Harrow school, etc. which are independent of external control, have a particularly good reputation. All of them can boast of “Old Boys” (e.g. old Etonians, old Harrovians) who have become famous in the different vocations of life. The pupils are for the most part sons of aristocracy and gentry. Classics (Latin and Greek) and modern languages (French, German), mathematics (geometry, trigonometry and algebra), natural science, Bible, English history, and geography are the main subjects at secondary schools. Most secondary schools have two sides, a classical and a modern

side. In the modern or commercial side, less attention is paid to classics, and more importance is attached to chemistry, modern languages and mathematics. There are six forms (grades, classes).The school year lasts from autumn to midsummer and is divided into three terms. At the end of every term each pupil gets a report (written account of the progress made). Before the beginning of the holidays, there is a Speech Day and Prize Distribution. In the ordinary secondary schools inspections are regularly made by government inspectors. Surprise visits are paid from time to time to test the quality of the instruction given. The normal school day in Britain is from 9 o’clock to half past three. Pupils must stay at school all the time. The day starts with registration. The class teachers check who is at school and who is absent. Then, there is assembly. All the pupils come together for a religious service. The headmaster or headmistress reads out any important notices. Lessons begin after assembly. At lunchtime some pupils go home for lunch, but most pupils have their lunch at school. The afternoon begins with registration again. School finishes at half past three. Pupils don’t go to school on Saturday or Sunday. Before being admitted into one of the colleges, the candidate, except those who have obtained scholarshi ps, has to pass an entrance examination. After being admitted, the freshman (fresher) can matriculate, i.e. become a member of the University. The college (or academic) year practically doesn’t last more than six months, seeing that most students are for the summer months partly absorbed in sports and in being examined for their degrees, partly in their vacations, which comprehend altogether about 20 weeks yearly (three or four weeks at Christmas, two or three weeks at Easter, and fourteen weeks during Midsummer (July till October) — the so-called “Long” (vacations). The degree of B.A. (Bachelor of Arts), which is the ordinary English University degree, cannot be taken in less than three years. The instruction is mainly given by the college tutors and lecturers and by university professors and readers. Many students receive private tuition or take a “coach.” The second degree, that of M.A. (Master of Arts) is mostly conferred without an examination, on all Bachelors of Arts who have had their names on the books for a certain number of terms since their matriculation, and have paid certain fees. There are three basic levels in the US educational system — elementary school, which usually goes from kindergarten to sixth grade; junior high school from seventh through eighth or ninth grade; and senior

188

189

high school from ninth or tenth through twelfth grade. About 90 per cent of all the children attend public schools, which are free. The remaining 10 per cent go to the private schools. About half of all private schools are Catholic. In the US education is mainly the responsibility of state and local governments. After finishing high school many students go to community colleges (or junior colleges), which offer two-year programs. They are public schools and the tuition costs are usually low. Colleges and universities have four-year programs leading to a bachelor’s degree. These schools may be public or private. In the US more than 20 per cent of all adults have finished college, and more than 75 per cent have finished high school. In neighboring Canada only 10 per cent have a university degree. And only 60 per cent of all adults have enough reading and numerical skills to get them through an ordinary day there. Learning is increasingly accepted as meaning something more than acquiring knowledge. Capability, competence and social skills are rewarded and recorded in many schools. In Britain many schools use individual Records of Achievements to recognize different forms of success and different types of intelligence. In America, in similar vein, young people are encouraged to see their schooldays as an opportunity to start compiling theirs “bios”, their lists of accomplishments both inside and outside the classroom. In that world, self-confidence, a saleable skill or talent and an ability to cope with life and to communicate are critical. Success, of some sort, needs to be part of everyone’s early experience. A free society, and a rich society in comparative terms, ought to be able to guarantee its people enough money to pay for the food, clothes and heating, as well as the free education and free health care, which it already gives them. A study by McKinsley’s Amsterdam office in 1986 estimated that 70 per cent of all jobs in Europe in the year 2000 would require cerebral skills rather than manual skills. In the USA the figure is expected to be 80 per cent. That would be a complete reversal of the world of work some fifty years earlier. In spite of these trends the percentage of young people in Europe going on to higher education is currently around 20 per cent. Only Japan, the USA, Taiwan and South Korea seem to have university populations of the right size for the future and in all these countries there are concerns about the quality if not the quantity of what is called higher education. 190

Useful Expressions Compare teach, instruct, train, and coach. Teach is the general word for helping a person or group of people to learn something. If you instruct (rather formal) a person or group of people you pass on knowledge to them, but you cannot be sure that they have learned anything. You can train a person or group of people up to a necessary level in a particular skill or profession, and you can even train an animal. You can coach a person or group of people, often outside the ordinary educational system and often for a particular examination which they find difficult and which they must pass. Put / send somebody to school, check with the tutor about the pupil, call the roll, show attendance in the register, have a lame / poor excuse for one’s absence, cut classes, no prompting, collect the copybooks, hand in the papers, a lesson in algebra, be teamed up into groups of three, rough / clean copy-book, tell from memory, check up the exercise, do sums, seek admission to / want to enroll in (the institute), be refused admission, take up a post-graduate course, take notes of the lecture, finish / leave school, school-leaver, hand over your crib, have no head for (maths, etc), be a backward pupil, compulsory subject, marks, reports, fees, exams, grants, lectures, disci pline, boarding school, term. Seasons and Weather There are four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter, each of which lasts about three months. The pleasantest season in Europe is the spring from March to June. In May the weather is finest, and all nature is loveliest. The trees put forth little buds and new leaves; the meadows grow green again; the flowers begin to bloom. The farmer tills the soil, and sows the seed. Most birds come back to us from the South, build their nests, lay and hatch their eggs and bring up their young ones, all the while singing their merry songs. Meanwhile the new crop is shooting (up) and the cornfields are made bright by blue cornflowers and red poppies. By the end of June, the weather becomes considerably warmer; (the) summer has come. Sometimes it is very close, and the heat almost unbearable; then a thunderstorm usually brings relief. Dark clouds gather in the sky; it lightens and thunders, and the rain falls shortly after. A heavy downpour or a hailstorm makes the air cool down very quickly. 191

high school from ninth or tenth through twelfth grade. About 90 per cent of all the children attend public schools, which are free. The remaining 10 per cent go to the private schools. About half of all private schools are Catholic. In the US education is mainly the responsibility of state and local governments. After finishing high school many students go to community colleges (or junior colleges), which offer two-year programs. They are public schools and the tuition costs are usually low. Colleges and universities have four-year programs leading to a bachelor’s degree. These schools may be public or private. In the US more than 20 per cent of all adults have finished college, and more than 75 per cent have finished high school. In neighboring Canada only 10 per cent have a university degree. And only 60 per cent of all adults have enough reading and numerical skills to get them through an ordinary day there. Learning is increasingly accepted as meaning something more than acquiring knowledge. Capability, competence and social skills are rewarded and recorded in many schools. In Britain many schools use individual Records of Achievements to recognize different forms of success and different types of intelligence. In America, in similar vein, young people are encouraged to see their schooldays as an opportunity to start compiling theirs “bios”, their lists of accomplishments both inside and outside the classroom. In that world, self-confidence, a saleable skill or talent and an ability to cope with life and to communicate are critical. Success, of some sort, needs to be part of everyone’s early experience. A free society, and a rich society in comparative terms, ought to be able to guarantee its people enough money to pay for the food, clothes and heating, as well as the free education and free health care, which it already gives them. A study by McKinsley’s Amsterdam office in 1986 estimated that 70 per cent of all jobs in Europe in the year 2000 would require cerebral skills rather than manual skills. In the USA the figure is expected to be 80 per cent. That would be a complete reversal of the world of work some fifty years earlier. In spite of these trends the percentage of young people in Europe going on to higher education is currently around 20 per cent. Only Japan, the USA, Taiwan and South Korea seem to have university populations of the right size for the future and in all these countries there are concerns about the quality if not the quantity of what is called higher education. 190

Useful Expressions Compare teach, instruct, train, and coach. Teach is the general word for helping a person or group of people to learn something. If you instruct (rather formal) a person or group of people you pass on knowledge to them, but you cannot be sure that they have learned anything. You can train a person or group of people up to a necessary level in a particular skill or profession, and you can even train an animal. You can coach a person or group of people, often outside the ordinary educational system and often for a particular examination which they find difficult and which they must pass. Put / send somebody to school, check with the tutor about the pupil, call the roll, show attendance in the register, have a lame / poor excuse for one’s absence, cut classes, no prompting, collect the copybooks, hand in the papers, a lesson in algebra, be teamed up into groups of three, rough / clean copy-book, tell from memory, check up the exercise, do sums, seek admission to / want to enroll in (the institute), be refused admission, take up a post-graduate course, take notes of the lecture, finish / leave school, school-leaver, hand over your crib, have no head for (maths, etc), be a backward pupil, compulsory subject, marks, reports, fees, exams, grants, lectures, disci pline, boarding school, term. Seasons and Weather There are four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter, each of which lasts about three months. The pleasantest season in Europe is the spring from March to June. In May the weather is finest, and all nature is loveliest. The trees put forth little buds and new leaves; the meadows grow green again; the flowers begin to bloom. The farmer tills the soil, and sows the seed. Most birds come back to us from the South, build their nests, lay and hatch their eggs and bring up their young ones, all the while singing their merry songs. Meanwhile the new crop is shooting (up) and the cornfields are made bright by blue cornflowers and red poppies. By the end of June, the weather becomes considerably warmer; (the) summer has come. Sometimes it is very close, and the heat almost unbearable; then a thunderstorm usually brings relief. Dark clouds gather in the sky; it lightens and thunders, and the rain falls shortly after. A heavy downpour or a hailstorm makes the air cool down very quickly. 191

The hot sun ri pens the corn and fruit,and the farmer gets ready for the harvest. In summer, the sun rises very early, and sets late in the evening. In September, Autumn begins. The days gradually become shorter and the nights longer. The weather is cooler than in summer, and by and by the leaves change colour and fall off. Apples, pears, walnuts and grapes are now ri pe,and may be picked up.The farmer gathers in the fruits of the season, the sportsman gets his gun ready, and goes out shooting. When autumn is over, winter sets in. This is the season of snow storms and of ice. During the winter there is plenty of snow. When it snows hard, and the snow doesn’t melt, the roads are fit for sledging. In snow weather, tobogganing is a favourite pastime. Children also make snowmen, play at snowballing, throwing snow-balls at each other. In winter we keep up a good fire, and put on warm woollen clothes. In England there is a fifth “season”, which is the finest of all from a social point of view. This is the London season (May, June, and July) when the theatres and music-halls are in full swing; the best artists (actors, actresses, musicians, singers, and dancers) are performing there. Garden parties and picnics are very popular and so are rivertri ps. The princi pal horse-races and cricket-matches take place, Parliament is sitting, etc. In other words all of London beauty, wealth and splendour is on show. After the “London Season” comes the “silly season” with the “dog-days” (July 3 — August 11); then most people leave for the seaside or abroad. The British Isles have a more uniform climate than has Central Europe. The climate is cool, mild and humid. The winters are not so cold and the summers not so hot. Rainfall is more or less even throughout the year and it seldom snows heavily in winter. The weather is so changeable that the English often say that they have no climate but only weather. The English are very fond of speaking about the weather. “Nice day, Sir”, “Dull morning, isn’t it?” and similar phrases are the usual remarks with which a shopkeeper receives his customers.

etc. It looks like rain, snow, etc. It’s going to freeze, thaw, snow, etc. We are going to have some more rain, etc. 2. What is the weather like (to-day)? How is the weather? What sort of weather is it? It is wonderful, fine, nice, lovely, fair, warm, hot, close (oppressive, very hot), stuffy, dusty, cold, chilly, clear, wet, rainy, sli ppery, muggy (rainy and dirty), vile (very bad), nasty, cloudy, overcast, dull, gloomy day; brilliant, charming weather, etc. It is freezing, raining fast; it’s raining cats and dogs (i.e.) heavily; it is pouring, drizzling, lightening, thundering, hailing, getting worse; it is improving (or clearing up, getting fine). We are having a severe thunderstorm, frost, a black frost, a white frost, sli ppery frost, a blizzard (snow-storm), a nice gentle rain, a strong rain, a shower, a downpour. 3. Has it stopped (or left off, ceased) raining, snowing, freezing, etc.? No, it’s still raining a little, it keeps on snowing, etc. 4. Does it rain (or Is it raining just now? Yes, it does (it is). No, it doesn’t (it isn’t). 5. Where is the wind from? From which quarter is the wind? It is blowing from the North. The wind has changed; it has gone down. It was a regular gale (strong wind), a hurricane. It was blowing hard.

Weather Talk

I am very fond of country-life, and as a rule spend my (mid) summer holidays at a farm belonging to my aunt; she lives in a village, which is about ten miles from my native town. Most villagers are small cultivators who have only one or two fields of a few acres, which they cultivate (or work) in conjunction with another business. Some of them, for instance, are bakers, others butchers, wheelwrights, joiners, blacksmiths, shoemakers, etc.

1. What do you think of the weather? (I wonder what the weather is going to be). It seems a fine, most lovely day, a dull day, a rainy, wet, warm, hot, cold, frosty day. I expect we’ll have a fine day, a warm day, rain, snow, frosty day. I think it will clear up by and by...it will turn (to) wet, it won’t keep fine. We’ll have snow, frost, rain, a thaw, a thunderstorm, 192

General Phrases and Exclamations What a lovely day (night)! What wretched (awful, beastly) weather we are having! What a flash of lightning! What a flood of rain! I am wet through. How dark it is getting! How bitterly cold it is! The heat is killing me! Look at that lovely rainbow! Sayings: It never rains but it pours (i.e. Misfortunes seldom come singly). April showers bring May flowers. After rain comes sunshine. Rain, rain, go away; come again another day!

In the Country

193

The hot sun ri pens the corn and fruit,and the farmer gets ready for the harvest. In summer, the sun rises very early, and sets late in the evening. In September, Autumn begins. The days gradually become shorter and the nights longer. The weather is cooler than in summer, and by and by the leaves change colour and fall off. Apples, pears, walnuts and grapes are now ri pe,and may be picked up.The farmer gathers in the fruits of the season, the sportsman gets his gun ready, and goes out shooting. When autumn is over, winter sets in. This is the season of snow storms and of ice. During the winter there is plenty of snow. When it snows hard, and the snow doesn’t melt, the roads are fit for sledging. In snow weather, tobogganing is a favourite pastime. Children also make snowmen, play at snowballing, throwing snow-balls at each other. In winter we keep up a good fire, and put on warm woollen clothes. In England there is a fifth “season”, which is the finest of all from a social point of view. This is the London season (May, June, and July) when the theatres and music-halls are in full swing; the best artists (actors, actresses, musicians, singers, and dancers) are performing there. Garden parties and picnics are very popular and so are rivertri ps. The princi pal horse-races and cricket-matches take place, Parliament is sitting, etc. In other words all of London beauty, wealth and splendour is on show. After the “London Season” comes the “silly season” with the “dog-days” (July 3 — August 11); then most people leave for the seaside or abroad. The British Isles have a more uniform climate than has Central Europe. The climate is cool, mild and humid. The winters are not so cold and the summers not so hot. Rainfall is more or less even throughout the year and it seldom snows heavily in winter. The weather is so changeable that the English often say that they have no climate but only weather. The English are very fond of speaking about the weather. “Nice day, Sir”, “Dull morning, isn’t it?” and similar phrases are the usual remarks with which a shopkeeper receives his customers.

etc. It looks like rain, snow, etc. It’s going to freeze, thaw, snow, etc. We are going to have some more rain, etc. 2. What is the weather like (to-day)? How is the weather? What sort of weather is it? It is wonderful, fine, nice, lovely, fair, warm, hot, close (oppressive, very hot), stuffy, dusty, cold, chilly, clear, wet, rainy, sli ppery, muggy (rainy and dirty), vile (very bad), nasty, cloudy, overcast, dull, gloomy day; brilliant, charming weather, etc. It is freezing, raining fast; it’s raining cats and dogs (i.e.) heavily; it is pouring, drizzling, lightening, thundering, hailing, getting worse; it is improving (or clearing up, getting fine). We are having a severe thunderstorm, frost, a black frost, a white frost, sli ppery frost, a blizzard (snow-storm), a nice gentle rain, a strong rain, a shower, a downpour. 3. Has it stopped (or left off, ceased) raining, snowing, freezing, etc.? No, it’s still raining a little, it keeps on snowing, etc. 4. Does it rain (or Is it raining just now? Yes, it does (it is). No, it doesn’t (it isn’t). 5. Where is the wind from? From which quarter is the wind? It is blowing from the North. The wind has changed; it has gone down. It was a regular gale (strong wind), a hurricane. It was blowing hard.

Weather Talk

I am very fond of country-life, and as a rule spend my (mid) summer holidays at a farm belonging to my aunt; she lives in a village, which is about ten miles from my native town. Most villagers are small cultivators who have only one or two fields of a few acres, which they cultivate (or work) in conjunction with another business. Some of them, for instance, are bakers, others butchers, wheelwrights, joiners, blacksmiths, shoemakers, etc.

1. What do you think of the weather? (I wonder what the weather is going to be). It seems a fine, most lovely day, a dull day, a rainy, wet, warm, hot, cold, frosty day. I expect we’ll have a fine day, a warm day, rain, snow, frosty day. I think it will clear up by and by...it will turn (to) wet, it won’t keep fine. We’ll have snow, frost, rain, a thaw, a thunderstorm, 192

General Phrases and Exclamations What a lovely day (night)! What wretched (awful, beastly) weather we are having! What a flash of lightning! What a flood of rain! I am wet through. How dark it is getting! How bitterly cold it is! The heat is killing me! Look at that lovely rainbow! Sayings: It never rains but it pours (i.e. Misfortunes seldom come singly). April showers bring May flowers. After rain comes sunshine. Rain, rain, go away; come again another day!

In the Country

193

The village itself has no regular streets. It consists in fact of a number of cottages and houses. We also have a few larger houses: the parsonage or rectory, the doctor’s residence, and the village inn. There is the village shop, and the plot of ground nearby is the cemetery (or churchyard). There is also a club, an elementary school, a post office and several shops. Country people lead a rather monotonous life. They work hard from dawn till dusk. They eat plain but wholesome food: home-made bread, butter, potatoes, vegetables, and bacon. Now and then I do some gardening, or my cousin Jack takes me with him when he goes out trout-fishing or shooting (grouse, partridge, hares). My aunt has several horses and a pony. She also keeps cats and dogs, oxen, cows, sheep, goats, pigs, rabbits, poultry (as geese, ducks, cocks, hens, chickens, turkeys), bees (in bee-hives), a squirrel. The garden attached to my aunt’s house is very large, enclosed by a fine hedge. There are 3 gardens in one, so to speak: an orchard, a kitchen-garden and a flower-garden. It has gravel walks, lawns, hot-houses, a summerhouse, an arbour, and benches. The orchard is planted with strawberries, gooseberries, raspberries, currants, and all sorts of fruit-trees. In the kitchen-garden vegetables (cabbage, carrots, cucumbers, onions, beans, peas, horseradish, radish, parsley, and others) are grown. The flowergarden is simply lovely: several flower-beds with fragrant flowers, such as: primroses, daffodils, forget-me-nots, lilies of the valley, snowdrops, tuli ps, lilacs, violets, roses, pinks (or carnations), dahlias, asters, geraniums, etc. are to be seen there. Not far from the village are the large woods with big old oaks and beeches and extensive pastures watered by murmuring brooks full of trout. Game of various kinds (hares, pheasants, partridge), rabbits, foxes are found there; but beasts of prey are unknown in these parts. The winter months are a time of comparative rest for the farmers. They do indoor work then. But early in spring the meadows must be cleared of stones, and if necessary manured. The fields are ploughed, harrowed, and the seed is sown. In June haymaking begins. Early in the morning the grass is mown with a mower, and spread thinly over the ground, to dry in the sun. It is turned several times with rakes or forks, and before sunset, made up into cocks (or small heaps). Later it is stored. In September there is a second crop of hay, called aftermath. We now find that the grain crops, first barley and afterwards wheat and oats, have ri pened, and harvest time is come. The corn (or grain) is cut with a reaping-machine. It is formed into sheaves and shocks (or ricks) 194

in the field. Before being made into bread, the corn is threshed, winnowed, dried, put into sacks, and sent to the mill, where it is ground into flour. The baker and pastry-cook make bread and pastry of it. The straw is utilised as litter or bedding for horses and cattle. The root-crops — potatoes, turni ps, beets, and carrots — are gathered in about the end of September.

The Human Family The human family comprises various races: the Caucasian (the Aryan or Indo-European), the Semitic, the Mongolian, the Negro, the Malayan, and the Red Indian. Men live together in hamlets, villages, towns and cities. The unit of society is the family. We are a pretty large family, six in all: father, mother, two boys and two girls. My parents (mom and dad) are still alive. They were married (became husband and wife) some thirty years ago. About five years ago they celebrated their silver wedding, and I hope they will live long enough to celebrate also their golden and their diamond wedding. They are retired now. My Christian name is Richard, but I am generally called Dick at home. My surname is White. I am the eldest of us boys, but my younger brother is much taller than I am. My brother is in business. My little sister goes to school. My eldest sister is at home and makes herself useful in the house-hold, but she will leave us before long. Some time ago she became engaged to a very nice young gentleman, who therefore is her fiance´. They are going to get married next month. They will make a suitable match. We also keep a dog, a (tom-)cat and a parrot. Our family is a very old one. Our pedigree (or a line of ancestors) can be traced back to the time of Queen Elizabeth (died 1603). The number of our relations is very large. I have a lot of near as well as distant relations (relatives), i.e. two uncles, four aunts, and about a dozen cousins. One of my aunts, Aunt Jane, has lost her husband; she is a widow now. Her children are my cousins, and my parents’ nephews and nieces. A child bereft of father and mother is an orphan. Orphans have a guardian until they are of age, i.e. 21 years old. An uncle of mine, Uncle Fred had been a widower for some time, but he married again quite recently. His second wife is very kind to her stepchildren. She is a good stepmother. My Aunt Ethel has remained 195

The village itself has no regular streets. It consists in fact of a number of cottages and houses. We also have a few larger houses: the parsonage or rectory, the doctor’s residence, and the village inn. There is the village shop, and the plot of ground nearby is the cemetery (or churchyard). There is also a club, an elementary school, a post office and several shops. Country people lead a rather monotonous life. They work hard from dawn till dusk. They eat plain but wholesome food: home-made bread, butter, potatoes, vegetables, and bacon. Now and then I do some gardening, or my cousin Jack takes me with him when he goes out trout-fishing or shooting (grouse, partridge, hares). My aunt has several horses and a pony. She also keeps cats and dogs, oxen, cows, sheep, goats, pigs, rabbits, poultry (as geese, ducks, cocks, hens, chickens, turkeys), bees (in bee-hives), a squirrel. The garden attached to my aunt’s house is very large, enclosed by a fine hedge. There are 3 gardens in one, so to speak: an orchard, a kitchen-garden and a flower-garden. It has gravel walks, lawns, hot-houses, a summerhouse, an arbour, and benches. The orchard is planted with strawberries, gooseberries, raspberries, currants, and all sorts of fruit-trees. In the kitchen-garden vegetables (cabbage, carrots, cucumbers, onions, beans, peas, horseradish, radish, parsley, and others) are grown. The flowergarden is simply lovely: several flower-beds with fragrant flowers, such as: primroses, daffodils, forget-me-nots, lilies of the valley, snowdrops, tuli ps, lilacs, violets, roses, pinks (or carnations), dahlias, asters, geraniums, etc. are to be seen there. Not far from the village are the large woods with big old oaks and beeches and extensive pastures watered by murmuring brooks full of trout. Game of various kinds (hares, pheasants, partridge), rabbits, foxes are found there; but beasts of prey are unknown in these parts. The winter months are a time of comparative rest for the farmers. They do indoor work then. But early in spring the meadows must be cleared of stones, and if necessary manured. The fields are ploughed, harrowed, and the seed is sown. In June haymaking begins. Early in the morning the grass is mown with a mower, and spread thinly over the ground, to dry in the sun. It is turned several times with rakes or forks, and before sunset, made up into cocks (or small heaps). Later it is stored. In September there is a second crop of hay, called aftermath. We now find that the grain crops, first barley and afterwards wheat and oats, have ri pened, and harvest time is come. The corn (or grain) is cut with a reaping-machine. It is formed into sheaves and shocks (or ricks) 194

in the field. Before being made into bread, the corn is threshed, winnowed, dried, put into sacks, and sent to the mill, where it is ground into flour. The baker and pastry-cook make bread and pastry of it. The straw is utilised as litter or bedding for horses and cattle. The root-crops — potatoes, turni ps, beets, and carrots — are gathered in about the end of September.

