16mm and 8mm Filmmaking: An Essential Guide to Shooting on Celluloid 2020036161, 2020036162, 9780367429485, 9780367429478, 9781003000334

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1 Why Film
2 Motion Picture Cameras
3 16mm and 8mm Formats
4 Cinema Lenses
5 Motion Picture Film Stocks
6 Light Meters
7 Planning a Film Production
8 Cinema Lighting
9 Special Camera Effects
10 Magnetic Sound Recording
11 Film Processing
12 Film Bench Editing
13 Film Editing Machines
14 Magnetic Sound Editing
15 Film Finishing and Projection
Conclusion
Appendix
Index

Citation preview

16mm and 8mm Filmmaking

This book is an essential guide to making traditional 16mm and 8mm films, from production to post, using both analog and digital tools. Focusing on low-budget equipment and innovative techniques, this text will provide you with the steps to begin your journey in making lasting work in the legacy medium of great filmmakers from Georges Méliès to Steven Spielberg. The discipline of 16mm or 8mm film can initially seem challenging, but through the chapters in this book, you’ll learn strategies and insight to develop your craft. You’ll discover the right camera for your needs, how to light for film, and the options in planning your digital post-production workf low. The book includes numerous hand-d rawn diagrams and illustrations for ease of understanding, as well as recommended films and filmmaking activities to help you build your knowledge of film history, technical and creative skills within each chapter theme. By applying the suggested approaches to production planning, you will see how celluloid filmmaking can be both visually stunning and cost effective. This is an essential book for students and filmmakers who want to produce professional quality 16mm and 8mm films. Jacob Dodd is an independent filmmaker and educator who creates short films in 35mm, 16mm, and 8mm motion picture formats. He specializes in personal memoir documentary and fiction filmmaking and combines traditional production techniques with experimental practices. Dodd uses traditional film methods to bring forth a feeling of nostalgia, a transcendence of time, and a sense of the familiar. He is an Associate Professor of Cinema and Screen Studies at Oswego State University of New York.

16mm and 8mm Filmmaking An Essential Guide to Shooting on Celluloid Jacob Dodd

First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Cover art by Tasha Dodd © 2021 Jacob Dodd The right of Jacob Dodd to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library ­Cataloguing-in-Publication Data ­​­­ ​­ A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress ­Cataloging-in-Publication ­​­­ ​­ Data Names: Dodd, Jacob, author. Title: 16mm and 8mm filmmaking: an essential guide to shooting on celluloid / Jacob Dodd. Description: London; New York: Routledge, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020036161 (print) | LCCN 2020036162 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367429485 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367429478 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003000334 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Cinematography. | Cinematography— Equipment and supplies. | Motion picture film. | Motion pictures—Production and direction. Classification: LCC TR850 .D64 2021 (print) | LCC TR850 (ebook) | DDC 777/.3—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020036161 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020036162 ­​­­ ­​­­ ­​­­ ​­ (hbk) ­ ISBN: ­978-0-367-42948-5 ­​­­ ­​­­ ­​­­ ​­ (pbk) ­ ISBN: ­978-0-367-42947-8 ISBN: ­978-1-003-00033-4 ­​­­ ­​­­ ­​­­ ​­ (ebk) ­ Typeset in Bembo by codeMantra

To my wife, Kristy, and my three sons who have generously given me the time to make films and write this book. All my love to you.

Contents

Acknowledgments

ix

Introduction

1

1 Why film

5

2 Motion picture cameras

13

3 16mm and 8mm formats

39

4 Cinema lenses

56

5 Motion picture film stocks

79

6 Light meters

92

7 Planning a film production

105

8 Cinema lighting

118

9 Special camera effects

142

10 Magnetic sound recording

160

11 Film processing

177

12 Film bench editing

190

13 Film editing machines

211

viii Contents



Acknowledgments

Sincere thanks to my Mom and Dad for always encouraging my passion for film. You are the best parents. Many thanks to my siblings and my family for regularly volunteering to help out on my films and this textbook. Thank you to my colleagues at the State University of New York at Oswego. It’s a joy to work and teach in such a creative, kind, and supportive place. I am grateful for all the students who I have taught over the years. Thank you for teaching me about the artistic possibilities of celluloid. I am also very thankful for all the brilliant filmmakers, artists, and friends who have shared the filmmaking journey with me. Our experiences together helped shape the ideas for this book. Special Thanks: Sheni Kruger and Sarah Pickles at Taylor and Francis Publishing, Manikandan Kuppan and the Codemantra team, my sister Tasha Dodd-Bowser for creating the amazing cover art, Joshua Adams, Mark Cole, Tiffany Deater, my sister, Keira Dodd for proofreading the manuscript and providing feedback, Kristy Dodd, Dr. Christopher Lalonde, Dr. Donald Masterson, Dr. Bennet Schaber, Dr. Amy Shore, and the staff at the Oswego Public Library for continued support throughout the writing process.

Introduction

My fascination with movie making began when I was a child. “Click,” ­ “Crank” “Whir,” The Lonesome Ghosts Mickey Mouse cartridge loads into the Fisher Price movie viewer. “Click,” “Crank” “Whir.” I was a child in awe of the movies, motion pictures. This little handheld device with a crank gave me the freedom to edit the film while viewing; forward and reverse, fast or slow. I also enjoyed watching Ghostbusters (1984), Back to the Future (1985), and Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981). The thrill of adventure pulled me into the screen and safely returned me to my home. My parents fed my fascination with the moving image by permitting me to use the family’s General Electric home movie VHS camcorder. I worked with VHS tape and recreated films by dressing up and acting out scenes. When I was researching for colleges, I saw in the Ithaca College brochure that students there make movies on 16mm film stock. “WOW, this is the real thing; all of the legendary Hollywood directors shoot on motion picture film!” Working on celluloid would put me in the camp with Spielberg and Hitchcock. I was delighted to hear that students learn celluloid within their first year. My images would no longer be written onto magnetic tape and locked inside a plastic cartridge. They would be permanently recorded on a physical strip of material with light. They could be seen with the naked eye. One day my images would be projected onto a big screen, not a TV. Only film could do that! My chance to work with 16mm film would occur in the Filmmaking I class. Our first assignment was to tell a simple story on 100 feet of black and white reversal film. A Bell and Howell Filmo 70 DR 16mm camera, known for its use in World War II, would be my stylus. Not any story would do for this first film. It had to be something that only film could manifest into reality: a ghost story. Growing up, my father and uncle told many stories about their midnight ghost sighting. Soon, I would have a phantom story of my own. As the story goes, one evening, my brother and I, along with our cousin, were staying up late at my grandma’s house with the intention of witnessing the ghost. Of course, we had to see it for ourselves.