The Human Family The human family comprises various races: the Caucasian (the Aryan or Indo-European), the Semitic, the Mongolian, the Negro, the Malayan, and the Red Indian. Men live together in hamlets, villages, towns and cities. The unit of society is the family. We are a pretty large family, six in all: father, mother, two boys and two girls. My parents (mom and dad) are still alive. They were married (became husband and wife) some thirty years ago. About five years ago they celebrated their silver wedding, and I hope they will live long enough to celebrate also their golden and their diamond wedding. They are retired now. My Christian name is Richard, but I am generally called Dick at home. My surname is White. I am the eldest of us boys, but my younger brother is much taller than I am. My brother is in business. My little sister goes to school. My eldest sister is at home and makes herself useful in the house-hold, but she will leave us before long. Some time ago she became engaged to a very nice young gentleman, who therefore is her fiance´. They are going to get married next month. They will make a suitable match. We also keep a dog, a (tom-)cat and a parrot. Our family is a very old one. Our pedigree (or a line of ancestors) can be traced back to the time of Queen Elizabeth (died 1603). The number of our relations is very large. I have a lot of near as well as distant relations (relatives), i.e. two uncles, four aunts, and about a dozen cousins. One of my aunts, Aunt Jane, has lost her husband; she is a widow now. Her children are my cousins, and my parents’ nephews and nieces. A child bereft of father and mother is an orphan. Orphans have a guardian until they are of age, i.e. 21 years old. An uncle of mine, Uncle Fred had been a widower for some time, but he married again quite recently. His second wife is very kind to her stepchildren. She is a good stepmother. My Aunt Ethel has remained 195

unmarried. She is an “old maid” or a spinster. Uncle Christopher has also remained single. He is an old bachelor. When my eldest sister Maggie is married I will also have a brother-inlaw, i.e. Mr. Berry, her husband. My parents then will speak of Mr. Berry as their son-in-law, and he will refer to them as his father-inlaw and mother-in-law. My sister, when Mrs. Arthur Berry, will be the daughter-in-law of Mr. Berry’s parents. A few weeks after the birth of a child, the christening (or baptism) usually takes place at the parents’ parish’ church. The godfathers and godmothers are sponsors at the baptism. At the age of 21 persons of both sexes (male and female) come of age. A male can with his parents’ consent, “pop” the question, i.e. propose to a girl and then marry her before he is 21 years of age. Engagements, or betrothals are announced by letter or message to all relations and friends. The bride-elect (engaged girl) wears an engagement ring set with stones or pearls on the third finger of the left hand. It is the gift of the gentleman. If a lady has been jilted she can sue for damages; such “breach of promise cases” are not infrequent. Some time having passed after the engagement, the wedding is celebrated at the place where the lady has been living, and here too, the wedding-presents are displayed. The wedding ceremony may either be civil (before or through, the registrar) or religious (in church) or both. In England, the pair are called the bridal pair, or bride and bridegroom, only on the wedding day, and when they are on their “honey-moon.” In ordinary speech, a gentleman who is engaged, but not yet married to a lady, when speaking of her will say: My intended, my fiance´e or among friends, my young lady. The young lady, on a similar occasion will say: My intended (husband), or my fiance´e. The persons who attend on the bridegroom and bride at their marriage are the “best man” and the bridesmaid. The English marriage feast is styled wedding-breakfast. It is now frequently supplanted by the reception (or At-home). Often people do not sit down at all. A very essential part of this repast is the weddingcake which is 2 or 3 feet high. After the breakfast the bridal pair take their departure to spend their “honey-moon”, i.e. the month after marriage away from home. Bride’s trousseau is what she needs for her own personal use, dresses and the like. It is the husband’s business to support his wife, and he is expected to pay for all that is required for the household, such as furniture, table linen, plate, etc.

The estate of an English country-gentleman is as a rule, entailed, i.e. it cannot be sold, but goes to the next-of-kin, i.e. the eldest son. Many husbands of the middle class bequeath in their will all their property to the wife, and after the death of the latter, to the children in equal portions. Death sooner or later knocks at every man’s door. After death the corps or (dead) body is laid in a shell and afterwards in outer coffin, in order to be buried after 3 days or later. The bereaved family and the friends of the deceased follow the hearse to the cemetery (or churchyard, poetically: God’s acre), at the gate of which the clergy awaits the funeral procession. The deceased is placed in the family vault, or buried in the grave. A funeral service is conducted by the clergyman. The bereaved family go into mourning for a year, the relations for 6 months. It is the custom to have a monument (or a tombstone, an obelisk, a cross, etc.) of marble or stone erected in memory of the deceased. Instead of being buried in a grave, some people prefer cremation, and leave express instructions to this effect in their will. A “typical” British family used to consist of mother, father and two children, but in recent years there have been many changes in family life. Today most families have one or two children. Since the law made it easier to get a divorce, the number of divorced has increased. In fact one marriage in every three now ends in divorce (in US one in every two marriages ends in divorce). Young people also accept that single life and postponement of marriage are legitimate alternatives. The average family size is small because people marry later in life or postpone having children until they finish school or start a career. Society is now more tolerant than it used to be of unmarried people, unmarried couples and single parents. Also the people are living longer nowadays, often for 20 years after they retire from their job. Many old people live alone after the death of their parents. So there are many households which consist of only one person or one adult and children. The majority of divorced people marry again and they sometimes take responsibility for a second family. This new kind of a family is called the “reconstituted” or “blended” family. More than 50 percent of all married women work outside the home. So a majority of couples have two wageearners. One reason for this change is that women want and expect to have careers. Another reason is economics, with rising prices, many families cannot survive on one’s person salary. In general, each generation is keen to become independent of parents in establishing its

196

197

unmarried. She is an “old maid” or a spinster. Uncle Christopher has also remained single. He is an old bachelor. When my eldest sister Maggie is married I will also have a brother-inlaw, i.e. Mr. Berry, her husband. My parents then will speak of Mr. Berry as their son-in-law, and he will refer to them as his father-inlaw and mother-in-law. My sister, when Mrs. Arthur Berry, will be the daughter-in-law of Mr. Berry’s parents. A few weeks after the birth of a child, the christening (or baptism) usually takes place at the parents’ parish’ church. The godfathers and godmothers are sponsors at the baptism. At the age of 21 persons of both sexes (male and female) come of age. A male can with his parents’ consent, “pop” the question, i.e. propose to a girl and then marry her before he is 21 years of age. Engagements, or betrothals are announced by letter or message to all relations and friends. The bride-elect (engaged girl) wears an engagement ring set with stones or pearls on the third finger of the left hand. It is the gift of the gentleman. If a lady has been jilted she can sue for damages; such “breach of promise cases” are not infrequent. Some time having passed after the engagement, the wedding is celebrated at the place where the lady has been living, and here too, the wedding-presents are displayed. The wedding ceremony may either be civil (before or through, the registrar) or religious (in church) or both. In England, the pair are called the bridal pair, or bride and bridegroom, only on the wedding day, and when they are on their “honey-moon.” In ordinary speech, a gentleman who is engaged, but not yet married to a lady, when speaking of her will say: My intended, my fiance´e or among friends, my young lady. The young lady, on a similar occasion will say: My intended (husband), or my fiance´e. The persons who attend on the bridegroom and bride at their marriage are the “best man” and the bridesmaid. The English marriage feast is styled wedding-breakfast. It is now frequently supplanted by the reception (or At-home). Often people do not sit down at all. A very essential part of this repast is the weddingcake which is 2 or 3 feet high. After the breakfast the bridal pair take their departure to spend their “honey-moon”, i.e. the month after marriage away from home. Bride’s trousseau is what she needs for her own personal use, dresses and the like. It is the husband’s business to support his wife, and he is expected to pay for all that is required for the household, such as furniture, table linen, plate, etc.

The estate of an English country-gentleman is as a rule, entailed, i.e. it cannot be sold, but goes to the next-of-kin, i.e. the eldest son. Many husbands of the middle class bequeath in their will all their property to the wife, and after the death of the latter, to the children in equal portions. Death sooner or later knocks at every man’s door. After death the corps or (dead) body is laid in a shell and afterwards in outer coffin, in order to be buried after 3 days or later. The bereaved family and the friends of the deceased follow the hearse to the cemetery (or churchyard, poetically: God’s acre), at the gate of which the clergy awaits the funeral procession. The deceased is placed in the family vault, or buried in the grave. A funeral service is conducted by the clergyman. The bereaved family go into mourning for a year, the relations for 6 months. It is the custom to have a monument (or a tombstone, an obelisk, a cross, etc.) of marble or stone erected in memory of the deceased. Instead of being buried in a grave, some people prefer cremation, and leave express instructions to this effect in their will. A “typical” British family used to consist of mother, father and two children, but in recent years there have been many changes in family life. Today most families have one or two children. Since the law made it easier to get a divorce, the number of divorced has increased. In fact one marriage in every three now ends in divorce (in US one in every two marriages ends in divorce). Young people also accept that single life and postponement of marriage are legitimate alternatives. The average family size is small because people marry later in life or postpone having children until they finish school or start a career. Society is now more tolerant than it used to be of unmarried people, unmarried couples and single parents. Also the people are living longer nowadays, often for 20 years after they retire from their job. Many old people live alone after the death of their parents. So there are many households which consist of only one person or one adult and children. The majority of divorced people marry again and they sometimes take responsibility for a second family. This new kind of a family is called the “reconstituted” or “blended” family. More than 50 percent of all married women work outside the home. So a majority of couples have two wageearners. One reason for this change is that women want and expect to have careers. Another reason is economics, with rising prices, many families cannot survive on one’s person salary. In general, each generation is keen to become independent of parents in establishing its

196

197

own family unit, and this fact can lead to social as well as geographical differences within the larger family group. The working mothers have less time with their children. There is also the “generation gap” or the problems that parents and children sometimes have understanding each other. People often move away from their home town to work, and so the family becomes scattered. Christmas is the traditional season for reunions. Relatives often travel many miles in order to spend the holiday together. For many years the modern economy was marked by dynamism, rapid growth, and expanding opportunities. The economy encouraged upward mobility: people began to expect ever-improving levels of material comfort. Today, families identify the high cost of living as one of their most difficult problems. The expectations developed during the decades of a fast-growing economy must be modified by the economic realities of today. Experts say, however, that the family is as strong as ever. Family is still at the centre of most people’s lives. It is important to remember that the family transmits culture. It is through our families, primarily, that we learn what’s right and wrong and what we value. Since cultures differ and values differ, we know that family life will differ also in different countries. Choice in relationshi ps now means that the extended family is not a collection of aunts, uncles and cousins, but of step-parents and half brothers and sisters, or of step-brothers and sisters with no blood connection at all. The courts make take care of the custody of the very young but who will be responsible for an ageing step-grandmother, or for the lonely sibling fallen on hard times? There are some who hope that new communities, sharing their homes or their workplaces rather than their parents, will replace the old networks of the family which were so often driven with secret jealousies and ancient feuds. But there is also some fear that in the end shared bricks are not so reliable as shared blood, that these communities of common interest thrive as long as the interests are common, but fall apart when the interests diverge. Choice can seem a hollow mockery when someone is old and cold and poor, individual freedom can easily mean freedom not to care. We live life on two levels. A teenager in the USA was asked to produce a list of the kinds of critical events, which she saw looming in the future. It went like this:

A US / Russia alliance, a cancer cure, test tube babies, an accidental nuclear explosion, spread of anarchy throughout the world, robots holding political office in the USA. We could each provide our own such lists of triumphs and disasters. When she was asked, however, to list the critical events looming in her personal life she wrote down: Moving into my own apartment, Interior Design School, driver’s license, getting a dog, marriage, having children, death.

198

199

Reflections on Your Own Family and Yourself 1. What is normal weekday like at home? (Who gets up, when? Who cooks breakfast? Who eats breakfast? With whom? When do you leave? Is anyone still at home? When do you return home? Who is there? What do you do? Who fixes dinner? When? Who is at home for dinner? What do you do after dinner? With whom?). 2. What would happen in your home on a normal Saturday? Sunday? 3. To whom in your family are you closest? With whom do you most like to talk? With whom do you do most things? What do you do together? 4. If you need advice about what to do, whom do you ask? 5. If you want money for something, whom do you ask? 6. If you have done something unacceptable in your home? What is the punishment for each? 7. What are various family members expected to do? (For example, who cooks, cleans up after meals, cleans the house, washes and irons the clothes, buys groceries, washes the car, works in the yard, drives the car, takes care of younger children, pays the bills?). Are there any tasks that men or boys don’t do? That women or girls don’t do? That adults don’t do? That teenagers or children don’t do? 8. Think of the families of some of your close friends. Do you think they function about the same as your family? If not, what are the differences? Can you explain why there are these differences?

A Day in Your Life. What is Your Life Like? Answer These 20 Questions 1. What time do you get up? 2. What is the first thing that you do when you get out of bed?

own family unit, and this fact can lead to social as well as geographical differences within the larger family group. The working mothers have less time with their children. There is also the “generation gap” or the problems that parents and children sometimes have understanding each other. People often move away from their home town to work, and so the family becomes scattered. Christmas is the traditional season for reunions. Relatives often travel many miles in order to spend the holiday together. For many years the modern economy was marked by dynamism, rapid growth, and expanding opportunities. The economy encouraged upward mobility: people began to expect ever-improving levels of material comfort. Today, families identify the high cost of living as one of their most difficult problems. The expectations developed during the decades of a fast-growing economy must be modified by the economic realities of today. Experts say, however, that the family is as strong as ever. Family is still at the centre of most people’s lives. It is important to remember that the family transmits culture. It is through our families, primarily, that we learn what’s right and wrong and what we value. Since cultures differ and values differ, we know that family life will differ also in different countries. Choice in relationshi ps now means that the extended family is not a collection of aunts, uncles and cousins, but of step-parents and half brothers and sisters, or of step-brothers and sisters with no blood connection at all. The courts make take care of the custody of the very young but who will be responsible for an ageing step-grandmother, or for the lonely sibling fallen on hard times? There are some who hope that new communities, sharing their homes or their workplaces rather than their parents, will replace the old networks of the family which were so often driven with secret jealousies and ancient feuds. But there is also some fear that in the end shared bricks are not so reliable as shared blood, that these communities of common interest thrive as long as the interests are common, but fall apart when the interests diverge. Choice can seem a hollow mockery when someone is old and cold and poor, individual freedom can easily mean freedom not to care. We live life on two levels. A teenager in the USA was asked to produce a list of the kinds of critical events, which she saw looming in the future. It went like this:

A US / Russia alliance, a cancer cure, test tube babies, an accidental nuclear explosion, spread of anarchy throughout the world, robots holding political office in the USA. We could each provide our own such lists of triumphs and disasters. When she was asked, however, to list the critical events looming in her personal life she wrote down: Moving into my own apartment, Interior Design School, driver’s license, getting a dog, marriage, having children, death.

198

199

Reflections on Your Own Family and Yourself 1. What is normal weekday like at home? (Who gets up, when? Who cooks breakfast? Who eats breakfast? With whom? When do you leave? Is anyone still at home? When do you return home? Who is there? What do you do? Who fixes dinner? When? Who is at home for dinner? What do you do after dinner? With whom?). 2. What would happen in your home on a normal Saturday? Sunday? 3. To whom in your family are you closest? With whom do you most like to talk? With whom do you do most things? What do you do together? 4. If you need advice about what to do, whom do you ask? 5. If you want money for something, whom do you ask? 6. If you have done something unacceptable in your home? What is the punishment for each? 7. What are various family members expected to do? (For example, who cooks, cleans up after meals, cleans the house, washes and irons the clothes, buys groceries, washes the car, works in the yard, drives the car, takes care of younger children, pays the bills?). Are there any tasks that men or boys don’t do? That women or girls don’t do? That adults don’t do? That teenagers or children don’t do? 8. Think of the families of some of your close friends. Do you think they function about the same as your family? If not, what are the differences? Can you explain why there are these differences?

A Day in Your Life. What is Your Life Like? Answer These 20 Questions 1. What time do you get up? 2. What is the first thing that you do when you get out of bed?

Spouses, siblings, adopted child, half-sister, half-brother, settle down, menfolk, womenfolk. Adult — a fully grown person, especially a person over an age stated by law, usually 18 or 21. Age of consent — the age at which a person is considered to be old enough to marry or have sexual relations without breaking the law. Coming of age (full age, majority) — the particular age (now 18 in Britain), at which a young person becomes responsible in law for one’s own actions, and is allowed to vote, own property, etc. (to be of age / under age). Ancestor (Forefather) — a person from whom one is descended, especially who lived long ago. Antecedents — past family or past history. Trace one’s ancestry — find out who one’s ancestors were (e.g. be of Irish ancestry). Extended family — a family unit that consists not only of parents and children (nuclear family) but also of other close relations such as grandparents and cousins.

Half-brother (half-sister) — brother or sister related through one parent only. Divorcee — a person whose marriage has ended in divorce. Half-bred (taboo) — a person with parents of different races. Next-of-kin — a person’s closest relations. An old lady of one’s acquaintance. Household — all the people living together in a house. Adopt — take (somebody else’s child) into one’s family forever and to take on the full responsibilities in law of a parent. Foster — take (somebody else’s child) into one’s family for a certain period only, and without taking on the full legal responsibilities of the period. To be in one’s late fifties, to be well into one’s fifties, to be on the right side of fifty, be five years younger than one’s husband, be five years one’s senior / junior, be back in one’s childhood, be under five years of age, be eleven going on twelve, to just turn twenty, be double / twice one’s age, to near / approach fifty, be well on in one’s late fifties, be long / well past fifty, be in one’s middle fifties, be less than three years apart in age, be born in the same generation, be the third generation in one’s location, look one’s age, be in one’s manhood, be over fifty, outlive somebody (by five years), be 56 on one’s last birthday, age fast, turn 56, I guessed / judged her age at about 25, (save the next evening for) a name-day party, our mother lived to be 55, my family on both sides is noted for longevity, live to a ri pe old age, be of short-lived stock, have a short life span, be as old as the hills. She cannot be a day over 40. She’ll outlive anyone. She looks young for her age. Her age is beginning to tell on her. You bear your age well. Time stands still with you. To die of a stroke, be felled by a stroke, die of consumption, of a heart attack, go in one’s sleep, speak ill of the dead, be widowed, bleed to death, die in infancy, die in childbirth, pay homage, a burial plot, die a natural death / pass on gently in one’s sleep, catch one’s death of cold, be no longer very able, grave, grief, wreath, bury, mourners, coffin, funeral, cemetery. Be (distantly) related, be a remote kinsman, (revert to) one’s maiden name, have relations on one’s mother’s side, be related to the Petroffs, be twins, his daughter by his first / former marriage, one’s next-tothe-oldest brother, descend from a peasant family. To go into labour, be carrying a child, fall into premature labour, give birth (to a boy), be pregnant with one’s second child, raise children,

200

201

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

What do you have for breakfast? When do you leave for school? How do you get to school? What is your favourite subject? Why? Who do you sit with at school? Who would you like to sit with? When do you go home? Do you go home at the same time every day? What is the first thing that you do when you get home? How much homework do you get each day? How long do you watch television each day? What are your favourite programmes? How often do you go out with your friends? Where do you go? What do you want to do when you grow up? What do you want for your next birthday? What time do you go to bed? What is the last thing that you do before you get into bed?

Useful Words and Ðhrases

Spouses, siblings, adopted child, half-sister, half-brother, settle down, menfolk, womenfolk. Adult — a fully grown person, especially a person over an age stated by law, usually 18 or 21. Age of consent — the age at which a person is considered to be old enough to marry or have sexual relations without breaking the law. Coming of age (full age, majority) — the particular age (now 18 in Britain), at which a young person becomes responsible in law for one’s own actions, and is allowed to vote, own property, etc. (to be of age / under age). Ancestor (Forefather) — a person from whom one is descended, especially who lived long ago. Antecedents — past family or past history. Trace one’s ancestry — find out who one’s ancestors were (e.g. be of Irish ancestry). Extended family — a family unit that consists not only of parents and children (nuclear family) but also of other close relations such as grandparents and cousins.

Half-brother (half-sister) — brother or sister related through one parent only. Divorcee — a person whose marriage has ended in divorce. Half-bred (taboo) — a person with parents of different races. Next-of-kin — a person’s closest relations. An old lady of one’s acquaintance. Household — all the people living together in a house. Adopt — take (somebody else’s child) into one’s family forever and to take on the full responsibilities in law of a parent. Foster — take (somebody else’s child) into one’s family for a certain period only, and without taking on the full legal responsibilities of the period. To be in one’s late fifties, to be well into one’s fifties, to be on the right side of fifty, be five years younger than one’s husband, be five years one’s senior / junior, be back in one’s childhood, be under five years of age, be eleven going on twelve, to just turn twenty, be double / twice one’s age, to near / approach fifty, be well on in one’s late fifties, be long / well past fifty, be in one’s middle fifties, be less than three years apart in age, be born in the same generation, be the third generation in one’s location, look one’s age, be in one’s manhood, be over fifty, outlive somebody (by five years), be 56 on one’s last birthday, age fast, turn 56, I guessed / judged her age at about 25, (save the next evening for) a name-day party, our mother lived to be 55, my family on both sides is noted for longevity, live to a ri pe old age, be of short-lived stock, have a short life span, be as old as the hills. She cannot be a day over 40. She’ll outlive anyone. She looks young for her age. Her age is beginning to tell on her. You bear your age well. Time stands still with you. To die of a stroke, be felled by a stroke, die of consumption, of a heart attack, go in one’s sleep, speak ill of the dead, be widowed, bleed to death, die in infancy, die in childbirth, pay homage, a burial plot, die a natural death / pass on gently in one’s sleep, catch one’s death of cold, be no longer very able, grave, grief, wreath, bury, mourners, coffin, funeral, cemetery. Be (distantly) related, be a remote kinsman, (revert to) one’s maiden name, have relations on one’s mother’s side, be related to the Petroffs, be twins, his daughter by his first / former marriage, one’s next-tothe-oldest brother, descend from a peasant family. To go into labour, be carrying a child, fall into premature labour, give birth (to a boy), be pregnant with one’s second child, raise children,

200

201

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

What do you have for breakfast? When do you leave for school? How do you get to school? What is your favourite subject? Why? Who do you sit with at school? Who would you like to sit with? When do you go home? Do you go home at the same time every day? What is the first thing that you do when you get home? How much homework do you get each day? How long do you watch television each day? What are your favourite programmes? How often do you go out with your friends? Where do you go? What do you want to do when you grow up? What do you want for your next birthday? What time do you go to bed? What is the last thing that you do before you get into bed?

Useful Words and Ðhrases

breast-feed the baby, bottle-feed the baby, be teething (of a baby), deliver a child, give somebody a baby to hold, birth certificate, be an expectant mother. Her infant son, fair-complexioned, lively, bouncy, robust boy, recite a poem, spell out simple sentences, put words together by letters and meaning, toy animals, the doll that fits inside the other one, make a slingshot, to coast, young toddler, tiny tot, rock the baby in one’s arms, count up to ten adding one’s fingers, cot, nappy, pram, bonnet, christening, maternity leave, have a baby, godmother, wash baby cloths. To have a strong resemblance to each other, be the image / copy of one’s mother, be a male replica of one’s mother, look alike, resemble specific people (dead or living), sound wise beyond one’s years, look very young as far as one’s actual face goes, have a healthy appearance, seem older and experienced for one’s age, grow heavy and bald. Her artistic talent passed on to him. To be / get engaged, be married, to make friends with somebody, be good friends with somebody, date a girl, make a date with a girl, go out with a girl, have a steady girl-friend, be up to ears in love, be / get divorced, pay alimony, during one’s courtshi p, celebrate one’s thirtieth wedding anniversary, be married into the Browns family, bring to one’s marriage a dowry, be single, an old maid, be on the best terms with one’s family, exemplary wife, (wedding) reception, bouquet, honeymoon, best man, bridegroom, bride, exchange rings, drift apart.

aquiline, flat, fleshy, etc.), mouth (wide, strong, vivid, etc.), li ps (full, thin, painted, parted, etc.), chin (pointed, square; strong jaw, double, etc.), cheeks (plump, pale, rouged, ruddy, etc.), other: moustache; beard, wrinkles, freckles; thick / thin eyebrows, birthmark, (ir)regular features, delicate / rough skin, (un)even teeth. She has a queenly carriage and a charming smile. Character: He has a cheerful open manner. He is hard-working, careless, easy-going, punctual, friendly, reserved, shy, emotional, impatient, moody, (in)sensitive, assertive, aggressive, stubborn, tense, nervous, frank, lazy, patient, outgoing, hospitable, generous, sociable, formal, casual, enthusiastic, optimistic, quiet, tolerant, talkative, sophisticated, well-dressed, fun-loving, respectful, humorous, serious, (un)reliable, thoughtful, sensible, trustworthy, ambitious, nationalistic, romantic, (un)tidy, rude, mean, (dis)loyal, polite, well-behaved, kind(-hearted), selfish, immature, pitiable, self-pitying, sober, (ir)responsible, reckless, belligerent, long-suffering, easily pleased, meek and gentle, bright and good-tempered, warm-hearted, trustful, bright and happy, full of joy and gaiety, modest and virtuous, of a grave and serious nature (turn of mind), of (no) character, cunning and dishonest, young, rich and egoistic, weak and characterless, falsest, shameless, hard-hearted. Some proverbs. No living man all things can. He that has no children knows not what is love. Marriage goes by contrasts. A good name is better than riches. A man can die but once.

Private Houses. Flats Learning to Describe People Appearance: He / she is (about) 60 (years old), tall / short, fat / stout / thin / slim, bald, curly / straight hair, blonde / dark, wears glasses, has a beard / moustache, looks / seem very (kind, strong, angry, rich, etc.), smartly / casually dressed. He is (very) handsome. She is (very) pretty, attractive, nice-looking, beautiful, good-looking, plain. Build / frame / figure / constitution / physique. She has a goodfigure / is very well-built. She has a figure of a woman in her twenties. His figure was well preserved. His face is fresh, rosy and unlined. He only left off working two years ago. More words about appearance: face (round, oval, long face; high cheekbones, high forehead, heart-shaped, sunburned, clean-shaven, thin, dark / fair complexioned, etc.), hair (short blond hair, shaved head, wavy white hair, short dark hair; lightbrown, red, grey; curly, bald, etc.), eyes (lines under eyes, blue eyes; almond-shaped; brown, green, etc.), nose (wide nose; hooked, snub,

Most people in Britain live in houses, not flats. Usually only one family lives in one house. A typical house has got two floors. The kitchen and the living room are downstairs. Some houses have a dining room downstairs, too. Upstairs there are two, three or four bedrooms and a bathroom. The toilet is usually in the bathroom. A lot of houses have another toilet downstairs. Most houses have a back garden and a lot also have a front garden. There are different kinds of houses (terraced, detached, semi-detached houses). I live in my father’s house. It’s a large and fine building situated at N65 Park Street. It has a fine facade (or front) with a balcony. It is made of brick and timber (or wood). Its roof is pointed, not flat and is covered with slates, not with tiles. On the top of the roof, there is a chimneypot. A gutter runs round the roof and receives the rain-water, which is carried down the walls by the spouts. Here is a general descri ption of the Englishman’s house.

202

203

breast-feed the baby, bottle-feed the baby, be teething (of a baby), deliver a child, give somebody a baby to hold, birth certificate, be an expectant mother. Her infant son, fair-complexioned, lively, bouncy, robust boy, recite a poem, spell out simple sentences, put words together by letters and meaning, toy animals, the doll that fits inside the other one, make a slingshot, to coast, young toddler, tiny tot, rock the baby in one’s arms, count up to ten adding one’s fingers, cot, nappy, pram, bonnet, christening, maternity leave, have a baby, godmother, wash baby cloths. To have a strong resemblance to each other, be the image / copy of one’s mother, be a male replica of one’s mother, look alike, resemble specific people (dead or living), sound wise beyond one’s years, look very young as far as one’s actual face goes, have a healthy appearance, seem older and experienced for one’s age, grow heavy and bald. Her artistic talent passed on to him. To be / get engaged, be married, to make friends with somebody, be good friends with somebody, date a girl, make a date with a girl, go out with a girl, have a steady girl-friend, be up to ears in love, be / get divorced, pay alimony, during one’s courtshi p, celebrate one’s thirtieth wedding anniversary, be married into the Browns family, bring to one’s marriage a dowry, be single, an old maid, be on the best terms with one’s family, exemplary wife, (wedding) reception, bouquet, honeymoon, best man, bridegroom, bride, exchange rings, drift apart.

aquiline, flat, fleshy, etc.), mouth (wide, strong, vivid, etc.), li ps (full, thin, painted, parted, etc.), chin (pointed, square; strong jaw, double, etc.), cheeks (plump, pale, rouged, ruddy, etc.), other: moustache; beard, wrinkles, freckles; thick / thin eyebrows, birthmark, (ir)regular features, delicate / rough skin, (un)even teeth. She has a queenly carriage and a charming smile. Character: He has a cheerful open manner. He is hard-working, careless, easy-going, punctual, friendly, reserved, shy, emotional, impatient, moody, (in)sensitive, assertive, aggressive, stubborn, tense, nervous, frank, lazy, patient, outgoing, hospitable, generous, sociable, formal, casual, enthusiastic, optimistic, quiet, tolerant, talkative, sophisticated, well-dressed, fun-loving, respectful, humorous, serious, (un)reliable, thoughtful, sensible, trustworthy, ambitious, nationalistic, romantic, (un)tidy, rude, mean, (dis)loyal, polite, well-behaved, kind(-hearted), selfish, immature, pitiable, self-pitying, sober, (ir)responsible, reckless, belligerent, long-suffering, easily pleased, meek and gentle, bright and good-tempered, warm-hearted, trustful, bright and happy, full of joy and gaiety, modest and virtuous, of a grave and serious nature (turn of mind), of (no) character, cunning and dishonest, young, rich and egoistic, weak and characterless, falsest, shameless, hard-hearted. Some proverbs. No living man all things can. He that has no children knows not what is love. Marriage goes by contrasts. A good name is better than riches. A man can die but once.

Private Houses. Flats Learning to Describe People Appearance: He / she is (about) 60 (years old), tall / short, fat / stout / thin / slim, bald, curly / straight hair, blonde / dark, wears glasses, has a beard / moustache, looks / seem very (kind, strong, angry, rich, etc.), smartly / casually dressed. He is (very) handsome. She is (very) pretty, attractive, nice-looking, beautiful, good-looking, plain. Build / frame / figure / constitution / physique. She has a goodfigure / is very well-built. She has a figure of a woman in her twenties. His figure was well preserved. His face is fresh, rosy and unlined. He only left off working two years ago. More words about appearance: face (round, oval, long face; high cheekbones, high forehead, heart-shaped, sunburned, clean-shaven, thin, dark / fair complexioned, etc.), hair (short blond hair, shaved head, wavy white hair, short dark hair; lightbrown, red, grey; curly, bald, etc.), eyes (lines under eyes, blue eyes; almond-shaped; brown, green, etc.), nose (wide nose; hooked, snub,

Most people in Britain live in houses, not flats. Usually only one family lives in one house. A typical house has got two floors. The kitchen and the living room are downstairs. Some houses have a dining room downstairs, too. Upstairs there are two, three or four bedrooms and a bathroom. The toilet is usually in the bathroom. A lot of houses have another toilet downstairs. Most houses have a back garden and a lot also have a front garden. There are different kinds of houses (terraced, detached, semi-detached houses). I live in my father’s house. It’s a large and fine building situated at N65 Park Street. It has a fine facade (or front) with a balcony. It is made of brick and timber (or wood). Its roof is pointed, not flat and is covered with slates, not with tiles. On the top of the roof, there is a chimneypot. A gutter runs round the roof and receives the rain-water, which is carried down the walls by the spouts. Here is a general descri ption of the Englishman’s house.

202

203

Our house has several stories (or floors), i.e. the ground floor, the first floor, the second floor, the top floor with the attics (or garrets), and the loft. A broad spiral staircase leads from each floor to the next. Below the ground-floor is the basement (-story) which contains the kitchen and scullery (back-kitchen for washing up cooking utensils), the pantry (where bread and other provisions are kept) and larder (for meat before it is cooked), the wine-cellar, the coal cellar, etc. It is in the basement that the servants live, and here too, all the tradespeople, such as the butcher, baker, milkman, grocer, greengrocer, etc. deliver what has been ordered by the cook. Servants and tradesmen never enter by the front-door, they enter by a little gate in the iron railings. Before you enter the Englishman’s house, you have to ring the bell or knock the old-fashioned knocker. After scraping your shoes on the scraper outside the door and wi ping them on a mat just inside you enter the hall. Not far from the door, there are an umbrella-stand, a hat-rack, with several pegs on it, and a large looking glass; if the three are combined, such a piece of furniture is called a hallstand. A gong is suspended near this, and is sounded to summon (call) the family to meals. Doors open from the hall into the dining-room and the (front and back) parlours. Here friends and acquaintances are received, and as a rule the members of the family sit in one of them during the day; hence the parlour is also called a sitting-room. In small houses, the parlour at the same time serves as a dining-room. On the first floor at the front of the house, we usually find the drawing room, where company is received. It is the best furnished room in the house, and has that name because the ladies usually withdraw there after meals. The backroom on the first floor, or on the half-landing (or mezzanine, entresol), is in most cases used as a bathroom, or as a bed-room, sometimes as a smoking-room or library. On the second floor are, as a rule, the bedrooms and the nursery. In modern houses, water, gas and electricity are laid on. There is a telephone and electric installation with lamps (or bulbs) and switches for turning the light on and off. On each floor a WC (water closet, lavatory) is to be found. The rooms are either papered or painted. There are pictures on the wall, there is a carpet in every room. The hall and kitchen are generally covered with linoleum or oil-cloth.

In a dining-room there may be a table, a writing table, a couch, a certain number of upholstered chairs, some arm-chairs, and easy chairs, a rocking chair, mirrors, a large sideboard and sometimes a cottage piano. In many houses, we notice the old-fashioned kind of window on the sash or guillotine princi ple. They do not turn on hinges like the socalled French windows, but the two sashes are raised or pulled down at will by means of pulleys, so as to open only from the top, or from the bottom. The windows are hung with curtains; and there are roller blinds or Venetian blinds that can be drawn up and let down by merely pulling a cord. At night the shutters (usually inside) are closed or the (outside) iron roller blinds let down. Flower pots or windowplants are on the window sills. The drawing-room is very snug and cosy, it is the most elegant room in English house. Besides easy chairs, settees, a couch, upholstered or cane chairs, many large drawing-rooms contain cabinets, small tables, a grand (piano), etc. while mirrors and pictures adorn the walls. The main piece of furniture in a bedroom, of course, is the bed. The English bedstead is of iron, brass or wood. First comes a spring-mattress, then two wool mattresses, sometimes a feather-bed; on these is a bolster along the topend, a sheet to cover the whole, a pillow in a pillowcase, another sheet, one or two woollen blankets, a counterpane, and frequently a quilt. Beside(s) the bed, there is a nightstand, a dressing table with a looking glass, a chest of drawers (to contain shirts, collars, cuffs, stockings, socks, underclothing), an easy chair, and stuffed or cane chairs. Cooking stove is in the kitchen. There is a fireplace in most English houses. The English fireplace is an open hearth in the wall, and the smoke is carried off by a flue leading to the chimney. Glass vases and timepieces usually adorn the mantelpiece. The fuel (coal, rarely wood) is put in(to) an iron grate. A fender prevents falling coals or embers from rolling upon the hearth-rug or the carpet. Modern houses are heated by means of hot water circulating in pi pes. A house usually has a small garden behind it. The house we live in is our own (house). It is not, however, freehold but leasehold, i.e. the ground on which it stands belongs to the Duke of Bedford, and so will our house, as soon as the “long lease” (which is of 99 years) expires. After that the building becomes the property of the ground-owner, the Duke of Bedford. My father every year pays a ground rent to the Duke.

204

205

Our house has several stories (or floors), i.e. the ground floor, the first floor, the second floor, the top floor with the attics (or garrets), and the loft. A broad spiral staircase leads from each floor to the next. Below the ground-floor is the basement (-story) which contains the kitchen and scullery (back-kitchen for washing up cooking utensils), the pantry (where bread and other provisions are kept) and larder (for meat before it is cooked), the wine-cellar, the coal cellar, etc. It is in the basement that the servants live, and here too, all the tradespeople, such as the butcher, baker, milkman, grocer, greengrocer, etc. deliver what has been ordered by the cook. Servants and tradesmen never enter by the front-door, they enter by a little gate in the iron railings. Before you enter the Englishman’s house, you have to ring the bell or knock the old-fashioned knocker. After scraping your shoes on the scraper outside the door and wi ping them on a mat just inside you enter the hall. Not far from the door, there are an umbrella-stand, a hat-rack, with several pegs on it, and a large looking glass; if the three are combined, such a piece of furniture is called a hallstand. A gong is suspended near this, and is sounded to summon (call) the family to meals. Doors open from the hall into the dining-room and the (front and back) parlours. Here friends and acquaintances are received, and as a rule the members of the family sit in one of them during the day; hence the parlour is also called a sitting-room. In small houses, the parlour at the same time serves as a dining-room. On the first floor at the front of the house, we usually find the drawing room, where company is received. It is the best furnished room in the house, and has that name because the ladies usually withdraw there after meals. The backroom on the first floor, or on the half-landing (or mezzanine, entresol), is in most cases used as a bathroom, or as a bed-room, sometimes as a smoking-room or library. On the second floor are, as a rule, the bedrooms and the nursery. In modern houses, water, gas and electricity are laid on. There is a telephone and electric installation with lamps (or bulbs) and switches for turning the light on and off. On each floor a WC (water closet, lavatory) is to be found. The rooms are either papered or painted. There are pictures on the wall, there is a carpet in every room. The hall and kitchen are generally covered with linoleum or oil-cloth.

In a dining-room there may be a table, a writing table, a couch, a certain number of upholstered chairs, some arm-chairs, and easy chairs, a rocking chair, mirrors, a large sideboard and sometimes a cottage piano. In many houses, we notice the old-fashioned kind of window on the sash or guillotine princi ple. They do not turn on hinges like the socalled French windows, but the two sashes are raised or pulled down at will by means of pulleys, so as to open only from the top, or from the bottom. The windows are hung with curtains; and there are roller blinds or Venetian blinds that can be drawn up and let down by merely pulling a cord. At night the shutters (usually inside) are closed or the (outside) iron roller blinds let down. Flower pots or windowplants are on the window sills. The drawing-room is very snug and cosy, it is the most elegant room in English house. Besides easy chairs, settees, a couch, upholstered or cane chairs, many large drawing-rooms contain cabinets, small tables, a grand (piano), etc. while mirrors and pictures adorn the walls. The main piece of furniture in a bedroom, of course, is the bed. The English bedstead is of iron, brass or wood. First comes a spring-mattress, then two wool mattresses, sometimes a feather-bed; on these is a bolster along the topend, a sheet to cover the whole, a pillow in a pillowcase, another sheet, one or two woollen blankets, a counterpane, and frequently a quilt. Beside(s) the bed, there is a nightstand, a dressing table with a looking glass, a chest of drawers (to contain shirts, collars, cuffs, stockings, socks, underclothing), an easy chair, and stuffed or cane chairs. Cooking stove is in the kitchen. There is a fireplace in most English houses. The English fireplace is an open hearth in the wall, and the smoke is carried off by a flue leading to the chimney. Glass vases and timepieces usually adorn the mantelpiece. The fuel (coal, rarely wood) is put in(to) an iron grate. A fender prevents falling coals or embers from rolling upon the hearth-rug or the carpet. Modern houses are heated by means of hot water circulating in pi pes. A house usually has a small garden behind it. The house we live in is our own (house). It is not, however, freehold but leasehold, i.e. the ground on which it stands belongs to the Duke of Bedford, and so will our house, as soon as the “long lease” (which is of 99 years) expires. After that the building becomes the property of the ground-owner, the Duke of Bedford. My father every year pays a ground rent to the Duke.

204

205

Most English families rent (or hire) a house to live (or dwell) in and pay the owner (landlord or landlady) a fixed rent on a quarter-day (quarterly) as a rule. Others rent part of a house, e.g. a self-contained flat, and themselves furnish their rooms. Others again, especially single people, old maids or bachelors live in furnished apartments (they take “lodgings” or “rooms”), they are called lodgers, and pay so much per week or month to the tenant (person who has rented a house or a flat). The tenants (of a house or a flat) and lodgers (in apartments) have to give due notice before leaving (or removing). The nobility and the rich live in imposing (town-)mansions or country-seats, which are often feudal castles, the poor dwell in small cottages. In Britain prior to the late eighties tenure of property was by freehold (in which the property was owned outright), or leasehold (in which the property was held by lease, and would at the set time revert to the original owner). Flats were very frequently held by leasehold, often for a substantial number of years; in such a case the owner of the building might set appropriate service and maintenance charges, but would be responsible for the building overall. A commonhold system (the freehold tenure of a flat within a multioccupancy building, but with shared responsibility for common services) makes it possible for the tenants of a building to buy the freehold of their flats; this brings with it a joint responsibility for services and maintenance. Former tenants thus become actual property owners, or commonholders with the increased financial and management responsibilities entailed. “An Englishman’s house is his castle”, says the proverb. In ordinary circumstances, no one, not even a policeman, is allowed to cross the threshold of an English private house. So a well-bred Englishman would consider it a bold intrusion if a stranger called upon him without an invitation or a letter of introduction. Formal calls are always made on week-days. The usual time for calling is between 3 and 6 p.m. From 3 to 4 is the ceremonious hour, from 4 to 5 the semi-ceremonious and from 5 to 6 the wholly friendly without ceremony. The limit for a ceremonious call is a short quarter of an hour; but after the ceremonious hour, the duration of the call may be longer and it depends upon circumstances. About 4:30 to 5, tea is introduced. Intimate friends often make Sunday a special day for calling, and ladies and gentlemen — especially the latter — look their friends up on Sunday morning or between 3 and 6 in the afternoon.

There are congratulatory calls, calls of condolence, and calls of courtesy. When any cause for congratulation arises, it is usual for friends to offer their good wishes in person. On the other hand, should some sorrow or domestic calamity befall any of our acquaintances, an expression of condolence and sympathy is to be tendered, but sufficient time should elapse before we go to see them. After being present at a dinner or at a private ball (or a dancing-party), we call within the next few days, or leave cards. A house is a building for people to live in and usually has more than one level (storey). A cottage is a small, old house, especially in the country, and a bungalow is a fairly modern house built on only one level. A set of rooms (including a kitchen and bathroom) within a larger building is called flat in British English or apartment in American English. A small one-room flat is a bed-sitter (or studio flat) in British English or studio apartment in American English. A large grand house is called a mansion. It is often the little things in life, which change things most and last the longest. For example, chimneys may have caused more social change than anything. Without a chimney everyone had to huddle together in one central place around a fire with a hole in the roof above. The chimney with its separate flues made it possible for one dwelling to heat a variety of rooms. Small units could huddle together independently. The cohesion of the tribe in winter sli pped away. Central heating — meaning in reality decentralized heating — carried it even further, doing away with fireplaces altogether making it possible to pile dwelling units on top of dwelling units into the sky and for so many people to live alone, often far above the ground, but warm. Rather like central heating, the telephone and its attachments make it possible today for people to work together without being together in one place. The scattered organization is now a reality.

206

207

There are different types of dwelling. Among the most popular are: 1. Detached house — a house not connected on any side with any other building. 2. House in a housing estate (housing development) — a house in a place of land on which buildings (of a stated type) have all been built together in a planned way. 3. Terraced (stepped) house (Br.Eng.) / Am. row house / — a house which is part of a terrace (a row of houses joined together).

Most English families rent (or hire) a house to live (or dwell) in and pay the owner (landlord or landlady) a fixed rent on a quarter-day (quarterly) as a rule. Others rent part of a house, e.g. a self-contained flat, and themselves furnish their rooms. Others again, especially single people, old maids or bachelors live in furnished apartments (they take “lodgings” or “rooms”), they are called lodgers, and pay so much per week or month to the tenant (person who has rented a house or a flat). The tenants (of a house or a flat) and lodgers (in apartments) have to give due notice before leaving (or removing). The nobility and the rich live in imposing (town-)mansions or country-seats, which are often feudal castles, the poor dwell in small cottages. In Britain prior to the late eighties tenure of property was by freehold (in which the property was owned outright), or leasehold (in which the property was held by lease, and would at the set time revert to the original owner). Flats were very frequently held by leasehold, often for a substantial number of years; in such a case the owner of the building might set appropriate service and maintenance charges, but would be responsible for the building overall. A commonhold system (the freehold tenure of a flat within a multioccupancy building, but with shared responsibility for common services) makes it possible for the tenants of a building to buy the freehold of their flats; this brings with it a joint responsibility for services and maintenance. Former tenants thus become actual property owners, or commonholders with the increased financial and management responsibilities entailed. “An Englishman’s house is his castle”, says the proverb. In ordinary circumstances, no one, not even a policeman, is allowed to cross the threshold of an English private house. So a well-bred Englishman would consider it a bold intrusion if a stranger called upon him without an invitation or a letter of introduction. Formal calls are always made on week-days. The usual time for calling is between 3 and 6 p.m. From 3 to 4 is the ceremonious hour, from 4 to 5 the semi-ceremonious and from 5 to 6 the wholly friendly without ceremony. The limit for a ceremonious call is a short quarter of an hour; but after the ceremonious hour, the duration of the call may be longer and it depends upon circumstances. About 4:30 to 5, tea is introduced. Intimate friends often make Sunday a special day for calling, and ladies and gentlemen — especially the latter — look their friends up on Sunday morning or between 3 and 6 in the afternoon.