2 Introduction

After several hours of sitting in the living room, we found ourselves watching a TV documentary about the “Perfect Storm” and how the Andrea Gail ship was lost at sea. Midnight crept upon us. This was the required ghost sighting time told to us by our father. Just then, in the corner of my eye, I glimpsed the figure of a woman in a dress carrying a tray. Wire-rimmed glasses adorned her face. Her movements were graceful and routine. My eyes locked with the apparition’s. I could not turn away. My brother hit me on the shoulder and woke me from my trance. I said, “Did you see that?” He said, “You saw it, too!” We both saw the apparition at the same time! This story would make the perfect black and white film. What should have been a simple story shot outdoors was turned into a production: costumes, artificial lights, and special lighting effects. At the time, many Freshman Cinema and Photography students saw Orson Welles’ Citizen Kane on the big screen in the Film Aesthetics and Analysis course. I was inspired to achieve the contrast and deep focus that Gregg Toland created for the film. This was supposed to be a natural light project, but I wanted inky shadows. I needed light, light, and more light to create the large depth of field. The foreground and background both needed to be in sharp focus. “Ratchet,” “Click,” “Whir.” The first take was engraved on silver halide, my first real film. I made it. I was a filmmaker. On to the next shot. “Ratchet,” “Click,” “Clunk.” Nothing happened. The camera stopped. It was a jam. The loops were unequal. This was what caused the camera to stop. I thought quickly and recalled my knowledge of spooling still 35mm film in my darkroom photography course. The only solution: go into a closet and rethread the camera. In the dark, I opened the camera up and reset the loops. Handling the spaghetti like film in my hands was thrilling. Top loop, check; bottom loop, check; pressure plate, check. I locked the camera door. The production continued. “Roll film,” I called. After several hours, several shots, and several pieces of pizza, the film was in the can. It worked! A week passed, and the big day came. The film rushes arrived back from the lab. My fingers zipped the film around sprocketed rollers and locked the film in place. The celluloid strip was now successfully threaded on a Kodak Pageant 16mm projector. “Hum, Hum,” the shutter spinned, the image f lickered, and my eyes widened. Every image along that strip was now enlarged to 6 feet wide on a screen. I couldn’t believe what I was seeing. The texture, the monochromatic images, and the shadows displayed themselves in full fidelity. Nothing I ever made for a television screen looked as good as this first film. Lens focus and exposures were accurate. The lighting demonstrated the contrast, and the depth of field reached into the background. You could see the ref lective ripples in the plastic bag I used to make the white ghost. “Wait a second,” I said. “Where’s the medium shot?” Most of my framing was off. “How did this happen?” The medium shots were now close-ups. What should have been a close-up shot was a medium shot. “Oh, I see,” I exclaimed. In the

Introduction  3

dark, I put the camera door on wrong. This door error shifted the viewfinder lenses from matching up with the taking lenses. With the Filmo 70DR camera, you look through a viewfinder, not the lens. When I thought I was using a 75mm telephoto lens for a close-up, I was really using a 10mm w ide-angle lens. The lenses were swapped. Funny, though, it was actually fascinating to see how the camera and my lens alignment mistake created something different. These images were visually interesting. Instead of seeing an actor’s nervous reaction to the ghost in a medium shot, the viewer now sees a close-up of a nervous mouth. The 16mm film and the Bell and Howell camera gave me something I did not conceive. There was something better than I imagined present in the footage. From that day on, I knew that film had a personality like a living organism. It liked to collaborate. You have to embrace this fact about celluloid. If you do, you will be rewarded. Each film I make, I am always pleasantly surprised by what I see when the film is first thrown up on the screen. I learned about the full transformation from what the mind conceives, to what the eye sees, to what the film sees. Film brings its own look through color, grain depth, and dynamic range. On film, the images are stronger than real. They are cinema. They are magic. This book is all about the magic of 16mm and 8mm filmmaking. The information has been organized for classroom use. High school students and teachers can use the book to work together to make films. College students may read this manual in a course or follow it independently. This book focuses on approaches for the new and amateur filmmaker working across the genres of animation, documentary, experimental, and narrative. Although many of these filmmaking techniques can be applied to professional productions, the content is structured for the lover of cinema. It is primarily organized for filmmakers who want to make personal and independent films. Some textbooks cover the technical craft of filmmaking, and others handle the experimental and creative dimensions. The aim of this textbook is not to be in one creative camp but to combine celluloid production techniques into an easy-to-follow guide for new filmmakers of all types. Whether you are a visual artist or the commercial narrative filmmaker, my hope is that you’ll find some helpful tips within this text. If those of us who love celluloid work together, traditional film will continue to thrive as an artistic medium. The chapters are designed to nurture the creative process while providing you with a foundation of the celluloid’s unique possibilities. Chapter 1 argues for the use of film, Chapter 2 looks at the mechanics of a movie camera, Chapter 3 covers the properties of 16mm and 8mm formats, Chapter 7 highlights the methods of planning a celluloid production, and so on. The chapters on lenses, film stocks, special effects, sound, and editing will help you realize your own motion picture. At the end of each chapter, you will find a list of suggested films to view. Each movie suggestion is centered around the chapter theme. The majority