There are congratulatory calls, calls of condolence, and calls of courtesy. When any cause for congratulation arises, it is usual for friends to offer their good wishes in person. On the other hand, should some sorrow or domestic calamity befall any of our acquaintances, an expression of condolence and sympathy is to be tendered, but sufficient time should elapse before we go to see them. After being present at a dinner or at a private ball (or a dancing-party), we call within the next few days, or leave cards. A house is a building for people to live in and usually has more than one level (storey). A cottage is a small, old house, especially in the country, and a bungalow is a fairly modern house built on only one level. A set of rooms (including a kitchen and bathroom) within a larger building is called flat in British English or apartment in American English. A small one-room flat is a bed-sitter (or studio flat) in British English or studio apartment in American English. A large grand house is called a mansion. It is often the little things in life, which change things most and last the longest. For example, chimneys may have caused more social change than anything. Without a chimney everyone had to huddle together in one central place around a fire with a hole in the roof above. The chimney with its separate flues made it possible for one dwelling to heat a variety of rooms. Small units could huddle together independently. The cohesion of the tribe in winter sli pped away. Central heating — meaning in reality decentralized heating — carried it even further, doing away with fireplaces altogether making it possible to pile dwelling units on top of dwelling units into the sky and for so many people to live alone, often far above the ground, but warm. Rather like central heating, the telephone and its attachments make it possible today for people to work together without being together in one place. The scattered organization is now a reality.

206

207

There are different types of dwelling. Among the most popular are: 1. Detached house — a house not connected on any side with any other building. 2. House in a housing estate (housing development) — a house in a place of land on which buildings (of a stated type) have all been built together in a planned way. 3. Terraced (stepped) house (Br.Eng.) / Am. row house / — a house which is part of a terrace (a row of houses joined together).

Owner-occupier Br. — a person who owns the house or flat in which they live. Fitting — something necessary that is fixed into a building but able to be moved. Fixture — something (such as bath) that is fixed into a building and sold with it. A town house, a farmhouse, a cottage, brick, stone, wooden (of a kind of house), plastered from the outside and whitewashed; a block of flats, a large house divided into flats, a maisonette, in the basement, on the ground / second floor (of a flat); traditional / old-fashioned, modern (of style); centrally located, on the coast, village, in the suburbs, residential area / on the outskirts, by the sea, on a main road, in a side street off the main road, in its own grounds, facing a river, next door to the station, halfway up the hill, overlooking the sea (of location); an ordinary, medium-sized, spacious, family-sized, a fair-sized house in the country, average, roomy / airy, crowded, cramped (of size); obtain a building lease, move to new quarters, quit (move out of) the house, move into new apartments, have a housewarming (party), repair / do up the house, manage a household, have domestic duties. Interior: central heating, air conditioning, fitted kitchen, double glazing, spiral staircase, running water, thermostatically-controlled radiators, under-floor heating, electric / gas fires, wood / coal burning stove, oil heater, open fireplace, electric fans; an entrance hall, living room / lounge, dining room, folding partition between dining room and living room, kitchen, scullery, staircase in the hall, bedrooms,

bed-sitting room, studio, bathroom and toilet, nursery, children’s room, cellar, attics, loft, master bedroom, coffee table, night table, dresser, closet, a pier-glass, pot plants on the balcony; copies, originals, landscapes, flowers studies, still life, portraits, old masters, abstracts, prints, water-colours, oil paintings, engravings, photographs (on the walls); glass or china figures, jade or wood carvings, ivories, vases, statuettes, ceramics, etc. (ornaments, souvenirs), a bright central light, stri p lighting, wall lights, lamplight, candle light, etc. Exterior: front garden, private parking, swimming pool, two-car garage, fire-escape, communal garden for all the residents, flower beds, rockery, orchard, kitchen garden, fountain, paved (tiled) courtyard, hedge, garden shed, summer house, arbour, greenhouse (conservatory), swing, neglected / running wild garden, rough grass, a lawn (a grass-plot), a pond, a kennel. Have a vacant room for rent, mind sharing, a single room with a pulldown bed, a studio couch opened for the night, built in desk / cupboards, a small folding chair, a wall-to-wall carpet, a double / single bed, the floor of scrubbed boards, mop / sweep the floor, a bed that doubles as a sofa during the day, a mirror-faced door, a glass-fronted bookcase, wall unit, a kitchenette for light cooking, make meals on the bottle-gas stove, a four-burner gas stove with an oven, turn the heat down under the vegetables, lower the flame under the coffee, put out the fire under the frying pan, defrost the fridge, cover the floor with linoleum / imitation parquetry, carpet the corridor with thin runners of matting, rugs, bearskin, wallpaper, a double window, draw a curtain, close the shutters (against the sun), lower / raise a blind, heat the house by a furnace, install a humidifier, the street lights burned, have a house wired for electricity, the light bulb had burned out, walk down the stairway, three long flights of stairs, the lift is out of the order, a revolving door, swing-doors, glass-paned double doors, a peephole, the door was bolted and chained, a keyhole, (un)lock the door on the outside, to latch the door with a hook, fit a latchkey to the door. Housekeeping: The plaster flaked from the ceiling, the floor wore thin, have one’s house repainted, collect refuse / garbage, a general cleaning, clear up the kitchen, have a big house-cleaning, set a room to rights, to vacuum, straighten a sheet on the bed, tuck a sheet flatly in, smooth a pillow, the sink has got blocked up, help with the washing-up, the kitchen was a mess, tidy up a kitchen, make one’s bed, rinse a bowl at

208

209

4. Semidetached house / Am. duplex house / — a house that is one of a pair of joined houses, i.e. one divided into two flats. 5. Pair of semidetached houses divided into four flats. 6. Block of flats (Br. Eng.) / Am. Eng. apartment house (building) / often with access balconies — a large building containing many flats (Br. Eng.) / Am. Eng. apartments / . 7. Multi-storey block of flats (Br. Eng.) / Am. Eng. multistorey apartment building (house) / — a very tall block of flats with several floors (storeys). 8. Weekend cottage — a small timber house often used for rest on weekends and other holidays from work. Useful Words and Expressions

Owner-occupier Br. — a person who owns the house or flat in which they live. Fitting — something necessary that is fixed into a building but able to be moved. Fixture — something (such as bath) that is fixed into a building and sold with it. A town house, a farmhouse, a cottage, brick, stone, wooden (of a kind of house), plastered from the outside and whitewashed; a block of flats, a large house divided into flats, a maisonette, in the basement, on the ground / second floor (of a flat); traditional / old-fashioned, modern (of style); centrally located, on the coast, village, in the suburbs, residential area / on the outskirts, by the sea, on a main road, in a side street off the main road, in its own grounds, facing a river, next door to the station, halfway up the hill, overlooking the sea (of location); an ordinary, medium-sized, spacious, family-sized, a fair-sized house in the country, average, roomy / airy, crowded, cramped (of size); obtain a building lease, move to new quarters, quit (move out of) the house, move into new apartments, have a housewarming (party), repair / do up the house, manage a household, have domestic duties. Interior: central heating, air conditioning, fitted kitchen, double glazing, spiral staircase, running water, thermostatically-controlled radiators, under-floor heating, electric / gas fires, wood / coal burning stove, oil heater, open fireplace, electric fans; an entrance hall, living room / lounge, dining room, folding partition between dining room and living room, kitchen, scullery, staircase in the hall, bedrooms,

bed-sitting room, studio, bathroom and toilet, nursery, children’s room, cellar, attics, loft, master bedroom, coffee table, night table, dresser, closet, a pier-glass, pot plants on the balcony; copies, originals, landscapes, flowers studies, still life, portraits, old masters, abstracts, prints, water-colours, oil paintings, engravings, photographs (on the walls); glass or china figures, jade or wood carvings, ivories, vases, statuettes, ceramics, etc. (ornaments, souvenirs), a bright central light, stri p lighting, wall lights, lamplight, candle light, etc. Exterior: front garden, private parking, swimming pool, two-car garage, fire-escape, communal garden for all the residents, flower beds, rockery, orchard, kitchen garden, fountain, paved (tiled) courtyard, hedge, garden shed, summer house, arbour, greenhouse (conservatory), swing, neglected / running wild garden, rough grass, a lawn (a grass-plot), a pond, a kennel. Have a vacant room for rent, mind sharing, a single room with a pulldown bed, a studio couch opened for the night, built in desk / cupboards, a small folding chair, a wall-to-wall carpet, a double / single bed, the floor of scrubbed boards, mop / sweep the floor, a bed that doubles as a sofa during the day, a mirror-faced door, a glass-fronted bookcase, wall unit, a kitchenette for light cooking, make meals on the bottle-gas stove, a four-burner gas stove with an oven, turn the heat down under the vegetables, lower the flame under the coffee, put out the fire under the frying pan, defrost the fridge, cover the floor with linoleum / imitation parquetry, carpet the corridor with thin runners of matting, rugs, bearskin, wallpaper, a double window, draw a curtain, close the shutters (against the sun), lower / raise a blind, heat the house by a furnace, install a humidifier, the street lights burned, have a house wired for electricity, the light bulb had burned out, walk down the stairway, three long flights of stairs, the lift is out of the order, a revolving door, swing-doors, glass-paned double doors, a peephole, the door was bolted and chained, a keyhole, (un)lock the door on the outside, to latch the door with a hook, fit a latchkey to the door. Housekeeping: The plaster flaked from the ceiling, the floor wore thin, have one’s house repainted, collect refuse / garbage, a general cleaning, clear up the kitchen, have a big house-cleaning, set a room to rights, to vacuum, straighten a sheet on the bed, tuck a sheet flatly in, smooth a pillow, the sink has got blocked up, help with the washing-up, the kitchen was a mess, tidy up a kitchen, make one’s bed, rinse a bowl at

208

209

4. Semidetached house / Am. duplex house / — a house that is one of a pair of joined houses, i.e. one divided into two flats. 5. Pair of semidetached houses divided into four flats. 6. Block of flats (Br. Eng.) / Am. Eng. apartment house (building) / often with access balconies — a large building containing many flats (Br. Eng.) / Am. Eng. apartments / . 7. Multi-storey block of flats (Br. Eng.) / Am. Eng. multistorey apartment building (house) / — a very tall block of flats with several floors (storeys). 8. Weekend cottage — a small timber house often used for rest on weekends and other holidays from work. Useful Words and Expressions

Food and Meals. At the Table

the sink, put / hang one’s clothes on to hangers, hang one’s coat on its own regular hook in the closet, leave nothing lying around on the chairs, hang a jacket on the back of a chair, dust off one’s shirt, brush off one’s jacket, shine one’s shoes, do the washing and drying, launder and starch a shirt, hang out the washing, bring in the washing from the lines, air something out on the wash-lines, set an ironing board, do the ironing, wring out damp towel, clean the tableware and cutlery, air the room, do (tidy up) the room, fix up the room, dust the room, dampen the broom, take the rag and wi pe the floor,polish the table with asoft cloth,rub with a wet cotton rag, rub with a dishcloth, sharpen the knives, polish pots and pans, decorate the room, paper the room, furnish the room, heat the room, draw water from a well, have gas laid on to one’s house, have a leakage in the pi pe or joints, add some fuel to the fire, mend the fire, the chimney doesn’t draw well, chop the log into firewood, ignite the wood with some chi ps. Cleaning: You can brush any surface at any level in the room using a brush, usually held in one hand. You can sweep the floor, a yard, etc. using a brush / broom with a long handle. You can dust surfaces above floor level using a soft cloth. You can scrub any surface by rubbing it hard with a short, stiff brush using water. You can wi pe any surface by rubbing it with a cloth, probably using some water. If you wash something you remove dirt from it using a liquid, usually water. If you clean something, you remove dirt from it by any method — using a cloth, a brush, chemicals, water, etc. Mind the children, see the children’s health and cleanliness, shop for the family, cook, launder the clothes, clean the house, get the children ready for school and the husband for work, buy and repair clothes, make a fire in the stove, make coffee / tea, get breakfast ready, attend to the children, tidy the rooms, dust the furniture, make the beds, change the linen, sweep the floors, go marketing, buy provisions for the day, prepare lunch / dinner, sit down to lunch, wash and dry clothes, do the washing, iron the clothes / linen, wash up the dishes, clear the table, wash and put children to bed, darn socks and stockings, mend the clothes, put on a patch, sew up a rent. Some proverbs. East or West, home is best. Burn not your house to rid it of the mouse. One man makes a chair, and another man sits in it. A creaking door hangs long on its hinges. One link is broken, the whole chain is broken. As you make your bed, so must you lie on it. New brooms sweep clean. If each would sweep before his own door, we should have a clean street.

Generally speaking, English cookery is not bad, but there’s not much variety in it. Meat and fish are excellent, but English soups, vegetables and sweets deserve less praise. In most English households, four meals are taken a day, i.e. breakfast (about 8 or 9 in the morning, an hour later on Sundays), lunch (about 1 or 2), tea (about 5) and dinner (about 6:30 or later on in the evening). Supper (cold) as a rule is served only on Sundays after church (about 8 or 9 in the evening), dinner is then usually at 2. Breakfast consists of tea or coffee, bacon and eggs (i.e. a rasher of bacon with one or two poached eggs); or instead of this fried fish; now and then a mutton-chop, boiled eggs or jam. The lady (or mistress) of the house pours out the tea or coffee and adds milk and sugar. The Scotch and many Englishmen eat nutritious porridge. Lunch(eon) generally consists of chops, steaks, or cold meat, game or poultry. Boiled or fried potatoes, pickles, and salad are frequently on the table. Most Englishmen drink water at lunch; many foreigners prefer wine or beer. A piece of English cheese with one or two biscuits concludes the lunch. The dinner is the princi pal meal in well-to-do families. It is a very important matter; all members of the family generally dress for dinner. A thick or clear soup, which is very strong, and often seems to be prepared after Spartan reci pes, oxtail, mock-turtle, tomato, etc., mostly opens the meal. Then comes the second course, fish (trout, salmon, whiting, mackerel, turbot, halibut, sole, plaice, cod, eel, pike, carp, etc. After this a joint of (roast) beef is served as the third course. Instead of it (well-done or overdone), a leg of mutton, or chicken, duck, game, veal, pork, or lamb may be served. Potatoes and vegetables, i.e. peas, beans, carrots, turni ps, cabbage, spinach, etc. are also served but are distinguished by the absence of seasoning. They are simply boiled in salt and water, and then seasoned by each person according to his taste. (The juice obtained from the meat in cooking is called “gravy”, whereas “sauces” are artificially made to add a relish to any food.) The fourth course is the traditional pudding or tarts (also filled with fruits). Then come cheese and the dessert fruits: grapes, oranges, apples, figs, dates, nuts, etc. During the meal, various wines are taken, and at the finish, liqueurs are served. When dinner is over, the ladies retire to the drawing-room, the men remain a little longer “over the wine and walnuts.” They

210

211

Food and Meals. At the Table

the sink, put / hang one’s clothes on to hangers, hang one’s coat on its own regular hook in the closet, leave nothing lying around on the chairs, hang a jacket on the back of a chair, dust off one’s shirt, brush off one’s jacket, shine one’s shoes, do the washing and drying, launder and starch a shirt, hang out the washing, bring in the washing from the lines, air something out on the wash-lines, set an ironing board, do the ironing, wring out damp towel, clean the tableware and cutlery, air the room, do (tidy up) the room, fix up the room, dust the room, dampen the broom, take the rag and wi pe the floor,polish the table with asoft cloth,rub with a wet cotton rag, rub with a dishcloth, sharpen the knives, polish pots and pans, decorate the room, paper the room, furnish the room, heat the room, draw water from a well, have gas laid on to one’s house, have a leakage in the pi pe or joints, add some fuel to the fire, mend the fire, the chimney doesn’t draw well, chop the log into firewood, ignite the wood with some chi ps. Cleaning: You can brush any surface at any level in the room using a brush, usually held in one hand. You can sweep the floor, a yard, etc. using a brush / broom with a long handle. You can dust surfaces above floor level using a soft cloth. You can scrub any surface by rubbing it hard with a short, stiff brush using water. You can wi pe any surface by rubbing it with a cloth, probably using some water. If you wash something you remove dirt from it using a liquid, usually water. If you clean something, you remove dirt from it by any method — using a cloth, a brush, chemicals, water, etc. Mind the children, see the children’s health and cleanliness, shop for the family, cook, launder the clothes, clean the house, get the children ready for school and the husband for work, buy and repair clothes, make a fire in the stove, make coffee / tea, get breakfast ready, attend to the children, tidy the rooms, dust the furniture, make the beds, change the linen, sweep the floors, go marketing, buy provisions for the day, prepare lunch / dinner, sit down to lunch, wash and dry clothes, do the washing, iron the clothes / linen, wash up the dishes, clear the table, wash and put children to bed, darn socks and stockings, mend the clothes, put on a patch, sew up a rent. Some proverbs. East or West, home is best. Burn not your house to rid it of the mouse. One man makes a chair, and another man sits in it. A creaking door hangs long on its hinges. One link is broken, the whole chain is broken. As you make your bed, so must you lie on it. New brooms sweep clean. If each would sweep before his own door, we should have a clean street.

Generally speaking, English cookery is not bad, but there’s not much variety in it. Meat and fish are excellent, but English soups, vegetables and sweets deserve less praise. In most English households, four meals are taken a day, i.e. breakfast (about 8 or 9 in the morning, an hour later on Sundays), lunch (about 1 or 2), tea (about 5) and dinner (about 6:30 or later on in the evening). Supper (cold) as a rule is served only on Sundays after church (about 8 or 9 in the evening), dinner is then usually at 2. Breakfast consists of tea or coffee, bacon and eggs (i.e. a rasher of bacon with one or two poached eggs); or instead of this fried fish; now and then a mutton-chop, boiled eggs or jam. The lady (or mistress) of the house pours out the tea or coffee and adds milk and sugar. The Scotch and many Englishmen eat nutritious porridge. Lunch(eon) generally consists of chops, steaks, or cold meat, game or poultry. Boiled or fried potatoes, pickles, and salad are frequently on the table. Most Englishmen drink water at lunch; many foreigners prefer wine or beer. A piece of English cheese with one or two biscuits concludes the lunch. The dinner is the princi pal meal in well-to-do families. It is a very important matter; all members of the family generally dress for dinner. A thick or clear soup, which is very strong, and often seems to be prepared after Spartan reci pes, oxtail, mock-turtle, tomato, etc., mostly opens the meal. Then comes the second course, fish (trout, salmon, whiting, mackerel, turbot, halibut, sole, plaice, cod, eel, pike, carp, etc. After this a joint of (roast) beef is served as the third course. Instead of it (well-done or overdone), a leg of mutton, or chicken, duck, game, veal, pork, or lamb may be served. Potatoes and vegetables, i.e. peas, beans, carrots, turni ps, cabbage, spinach, etc. are also served but are distinguished by the absence of seasoning. They are simply boiled in salt and water, and then seasoned by each person according to his taste. (The juice obtained from the meat in cooking is called “gravy”, whereas “sauces” are artificially made to add a relish to any food.) The fourth course is the traditional pudding or tarts (also filled with fruits). Then come cheese and the dessert fruits: grapes, oranges, apples, figs, dates, nuts, etc. During the meal, various wines are taken, and at the finish, liqueurs are served. When dinner is over, the ladies retire to the drawing-room, the men remain a little longer “over the wine and walnuts.” They

210

211

often smoke, if smoking in the dining-room is allowed by the hostess. Afterwards servants bring cups of coffee or tea, and hand them round to the ladies and gentlemen. Then men join the ladies in the drawing-room. Here the remaining part of the evening is spent in listening to songs or pieces of music executed by members of the party. Before (the) dinner begins, grace is usually said aloud by one of the family: “For what we are going to receive, (may) the Lord make us truly thankful. Amen.” The toasts are proposed at the conclusion of the repast; speeches so made are appropriately called “after-dinner speeches.” The first toast at public dinners regularly runs thus: “Ladies and Gentlemen! Her Majesty the Queen!” To get an invitation to dinner is, of course, considered a great honour. When the invitation is a written one, it has the following generally accepted form: Mr. and Mrs. X request the pleasure of Mr. (and Mrs.) Y’s company to dinner, on Thursday, October 15th, at 7 (o’clock). Rock Bank, Dulwich, S.E.., Oct.8th, R.S.V.P (read: Reponse, s’il vous plait, i.e. an answer will oblige). Tea is a very popular beverage with the English. One or two cups of tea are welcomed in the morning, in the afternoon, and in the evening. The English like their tea strong and fresh-made. They put one or two lumps of sugar and unboiled milk into it. The ordinary English supper (also on Sundays) consists of cold meat and salad, or simply of bread and cheese; water or beer is drunk at supper. The “true-born Briton” never thinks of making the restaurant, cafe, or public house the centre of his social life. He does not stay there any length of time, and rarely spends more than half-an-hour over his lunch (which he usually takes at a luncheon-bar near his business premises), over a cup of coffee or tea and a roll and butter (in a cafe, a coffee-house, a tea-shop), or over a glass of ale (bitter, mild), stout, half-and-half (i.e. ale and stout mixed), or glass of whiskey taken at the saloon-bar of a better-class public house. When his business-hours are over (about 6 p.m.), he goes home, has his family dinner, and usually stays indoors (or at home), for the English are a home-loving people. The saying “No place like home” is often on their li ps. If an Englishman wants to spend a couple of hours with his friends, he either asks (or invites) them to come to his house, or to meet him at his club.

The typical English club is either a restaurant, or a combination of a cafe, restaurant and hotel, but only open to members, who have to pay a high entrance fee and an annual subscri ption. Ladies and strangers are, as a rule, not admitted. Foreigners and ordinary people are compelled to patronise (or frequent) the less select restaurants, cafe´s, or tea-rooms. Here the bill of fare (list of dishes) is quite English: fish, roast-beef, lamb, roast duck or chicken, a steak or chop from the grill, boiled potatoes and vegetables, salad, pudding, pie, and cheese are the usual dishes. At most restaurants, a dinner from the joint (meat, potatoes, vegetables, and cheese) with a glass, tankard or bottle of ale, is served at moderate charges. A certain number of people eat no meat, fish, butter, milk or eggs; they live solely (or exclusively) on vegetables and fruit. Such folk (or people) are called vegetarians. As a rule, the well-bred Englishman does not frequent a public house, but goes into a hotel, when he wishes to have a drink. Workmen, and frequently working women, are regular customers at the public house (or pubs), or at one of the so-called gin-palaces, where chiefly spirits (i.e. brandy, whisky, gin), but also ale, are sold. Cafe´s in the Continental style are generally connected with betterclass restaurants. The refreshments most in favour with English customers are tea, coffee, chocolate, lemon-squash, brandy, gin, whiskey, sherry, port wine, hot drinks and iced (or American, or mixed) drinks sucked through a straw. Among the latter, the best known are the “cobblers” (iced wine, flavoured (or seasoned) and sweetened) and the “cocktails” made of spirits (e.g. brandy cocktail, whisky cocktail). In England, waiters are not more modest than those on the Continent; they expect a gratuity (or a “ti p”) when the customer pays his bill, on an average, a penny for every shilling spent (or in the bill) is left as a “ti p.” At home a modern gas or electric cooker usually has three parts: the oven; the grill (Am. broiler), and the burners or hotplates on top. The oven is used for baking bread and cakes, or roasting (cooking with oil) a large piece of meat. The grill is an apparatus for cooking by direct heat (over / under strong heat) and can be used, for example, for grilling (Am. broiling) meat or toasting bread (making it hard and brown). The gas burners or electric hotplates can be used for boiling food in a pot with water, for poaching (cooking gently in hot water), for stewing food (= cooking food slowly in liquid to make a stew) or for frying (cooking food in hot fat or oil). Simmering is very gentle

212

213

often smoke, if smoking in the dining-room is allowed by the hostess. Afterwards servants bring cups of coffee or tea, and hand them round to the ladies and gentlemen. Then men join the ladies in the drawing-room. Here the remaining part of the evening is spent in listening to songs or pieces of music executed by members of the party. Before (the) dinner begins, grace is usually said aloud by one of the family: “For what we are going to receive, (may) the Lord make us truly thankful. Amen.” The toasts are proposed at the conclusion of the repast; speeches so made are appropriately called “after-dinner speeches.” The first toast at public dinners regularly runs thus: “Ladies and Gentlemen! Her Majesty the Queen!” To get an invitation to dinner is, of course, considered a great honour. When the invitation is a written one, it has the following generally accepted form: Mr. and Mrs. X request the pleasure of Mr. (and Mrs.) Y’s company to dinner, on Thursday, October 15th, at 7 (o’clock). Rock Bank, Dulwich, S.E.., Oct.8th, R.S.V.P (read: Reponse, s’il vous plait, i.e. an answer will oblige). Tea is a very popular beverage with the English. One or two cups of tea are welcomed in the morning, in the afternoon, and in the evening. The English like their tea strong and fresh-made. They put one or two lumps of sugar and unboiled milk into it. The ordinary English supper (also on Sundays) consists of cold meat and salad, or simply of bread and cheese; water or beer is drunk at supper. The “true-born Briton” never thinks of making the restaurant, cafe, or public house the centre of his social life. He does not stay there any length of time, and rarely spends more than half-an-hour over his lunch (which he usually takes at a luncheon-bar near his business premises), over a cup of coffee or tea and a roll and butter (in a cafe, a coffee-house, a tea-shop), or over a glass of ale (bitter, mild), stout, half-and-half (i.e. ale and stout mixed), or glass of whiskey taken at the saloon-bar of a better-class public house. When his business-hours are over (about 6 p.m.), he goes home, has his family dinner, and usually stays indoors (or at home), for the English are a home-loving people. The saying “No place like home” is often on their li ps. If an Englishman wants to spend a couple of hours with his friends, he either asks (or invites) them to come to his house, or to meet him at his club.

The typical English club is either a restaurant, or a combination of a cafe, restaurant and hotel, but only open to members, who have to pay a high entrance fee and an annual subscri ption. Ladies and strangers are, as a rule, not admitted. Foreigners and ordinary people are compelled to patronise (or frequent) the less select restaurants, cafe´s, or tea-rooms. Here the bill of fare (list of dishes) is quite English: fish, roast-beef, lamb, roast duck or chicken, a steak or chop from the grill, boiled potatoes and vegetables, salad, pudding, pie, and cheese are the usual dishes. At most restaurants, a dinner from the joint (meat, potatoes, vegetables, and cheese) with a glass, tankard or bottle of ale, is served at moderate charges. A certain number of people eat no meat, fish, butter, milk or eggs; they live solely (or exclusively) on vegetables and fruit. Such folk (or people) are called vegetarians. As a rule, the well-bred Englishman does not frequent a public house, but goes into a hotel, when he wishes to have a drink. Workmen, and frequently working women, are regular customers at the public house (or pubs), or at one of the so-called gin-palaces, where chiefly spirits (i.e. brandy, whisky, gin), but also ale, are sold. Cafe´s in the Continental style are generally connected with betterclass restaurants. The refreshments most in favour with English customers are tea, coffee, chocolate, lemon-squash, brandy, gin, whiskey, sherry, port wine, hot drinks and iced (or American, or mixed) drinks sucked through a straw. Among the latter, the best known are the “cobblers” (iced wine, flavoured (or seasoned) and sweetened) and the “cocktails” made of spirits (e.g. brandy cocktail, whisky cocktail). In England, waiters are not more modest than those on the Continent; they expect a gratuity (or a “ti p”) when the customer pays his bill, on an average, a penny for every shilling spent (or in the bill) is left as a “ti p.” At home a modern gas or electric cooker usually has three parts: the oven; the grill (Am. broiler), and the burners or hotplates on top. The oven is used for baking bread and cakes, or roasting (cooking with oil) a large piece of meat. The grill is an apparatus for cooking by direct heat (over / under strong heat) and can be used, for example, for grilling (Am. broiling) meat or toasting bread (making it hard and brown). The gas burners or electric hotplates can be used for boiling food in a pot with water, for poaching (cooking gently in hot water), for stewing food (= cooking food slowly in liquid to make a stew) or for frying (cooking food in hot fat or oil). Simmering is very gentle

212

213

slow boiling. Steaming is cooking food in water but in an inner container so that the water does not directly touch the food. Braising, used usually of meat, means cooking slowly in a covered pot with a little fat or water. At the usual place setting to the left of the main plate we have two forks and a side plate with a napkin (or serviette) and to the right of it we have a knife, a fish knife, a butter knife and a soup spoon. The wine glass is also there somewhat to the right.

Table d’hote — a complete meal of several dishes served at a fixed price in a hotel or restaurant. a la carte (of a food in a restaurant) — according to a menu where each dish has its own separate price. A balanced daily diet should include first — the vegetable-fruit group and the bread-cereal group, then the milk-cheese group and the meatpoultry-fish-beans-nuts group, and finally the fats-sweets group. Energy rich foods (sausages, pasta, beans, cereals, potatoes, pulses, dried fruits, etc.) contain fats, oils, and carbohydrates, body-building foods contain proteins, protective and regulative foods contain vitamins and minerals. To be healthy one should eat low fat food, high fibre food and wholemeal bread. Fibre-rich foods are: wholemeal bread, nuts, breakfast cereal, baked beans, root vegetables like carrots, beetroot, or jacket potato. Delicious food, meat / poultry, fish / seafood, dairy products, fruit, vegetables, cereals / grains, raw food, tinned food, Genetically Modified (GM) foods, organic foods, vegetarian, diabetic cuisine, food prepared with hygiene and nutrition taking priority, rich food / plain food, tough / tender meat, a strong taste, flavourings, additives, ready-made food, take-away meal, junk / fast food, frozen food, home-grown food, a balanced diet, cut out snacks and desserts, cut down on fat, eat less red meat, use low-calorie foods, follow a diet, ski p breakfasts, disgusting, repulsive, unappetizing, creamy, delicate, sweet, hot (spicy), sour, bitter, salty, strong, tempting, juicy, rich, nasty food, hearty, square, solid, substantial meal, be a glutton / gourmet, not have room for any pudding, a sidewalk / barbecue stand, drinks and light refreshments, be a very light eater, an ice-cream parlour, a set, three-course meal, lay a table for two, at the head / foot of the table, give an order, a serving table, a tablecloth, tableware and cutlery, tuck a napkin into one’s collar, take an order, decide on something, highly seasoned food, ovenbaked /

jacket potato, rough ground black pepper, firm to the touch, eat one’s food with gusto, a buttered toast,help oneself to more chi pped potatoes, a second helping of potatoes, stir-fried vegetables, fried rice, a soup-tureen, fork a piece of pie, a spoonful of mustard, a forkful of scrambled eggs, scrape a plate, mop a plate clean, crack an egg, a fried / boiled egg, like eggs underdone, the yolk / white of an egg, make / brew tea, be a tea / coffee-drinker, a wrinkled skin on top of milk, skim cream from the top of milk, would you care for a cup of tea, I expect you could do with a cup of tea, a chocolate bar, a box of chocolates, unseal a jar of strawberry preserve, peel an orange, have a thick rind, to section an orange, spit a seed in a spoon and dump it on a plate, sni p small sprigs of grapes from a bunch, a rotten apple, scrape a carrot, crack a nut, pull a kernel out of a nutshell, be a good cook, prepare all ingredients, top and tail radishes, dress a salad, a very fresh rainbow trout, cleaned but not scaled, be much too fattening, contain less calories, lower cholesterol, destroy parasites, help fight disease, spoil quickly, mouth-watering aromas, a tin / can opener, bread bin, brown bread, coffee maker, freshly squeezed juice, dark / plain chocolate, have / fix a drink, be a connoisseur of wine, taste fairly mild / mellow, sell wine / beer on draught, flat beer, share a bottle of wine, be a heavy drinker, to fill a third / two fingers of a glass, drink at a one full gulp, pull at a cork, bottled water, what are you going to have, wouldn’t you care for something a little stronger, light a cigarette, tear a pack(et) (of cigarettes) open, a carton of cigarettes, get a cigar going, a cigarette lighter / case, light a fresh cigarette off the stub of the old one, flick ash of a cigarette on the floor, to be a chain-smoker, grind out / snub a cigarette in(to) an ash-tray, tap ash from a cigarette, a cigarette end, stuff a pi pe full, try to cut down or give up smoking. Some cooking utensils used in the kitchen: a whisk to beat eggs, a knife to peel potatoes / chop herbs / slice the bread, a grater to grate cheese, a sieve to sieve flour, a wooden spoon to stir soup. Some quantities of food ingredients: a knob of butter, a pinch of salt, a dash of vinegar, a clove of garlic, a lump of sugar, a cup of flour. The food may taste: sweet / sour, spicy / bland, tasty / tasteless, fresh / stale, over-cooked / under-cooked. For containers of food we use: a packet of crisps, a carton of milk / orange juice, a bar of chocolate, a tin of beans, tuna, pineapple, a packet of rice, tea, spaghetti, a bottle of lemonade, tomato sauce, a jar of marmalade, jam, coffee, a box of chocolates, cereal, a bag of sugar, flour, a tube of

214

215

Useful Words and Phrases

slow boiling. Steaming is cooking food in water but in an inner container so that the water does not directly touch the food. Braising, used usually of meat, means cooking slowly in a covered pot with a little fat or water. At the usual place setting to the left of the main plate we have two forks and a side plate with a napkin (or serviette) and to the right of it we have a knife, a fish knife, a butter knife and a soup spoon. The wine glass is also there somewhat to the right.

Table d’hote — a complete meal of several dishes served at a fixed price in a hotel or restaurant. a la carte (of a food in a restaurant) — according to a menu where each dish has its own separate price. A balanced daily diet should include first — the vegetable-fruit group and the bread-cereal group, then the milk-cheese group and the meatpoultry-fish-beans-nuts group, and finally the fats-sweets group. Energy rich foods (sausages, pasta, beans, cereals, potatoes, pulses, dried fruits, etc.) contain fats, oils, and carbohydrates, body-building foods contain proteins, protective and regulative foods contain vitamins and minerals. To be healthy one should eat low fat food, high fibre food and wholemeal bread. Fibre-rich foods are: wholemeal bread, nuts, breakfast cereal, baked beans, root vegetables like carrots, beetroot, or jacket potato. Delicious food, meat / poultry, fish / seafood, dairy products, fruit, vegetables, cereals / grains, raw food, tinned food, Genetically Modified (GM) foods, organic foods, vegetarian, diabetic cuisine, food prepared with hygiene and nutrition taking priority, rich food / plain food, tough / tender meat, a strong taste, flavourings, additives, ready-made food, take-away meal, junk / fast food, frozen food, home-grown food, a balanced diet, cut out snacks and desserts, cut down on fat, eat less red meat, use low-calorie foods, follow a diet, ski p breakfasts, disgusting, repulsive, unappetizing, creamy, delicate, sweet, hot (spicy), sour, bitter, salty, strong, tempting, juicy, rich, nasty food, hearty, square, solid, substantial meal, be a glutton / gourmet, not have room for any pudding, a sidewalk / barbecue stand, drinks and light refreshments, be a very light eater, an ice-cream parlour, a set, three-course meal, lay a table for two, at the head / foot of the table, give an order, a serving table, a tablecloth, tableware and cutlery, tuck a napkin into one’s collar, take an order, decide on something, highly seasoned food, ovenbaked /

jacket potato, rough ground black pepper, firm to the touch, eat one’s food with gusto, a buttered toast,help oneself to more chi pped potatoes, a second helping of potatoes, stir-fried vegetables, fried rice, a soup-tureen, fork a piece of pie, a spoonful of mustard, a forkful of scrambled eggs, scrape a plate, mop a plate clean, crack an egg, a fried / boiled egg, like eggs underdone, the yolk / white of an egg, make / brew tea, be a tea / coffee-drinker, a wrinkled skin on top of milk, skim cream from the top of milk, would you care for a cup of tea, I expect you could do with a cup of tea, a chocolate bar, a box of chocolates, unseal a jar of strawberry preserve, peel an orange, have a thick rind, to section an orange, spit a seed in a spoon and dump it on a plate, sni p small sprigs of grapes from a bunch, a rotten apple, scrape a carrot, crack a nut, pull a kernel out of a nutshell, be a good cook, prepare all ingredients, top and tail radishes, dress a salad, a very fresh rainbow trout, cleaned but not scaled, be much too fattening, contain less calories, lower cholesterol, destroy parasites, help fight disease, spoil quickly, mouth-watering aromas, a tin / can opener, bread bin, brown bread, coffee maker, freshly squeezed juice, dark / plain chocolate, have / fix a drink, be a connoisseur of wine, taste fairly mild / mellow, sell wine / beer on draught, flat beer, share a bottle of wine, be a heavy drinker, to fill a third / two fingers of a glass, drink at a one full gulp, pull at a cork, bottled water, what are you going to have, wouldn’t you care for something a little stronger, light a cigarette, tear a pack(et) (of cigarettes) open, a carton of cigarettes, get a cigar going, a cigarette lighter / case, light a fresh cigarette off the stub of the old one, flick ash of a cigarette on the floor, to be a chain-smoker, grind out / snub a cigarette in(to) an ash-tray, tap ash from a cigarette, a cigarette end, stuff a pi pe full, try to cut down or give up smoking. Some cooking utensils used in the kitchen: a whisk to beat eggs, a knife to peel potatoes / chop herbs / slice the bread, a grater to grate cheese, a sieve to sieve flour, a wooden spoon to stir soup. Some quantities of food ingredients: a knob of butter, a pinch of salt, a dash of vinegar, a clove of garlic, a lump of sugar, a cup of flour. The food may taste: sweet / sour, spicy / bland, tasty / tasteless, fresh / stale, over-cooked / under-cooked. For containers of food we use: a packet of crisps, a carton of milk / orange juice, a bar of chocolate, a tin of beans, tuna, pineapple, a packet of rice, tea, spaghetti, a bottle of lemonade, tomato sauce, a jar of marmalade, jam, coffee, a box of chocolates, cereal, a bag of sugar, flour, a tube of

214

215

Useful Words and Phrases

“Health is better than wealth”, says English proverb. Happy indeed is he that has a sound mind in a sound body. Unfortunately, a great many people are afflicted with all sorts of bodily defects (or infirmities) and diseases. The number of diseases is very large; some are light, others are serious;

many are infectious (or catching); and in some cases contagious (transmitted by direct contact). There has been a great deal of illnesses in our family lately. Nearly everyone of us has been ill (or laid up), and the doctor has been attending us daily. A sister of mine, the youngest but one, has been troubled with a cough. Another sister, an elder one, suffers much from headaches and toothache. No medicine seems to do her any good. Yesterday she had to take to her bed because she had all the symptoms of influenza. She is in a bad state of health. My brother Fred has been very poorly too for the last 6 weeks. He had the measles only a few years ago, and now he has got the scarlet fever. Of course, he is confined to his bed, and isolated from us younger children. He is getting better slowly, and still looks very poorly. My father has been suffering from sciatica, gout, and rheumatism for years. When wet weather sets in, he is regularly obliged to lie on a couch in the day-time. My dear old grandmother is asthmatic, and moreover subject to attacks of giddiness. I don’t think she will last much longer. Uncle Tom died two years ago from an apoplectic fit. He was paralysed for some time, and after a third apoplectic seizure, breathed his last. As for myself I am not very strong either. I very easily catch cold, especially when there is a draught, and then I get cold in my head or a pain in my chest. Sometimes I suffer from toothache and a swollen cheek. I have a good appetite and eat too much at times, especially of pudding, although I know it doesn’t agree with me, and invariably gives me indigestion. Jack, a school-fellow of mine, had a bad accident the other day. He was picking cherries in a cherry-tree when a branch broke, and he fell head over heals to the ground. Unfortunately he broke his left arm, put out (or dislocated) his shoulder, and sprained his ankle. A surgeon was sent for, and the arm and shoulder were dressed, and a plaster of Paris bandage was applied. He now has it in a sling, and will have to stay indoors for some time. There are a good many ailments, which I only know by name (or by hearsay). I don’t think it very amusing, for instance, to be seized with cramp, to have epileptic fits, to faint (or swoon), to be affected with dropsy, to sprain one’s ankle, to have a sick headache, or to suffer from chilblains in winter. Nor is it pleasant to have to swallow all sorts of doctor’s stuff, potions, powders, and pills. There are terrible epidemics and contagious diseases such as cholera, small-pox, influenza, and tuberculosis. Small-pox is exceedingly dangerous, too, but since

216

217

toothpaste, tomato paste, the bill of fares (the menu-card, the menu), the wine list, bring an extra cover / place setting, dress a fruit salad, make astewed fruit,rye-bread,abroth,have you change for apound,a ti p, forget a sixpence, pay / settle the bill, pass / hand me over the salt, take away / bring the first dish, may I help you to..., put sugar on one’s porridge, have a bite, the beef-stake is done to a turn (underdone, medium, overdone), pi ping hot, a standing dish, the table groaned with food, I wouldn’t mind a snack, a regular / square meal, pour me out a cup of tea, let’s have a Dutch treat, (Here’s to you!, Cheerio!, Your health!, To you!), strike a match for somebody, peel potatoes, pare or scrape a carrot, trim a cabbage, slice a potato thinly or thickly, cut a cabbage into shreds, chop the meat finely, mince the meat, roll something in fine breadcrumbs (flour), put something on the sieve to drain, the milk has boiled over, skim it clean, fry in butter (dri ppings, boiling lard), baste the meat plentiful, kinds of basting (butter, suet, cream, yolks of eggs, orange juice), parboil, probe the meat. Some proverbs. Eat at pleasure, drink with measure. Appetite comes with eating. A hungry belly has no ears. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. Better an egg today than a hen tomorrow.There’s many a sli p between the cup and the li p. All bread is not baked in one oven.The proof of the pudding is in the eating. He that will eat the kernel must crack the nut. Every cook praises his own broth. Two many cooks spoil the broth. A watched pot never boils. As you brew, so must you drink. Life is not all beer and skittles. Put that in your pi pe and smoke it. It takes some skill to spoil a breakfast — even the English can’t do it! (J.K. Galbraith, economist). On the Continent people have good food; in England people have good table manners (G. Mikes, writer). If the English can survive their food, they can survive anything! (G.B. Shaw, writer). English cooking? You just put things into boiling water and then take them out again after a long while! (an anonymous French chef).

Illnesses

“Health is better than wealth”, says English proverb. Happy indeed is he that has a sound mind in a sound body. Unfortunately, a great many people are afflicted with all sorts of bodily defects (or infirmities) and diseases. The number of diseases is very large; some are light, others are serious;

many are infectious (or catching); and in some cases contagious (transmitted by direct contact). There has been a great deal of illnesses in our family lately. Nearly everyone of us has been ill (or laid up), and the doctor has been attending us daily. A sister of mine, the youngest but one, has been troubled with a cough. Another sister, an elder one, suffers much from headaches and toothache. No medicine seems to do her any good. Yesterday she had to take to her bed because she had all the symptoms of influenza. She is in a bad state of health. My brother Fred has been very poorly too for the last 6 weeks. He had the measles only a few years ago, and now he has got the scarlet fever. Of course, he is confined to his bed, and isolated from us younger children. He is getting better slowly, and still looks very poorly. My father has been suffering from sciatica, gout, and rheumatism for years. When wet weather sets in, he is regularly obliged to lie on a couch in the day-time. My dear old grandmother is asthmatic, and moreover subject to attacks of giddiness. I don’t think she will last much longer. Uncle Tom died two years ago from an apoplectic fit. He was paralysed for some time, and after a third apoplectic seizure, breathed his last. As for myself I am not very strong either. I very easily catch cold, especially when there is a draught, and then I get cold in my head or a pain in my chest. Sometimes I suffer from toothache and a swollen cheek. I have a good appetite and eat too much at times, especially of pudding, although I know it doesn’t agree with me, and invariably gives me indigestion. Jack, a school-fellow of mine, had a bad accident the other day. He was picking cherries in a cherry-tree when a branch broke, and he fell head over heals to the ground. Unfortunately he broke his left arm, put out (or dislocated) his shoulder, and sprained his ankle. A surgeon was sent for, and the arm and shoulder were dressed, and a plaster of Paris bandage was applied. He now has it in a sling, and will have to stay indoors for some time. There are a good many ailments, which I only know by name (or by hearsay). I don’t think it very amusing, for instance, to be seized with cramp, to have epileptic fits, to faint (or swoon), to be affected with dropsy, to sprain one’s ankle, to have a sick headache, or to suffer from chilblains in winter. Nor is it pleasant to have to swallow all sorts of doctor’s stuff, potions, powders, and pills. There are terrible epidemics and contagious diseases such as cholera, small-pox, influenza, and tuberculosis. Small-pox is exceedingly dangerous, too, but since

216

217

toothpaste, tomato paste, the bill of fares (the menu-card, the menu), the wine list, bring an extra cover / place setting, dress a fruit salad, make astewed fruit,rye-bread,abroth,have you change for apound,a ti p, forget a sixpence, pay / settle the bill, pass / hand me over the salt, take away / bring the first dish, may I help you to..., put sugar on one’s porridge, have a bite, the beef-stake is done to a turn (underdone, medium, overdone), pi ping hot, a standing dish, the table groaned with food, I wouldn’t mind a snack, a regular / square meal, pour me out a cup of tea, let’s have a Dutch treat, (Here’s to you!, Cheerio!, Your health!, To you!), strike a match for somebody, peel potatoes, pare or scrape a carrot, trim a cabbage, slice a potato thinly or thickly, cut a cabbage into shreds, chop the meat finely, mince the meat, roll something in fine breadcrumbs (flour), put something on the sieve to drain, the milk has boiled over, skim it clean, fry in butter (dri ppings, boiling lard), baste the meat plentiful, kinds of basting (butter, suet, cream, yolks of eggs, orange juice), parboil, probe the meat. Some proverbs. Eat at pleasure, drink with measure. Appetite comes with eating. A hungry belly has no ears. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. Better an egg today than a hen tomorrow.There’s many a sli p between the cup and the li p. All bread is not baked in one oven.The proof of the pudding is in the eating. He that will eat the kernel must crack the nut. Every cook praises his own broth. Two many cooks spoil the broth. A watched pot never boils. As you brew, so must you drink. Life is not all beer and skittles. Put that in your pi pe and smoke it. It takes some skill to spoil a breakfast — even the English can’t do it! (J.K. Galbraith, economist). On the Continent people have good food; in England people have good table manners (G. Mikes, writer). If the English can survive their food, they can survive anything! (G.B. Shaw, writer). English cooking? You just put things into boiling water and then take them out again after a long while! (an anonymous French chef).