4 Introduction

of these films come from the silent era and early cinema, to help you develop both an awareness of film history and a visual sense of the medium. After the suggested film list is the “Filmmaking in Practice” section. This section contains a filmmaking activity to help you build technical and creative skills. Many of these activities function as prompts to set you on the path to make your own 16mm or 8mm films. Skills will be required of you as you journey to make your own short celluloid films. By following the 15 chapters, you will develop a knowledge of cinema and be able to refine your craft. Through the proficiency of these skills your creativity will f lourish. Filmmakers have been learning by doing for over 120 years. Ultimately, you will find your own voice in this traditional yet new medium of film. With film, you walk in the footsteps of pioneers who brought expertise and art to the medium. Look to them for guidance and inspiration. Celluloid is the medium of Shirley Clarke, Maya Deren, Buster Keaton, F.W. Murnau, Lotte Reiniger, and Oscar Micheaux, as well as countless other film artists and directors. The unpredictable elements of the film process will knock on your door. Have the courage to open this door and embrace the possibilities. My ghost experience may have just been a family yarn. It may have only been imagined. It may only have been generated by two teenage brothers who desired to see a ghost. However, by capturing the ghost on celluloid, it became something greater. It became physically real. It became cinema. On motion picture film stock, you too can make your images truly f licker with life. So get to it. Pick up some motion picture film stock and a used movie camera. Turn your ghosts into physical creations of light and shadow.

1

Why film

From smartphones to wearable cameras, it is a common question to ask, “Why shoot on film?” Sure, digital video technologies are convenient. No one questions that fact. Let’s look beyond convenience and examine purpose. For what purpose do we mostly use computers? We use computers and phones for all kinds of everyday tasks: spreadsheets, documents, video games, photography, email, and social media. A smartphone may seem to be ­​­­ ­​­­ ​­ a ­jack-of-all-trades. However, being multifunctional is exactly what makes it a less than ideal tool for making motion pictures. It’s not so much a matter of quality of the image. Aesthetics are indeed a matter of taste. Think of it this way: What can you do with a 16mm camera? Make 16mm films, of course. When you use a 16mm camera, your entire focus is on making a film. When you work on your phone or your computer, you are made vulnerable to all kinds of interruptions. Since the phone is multifunctional, the interruptions are eclectic. There are jolting text messages, chiming social media feeds, and pop-up windows. All of these interruptions break one’s concentration. Like other art forms and athletics, making a film is all about being in the zone. One needs to visualize the shots and the movements and the edits inside the mind’s eye. The brain needs room to solve complex design problems. With only a single purpose, film cameras provide the filmmaker the luxury to think. While computers and video cameras bring quick-f ix convenience, film pushes the maker not just to get it done, but to get it right. This is often called the film discipline. This 100 year plus discipline of filmmaking is what makes the art form exciting and full of new discoveries. Its limitations have proven to be its strengths, fostering innovation. Film continues to be a medium of choice because it is fun, archival, and more affordable than one may think. It may be said that film is cinema. The art form and the physical medium were born roughly at the same time.

6  Why film

Film is filmmaking Film has an aesthetic beauty. This look has been refined over 100 years. It has infinite color, smooth tones, a beautiful grain structure, depth, and dynamic range. It can be touched, smelled, and tasted. A perfectly made print inspires awe. However, though film’s analog attractiveness is worthy of praise, film shines brightest in the creative process. The film medium encourages you to imagine more, prepare more, research more, consider more, and do more. Many of you reading this book may remember the VHS or MiniDV tape days when parents would turn on the VHS camcorder and run it for two hours over the course of a special event. My childhood was filled  with  well- documented Christmas and Easter mornings on two hour  VHS tape. My mom or dad would hold the camera and keep it running most of the day. I have heard about home movies where the camcorder sat on a tripod in the corner of the room. The camera would run all morning in one long static take. This is not cinema. This is surveillance! Surveillance with its monotonous capturing is best suited for video. Think of shooting film and video like knitting and crocheting, both demand different mental and physical processes. Some folks switch easily back and forth, others stick to their preferred medium and craft. With film, it’s about getting the shot in the camera. Decision-m aking and decisiveness  are well suited for film. Let’s take a trip back to the 16mm and 8mm home movies of the 1930s–1970s. When you look at home movies of this  period, you see the home movie enthusiast making  shot  choices  that  tell a story  and capture the mood of the moment. With these decisions, the home moviemaker can produce a complete film. Close-up of the plastic Santa Claus (four seconds), medium shot of the Christmas tree (five seconds), full shot of Johnny and Susie running into the living room (seven seconds), close-up of the dog reacting (three seconds), and so goes this way of thinking for the entire four-m inute roll of film. The limitation of a four-minute roll of 8mm film shot at 16 fps stimulates the imagination. An 8mm home moviemaker is a filmmaker in all senses of the word. Celluloid filmmaking is all about movement both in front of and behind the camera. With film, the act becomes less about taking an image for documentation than about making images. The limitations of runtime and shot length encourage the use of cinematic space, time, and montage. The uniqueness of celluloid’s physical limitations is what makes the process so wonderful. The creator is an active participant in the making of a film. Filmmaking is not about being a consumer of the medium but about being a creator and partner.

Why film  7

Film is preparation and practice Grab the camera, load the film, wind it up, set the exposure, set the focus, and press run. F/stops frame rate, filters, and focal lengths all become second nature. Film action is both physical and mental. Filmmaking with celluloid is challenging. You must know how to operate a camera, use a light meter, and expose the film stock. The film must be sent to a lab, and you wait for it to return. A mistake on film teaches the moviemaker more because it costs more in time and money. This is how one develops the film discipline. There’s more of you in traditional filmmaking because you need to physically and mentally give of yourself to make the images.