Illnesses

If you lead a healthy life you wake up / go to bed early, have enough time to relax, have a fixed daily routine, exercise regularly, work hard, eat fruit and vegetables every day, are always on the go, enjoy spending time with your family; if you lead unhealthy life you often feel tired, often work long hours, often suffer from headaches, lose appetite, come back home very late. Moderation in eating and drinking, reasonable hours of labour and study, regularity in exercise, recreation and rest,

cleanliness and many other essentials lay the foundations for good health and long life. Complain of feeling unwell / feverish, shiver slightly with cold, feel dizzy, get a queasy stomach, throw up / vomit, be susceptible to drafts, have one’s lung slightly affected, be ill with the flu, send for the doctor, be in infirmary, be discharged, be wounded in the foot, pull one’s back, be cri ppled / handicapped, lose one’s sight, contract a polio, catch mumps, a contagious disease, be paralysed from the neck down, be completely paralysed down the right side, a pediatric outpatient department,areferral sli p,amale ward,ahead nurse,the nurses’ station on the surgical ward, recent postoperatives, record on each patient’s chart the medications he has been given, notations regarding any significant change in the patient’s course, a thermometer, give one an injection, make one sleep, give a shot of penicillin, an emergency removal of one’s appendix, a patient’s history, an acute pain, an acutely inflamed appendix, have one’s gall bladder removed, an ulcer of the stomach, recover from one’s operation, stay in bed, drink plenty of hot fluids, rub on lotion, suck a throat lozenge, use a nasal spray, put on a cold compress, lie down in a dark room, develop postoperative complications, to feed intravenously, an inoperable cancer, suffer pains and cramps in one’s leg, a blood test, diagnoses and treatments, lens prescri ption,check one’s temperature,have achest X-ray taken,medical facilities, a chronic cold and cough, a white blood count, have blood drawn, draw blood from a patient, be transfused while under anesthesia, pour blood in, send one for a blood / urine test, to be Rh negative / positive, have a fracture of the hand, a stretcher, a first-aid room, make a quick examination, to load a syringe, ease the pain, have a stiff neck, hernia, sunburn, hay fever, nosebleed, sprained ankle, pull a muscle, sore throat, acne, migraine, splint someone’s arm, keep someone quiet with sedatives, refuse all medications, a sling for an arm in a plaster cast, break one’s arm, keep one’s foot elevated for a few days, remove the cast, be discharged in a cast or on crutches, be taken out from the cast, fracture one’s skull, bandage one’s leg, paint the cuts with iodine, have a stri p of plaster on one’s face,have one’s foot heavily bandaged, tie some cloth in a bandage, an intern, take out stitches, change dressings using sterile technique, cancel a dental appointment, a semiannual check-up, extract a perfectly sound tooth, have a tooth loose, replace a lost tooth in front, the occlusion is imperfect, dental work, back lower molars, have a tooth to fill, sleep ill, a hot-water bottle, have a bout of

218

219

vaccination has been made compulsory in all civilised countries, that disease has become less prevalent. I have been successfully vaccinated twice with vaccine matter. Di phtheria and typhoid fever are also very infectious, and frequently fatal. Cancer, too, is said to be catching; at any rate it is a very painful and deadly disease. Our doctor is very skilful, and in consequence, has an extensive practice. The first thing he does is to feel the patient’s pulse and look at his tongue. When he finds the tongue coated (or furred), he writes out a prescri ption, which is made up by a dispensing chemist. Medical fees (or charges) vary according to the patient’s supposed income. People suffering from diseases requiring special care which they cannot get at home, are taken to a hospital where they are carefully attended by a large staff of physicians, surgeons, trained nurses, etc. Phrases Expressing Sympathy with a Patient What seems to be the problem? I am very sorry to hear you don’t feel well. I hope you will soon get over it. I hope it won’t be anything serious. You are ill? Nothing serious, I hope. You should consult a doctor (or physician) at once. Go and have yourself carefully examined. Go to bed at once; you seem to be seriously ill. You must take better care of yourself. I hope you will feel a little better when I come to see you tomorrow. Cheer up! Don’t lose courage! Keep up your courage! (spirits)! Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. Useful Phrases

If you lead a healthy life you wake up / go to bed early, have enough time to relax, have a fixed daily routine, exercise regularly, work hard, eat fruit and vegetables every day, are always on the go, enjoy spending time with your family; if you lead unhealthy life you often feel tired, often work long hours, often suffer from headaches, lose appetite, come back home very late. Moderation in eating and drinking, reasonable hours of labour and study, regularity in exercise, recreation and rest,

cleanliness and many other essentials lay the foundations for good health and long life. Complain of feeling unwell / feverish, shiver slightly with cold, feel dizzy, get a queasy stomach, throw up / vomit, be susceptible to drafts, have one’s lung slightly affected, be ill with the flu, send for the doctor, be in infirmary, be discharged, be wounded in the foot, pull one’s back, be cri ppled / handicapped, lose one’s sight, contract a polio, catch mumps, a contagious disease, be paralysed from the neck down, be completely paralysed down the right side, a pediatric outpatient department,areferral sli p,amale ward,ahead nurse,the nurses’ station on the surgical ward, recent postoperatives, record on each patient’s chart the medications he has been given, notations regarding any significant change in the patient’s course, a thermometer, give one an injection, make one sleep, give a shot of penicillin, an emergency removal of one’s appendix, a patient’s history, an acute pain, an acutely inflamed appendix, have one’s gall bladder removed, an ulcer of the stomach, recover from one’s operation, stay in bed, drink plenty of hot fluids, rub on lotion, suck a throat lozenge, use a nasal spray, put on a cold compress, lie down in a dark room, develop postoperative complications, to feed intravenously, an inoperable cancer, suffer pains and cramps in one’s leg, a blood test, diagnoses and treatments, lens prescri ption,check one’s temperature,have achest X-ray taken,medical facilities, a chronic cold and cough, a white blood count, have blood drawn, draw blood from a patient, be transfused while under anesthesia, pour blood in, send one for a blood / urine test, to be Rh negative / positive, have a fracture of the hand, a stretcher, a first-aid room, make a quick examination, to load a syringe, ease the pain, have a stiff neck, hernia, sunburn, hay fever, nosebleed, sprained ankle, pull a muscle, sore throat, acne, migraine, splint someone’s arm, keep someone quiet with sedatives, refuse all medications, a sling for an arm in a plaster cast, break one’s arm, keep one’s foot elevated for a few days, remove the cast, be discharged in a cast or on crutches, be taken out from the cast, fracture one’s skull, bandage one’s leg, paint the cuts with iodine, have a stri p of plaster on one’s face,have one’s foot heavily bandaged, tie some cloth in a bandage, an intern, take out stitches, change dressings using sterile technique, cancel a dental appointment, a semiannual check-up, extract a perfectly sound tooth, have a tooth loose, replace a lost tooth in front, the occlusion is imperfect, dental work, back lower molars, have a tooth to fill, sleep ill, a hot-water bottle, have a bout of

218

219

vaccination has been made compulsory in all civilised countries, that disease has become less prevalent. I have been successfully vaccinated twice with vaccine matter. Di phtheria and typhoid fever are also very infectious, and frequently fatal. Cancer, too, is said to be catching; at any rate it is a very painful and deadly disease. Our doctor is very skilful, and in consequence, has an extensive practice. The first thing he does is to feel the patient’s pulse and look at his tongue. When he finds the tongue coated (or furred), he writes out a prescri ption, which is made up by a dispensing chemist. Medical fees (or charges) vary according to the patient’s supposed income. People suffering from diseases requiring special care which they cannot get at home, are taken to a hospital where they are carefully attended by a large staff of physicians, surgeons, trained nurses, etc. Phrases Expressing Sympathy with a Patient What seems to be the problem? I am very sorry to hear you don’t feel well. I hope you will soon get over it. I hope it won’t be anything serious. You are ill? Nothing serious, I hope. You should consult a doctor (or physician) at once. Go and have yourself carefully examined. Go to bed at once; you seem to be seriously ill. You must take better care of yourself. I hope you will feel a little better when I come to see you tomorrow. Cheer up! Don’t lose courage! Keep up your courage! (spirits)! Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. Useful Phrases

Letters, letter-cards, and post-cards are posted at the post-offices, General Post Office (G.P.O.), District Offices, or Branch Offices, or put in(to) one of the numerous red pillar-boxes, placed at the edge of the pavement. (The dark-coloured bins are for street refuse.)

After writing my letter, note (i.e. a short formal letter), or card I put it in(to) an envelope, and close it. Then I write the address and stick a (postage) stamp. Cost differs for the inland letters and for the letters sent abroad. Large cities have a G.P.O. and District or Branch Post-offices in every district of the city. In a G.P.O. there is a separate counter for every operation handled. At the (Postage) Stamp Counter you buy stamps, postcards, note-paper and envelopes, stamped envelopes, postal orders and different forms. Here you pay the fees for different utility services, subscribe to newspapers, etc. The Poste Restante (Am. General Delivery) Counter keeps post (Am. mail) until called for by the addressee in person. There are two kinds of letters, i.e. business (or commercial) letters, and private (or familiar) letters. Among the latter we may mention letters of congratulation, letters of condolence, letters of thanks, letters of apology, letters of introduction, petitions, applications, and many others. When letters are sent to the Poste Restante, the Post Office must be specified after the name of the addressee. If there is a possibility of my letter not reaching the addressee, I have my letter registered. Letters and other correspondence the addressee of which cannot be found — so-called “dead-letters” — are sent to the Returned Letters office. Then they are usually returned to sender. The Post Offices also forward “printed papers”, ”commercial papers”, and “sample packets.” At a separate counter you send registered and air-mailed letters. To ensure safe delivery, you may send letters registered. The post-office clerk (Am. postal clerk) will give you a recei pt. When a letter is delivered, the addressee must sign for it personally. If the message is urgent, you may send it by air-mail. You must stick a special stamp and an air-mail label (or write air mail) on the letter. You may post it by dropping it into the letter-box. Money may be sent by Money Orders, by Postal Orders, or by registered letters. The Money-order Counter handles operations for sending or cashing postal or telegraph money-orders. To send a money-order you must make it out first. You must fill in (Am. fill out) an order form giving the name of the addressee in full. For a special charge the money may be delivered to the addressee at his home. In order to cash the money-order, the addressee must fill it in, hand it to the clerk, and present his passport as well. If he (she) asks a friend to cash it for him

220

221

insomnia, have heart trouble, but in a very mild form, have a murmur of the heart, have thickly furred tongue, be laid up with something serious, have after-effects / complications, have unstrung / shattered nerves, feel nauseous, lose consciousness, inflammation of lungs, write a prescri ption, write a sick leave, send somebody before a board of doctors, prescribe a diet, ni p the disease in the bud, undergo an operation, make out a medical certificate, have a fit / faint, feel seedy / out of sorts, feel stiff, have chest trouble, have a heart complaint, have a bad / disordered digestion, have a clogged up nose, feel limp, need a crown (bridge) fitted on, have a splitting headache, have a loss of sight, be hard of hearing, have a slight temperature, shake the mercury down, give a tablet to reduce the temperature, relieve the pain, confine somebody to bed, take the medicine (mixture, pills, powders) in accordance with the prescri ption, five drops three times a day, take a pill once every two hours on an empty stomach, gargle every two hours, use this ointment to keep the swelling down, use a sedative / pain-killer, use a laxative, use a tonic, use the medicine dropper / pi pette,prescribe ahome / hospital treatment,apply amustard plaster, put a dressing (a compress), have a shot of morphine, be inoculated against influenza, have a cold rubdown every morning, fall into a coma, be overstrained, have a weak constitution, be overcome by lack of sleep, feel like turning in, pick up flesh, be on the mend, look the picture of health, traditional healing methods, folk healers, conventional doctors, medical treatment, healthcare, medical practices, alternative remedies, herbal medicine, herbal mixtures, immunized injection, overweight, crash diet. Some proverbs. Prevention is better than cure. Good health is above wealth. Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. Laughter is the best medicine. A healthy mind in a healthy body. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. Who shall decide when doctors disagree? Out of sight, out of mind. The nearer the bone the sweeter the flesh. Desperate diseases must have desperate cures.

Post Office

Letters, letter-cards, and post-cards are posted at the post-offices, General Post Office (G.P.O.), District Offices, or Branch Offices, or put in(to) one of the numerous red pillar-boxes, placed at the edge of the pavement. (The dark-coloured bins are for street refuse.)

After writing my letter, note (i.e. a short formal letter), or card I put it in(to) an envelope, and close it. Then I write the address and stick a (postage) stamp. Cost differs for the inland letters and for the letters sent abroad. Large cities have a G.P.O. and District or Branch Post-offices in every district of the city. In a G.P.O. there is a separate counter for every operation handled. At the (Postage) Stamp Counter you buy stamps, postcards, note-paper and envelopes, stamped envelopes, postal orders and different forms. Here you pay the fees for different utility services, subscribe to newspapers, etc. The Poste Restante (Am. General Delivery) Counter keeps post (Am. mail) until called for by the addressee in person. There are two kinds of letters, i.e. business (or commercial) letters, and private (or familiar) letters. Among the latter we may mention letters of congratulation, letters of condolence, letters of thanks, letters of apology, letters of introduction, petitions, applications, and many others. When letters are sent to the Poste Restante, the Post Office must be specified after the name of the addressee. If there is a possibility of my letter not reaching the addressee, I have my letter registered. Letters and other correspondence the addressee of which cannot be found — so-called “dead-letters” — are sent to the Returned Letters office. Then they are usually returned to sender. The Post Offices also forward “printed papers”, ”commercial papers”, and “sample packets.” At a separate counter you send registered and air-mailed letters. To ensure safe delivery, you may send letters registered. The post-office clerk (Am. postal clerk) will give you a recei pt. When a letter is delivered, the addressee must sign for it personally. If the message is urgent, you may send it by air-mail. You must stick a special stamp and an air-mail label (or write air mail) on the letter. You may post it by dropping it into the letter-box. Money may be sent by Money Orders, by Postal Orders, or by registered letters. The Money-order Counter handles operations for sending or cashing postal or telegraph money-orders. To send a money-order you must make it out first. You must fill in (Am. fill out) an order form giving the name of the addressee in full. For a special charge the money may be delivered to the addressee at his home. In order to cash the money-order, the addressee must fill it in, hand it to the clerk, and present his passport as well. If he (she) asks a friend to cash it for him

220

221

insomnia, have heart trouble, but in a very mild form, have a murmur of the heart, have thickly furred tongue, be laid up with something serious, have after-effects / complications, have unstrung / shattered nerves, feel nauseous, lose consciousness, inflammation of lungs, write a prescri ption, write a sick leave, send somebody before a board of doctors, prescribe a diet, ni p the disease in the bud, undergo an operation, make out a medical certificate, have a fit / faint, feel seedy / out of sorts, feel stiff, have chest trouble, have a heart complaint, have a bad / disordered digestion, have a clogged up nose, feel limp, need a crown (bridge) fitted on, have a splitting headache, have a loss of sight, be hard of hearing, have a slight temperature, shake the mercury down, give a tablet to reduce the temperature, relieve the pain, confine somebody to bed, take the medicine (mixture, pills, powders) in accordance with the prescri ption, five drops three times a day, take a pill once every two hours on an empty stomach, gargle every two hours, use this ointment to keep the swelling down, use a sedative / pain-killer, use a laxative, use a tonic, use the medicine dropper / pi pette,prescribe ahome / hospital treatment,apply amustard plaster, put a dressing (a compress), have a shot of morphine, be inoculated against influenza, have a cold rubdown every morning, fall into a coma, be overstrained, have a weak constitution, be overcome by lack of sleep, feel like turning in, pick up flesh, be on the mend, look the picture of health, traditional healing methods, folk healers, conventional doctors, medical treatment, healthcare, medical practices, alternative remedies, herbal medicine, herbal mixtures, immunized injection, overweight, crash diet. Some proverbs. Prevention is better than cure. Good health is above wealth. Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. Laughter is the best medicine. A healthy mind in a healthy body. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. Who shall decide when doctors disagree? Out of sight, out of mind. The nearer the bone the sweeter the flesh. Desperate diseases must have desperate cures.

Post Office

he must give him a warrant of attorney with the addressee’s signature authenticated. A telegraph money-order will reach the addressee much quicker than one sent by post. There is a substantial difference in rates, of course. A telegraph money-order will reach its destination as quick as a telegram and is delivered to the addressee’s home. Printed matter (newspapers, periodicals and books) are posted at the Book Post Counter. The parcel may be insured (with or without declared value). The post-official ties the parcel up with some string, weighs it on the letter balance, pastes on the necessary stamps and cancels (Am. obliterares) them. The postmark bears the name of the city, post-office number, the date and hour of posting. Then he writes out the recei pt. The operation handled at the Parcel Counter is much the same. To send a parcel (package) you must fill in a special form at the Parcel Counter and also at the Stamp Counter. At the Wrapping and Packing Counter adjoining the Parcel Counter, you can obtain wrapping paper, boxes, etc. Parcels, inland and foreign, can be sent by Parcel Post. Inland, on COD (Cash on Delivery) terms, if desired. All classes of correspondence may be sent by air-mail. Telegrams are transmitted by the telegraph or wire, by cable (cablegrams) or by radio. At the Telegraph Office you send a regular telegram (ordinary, urgent, or express) or a phototelegram. In regular telegrams the rate is per word. Telegraph blanks are sold at the telegraph office. Among other services offered by a G.P.O., there is a branch savings bank. Here the depositor may deposit his savings at an interest of a certain per cent a year and draw any amount by presenting his bank book and filling in a special sli p. A savings bank may also issue traveller’s cheques, that can be cashed by the depositor personally at a savings bank in the country. At district or branch post-offices several operations are handled at one counter called the General Mail Service Counter. It services poste restante, registered and air-mailed letter, money-orders, book post, the sale of postage stamps, paying out Old Age Pensions, etc. Besides the usual postal transactions such as the conveyance of mails, the issue of stamps and money-orders and the despatch and delivery of telegrams, post-offices also handle operations such as paying out various pensions (Old Age Pensions, Widow and Orphan’ Pensions, Navy, Army and Air Force Pensions and Allowances), newspaper subscri ptions,etc. It also functions as the reci pient of various taxes and Revenue

Collecting Departments — income tax stamps, motor licences, dog licences, etc. The District and Branch Post-offices in addition to transacting general postal business are also sorting and delivery centres. A sub-post office is generally tucked away as an adjunct to some other business — the local grocer’s, perhaps. The proprietor of a sub-post office is not salaried official like a branch office worker. He receives an annual allowance on the amount of postal business done by him. But he must provide accommodation, staff and fittings (premises, fixtures, furniture, etc.). An Englishman reserves the word “mail” for letters going to or from foreign countries. The man who carries letters is a postman, and the Englishman asks, “Are there any letters for me? An American’s mail is brought by a letter-carrier, or mail-man, and the American asks, “Is there any mail for me?” An Englishman’s outgoing letters are posted at a letter-box or a pillar-box. An American’s are mailed at a mail-box. A letter-box is attached to a wall; a pillar-box is on a stand. If a letter is urgent an Englishman sends it by express-post, an American by special delivery. The telephone is another apparatus by means of which messages can be sent quickly. Telephonic communication may also be obtained from public call-rooms or from home telephones between different places at a distance, both at home and abroad. These are termed trunk calls and the charge, which is much higher, is regulated according to circumstances. The telephone consists of the housing with the number dial and cradle and the receiver resting on the cradle. A cord connects the receiver and the housing. The housing is attached to the connecting box by means of a telephone cable. The telephone receiver has a mouthpiece into which you speak and an earpiece through which you hear. When you have no telephone at home and you want to make a telephone call you go to a call-box (telephone-box, booth, kiosk). In large cities automatic dial phones have been installed in the callboxes. To put through a call you must follow the printed instructions. Usually you drop a coin or token into the special slot or use a plastic card, lift (pick up) the receiver and wait till a buzzing is heard in the earpiece, and then dial the number. Frequent high tone buzzing means the line is engaged (Am. line busy). Replace the receiver and have another try. If you hear a prolonged buzzing it means the call has been put through.

222

223

he must give him a warrant of attorney with the addressee’s signature authenticated. A telegraph money-order will reach the addressee much quicker than one sent by post. There is a substantial difference in rates, of course. A telegraph money-order will reach its destination as quick as a telegram and is delivered to the addressee’s home. Printed matter (newspapers, periodicals and books) are posted at the Book Post Counter. The parcel may be insured (with or without declared value). The post-official ties the parcel up with some string, weighs it on the letter balance, pastes on the necessary stamps and cancels (Am. obliterares) them. The postmark bears the name of the city, post-office number, the date and hour of posting. Then he writes out the recei pt. The operation handled at the Parcel Counter is much the same. To send a parcel (package) you must fill in a special form at the Parcel Counter and also at the Stamp Counter. At the Wrapping and Packing Counter adjoining the Parcel Counter, you can obtain wrapping paper, boxes, etc. Parcels, inland and foreign, can be sent by Parcel Post. Inland, on COD (Cash on Delivery) terms, if desired. All classes of correspondence may be sent by air-mail. Telegrams are transmitted by the telegraph or wire, by cable (cablegrams) or by radio. At the Telegraph Office you send a regular telegram (ordinary, urgent, or express) or a phototelegram. In regular telegrams the rate is per word. Telegraph blanks are sold at the telegraph office. Among other services offered by a G.P.O., there is a branch savings bank. Here the depositor may deposit his savings at an interest of a certain per cent a year and draw any amount by presenting his bank book and filling in a special sli p. A savings bank may also issue traveller’s cheques, that can be cashed by the depositor personally at a savings bank in the country. At district or branch post-offices several operations are handled at one counter called the General Mail Service Counter. It services poste restante, registered and air-mailed letter, money-orders, book post, the sale of postage stamps, paying out Old Age Pensions, etc. Besides the usual postal transactions such as the conveyance of mails, the issue of stamps and money-orders and the despatch and delivery of telegrams, post-offices also handle operations such as paying out various pensions (Old Age Pensions, Widow and Orphan’ Pensions, Navy, Army and Air Force Pensions and Allowances), newspaper subscri ptions,etc. It also functions as the reci pient of various taxes and Revenue

Collecting Departments — income tax stamps, motor licences, dog licences, etc. The District and Branch Post-offices in addition to transacting general postal business are also sorting and delivery centres. A sub-post office is generally tucked away as an adjunct to some other business — the local grocer’s, perhaps. The proprietor of a sub-post office is not salaried official like a branch office worker. He receives an annual allowance on the amount of postal business done by him. But he must provide accommodation, staff and fittings (premises, fixtures, furniture, etc.). An Englishman reserves the word “mail” for letters going to or from foreign countries. The man who carries letters is a postman, and the Englishman asks, “Are there any letters for me? An American’s mail is brought by a letter-carrier, or mail-man, and the American asks, “Is there any mail for me?” An Englishman’s outgoing letters are posted at a letter-box or a pillar-box. An American’s are mailed at a mail-box. A letter-box is attached to a wall; a pillar-box is on a stand. If a letter is urgent an Englishman sends it by express-post, an American by special delivery. The telephone is another apparatus by means of which messages can be sent quickly. Telephonic communication may also be obtained from public call-rooms or from home telephones between different places at a distance, both at home and abroad. These are termed trunk calls and the charge, which is much higher, is regulated according to circumstances. The telephone consists of the housing with the number dial and cradle and the receiver resting on the cradle. A cord connects the receiver and the housing. The housing is attached to the connecting box by means of a telephone cable. The telephone receiver has a mouthpiece into which you speak and an earpiece through which you hear. When you have no telephone at home and you want to make a telephone call you go to a call-box (telephone-box, booth, kiosk). In large cities automatic dial phones have been installed in the callboxes. To put through a call you must follow the printed instructions. Usually you drop a coin or token into the special slot or use a plastic card, lift (pick up) the receiver and wait till a buzzing is heard in the earpiece, and then dial the number. Frequent high tone buzzing means the line is engaged (Am. line busy). Replace the receiver and have another try. If you hear a prolonged buzzing it means the call has been put through.