8  Why film

There are several advantages to the film discipline. When you work with a film camera, you don’t need monitors and cables, just a camera, some film, a light meter, and you. Time is not wasted watching and reviewing a small playback screen. The true filmic image is seen in your head. The optical finder has clarity. The finder is not a television. It is a window into the world. There is nothing the film process can do without you. Film must be purchased. Film must be developed. It needs to be printed or scanned. In order to make this cost-per-m inute and time investment worth it, you raise your craft. When your craft is raised: you prepare, you learn the equipment, research subjects, write a script, make the shot list, draw storyboards, create lighting diagrams, and plan schedules. One shot is right and the other three are wrong. You’ll know which shot to use. Too much overage of the same action is wasteful. There’s not a need for three cameras, only one camera in the right place at that right time. It’s not about ten takes of the same shot but ten shots made from different perspectives covering different actions. The shot joins are visualized prior to editing. Film loves production. When it comes to a film set, it is about trust. The director, cinematographer, camera operator, production designer, and sound mixer give it a thumbs up. “Excellent, print it!” “Next setup.” When the rushes return, it is an exuberant team experience. “Wow, we really made something together,” an elation worth repeating.

Film is archival When future humans or aliens or robots research our 21st-century world, will they be able to open 500-year-old computer files? Not likely. Film can be seen by the naked eye. It can move through your hands. Mechanical movie equipment requires basic tools to repair. Have you accidentally deleted something on your personal home computer? Have you encountered a video file that did not playback or open in editing software? How many of you have 1980s or 1990s files that will open and are not locked away on a f loppy disk? Digital video files need to be migrated every five years for stability and file compatibility. Digital files can become corrupted or made incompatible through software updates. Video needs multiple file backups. What is the best way to store your videos for the future? How do Hollywood studios back up the large amount of movie files? The answer is celluloid film. Film is future proof. Its shelf life when properly stored can reach several 100 years. Film can be accessed as a print or scanned into a future electronic format. When you shoot film, you shoot with the past, in the present, and for the future. The original negative can be placed underground in a cool dry environment under 55 degrees Fahrenheit and be used again in another 100 years. Many silent film classics survived from Lumière brothers’ shorts to Buster Keaton features. Film can be reprinted or scanned. Super 8mm and 16mm home movies can be transferred to HD and 4K video. Many analog

Why film  9

videotape formats and digital video files have been lost due to equipment obsolescence, degradation, and deletion. Many television shows have smartly survived because of film. I Love Lucy will make it to future video formats for generations to experience because it was shot on celluloid. Rod Serling’s The Twilight Zone series will be seen by viewers yet to come. What about your child’s first birthday made with a smartphone? Will it be around? Home movies used to be saved on reliable and nearly fade resistant Kodachrome film stock. Now home videos are stored only in the virtual cloud. Will the cloud still be here in a 100 years? Will the cloud company you subscribe to still exist in several 100 years? We used to hand write more letters, which teach us history. What will happen to our visual history? All of this is up in the air. With a 120 years of displayed reliability, film has a proven shelf life when stored properly. When classic films are restored to 4K cinema or Blu-ray disc, all of the necessary information exists in the original camera negative. Digital restoration can be successfully used to manipulate the wealth of information found on the film negative. Film restoration is like putting on a new pair of eyeglasses. Wearing eyeglasses does not physically change the spectacle, such as viewing the Grand Canyon, but changes how you see it. This is the super partnership between film and digital video. One can shoot on film, scan it to video, and use the video file for post-production. The neat thing about film is that you can have both physical copies and virtual copies giving you a lot of f lexibility for using the film now and saving the film for the future. Film can be distributed on print, file, tape, optical disc or streamed.

Film is affordable There are many misconceptions as to the true cost of shooting and finishing a movie on celluloid film. People mistakenly believe that if it was not for the “digital revolution” and the “democratization” of the video image that they would never have had the means or capability of producing a film due to the “ high” price tag of film stock and lab costs. What about the many young filmmakers who made films on film for over a 100 years? They shot many films on celluloid and made masterpieces…many on very low budgets, some in 16mm and some 8mm. Indeed, film does cost money. This is nothing new. However, the expense of film can be managed. First, motion picture film cameras are currently low cost. One can find used Super 8mm and 8mm cameras under 50 dollars and 16mm cameras under a 100 dollars. It’s quite possible to find a f lea market bargain 8mm camera for only five dollars. Many people may mistakenly throw away items thinking it is outdated or that it is junk without realizing that film stock is still available in 8mm, Super 8mm, and 16mm. I like to think of film cameras like a traditional wood double-hung window found in a historic home. If well maintained, wood windows and wood

10  Why film

storms will last several 100 years. The windows may need a little paint and glazing from time to time. Film cameras may need a little bit of oil now and then. It’s a sad thought to think of all the wood windows and film cameras sitting in a landfill. Both are high-quality and sustainable products that can outperform newer alternatives. Vinyl and aluminum windows, like video equipment, are made to be convenient and disposable. Both the video medium and aluminum windows have about a 30–50 year lifespan. Compare that with traditional materials like wood and celluloid, which have been proven to last several lifetimes. Video equipment has been made to be mostly disposable and last only a few years until videomakers desire upgrades. Video encourages people to buy more cameras and more software. How is this different from film? Digital video is an investment up front for the present, and film is an investment for the future. Used 16mm and 8mm film cameras cost very little compared to a new video camera. A Bell and Howell 240 16mm camera can cost under $100 used on an online auction site. The equivalent video camera with excellent color, 2K or higher resolution, and low to no compression may cost ten or twenty times this amount. If you want to splice and edit the film, a splicer, viewer, and rewinds, can all be purchased under the price of an entry level DSLR and video editing software. The film camera and editing materials have nearly a lifetime guarantee as they can be cleaned and lubricated. The big expense for film is in the raw stock and processing and printing/video scanning. You could call the whole film and video cost comparison a toss-up because of the numerous factors at play: number of takes, camera models, replacement of gear, software subscriptions, service of gear, etc. There are many ways to save on any of these processes, whether film or video. Both mediums can be inexpensive or very expensive depending on one’s choices. Film is not just for the big budget Hollywood projects. It’s for all of us. There are ways to work on celluloid, even on a modest budget. Expense should not be an issue, especially with so many passionate and friendly resources out there in film labs and repair shops. We also have the mighty 8mm formats, which cost less than 16mm. Shooting Super 8 with the exceptionally sharp and modern color negative film is a superb low-cost option for students and independents. If you make short films and spend $200 a year, it will take you ten years to get to the $2,000 price tag of some video camcorders. Truly, if you want to shoot on film, it’s more about your passion, ambition, and desire than cost. There’s nothing stopping you from finding a good used Super 8 camera and buying some film to make a movie. Depending on the project and your shooting style, it may make more sense to shoot on video. Video is an entirely different medium and has merits of its own. However, you’ll find that most projects can be shot on film. It just takes planning. Let your imagination soar and do not get caught up in video technology marketing. There is a tight-k nit world of passionate filmmakers who

Why film  11

want to help you get the resources you need to shoot on celluloid. Research, be selective, and if you want to shoot on film, you can do it. Ultimately, film places the responsibility of preparation and budget savings on the filmmaker. It all depends on one’s own discipline in the medium. Film can be very expensive in one filmmaker’s hands or cost less than working with digital video in another filmmaker’s hands. Working with film depends on one’s practice and ingenuity. If one shoots at a shooting ratio under 3:1 (three takes or less per shot), film will come in below the cost of purchasing or renting equivalent quality video cameras. It can be done, if one so chooses. To some, modest student budgets of $200 are too often misinterpreted as a lot of expenditure for a short film because digital costs nothing, right? Every movie comes with a price. First, there’s the video camera, then the workstation laptop, followed by a suitable hard-drive, add in the video editing software, and the audio editing software, etc. You get the idea. It may sound silly, especially if you have never worked with film before, but shooting film can actually be cheaper than video in a variety of situations. The low cost and longevity of film equipment, the value of archiving, and low shooting ratios are the biggest ways film has the potential to save over digital video in the long run.

Film is fun There’s just something so incredibly rewarding about holding film, taping it, and threading it on a projector. You hear it move, and see it f licker to life on screen. Hands touch the film during all stages of the process: pre-exposure, post exposure, and in projection. Human energy, both mental and physical, brings the film into existence. It’s not just fun. It is special! Not many people walking on the streets have the skill or experience to work with film. This makes the process unique, especially when you meet a fellow filmmaker: “Oh, the first time I shot a film, it was on the Bell and Howell!” “Same here!” “What do you think about stock 7213?” “I think it’s wonderful.” When students are introduced to film, film processing, and film editing, and I ask them what they think, I often hear something along the lines of “Working with film gave me a whole new perspective on movies,” and “Now I understand how each frame matters.” In recent years, many Hollywood filmmakers and artists have shared their thoughts on the film process. J.J. Abrams, Tacita Dean, Greta Gerwig, Patty Jenkins, Spike Lee, Christopher Nolan, Kelly Reichardt, Quentin Tarantino, and Steven Spielberg are just some of the enthusiastic individuals championing celluloid through their use of film. These moviemakers are encouraging others to maintain the choice of film acquisition. Today, we have so many ways to make an image, and that is a good thing for the art of motion pictures. So why would we reduce our many tools to just one – video? Let’s expand our toolbox to include many options. Film is

12  Why film

awesome. It provides an escape from our digital lives. Maintaining film and the celluloid choice guarantees diversity in art and fosters creative innovation. “Vive la Film!” Chapter 1 Suggested films: In the suggested viewing section, you will find a diverse section of classic silent and sound films made by cinema’s pioneers. The main goal of this list is to discover the rich and eclectic history of cinema through accessible film works. Many of the films listed throughout the text can be found in the public domain or are available to stream online or on DVD/ Blu-ray. • •

​­ The ­Cabbage-Patch Fairy (1900), Directed by Alice Guy-Blaché A Trip to the Moon (1902), Directed by Georges Méliès

This selection of films looks at the early innovators working in the celluloid medium. Considered the first woman film producer/director, Alice GuyBlaché made over a thousand films during her career from 1896 to 1920. In ​­ this early film, The ­Cabbage-Patch Fairy, filmmaking pioneer Guy-Blaché uses a single lens and fills the frame with m ise-en-scene to tell the folk story of the origin of babies. This is one of the earliest filmed narratives with GuyBlaché being one of the first narrative filmmakers in the world. She was also one of the earliest to experiment with hand-t inted color, close-ups, and synchronized audio. Georges Méliès is known as a pioneer in visual effects and fantasy films. Through the use of dissolves, hand-coloring, and double exposure, he makes a rocket collide into the eye of the moon and fairies appear in the sky.

Bibliography 1 ­Guy-Blaché, ​­ Alice, dir. Alice Guy-Blaché Volume 1: The Gaumont Years. 1900; New York: Kino Classics, 2020. DVD. 2 McMahan, Alison. Alice Guy Blaché. Accessed July 23, 2020, https://wfpp. columbia.edu/pioneer/ccp-alice-guy-blache/. 3 Méliès, Georges, dir. A Trip to the Moon: In Its Original 1902 Colors. 1902; New York: Flickr Alley, 2018. Blu-ray.

2

Motion picture cameras

After a good idea and some film stock comes the movie camera. A movie camera is a basic box with a diaphragm that permits light inside. Light through the diaphragm exposes the film stock. Although the concept is simple, camera designs can differ greatly. Some cameras have special effects abilities such as backwinding (rewinding) or single frame photography. Other cameras use interchangeable lenses, and some have fixed lenses. No camera works well in all situations. Small movie cameras like Standard 8mm are ultra-portable, but sacrifice image quality. Many 16mm cameras can deliver 35mm-like results but require heavy lenses and magazines. This does not mean that you won’t be able to find a camera that works for most needs. It is possible to find one that suits a lot of situations. One camera can serve many purposes. It all depends on the movies you wish to make. Movies with little dialogue can be easily made with compact wind-up cameras. Experimental films have been made with a variety of cameras like the Bell and Howell 70 DR, Bolex H16, and Cine Kodak Special.