222

223

Trade as distinguished from manufacture or industry, consists in collecting things from various sources, re-arranging, combining, dividing, or sorting them, and then distributing them to other quarters. We talk of buying and selling, but we mean collecting and distributing. The essence of trade as a service to the consumer — that is, of course, the beginning and end of trade — is that there should be the article, which the consumer requires, in the place where he requires it, at the time that he desires it. It is the duty of trade to have all our likely requirements ready to hand on the shelves or counter of some shop near enough to suit our convenience.

It is the exception for an Englishman to say he is going to such and such a shop (or store, as the Americans say); as a rule, he prefers to mention the man who keeps the shop; i.e. the shopkeeper or retailer. So he speaks of going to the grocer’s (or the Smith’s), when he means to say that he is going to a grocer’s shop. Most people are engaged in (or who carry on) a business or trade, do so in order to make their living by it. The almost endless variety of businesses may roughly be divided into two classes, namely shopkeepers who sell mainly goods bought from (or of) wholesale merchants, and shopkeepers who chiefly sell (goods of) their own produce. To the first class belong the following: the bookseller, who sells books; the stationer, who sells paper, copy-books, fountain-pens, etc.; the tobacconist who sells tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, matches, pi pes, etc.; the draper who stocks clothes, dress materials, trimmings; the jeweller, who deals in jewels; haberdasher, a seller of small-wares as thread, needles, pins, buttons, ribbons, lace, trimmings; outfitter, who supplies all things required for a journey or voyage; the florist, who sells flowers, plants, etc., the greengrocer, who sells fruit and vegetables in their fresh or green state; the cheesemonger and provision dealer, who sells cheese, butter, eggs, bacon, etc.; fishmonger who deals in fish, lobsters, oysters, etc.; the poulterer who sells poultry (domestic fowls) and game (hares, pheasants, etc.); the (dispensing) chemist, who makes up the doctor’s prescri ptions; the china-merchant, or dealer in earthenware who deals in fine earthenware, glassware, and porcelain (or china); the ironmonger, a dealer in iron goods or hardware; the toy dealer who deals in toys. Among those shopkeepers who mainly retail (or sell by retail) goods (or articles) of their own make the following may be mentioned; the baker who makes, bakes and sells bread, etc.; the pastry-cook, who makes and sells cakes, pies, tarts, etc.; the confectioner, who makes and sells bonbons or sweetmeats; the butcher who sells beef, veal, mutton and pork; the boot and shoemaker who makes and sells boots, shoes, dancing pumps, patent leather boots and sli ppers ready made or made to order; the furniture dealer, who supplies tables, chairs, beds, sofas, and every kind of furniture, etc. In recent times the English people introduced the so-called “storesystem.” In a store the buyer finds almost everything that he wants, e.g. groceries, pins, flowers, hats, outfits, etc. All stores mostly trade on cash system that is on the princi ple of ready money payments. Chain

224

225

Besides automatic dial phones connected with the automatic telephone exchange, large enterprises have hand-operated switchboards with ordinary call-phones. If you are calling from an automatic dial phone to an enterprise with a switchboard, you first dial the switchboard number. When the operator says, “Switchboard” you must call the extension number. She will connect you with it. Useful Phrases Talk to somebody on the phone, have some telephoning to do, make a (tele)phone call, a glass-walled phone booth, hang up, lift the receiver, hold the receiver to one’s ear, dial a number, a coin-return box, pick up the phone, cup a hand over the mouthpiece, put the receiver back on its hook, take the extension phone in the kitchen, bring the phone outside on its extension cord, have a bedside extension installed, leave a message, a long-distance call, phone somebody by direct dialling, put the call through, be on another line, open one’s mail, keep copies, in tri plicate, send a letter airmail, by surface mail, a card postmarked from Russia with cancelled Russian stamps, to unfold and refold a letter, a long-postponed letter, revise a letter on the score of grammar, destroy a letter, a mailbox, deposit account, pay in, withdraw, overdraft, statement, mortgage, tax income, balance. Some proverbs. A friend in need is a friend indeed. A friend to everybody is a friend to nobody. Friendshi p cannot stand always on one side. A still tongue makes a wise head. Speech is silver but silence is gold.

Shops and Shopping

Trade as distinguished from manufacture or industry, consists in collecting things from various sources, re-arranging, combining, dividing, or sorting them, and then distributing them to other quarters. We talk of buying and selling, but we mean collecting and distributing. The essence of trade as a service to the consumer — that is, of course, the beginning and end of trade — is that there should be the article, which the consumer requires, in the place where he requires it, at the time that he desires it. It is the duty of trade to have all our likely requirements ready to hand on the shelves or counter of some shop near enough to suit our convenience.

It is the exception for an Englishman to say he is going to such and such a shop (or store, as the Americans say); as a rule, he prefers to mention the man who keeps the shop; i.e. the shopkeeper or retailer. So he speaks of going to the grocer’s (or the Smith’s), when he means to say that he is going to a grocer’s shop. Most people are engaged in (or who carry on) a business or trade, do so in order to make their living by it. The almost endless variety of businesses may roughly be divided into two classes, namely shopkeepers who sell mainly goods bought from (or of) wholesale merchants, and shopkeepers who chiefly sell (goods of) their own produce. To the first class belong the following: the bookseller, who sells books; the stationer, who sells paper, copy-books, fountain-pens, etc.; the tobacconist who sells tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, matches, pi pes, etc.; the draper who stocks clothes, dress materials, trimmings; the jeweller, who deals in jewels; haberdasher, a seller of small-wares as thread, needles, pins, buttons, ribbons, lace, trimmings; outfitter, who supplies all things required for a journey or voyage; the florist, who sells flowers, plants, etc., the greengrocer, who sells fruit and vegetables in their fresh or green state; the cheesemonger and provision dealer, who sells cheese, butter, eggs, bacon, etc.; fishmonger who deals in fish, lobsters, oysters, etc.; the poulterer who sells poultry (domestic fowls) and game (hares, pheasants, etc.); the (dispensing) chemist, who makes up the doctor’s prescri ptions; the china-merchant, or dealer in earthenware who deals in fine earthenware, glassware, and porcelain (or china); the ironmonger, a dealer in iron goods or hardware; the toy dealer who deals in toys. Among those shopkeepers who mainly retail (or sell by retail) goods (or articles) of their own make the following may be mentioned; the baker who makes, bakes and sells bread, etc.; the pastry-cook, who makes and sells cakes, pies, tarts, etc.; the confectioner, who makes and sells bonbons or sweetmeats; the butcher who sells beef, veal, mutton and pork; the boot and shoemaker who makes and sells boots, shoes, dancing pumps, patent leather boots and sli ppers ready made or made to order; the furniture dealer, who supplies tables, chairs, beds, sofas, and every kind of furniture, etc. In recent times the English people introduced the so-called “storesystem.” In a store the buyer finds almost everything that he wants, e.g. groceries, pins, flowers, hats, outfits, etc. All stores mostly trade on cash system that is on the princi ple of ready money payments. Chain

224

225

Besides automatic dial phones connected with the automatic telephone exchange, large enterprises have hand-operated switchboards with ordinary call-phones. If you are calling from an automatic dial phone to an enterprise with a switchboard, you first dial the switchboard number. When the operator says, “Switchboard” you must call the extension number. She will connect you with it. Useful Phrases Talk to somebody on the phone, have some telephoning to do, make a (tele)phone call, a glass-walled phone booth, hang up, lift the receiver, hold the receiver to one’s ear, dial a number, a coin-return box, pick up the phone, cup a hand over the mouthpiece, put the receiver back on its hook, take the extension phone in the kitchen, bring the phone outside on its extension cord, have a bedside extension installed, leave a message, a long-distance call, phone somebody by direct dialling, put the call through, be on another line, open one’s mail, keep copies, in tri plicate, send a letter airmail, by surface mail, a card postmarked from Russia with cancelled Russian stamps, to unfold and refold a letter, a long-postponed letter, revise a letter on the score of grammar, destroy a letter, a mailbox, deposit account, pay in, withdraw, overdraft, statement, mortgage, tax income, balance. Some proverbs. A friend in need is a friend indeed. A friend to everybody is a friend to nobody. Friendshi p cannot stand always on one side. A still tongue makes a wise head. Speech is silver but silence is gold.

Shops and Shopping

stores are very popular too. The Multi ple Shop type of organisation is the type where a large firm owns a number of retail shops, which may all be situated in one town or which may spread throughout a district or a whole country. It is sometimes known as a branch organisation or system of Chain Stores. These stores may each stock a variety of different kinds of goods (it is not unusual to find a chain of Department Stores) but usually they confine themselves to one type of merchandise, such as groceries, or clothing. Usually there is a large central warehouse and a central buying office. The buyers must keep closely in touch with the various stores, so as to make themselves familiar with variations in local demand. As a rule the goods ordered are sent to the central warehouse and issued from there to the separate stores as required; sometimes, however, it is more economical to have goods dispatched straight to one of the stores, and in such a case the firm from which the goods are bought is instructed accordingly. In order to supply the kitchen and table, markets are held every morning. Here the retailers buy about sunrise vegetables, fruit, meat, fish, poultry, game and flowers. Home shopping is the purchase of goods from home, esp. goods offered on cable television. It combined two existing technologies, television and the telephone and became one of several multimedia applications collectively known as interactive services. Electronic shopping, the display and ordering of goods over computer networks, especially through the Internet, looks set to broaden the scope of the home shopping of the future.

A man who works hard, and does his duty, needs some recreation now and then. Some people like to be amused and entertained by others.

Others again, particularly brain-workers, and those who lead a sedentary life, usually prefer to take bodily exercise, and therefore seek their recreation in some sport or pastime. During the “Season” and in winter London is gay enough. The average Englishman is, after his late and substantial dinner, not in a state (frame) of mind to follow a high-class play but prefers an amusing farce or comic opera. First nights are eagerly looked forward to by stage enthusiasts. Tickets for a performance are obtained at the boxoffice. The stalls are the best seats, and next to the orchestra; the dresscircle (or balcony-stalls) and boxes are also good places, whereas the pit, upper circle, amphitheatre, and gallery (colloquially the Gods) are inferior. Cinemas, music halls, museums and exhibitions also enjoy an immense popularity. Apart from these, there are plenty of private entertainments, i.e. athomes, cocktail parties, evening parties (dinner parties, balls or dances), fancy-dress balls, garden parties, private theatricals, picnics, etc. John Bull is a great lover of sports and open-air pastimes. He indulges in some sport or other all the year round. Cricket and football, those essentially English games, rank first. Every school has its Cricket and Football club. Cricket is played in spring and in summer, football in autumn and winter. Among the other open-air games, (lawn) tennis, badminton, golf are very popular. Athletics are of very different kinds: high jump, long jump, jumping with the pole, throwing the hammer, putting the weight, steeple-chase, etc. Gymnastics and fencing also have many followers. In England cycling is also a favourite exercise. Hunting of various kinds is carried on from August to the middle of April. Fox-hunting is especially popular among the English gentry. Hareshooting and deer-stalking are also carried on. Fishing is often practised from a punt; the angler requires a fishing-rod and other tackle. Rowing, of course, occupies a very prominent place in English sports; and no aquatic gathering can be compared with the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. In matters of driving, riding or horse-racing it is hard to excel the true Briton. The English race-meetings, at any rate, beat everything else in this line, and in point of popularity no races in the world equal the Derby and the Oaks, both of which are in May or June. Nearly everyone has a hobby of some kind to fill up his / her leisure hours. In particular favour are: reading novels, collecting postage-stamps,

226

227

Useful Phrases Do a little shopping, shop the department stores, be given some errands to do, a full shopping basket, a sudden influx of shoppers, to windowshop, a neon-lighted sign, inventory, a price list, a price label / tag, a second-hand book-seller, at a very reasonable price, a glassware store, day-old bread, ready-bottled, wait on line, take one’s place at the end of the line. Some proverbs. To buy a pig in a poke. The best is oftentimes the enemy of the good. Two of a trade seldom agree.

Recreation and Sports

stores are very popular too. The Multi ple Shop type of organisation is the type where a large firm owns a number of retail shops, which may all be situated in one town or which may spread throughout a district or a whole country. It is sometimes known as a branch organisation or system of Chain Stores. These stores may each stock a variety of different kinds of goods (it is not unusual to find a chain of Department Stores) but usually they confine themselves to one type of merchandise, such as groceries, or clothing. Usually there is a large central warehouse and a central buying office. The buyers must keep closely in touch with the various stores, so as to make themselves familiar with variations in local demand. As a rule the goods ordered are sent to the central warehouse and issued from there to the separate stores as required; sometimes, however, it is more economical to have goods dispatched straight to one of the stores, and in such a case the firm from which the goods are bought is instructed accordingly. In order to supply the kitchen and table, markets are held every morning. Here the retailers buy about sunrise vegetables, fruit, meat, fish, poultry, game and flowers. Home shopping is the purchase of goods from home, esp. goods offered on cable television. It combined two existing technologies, television and the telephone and became one of several multimedia applications collectively known as interactive services. Electronic shopping, the display and ordering of goods over computer networks, especially through the Internet, looks set to broaden the scope of the home shopping of the future.

A man who works hard, and does his duty, needs some recreation now and then. Some people like to be amused and entertained by others.

Others again, particularly brain-workers, and those who lead a sedentary life, usually prefer to take bodily exercise, and therefore seek their recreation in some sport or pastime. During the “Season” and in winter London is gay enough. The average Englishman is, after his late and substantial dinner, not in a state (frame) of mind to follow a high-class play but prefers an amusing farce or comic opera. First nights are eagerly looked forward to by stage enthusiasts. Tickets for a performance are obtained at the boxoffice. The stalls are the best seats, and next to the orchestra; the dresscircle (or balcony-stalls) and boxes are also good places, whereas the pit, upper circle, amphitheatre, and gallery (colloquially the Gods) are inferior. Cinemas, music halls, museums and exhibitions also enjoy an immense popularity. Apart from these, there are plenty of private entertainments, i.e. athomes, cocktail parties, evening parties (dinner parties, balls or dances), fancy-dress balls, garden parties, private theatricals, picnics, etc. John Bull is a great lover of sports and open-air pastimes. He indulges in some sport or other all the year round. Cricket and football, those essentially English games, rank first. Every school has its Cricket and Football club. Cricket is played in spring and in summer, football in autumn and winter. Among the other open-air games, (lawn) tennis, badminton, golf are very popular. Athletics are of very different kinds: high jump, long jump, jumping with the pole, throwing the hammer, putting the weight, steeple-chase, etc. Gymnastics and fencing also have many followers. In England cycling is also a favourite exercise. Hunting of various kinds is carried on from August to the middle of April. Fox-hunting is especially popular among the English gentry. Hareshooting and deer-stalking are also carried on. Fishing is often practised from a punt; the angler requires a fishing-rod and other tackle. Rowing, of course, occupies a very prominent place in English sports; and no aquatic gathering can be compared with the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. In matters of driving, riding or horse-racing it is hard to excel the true Briton. The English race-meetings, at any rate, beat everything else in this line, and in point of popularity no races in the world equal the Derby and the Oaks, both of which are in May or June. Nearly everyone has a hobby of some kind to fill up his / her leisure hours. In particular favour are: reading novels, collecting postage-stamps,

226

227

Useful Phrases Do a little shopping, shop the department stores, be given some errands to do, a full shopping basket, a sudden influx of shoppers, to windowshop, a neon-lighted sign, inventory, a price list, a price label / tag, a second-hand book-seller, at a very reasonable price, a glassware store, day-old bread, ready-bottled, wait on line, take one’s place at the end of the line. Some proverbs. To buy a pig in a poke. The best is oftentimes the enemy of the good. Two of a trade seldom agree.

Recreation and Sports

Every one of us, before going to bed at night takes off his clothes, i.e. undresses, and puts on his night-shirt, or pyjamas. Every morning we dress (or put on our clothes). When I wake up after a good night’s rest I get up in order to dress. I first put on my pants (or drawers), then my socks or stockings, my trousers and my sli ppers. Then (I have a)

shave, for my beard grows very fast. After the shave, I have a thorough wash in cold water. I have a bathroom close to my bedroom. Then I put on my undervest and clean (or brush) my teeth with a tooth-brush and tooth-paste. After every meal I also rinse my mouth to prevent my teeth from decaying. After washing myself I clean my (finger-) nails. After this I comb and brush my hair. I never put pomade on my hair, nor scents on my skin; for I detest all cosmetics. After this, I put on my shirt, a silk tie, and lastly my waistcoat and coat (or jacket). Before going down to breakfast, I take off my sli ppers, and put on a pair of clean, wellblacked boots or shoes. In summer I also wear brown or tan boots. As for my patent (leather) boots, I put them on only in very fine weather, when I go to a party. Before going out, I brush my hat, and put on a pair of gloves. In winter, I wear thicker and warmer clothes, than in summer. When it’s cold, I put on my (winter) overcoat (or top-coat) and when it freezes, my fur (-lined coat), fur cap, and fur-lined gloves. My wardrobe is filled with all kinds of clothes. Among others it contains a complete summer-suit (a lounge-suit), a light (summer) overcoat, a raincoat (mackintosh), several sports coats, sweaters (jerseys), and Cardigan-jackets (-or coats), a long double-breasted frock-coat, several single-breasted morning coats (or cutaways), a black dinner-jacket, various other jackets, any number of trousers and waistcoats and dresssuits for evening parties and the theatre. I also have a dressing-gown, but as its name implies, it is only worn in dressing or in the bathroom. The different parts of a coat are the sleeves, the collar, the facings, the tails, and the lining. In every suit there are several pockets, in (to) which I put all sorts of things, such as my pocket-handkerchief, my purse, my keys, my watch, a pocket-comb and so on. Coats and waistcoats can be buttoned and unbuttoned. When a button has come (or is torn) off, it must be sewed (or sewn) on again. The (wide or tight) trousers and knickerbockers are held up by (a pair of) braces or by a belt. I usually have my clothes made by a first-class tailor who only makes to measure (or to order). Sometimes I buy cheap ready-made and second-hand (left-off) clothes. Ladies wear dresses, costumes, or blouses and (long or short) skirts, with sleeves (tight or puffed) and trimmings, jackets and hats (with brims, felt or straw hats). Bonnets have no brims. At balls they have elegant robes, and ornaments in their hair. They often go out with (a pair of) gloves (kid, sue`de, silk ones) and an elegant hand-bag. At home (or in the

228

229

playing the piano, violin, guitar, flute, playing (at) cards, (at) chess, draughts, billiards, drawing, painting, listening to the radio and to the tape-recorder, watching TV or videos, playing computer games, etc. Most towns in Britain have one cinema. Cinemas often have three parts or studios. They usually show a new film each week. Cinemas are quite expensive in Britain. It costs about 5 pounds to get in. Many people watch films at home on video. You can rent videos for about 1—2 pounds a night. There are a lot of video libraries in towns. You can often rent videos from petrol stations and newspaper’s shops too. Useful Phrases Racing sports: cycle racing, marathon running; achievement sports: throwing the javelin, weight-lifting, the long jump; combat sports: wrestling, karate, fencing; target sports: rifle shooting, archery, mountain-climbing; team games: football, baseball; games where you hit a ball: golf, cricket, squash; keeping fit: aerobics, bodybuilding; display sports: synchronized swimming, gymnastics, skijumping, hang-gliding. To read music, play a scale, sing off key, the dance floor, put on a record, turn the volume up / down, turn the dial of a radio, wear earphones, go in for stamp / coin collecting, go for underwater fishing, wear a two-piece swimming suit, get burned, be in the sun, be fond of gardening, water flowers, pull up carrots from their beds, make up a bunch of flowers, stab flowers into a jug, fresh cut flowers, flower arrangement, a potted plant, a flower pot, pick flowers from the garden, to pet a cat, feed a cat. Some proverbs. There is no rose without a thorn. A tree is known by its fruit. He that would eat the fruit must climb the tree. You cannot judge a tree by its bark.

Toilet

Every one of us, before going to bed at night takes off his clothes, i.e. undresses, and puts on his night-shirt, or pyjamas. Every morning we dress (or put on our clothes). When I wake up after a good night’s rest I get up in order to dress. I first put on my pants (or drawers), then my socks or stockings, my trousers and my sli ppers. Then (I have a)

shave, for my beard grows very fast. After the shave, I have a thorough wash in cold water. I have a bathroom close to my bedroom. Then I put on my undervest and clean (or brush) my teeth with a tooth-brush and tooth-paste. After every meal I also rinse my mouth to prevent my teeth from decaying. After washing myself I clean my (finger-) nails. After this I comb and brush my hair. I never put pomade on my hair, nor scents on my skin; for I detest all cosmetics. After this, I put on my shirt, a silk tie, and lastly my waistcoat and coat (or jacket). Before going down to breakfast, I take off my sli ppers, and put on a pair of clean, wellblacked boots or shoes. In summer I also wear brown or tan boots. As for my patent (leather) boots, I put them on only in very fine weather, when I go to a party. Before going out, I brush my hat, and put on a pair of gloves. In winter, I wear thicker and warmer clothes, than in summer. When it’s cold, I put on my (winter) overcoat (or top-coat) and when it freezes, my fur (-lined coat), fur cap, and fur-lined gloves. My wardrobe is filled with all kinds of clothes. Among others it contains a complete summer-suit (a lounge-suit), a light (summer) overcoat, a raincoat (mackintosh), several sports coats, sweaters (jerseys), and Cardigan-jackets (-or coats), a long double-breasted frock-coat, several single-breasted morning coats (or cutaways), a black dinner-jacket, various other jackets, any number of trousers and waistcoats and dresssuits for evening parties and the theatre. I also have a dressing-gown, but as its name implies, it is only worn in dressing or in the bathroom. The different parts of a coat are the sleeves, the collar, the facings, the tails, and the lining. In every suit there are several pockets, in (to) which I put all sorts of things, such as my pocket-handkerchief, my purse, my keys, my watch, a pocket-comb and so on. Coats and waistcoats can be buttoned and unbuttoned. When a button has come (or is torn) off, it must be sewed (or sewn) on again. The (wide or tight) trousers and knickerbockers are held up by (a pair of) braces or by a belt. I usually have my clothes made by a first-class tailor who only makes to measure (or to order). Sometimes I buy cheap ready-made and second-hand (left-off) clothes. Ladies wear dresses, costumes, or blouses and (long or short) skirts, with sleeves (tight or puffed) and trimmings, jackets and hats (with brims, felt or straw hats). Bonnets have no brims. At balls they have elegant robes, and ornaments in their hair. They often go out with (a pair of) gloves (kid, sue`de, silk ones) and an elegant hand-bag. At home (or in the

228

229

playing the piano, violin, guitar, flute, playing (at) cards, (at) chess, draughts, billiards, drawing, painting, listening to the radio and to the tape-recorder, watching TV or videos, playing computer games, etc. Most towns in Britain have one cinema. Cinemas often have three parts or studios. They usually show a new film each week. Cinemas are quite expensive in Britain. It costs about 5 pounds to get in. Many people watch films at home on video. You can rent videos for about 1—2 pounds a night. There are a lot of video libraries in towns. You can often rent videos from petrol stations and newspaper’s shops too. Useful Phrases Racing sports: cycle racing, marathon running; achievement sports: throwing the javelin, weight-lifting, the long jump; combat sports: wrestling, karate, fencing; target sports: rifle shooting, archery, mountain-climbing; team games: football, baseball; games where you hit a ball: golf, cricket, squash; keeping fit: aerobics, bodybuilding; display sports: synchronized swimming, gymnastics, skijumping, hang-gliding. To read music, play a scale, sing off key, the dance floor, put on a record, turn the volume up / down, turn the dial of a radio, wear earphones, go in for stamp / coin collecting, go for underwater fishing, wear a two-piece swimming suit, get burned, be in the sun, be fond of gardening, water flowers, pull up carrots from their beds, make up a bunch of flowers, stab flowers into a jug, fresh cut flowers, flower arrangement, a potted plant, a flower pot, pick flowers from the garden, to pet a cat, feed a cat. Some proverbs. There is no rose without a thorn. A tree is known by its fruit. He that would eat the fruit must climb the tree. You cannot judge a tree by its bark.