14  Motion picture cameras

Camera manuals Having a copy of the original camera manual is the absolute best way to know the ins and outs of your model. I have made loading mistakes with unfamiliar cameras because I did not read the manual first. In the manual, you will find information on how to maintain, lubricate, and keep your camera clean. Often they also include a list of accessories available for that particular camera. Manuals either come with the camera or can be viewed or purchased online. Take the time to study the camera and the manual in order to truly grasp the possibilities that lie inside this basic box. Read the manual. You will be glad you did.

Basic parts of a movie camera Gate The gate is a rectangular opening behind which the film passes. This location is where the film is held static for 1/24th of a second and is exposed to light. As the film passes by the gate, some of the film’s gelatin emulsion can f lake off. This creates what looks like hair or dust particles on the film. In order to keep a clean gate, it is advised to use a soft microfiber cloth or an orange wood stick to gently wipe the emulsion particles off the gate area. A soft microfiber cloth can be wrapped around a toothpick to clean the gate channel. One should never use anything metal to clean the gate. Clean the gate between film loads to ensure the gate is free of emulsion pieces. Intermittent movement Film cameras work by means of intermittent motion through the use of a pull down claw. A pull down claw pulls a frame of film down to the gate area for exposure. This claw movement can be likened to the up and down intermittent movement of a sewing machine. The pull down movement occurs 24 times in a second or 16 times a second depending on the selected frame rate. Twenty-four frames per second is the standard frame for commercial sound productions. Here the frame is held static in front of the gate and is exposed to light for 1/24th a second. Pressure plate The pressure plate holds the film tightly against the gate during the intermittent motion. It provides stable image registration. If the film sits loosely against the gate, one receives blurry and ghosted images. Many cameras use a pin latch on the pressure plate to keep the gate f lush in place. A well-t uned and loaded camera will have acceptable registration through the design of the pressure plate and film channel system.

Motion picture cameras  15

16  Motion picture cameras

Aspect ratio The aspect ratio is the ratio between the width of the frame and the height of the frame. The shape of the rectangular gate gives the frame its aspect ratio. Standard 16mm and Standard 8mm cameras have an aspect ratio of 1.37:1. The width of the frame is 1.37 times wider than the height. 8mm and 16mm movie camera gates can be modified to achieve wider frames with larger aspect ratios. Common aspect ratios • • • • • • • •

1.33:1 – Silent or Super 35mm 1.37:1 (4­ × 3) – Academy 35mm, 16mm, 8mm, and Super 8mm 1.58:1 – ­ ​­MAX 8 ­ ​­Super 16mm 1.66:1 – 1.78:1 (16 ­ × 9) – HD Video 1.85:1 – ­ ​­Ultra 16mm 2.40:1 – ­ Anamorphic ​­ Widescreen ­ ​­ 2.76:1 – Ultra Panavision 70mm

Motion picture cameras  17

Frame rates The frame rate refers to the amount of individual frames that are exposed to light each second. If the projector matches the frame rate of the camera, normal motion will appear on screen. Film at 16fps and project at 16fps, normal motion results. Movement captured at 24 frames per second looks normal when played back on a projector running at 24 frames per second. 24 Frames per second (sound speed) The standard frame rate for filming with sound is 24 frames per second. Sound speed of 24fps was chosen because it is the slowest speed in which sound can be played back and not distort the audio. Before sound speed, silent pictures used various frame rates from 16fps to 20fps. 24fps remains the standard frame rate for professional productions. One will have difficulty synchronizing dialogue to the picture if the film is not shot at 24fps. 16 Frames per second (silent speed) 16fps is the standard silent frame rate for Standard 16mm and Standard 8mm formats. It is the slowest speed in which motion appears smooth. For this

18  Motion picture cameras

reason, 16fps was adopted for home-movie-making. If synchronized sound is not required, it is advantageous to use the silent frame rate of 16fps. Sixteen frames are exposed each second instead of 24, making 16 fps more economical. One can fit more images on a roll of film shot at 16 frames per second. A 100 feet roll of 16mm film shot at 24fps has a runtime of 2 minutes and 46 seconds. When filming at 16fps, the runtime becomes 4 minutes and 10 seconds. 18 Frames per second (silent speed) 18fps is the designated silent speed for Super 8 filmmaking, in much the same way as 16 frames per second is the silent speed for Standard 16mm and Standard 8mm productions. Nearly all Super 8mm film projectors can project at 18fps. One can shoot at the 18 frames per second rate for economy and for the f lickering home movie look.

Motion picture cameras  19

­Overcranking – ​­slow motion For creative effect, one can use other frame rates to alter the speed of movement. By shooting at the silent rate of 16fps or 18fps, you retain the option to use 24 frames per second for slow motion and 12 frames per second for fast motion. Capturing frames above the projection speed of 16 or 24fps is called overcranking. To slow down the movement, or create a slow motion effect, set the frame rate on a camera to 48 frames per second instead of 24. Forty-eight frames per second captures twice as many images as that of 24 frames per second. When these 48 frames per second are played back at 24fps on a projector, the effect is slow motion. With 48 frames per second slow motion, five seconds of capture will take ten seconds to play back on the screen. The faster the frame rate, the slower the motion will appear when played back at 24fps. Since each frame gets exposed to light for less time, the faster the frame rate, the more light is needed to create slow motion. Undercranking – ­ fast ​­ motion Capturing frames below projection speed is called undercranking. Undercranking the frame rate at 12 frames per second captures half the frames of 24 frames per second. When a 12 frames per second capture is projected at 24fps, the effect will be fast motion. If the desire is to speed up movement, such as a person running or jumping, all one has to do is move the frame rate dial to 12 frames per second. Fast motion can be used for comedy or to subtly increase the speed of a vehicle or an animal. The more dramatic the undercranking, such as filming at 8fps, the more humorous the effect. Undercranked motion looks more artificial. The more subtle the undercranking, such as filming at 20fps or 18fps, the more natural the fast movement. Twelve frames per second may also be used when one desires to capture a longer exposure in low light situations. One will gain twice as much light when shooting at 12 frames per second as opposed to 24 frames per second. A slow frame rate works well when filming static objects in lower light. However, if the fast motion is not desired but a longer exposure time is desired, set the dial to 12 frames per second and ask the human subject to move at half their normal speed. Exposure time is gained while the speed appears normal on screen.