Toilet

The second half of the twentieth century has seen a great increase in travel. Road improvements, increased popularity of motor cars, available

air transportation with low-cost fares, and special tours — all of these factors have made tourism a big business. Statistics show that the majority of tourists travel by plane. However, many prefer other means of transportation — car (automobile), motor coach (bus), railway (train), or shi p (boat). Some young people like to go places by motorcycle or bicycle. Great changes have taken place in transportation. Years ago people travelled on horseback, by horse and buggy, or by stagecoach. Today men have gone to the moon in spaceshi ps. Others have gone to distant lands in submarines. How will people travel in the future? I am very fond of travelling, and go for a journey (by rail), or a voyage (by shi p) at least once a year. A railway train is made up of a number of carriages (Am. cars) for the passengers, of a guard’s van for the guard (Am. conductor), of a luggage van, of the tender, which contains fuel, coal, etc. and of a steam-engine, which moves the train and which is called a locomotive. Nowadays the engine is mostly run by electricity. The whole of the railway line is watched by linekeepers, signalmen who work the signals, gatemen who attend to the swing-gates at railway crossings and the switchmen (or pointsmen) who switch (or shunt) carriages from one track (or line) to another. The train itself is in charge of the guards, engine driver and stoker (who all work the brakes). In case of imminent danger, any passenger is allowed to pull the communication cord and cause the driver to stop the train at a moment’s notice. There are ordinary (or slow) passenger trains on each line at a special fare per mile. Then there are fast trains which do not stop at all stations, express trains, stopping only at a few princi pal stations, nonstop trains, excursion trains at reduced fares, goods trains for the conveyance of piece goods, bulky articles, livestock, etc. The passenger carriages are of two classes. The classes differ in respect to the fare to be paid and the degree of elegance and comfort. Smoking is prohibited in English trains except in “smokers”, i.e. compartments specially marked “smoking.” Dining car(riage)s and sleeping car(riage)s are attached to many express trains, called “corridor trains” because the carriages are connected throughout by covered gangways and narrow corridors. On the American railways there are also “drawing room cars”, observation cars, etc. Before getting in I must take a ticket (1st class, 2nd class) at the booking office. There are single tickets, return tickets, season tickets and so on. At the beginning of my journey, I have to show my ticket to an official who

230

231

house) they sometimes wear a nice apron. In winter they put on a warm mantle or cloak, a fur (a cape, a stole, a boa), a muff, and a fur cap. Some people wear spectacles. The glasses are often worn in gold, silver, horn or nickel frames. Most people have a watch. Rings, plain or set with precious stones, are also worn. Brioches, bracelets, necklaces, lockets, pins, ear-rings, etc. are other articles of jewellery worn by many ladies. When out for a walk (or a stroll), people take a (walking-) stick, or when it rains, an umbrella. In summer ladies often carry sunshades. At the theatre or at a ball (or dance) ladies use fans to fan themselves with. It is all very well to say, “Fine feathers make fine birds”, the main thing always is a well-lined purse for “A heavy purse makes a light heart”. Useful Phrases A costume is a two or three-piece women’s clothing. A suit is a two or three-piece men’s clothing. Stylish / fashionable clothes, designer clothes, old-fashioned clothes, smart clothes, everyday clothes, a single (double)-breasted jacket, a readymade suit, a full suit, closely-fitting / lightly-fitted / loose-fitting suit, a dress that buttons up down the front, a dress of severe lines, a dress with a low cut, a dress flared from the bust line, an evening gown (dress), an everyday (house) dress, dress up, sli p the dress up over one’s head, unfasten one’s brassie`re, fit perfectly / badly, a jumper with a polo neck, much cleaned and pressed suit, his jacket was going thin at the elbows, an open-necked shirt, be in shirt-sleeves, button one’s jacket, undo the top button (of one’s jacket), zi p the fur lining in, adjust one’s tie, clean and polish with wax, unlace one’s shoes, sli ppers, tie a scarf over one’s head and under one’s chin, a diamond in gold setting, carry a walking stick crooked over one’s arm, in a sale, look smart. Some proverbs. Cut your coat according to your cloth. It’s not the gay coat that makes the gentleman. Near is my shirt, but nearer is my skin. Diamond cut diamond. Every shoe fits not every foot.

Travelling

The second half of the twentieth century has seen a great increase in travel. Road improvements, increased popularity of motor cars, available

air transportation with low-cost fares, and special tours — all of these factors have made tourism a big business. Statistics show that the majority of tourists travel by plane. However, many prefer other means of transportation — car (automobile), motor coach (bus), railway (train), or shi p (boat). Some young people like to go places by motorcycle or bicycle. Great changes have taken place in transportation. Years ago people travelled on horseback, by horse and buggy, or by stagecoach. Today men have gone to the moon in spaceshi ps. Others have gone to distant lands in submarines. How will people travel in the future? I am very fond of travelling, and go for a journey (by rail), or a voyage (by shi p) at least once a year. A railway train is made up of a number of carriages (Am. cars) for the passengers, of a guard’s van for the guard (Am. conductor), of a luggage van, of the tender, which contains fuel, coal, etc. and of a steam-engine, which moves the train and which is called a locomotive. Nowadays the engine is mostly run by electricity. The whole of the railway line is watched by linekeepers, signalmen who work the signals, gatemen who attend to the swing-gates at railway crossings and the switchmen (or pointsmen) who switch (or shunt) carriages from one track (or line) to another. The train itself is in charge of the guards, engine driver and stoker (who all work the brakes). In case of imminent danger, any passenger is allowed to pull the communication cord and cause the driver to stop the train at a moment’s notice. There are ordinary (or slow) passenger trains on each line at a special fare per mile. Then there are fast trains which do not stop at all stations, express trains, stopping only at a few princi pal stations, nonstop trains, excursion trains at reduced fares, goods trains for the conveyance of piece goods, bulky articles, livestock, etc. The passenger carriages are of two classes. The classes differ in respect to the fare to be paid and the degree of elegance and comfort. Smoking is prohibited in English trains except in “smokers”, i.e. compartments specially marked “smoking.” Dining car(riage)s and sleeping car(riage)s are attached to many express trains, called “corridor trains” because the carriages are connected throughout by covered gangways and narrow corridors. On the American railways there are also “drawing room cars”, observation cars, etc. Before getting in I must take a ticket (1st class, 2nd class) at the booking office. There are single tickets, return tickets, season tickets and so on. At the beginning of my journey, I have to show my ticket to an official who

230

231

house) they sometimes wear a nice apron. In winter they put on a warm mantle or cloak, a fur (a cape, a stole, a boa), a muff, and a fur cap. Some people wear spectacles. The glasses are often worn in gold, silver, horn or nickel frames. Most people have a watch. Rings, plain or set with precious stones, are also worn. Brioches, bracelets, necklaces, lockets, pins, ear-rings, etc. are other articles of jewellery worn by many ladies. When out for a walk (or a stroll), people take a (walking-) stick, or when it rains, an umbrella. In summer ladies often carry sunshades. At the theatre or at a ball (or dance) ladies use fans to fan themselves with. It is all very well to say, “Fine feathers make fine birds”, the main thing always is a well-lined purse for “A heavy purse makes a light heart”. Useful Phrases A costume is a two or three-piece women’s clothing. A suit is a two or three-piece men’s clothing. Stylish / fashionable clothes, designer clothes, old-fashioned clothes, smart clothes, everyday clothes, a single (double)-breasted jacket, a readymade suit, a full suit, closely-fitting / lightly-fitted / loose-fitting suit, a dress that buttons up down the front, a dress of severe lines, a dress with a low cut, a dress flared from the bust line, an evening gown (dress), an everyday (house) dress, dress up, sli p the dress up over one’s head, unfasten one’s brassie`re, fit perfectly / badly, a jumper with a polo neck, much cleaned and pressed suit, his jacket was going thin at the elbows, an open-necked shirt, be in shirt-sleeves, button one’s jacket, undo the top button (of one’s jacket), zi p the fur lining in, adjust one’s tie, clean and polish with wax, unlace one’s shoes, sli ppers, tie a scarf over one’s head and under one’s chin, a diamond in gold setting, carry a walking stick crooked over one’s arm, in a sale, look smart. Some proverbs. Cut your coat according to your cloth. It’s not the gay coat that makes the gentleman. Near is my shirt, but nearer is my skin. Diamond cut diamond. Every shoe fits not every foot.

Travelling

examines and punches (or cli ps) it. At the end of the journey, I must give up my ticket to the ticket-collector. Before setting foot on English soil, the foreign traveller must show his landing-card, and open all his luggage to have it examined by the “Custom.” Sometimes the traveller has to decide at which terminus he wishes to arrive, in which case it is useful to buy a time-table, which tells when the train leaves, where it stops, where he has to change (trains) and when it arrives. When the weather is fine a (sea)-voyage (or sea-tri p) has a charm of its own. The big ocean liners leave nothing to be desired as far as quick travelling, comfort, and luxury are concerned. The bow, the stern, the decks, the helm, the keel, the masts, the rigging, the funnels, the engines, the compasses, life-boats, life-belts are the princi pal features of ocean liner. In the cabins and state-rooms there are berths to sleep in; on deck are deck chairs. The personnel comprises the captain, the officers, the doctor, the helmsman, the sailors, cooks, steward(ess)s, etc. When leaving a harbour the vessel weighs anchor; in difficult channels she is steered by a pilot. An unwelcome experience on board is seasickness. I am a good sailor, and can stand a good deal of rough weather without getting sick (or ill). Aeroplanes solve the problem of rapid and practical aerial navigation. In addition to the comfort and silence of the saloons, meals are served during flight. Underground London is crossed in all directions by tunnels for the trains of the Underground Railways, commonly called Tubes. There are lifts and elevators for the passengers. In some parts of London trams are very popular. All tram-cars run on iron rails laid on the roadway of the streets. Buses traverse London in every direction and run far into the country. The “rule of the road” for all vehicles is to keep to the left. In most streets you can see the boards bearing route-numbers at the points where the respective trams and buses will stop to set (put) down or pick (take) up (passengers). The London tram-cars and buses have seats below and upstairs (or on the top); standing on the platform is forbidden. Many people prefer riding on the top; here you have the advantage of seeing more of the traffic, and you may smoke if you are inclined. Automobiles are now in particular favour with people fond of independent travelling at high speeds.

Often a first-timer has stage fright upon arrival in a foreign country. An experienced agent can calm the traveller’s uneasiness by explaining the routine arrival procedure. Before his departure, a traveller should get some of the country’s change to handle ti ps upon arrival. He can do that at the airport. On the plane he is asked to fill out a landing card, which he should then put in a handy place — with his passport, for example. On landing he follows an official to Immigration. There, airport officials look at his passport and take his landing card. After they ask him how long he plans to stay, they stamp his passport. He then follows the sign to Customs, where he picks out his bags from the others on the racks. If the bags have some distinguishing mark, they can be identified easily. A customs official will open his bags and ask a few questions about cigarettes, liquor and gifts. After that, he is on his own. Businessmen, especially commercial travelers, are frequently away from home, and so are tourists who spend their holidays in other parts of the country or abroad. When they intend staying (or stopping) for a considerable time, say a month or so, at a certain place, they will do well to hire furnished apartments or a couple of furnished rooms in a private house. A card bearing the inscri ption “Apartments (to let)” or “Furnished Apartments (to let)” is generally placed in the window or over the front-door of such houses. Breakfast is usually provided by the landlady, the other meals are mostly taken at a restaurant. Foreigners who go over to England for a short time in order to study the English language as well as English life and ways, generally stay at a Boarding House. The lodger will have a bed-room, breakfast, lunch (about 5 o’clock) and dinner (about 7 o’clock). The bill is paid weekly, and a week’s notice must be given before leaving. No reduction is made if one has missed a meal. All meals are taken with the other boarders. There are ample opportunities for speaking English during meals, and afterwards in the drawing-room. Travellers and tourists easily find suitable accommodation in the hotels. The charges for the rooms vary according to the floor and conveniences. In going away a small ti p is given to the head-waiter, the chambermaid, the porter, etc. Luxurious hotels contain hundreds of bedrooms, private sitting-rooms, large ball and concert rooms, restaurants, grillrooms, billiard rooms, smoking rooms, bath-rooms, lifts, and suites of rooms for visitors desiring complete privacy. Breakfast is generally taken in the “coffee-room” of the hotel, but attendance at table d’hote is not obligatory.

232

233

examines and punches (or cli ps) it. At the end of the journey, I must give up my ticket to the ticket-collector. Before setting foot on English soil, the foreign traveller must show his landing-card, and open all his luggage to have it examined by the “Custom.” Sometimes the traveller has to decide at which terminus he wishes to arrive, in which case it is useful to buy a time-table, which tells when the train leaves, where it stops, where he has to change (trains) and when it arrives. When the weather is fine a (sea)-voyage (or sea-tri p) has a charm of its own. The big ocean liners leave nothing to be desired as far as quick travelling, comfort, and luxury are concerned. The bow, the stern, the decks, the helm, the keel, the masts, the rigging, the funnels, the engines, the compasses, life-boats, life-belts are the princi pal features of ocean liner. In the cabins and state-rooms there are berths to sleep in; on deck are deck chairs. The personnel comprises the captain, the officers, the doctor, the helmsman, the sailors, cooks, steward(ess)s, etc. When leaving a harbour the vessel weighs anchor; in difficult channels she is steered by a pilot. An unwelcome experience on board is seasickness. I am a good sailor, and can stand a good deal of rough weather without getting sick (or ill). Aeroplanes solve the problem of rapid and practical aerial navigation. In addition to the comfort and silence of the saloons, meals are served during flight. Underground London is crossed in all directions by tunnels for the trains of the Underground Railways, commonly called Tubes. There are lifts and elevators for the passengers. In some parts of London trams are very popular. All tram-cars run on iron rails laid on the roadway of the streets. Buses traverse London in every direction and run far into the country. The “rule of the road” for all vehicles is to keep to the left. In most streets you can see the boards bearing route-numbers at the points where the respective trams and buses will stop to set (put) down or pick (take) up (passengers). The London tram-cars and buses have seats below and upstairs (or on the top); standing on the platform is forbidden. Many people prefer riding on the top; here you have the advantage of seeing more of the traffic, and you may smoke if you are inclined. Automobiles are now in particular favour with people fond of independent travelling at high speeds.

Often a first-timer has stage fright upon arrival in a foreign country. An experienced agent can calm the traveller’s uneasiness by explaining the routine arrival procedure. Before his departure, a traveller should get some of the country’s change to handle ti ps upon arrival. He can do that at the airport. On the plane he is asked to fill out a landing card, which he should then put in a handy place — with his passport, for example. On landing he follows an official to Immigration. There, airport officials look at his passport and take his landing card. After they ask him how long he plans to stay, they stamp his passport. He then follows the sign to Customs, where he picks out his bags from the others on the racks. If the bags have some distinguishing mark, they can be identified easily. A customs official will open his bags and ask a few questions about cigarettes, liquor and gifts. After that, he is on his own. Businessmen, especially commercial travelers, are frequently away from home, and so are tourists who spend their holidays in other parts of the country or abroad. When they intend staying (or stopping) for a considerable time, say a month or so, at a certain place, they will do well to hire furnished apartments or a couple of furnished rooms in a private house. A card bearing the inscri ption “Apartments (to let)” or “Furnished Apartments (to let)” is generally placed in the window or over the front-door of such houses. Breakfast is usually provided by the landlady, the other meals are mostly taken at a restaurant. Foreigners who go over to England for a short time in order to study the English language as well as English life and ways, generally stay at a Boarding House. The lodger will have a bed-room, breakfast, lunch (about 5 o’clock) and dinner (about 7 o’clock). The bill is paid weekly, and a week’s notice must be given before leaving. No reduction is made if one has missed a meal. All meals are taken with the other boarders. There are ample opportunities for speaking English during meals, and afterwards in the drawing-room. Travellers and tourists easily find suitable accommodation in the hotels. The charges for the rooms vary according to the floor and conveniences. In going away a small ti p is given to the head-waiter, the chambermaid, the porter, etc. Luxurious hotels contain hundreds of bedrooms, private sitting-rooms, large ball and concert rooms, restaurants, grillrooms, billiard rooms, smoking rooms, bath-rooms, lifts, and suites of rooms for visitors desiring complete privacy. Breakfast is generally taken in the “coffee-room” of the hotel, but attendance at table d’hote is not obligatory.

232

233

On arriving at the hotel where I wish to put up (stay, stop) I take (or engage) a room, if I have not booked (or ordered) one beforehand. Foreign money is refused in English shops and restaurants. In order to get some English money, I have to go to a bank or a respectable moneychanger, and say to him: “I would like to change some... money for English; what is the present rate of exchange?” People of small means are sometimes in a fix (or short of money), and then try to help themselves. They go to a pawn (broker’s) shop, and pawn their watch and chain, rings, etc. At any rate an I.O.U. (to be read: I owe you, i.e. a written acknowledgement of debt) should be given by the borrower to the lender. Useful Phrases Types of holiday: package holiday, backpacking holiday, camping holiday, caravanning cruise, sightseeing, beach holiday; accommodation: guesthouse, hotel, campsite, bed and breakfast (B and B), resort, chalet, campsite, hostel; means of transport: canoe, coach, boat, plane, car, motorbike, ferry; activities: hiking, sunbathing, shopping, eating / sampling local cuisine, swimming / lazing on the beach, sports / doing water sports, painting, bird watching, drawing, sightseeing, experiencing the culture, meeting the locals, going on excursions, visiting market places. A luggage compartment, a jump-seat, switch on the wi pers, a driver’s licence, a written test on highway signs and highway markings and rules of the road, drive at high speeds, start backing up, a left-hand turn, a flashing light, have a flat on the car, a parking lot, a car park attendant, park a car, an intersection, wait for the lights to change, cross on the green light, be run down by a car, jay walking, hold up the traffic, to hitch-hike, a sign-post, turn off on to a secondary road, give somebody a lift, drop somebody off, a hold-up, a single-deck bus, the next stop but one, to go the wrong way, scheduled flight, selfcatering (flat), cruise brochure. Some proverbs: Money governs the world. Money makes the mare go. Time is money. Money lent is money spent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Reference Grammar for Students of English. R.A. Close. Longman Group Limited. 1975. Collins Cobuild English Grammar. Ed. by John Sinclair. Harper Collins Publishers. 1994. Common Mistakes in English. T.J. Fitikides. Pearson Education Limited. 2000. Dictionary of English Grammar. W.J. Ball, F.T. Wood. Prentice Hall Phoenix ELT. 1996. English for the Teacher. Mary Spratt. Cambridge University Press. 1997. English Grammar in Use. Raymond Murphy. Cambridge University Press. 1994. English Guides 3: Articles. Roger Berry. Harper Collins Publishers. 1995. English Idioms. J. Seidle, W. McMordie. Oxford University Press. 1979. How English Works. Michael Swan, Catherine Walter. Oxford University Press. 1997. The English Language. David Crystal. Penguin Books. 1990. The Little Londoner. R. Kron. J. Bielefelds Verlag. 1936. Berlin und Lei pzig.

On arriving at the hotel where I wish to put up (stay, stop) I take (or engage) a room, if I have not booked (or ordered) one beforehand. Foreign money is refused in English shops and restaurants. In order to get some English money, I have to go to a bank or a respectable moneychanger, and say to him: “I would like to change some... money for English; what is the present rate of exchange?” People of small means are sometimes in a fix (or short of money), and then try to help themselves. They go to a pawn (broker’s) shop, and pawn their watch and chain, rings, etc. At any rate an I.O.U. (to be read: I owe you, i.e. a written acknowledgement of debt) should be given by the borrower to the lender. Useful Phrases Types of holiday: package holiday, backpacking holiday, camping holiday, caravanning cruise, sightseeing, beach holiday; accommodation: guesthouse, hotel, campsite, bed and breakfast (B and B), resort, chalet, campsite, hostel; means of transport: canoe, coach, boat, plane, car, motorbike, ferry; activities: hiking, sunbathing, shopping, eating / sampling local cuisine, swimming / lazing on the beach, sports / doing water sports, painting, bird watching, drawing, sightseeing, experiencing the culture, meeting the locals, going on excursions, visiting market places. A luggage compartment, a jump-seat, switch on the wi pers, a driver’s licence, a written test on highway signs and highway markings and rules of the road, drive at high speeds, start backing up, a left-hand turn, a flashing light, have a flat on the car, a parking lot, a car park attendant, park a car, an intersection, wait for the lights to change, cross on the green light, be run down by a car, jay walking, hold up the traffic, to hitch-hike, a sign-post, turn off on to a secondary road, give somebody a lift, drop somebody off, a hold-up, a single-deck bus, the next stop but one, to go the wrong way, scheduled flight, selfcatering (flat), cruise brochure. Some proverbs: Money governs the world. Money makes the mare go. Time is money. Money lent is money spent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Reference Grammar for Students of English. R.A. Close. Longman Group Limited. 1975. Collins Cobuild English Grammar. Ed. by John Sinclair. Harper Collins Publishers. 1994. Common Mistakes in English. T.J. Fitikides. Pearson Education Limited. 2000. Dictionary of English Grammar. W.J. Ball, F.T. Wood. Prentice Hall Phoenix ELT. 1996. English for the Teacher. Mary Spratt. Cambridge University Press. 1997. English Grammar in Use. Raymond Murphy. Cambridge University Press. 1994. English Guides 3: Articles. Roger Berry. Harper Collins Publishers. 1995. English Idioms. J. Seidle, W. McMordie. Oxford University Press. 1979. How English Works. Michael Swan, Catherine Walter. Oxford University Press. 1997. The English Language. David Crystal. Penguin Books. 1990. The Little Londoner. R. Kron. J. Bielefelds Verlag. 1936. Berlin und Lei pzig.

Ó÷åáíîå èçäàíèå

Подписано в печать 17.10.2012.

Ìàòþøåíêîâ Âëàäèìèð Ñåðãååâè÷ ÓËÓ×ØÈ ÑÂÎÉ ÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÈÉ Êóðñ óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèÿ

. ООО «Флинта», 117342, г. Москва, ул. Бутлерова, д. 17 Б, комн. 324. Тел./факс: (495)334 82 65; тел. (495)336 03 11. Email: [email protected]; WebSite: www.flinta.ru Издательство «Наука», 117997, ГСП 7, г. Москва В 485, ул. Профсоюзная, д. 90.

236

237

Ó÷åáíîå èçäàíèå

Подписано в печать 17.10.2012.

Ìàòþøåíêîâ Âëàäèìèð Ñåðãååâè÷ ÓËÓ×ØÈ ÑÂÎÉ ÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÈÉ Êóðñ óñîâåðøåíñòâîâàíèÿ

. ООО «Флинта», 117342, г. Москва, ул. Бутлерова, д. 17 Б, комн. 324. Тел./факс: (495)334 82 65; тел. (495)336 03 11. Email: [email protected]; WebSite: www.flinta.ru Издательство «Наука», 117997, ГСП 7, г. Москва В 485, ул. Профсоюзная, д. 90.

236

237