20  Motion picture cameras

Variable frame rate projectors Some projector models give the operator the ability to control the speed or frame rate via a variable speed rheostat motor. These are wild or variable speed projectors. Variable speed projectors are handy when you want to film at a variety of speeds. They accommodate nearly any speed in silent production. Thread the film, turn on the projector, and rotate the rheostat dial to adjust the speed. Turn the dial until motion looks normal, then you know you have matched the projector frame rate to the frame rate of the film.

Camera shutter speeds The shutter controls the amount of light that passes through the gate and onto the film. The slit in the moving shutter blade is called the shutter angle. The shutter angle determines the shutter speed. The smaller the shutter angle, the faster the shutter speed. The larger the shutter angle the slower the shutter speed. Many film cameras have fixed shutter blades of 180 degrees with a

Motion picture cameras  21

shutter speed of 1/50 of a second. However, the Bolex H16 REX has a shutter angle of 133 degrees which results in a 1/65 shutter speed.

Shutter effects One can create images that have more or less motion blur by altering the shutter angle/speed. A 45 degree shutter lets in less light than the standard 180  degree shutter opening. The 45 degree shutter produces a fast shutter speed, which nearly eliminates motion blur. The onscreen movement will appear staccato. For example, individual drops of rain will be very apparent when using a 45 degree shutter angle. Each drop will have an outlined appearance. A large shutter angle such as 270 degrees provides the opposite effect. It will create motion with a trailing blur effect. Raindrops will blur together. A 270 degree shutter angle will also put more light on the film. Cameras with large shutter angles are advantageous in low light filming.

22  Motion picture cameras

Variable shutter A variable shutter allows the operator to adjust the shutter angle/shutter speed to create motion effects, reduce the light on the film, and perform special effects. Cameras like the Bolex H8 Rex, H16 Rex, and Cine Kodak Special include a variable shutter lever for such purposes.

Running the movie camera A movie camera needs energy to run and capture images. Energy is needed to drive the film through the camera and past the gate. Film cameras can be run in a variety of ways. Cameras can be hand-cranked, spring-wound, or motorized. Each method of advancing the film past the gate comes with new possibilities. The first two mechanical ways do not involve batteries but

Motion picture cameras  23

rely on manual human energy, a governor motor, and a spring. Some 16mm cameras can use all three film driving methods. ­Hand-crank ​­ motor The first and earliest method of running film through a movie camera is by hand cranking. Hand-crank cameras use a crankshaft and a crank to move the film through the camera. On many 16mm cameras, the spring motor needs to be disengaged or wound down before cranking. Insert the crank into the crankshaft on the side of the camera. Set the frame rate, and exposure. Then move the crank forward. Cameras like the Bell and Howell 70DR and Cine Kodak Special have a motor governor that regulates the hand cranking. You cannot turn the crank faster than the selected frame rate. This regulation helps to make the motion consistent. With hand cranking, one has the benefit of filming one long shot on the entire roll of film.

24  Motion picture cameras

Spring motors A spring motor is the most common method for moving film through a basic 16mm and 8mm camera. The camera winds up by lever or key and turns either clockwise or counterclockwise until the key can no longer wind. After winding, the run button is pressed to release the spring. The shutter spins and film moves film past the gate for exposure. The spring runs the film anywhere between 20 seconds and 60 seconds in duration. For a typical movie, the spring motor serves its purpose very well because the average shot length falls within the 3–20 second length. However, like hand cranking, a spring motor does not hold the frame rate consistently. Its noise level is also loud. This makes spring wound cameras excellent for silent productions, but less suitable for dialogue recording. Spring wound cameras are less expensive, smaller, and lighter than their electric counterparts.

Wild electric motors Wild motors contain various speeds. The electric motor gives the filmmaker the ability to capture shots longer than 60 seconds. The entire roll of film may be filmed at once, just like hand cranking. Although not suitable for sync sound production, wild electric motors are advantageous for long takes, time lapse, and h igh-speed cinematography. Wild motored electric cameras deliver a solid middle ground between low-cost spring wound cameras and crystal sync sound production camera systems. Crystal sync motors If you want to record dialogue while filming, a sync sound motor is needed. A crystal sync motor uses a crystal quartz to regulate the pull-down claw.

Motion picture cameras  25

The crystal sync motor does not slow down or speed up the frame rate during filming. It will maintain a frame rate of 24fps without time deviation. Crystal sync motors are most suitable for filming narrative dramas or recording documentary interviews where post dubbing is not possible. Two components are needed for double sync sound filming: crystal sync movie camera and crystal sync sound recorder.

Movie camera viewing systems 16mm and 8mm movie cameras can be either non-ref lex or ref lex. A ref lex ­ ­​­­ ​­ ­ ​­ lex camera gives the operator a through-the-lens viewing where a non-ref uses a side or top mounted scope to frame the image. Ref lex cameras tend to cost more than non-ref lex cameras because of the complexities of the system which uses mirrors or a prism. For assurance in framing, many filmmakers desire a through-the-lens ­ ­​­­ ​­ ref lex system. viewing ­Non-reflex ​­ A non-reflex camera requires that one use an objective finder for framing instead of the reflex viewfinder. A small finder lens corresponds with the main lens. The main lens sits front of the gate and is the lens used to make the images. The main lens is also known as the taking lens. The objective finder is for framing purposes only as it does not account for focus or exposure. Objective finders match the taking lens focal lengths. A 1 inch (25mm) finder matches the 1 inch (25mm) lens. A 2 inch (50mm) finder matches a 2 inch (50mm) lens and so on. Some non-ref lex models come with a coupled side objective finder. This objective finder is coupled up to the main lens via a rotating turret. When the turret is rotated, the finder and lens move together. The coupling eliminates errors in mismatching the objective finder to the taking lens. To focus the lens on a non-ref lex camera (really any camera) one uses the distance markings on the lens barrel or uses a measuring tape to measure the distance. Focus can also be easily achieved by knowing the hyperfocal distance, which is the closest distance setting that will achieve infinity focus. To help with focusing a non-ref lex camera, sometimes a small critical or ref lex focuser is included as a bonus feature. Parallax cvrection Parallax correction is necessary on non-ref lex cameras. It refers to the difference in perspective between the objective finder and the taking lens. Usually if the subject is closer than 6 feet, some parallax correction is required. This is because the difference between the taking lens and viewfinder become pronounced at close range. Since the objective finder either sits to the side or above the taking lens, some parallax compensation must occur to make sure framing is accurate. Many camera models have corrective lines in the viewfinder to guide the

26  Motion picture cameras

filmmaker. If the finder sits above the lens, the lines tell you where the top of the frame is when 6 feet away and 2 feet away. Other cameras have dials to adjust for the difference between the lens and objective finder’s point of view. The dials are typically found on a side finder. When the dial is turned, the finder moves left or right to correct for the parallax.

Reflex viewing A ref lex camera allows the operator to see the framing and focus directly through the mounted main or taking lens. A rotating mirror or gate prism is used to ref lect light to a ground glass in the viewfinder. The advantage of

Motion picture cameras  27

the ref lex system is that, if properly calibrated, one sees framing and focus accurately through the lens. Mirror reflex Mirror ref lex systems direct a 100% of the light onto the film and ground glass. Mirror ref lex cameras have brighter viewing systems. When viewing through a mirror ref lex finder, one sees the magical f licker from the spinning mirror. It’s as if the operator has a front row seat in the projection room. Prism reflex The prism ref lex system borrows light from the film gate and directs it to a viewfinder. Unlike the mirror ref lex system, only some of the light reaches the eye piece. This makes the viewing screens dimmer on a prism ref lex camera than a mirror system. There is no f licker in a prism ref lex system.

28  Motion picture cameras

Suggested suppliers of motion picture cameras Chambless Cine Equipment, Duall Camera, Flea Markets, International Online Auction Sites, Pro8mm, Visual Products, Yard Sales

Suggested servicers of motion picture cameras Chambless Cine Equipment, Duall Camera, Pro8mm, Super 16 Inc., Visual Products

16mm camera spot light: Bell and Howell Filmo 70DR The non-ref lex Filmo 70 series arrived on the scene in 1923 with the creation of the 16mm film gauge. Since that time it has been used by home moviemakers and soldiers serving in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. The Filmo 70 is designed primarily for handheld work. It sits just fine on a tripod, but it really shines in the hand. Take it with you on hikes and adventures. The leather strap around the left hand securely keeps the camera body secure when moving. Place your forehead against the back of the camera to stabilize the body. Look through the finder with the left eye. Keep both eyes open. Your right hand remains free to further steady the camera and make lens adjustments. Ratchet wind The 70DR has a unique ratchet key to wind the motor. It is one of the more robust spring motors. Hold the camera body with the left hand and hold the key in the right. Move the camera body back and forth. This ratchet movement winds the spring motor. The Filmo can go from 8 to 64 fps. On one wind of the spring motor, the camera can advance the film about 22 feet or 37 seconds. Thirty-seven seconds is the longest possible shot using the spring motor. Hand crank The hand c rank gives the filmmaker the ability to make shots longer than the 22 feet. The crank can be used to make jump cuts by brief ly stopping the crank and starting it up again. You can create short dissolves and double exposures by backwinding with the hand crank, too. To crank forward, make a shot using the spring motor first. This is to run the spring motor down. Press the run button and engage the lock pin to hold the run button down. Insert the hand crank into the shaft. Engage the crank all the way. Set the frame rate. Move the crank forward to advance the film.

Motion picture cameras  29

Double exposure/backwinding ­ The B&H 70DR provides a backwinding feature. With a standard film chamber door, 1 foot of film can be safely backwound. If you have a door with an upper wind knob, 2 feet can be backwound. If you have a door with both upper and lower wind knobs, then you can backwind the entire length of the spring motor. When you backwind, you wind up the spring motor. The Filmo cannot backwind on a fully wound spring motor. The Filmo’s counter always moves forward. To compensate for this fact, set the footage counter back twice the amount rewound. If I rewind 2 feet, then set the counter back to 4 feet.

30  Motion picture cameras

Single frame Simply tap the run button quickly to capture a single frame. Use this feature for pixelation (animating people) or for stopmotion (animating objects or puppets). Objective finder The Filmo 70DR is a non-ref lex camera. The viewfinder of the Filmo 70DR uses three small objective lenses that mount to the small turret. The objective viewfinders aid with framing only. The small objective lenses correspond to the front mounted lenses on the large turret. Match the taking lens with the corresponding objective lens. Once both sets of lenses are aligned, the geared turrets will keep the finder and lenses linked. Parallax correction The Filmo 70 comes with a parallax correction dial located on the back of the viewfinder. This dial shifts the viewfinder left and right to accommodate for the fact that the operator looks through a side lens instead of the taking lens. The parallax correction dial adjusts to ensure accurate framing at distances from 3 feet to infinity. For each shot, rotate the parallax correction dial to the subject’s distance. If the subject is 3 feet away, set the dial to 3 feet. If the subject is 50 feet away, set the dial to 50 feet.

Motion picture cameras  31

Critical focus port On the Filmo 70DR, the critical focuser sits on the opposite side of the viewfinder. The critical focuser port displays a magnified and upside down image on the ground glass. This image provides the operator with a close-up image to focus the lens. Rotate the desired lens to be in front of the critical focus port. Open the lens to the widest aperture. Rotate the focus ring. Stop when the image is in focus. The 70DR locks the run button when the lens is in front of the focusing port. This prevents accidental running without the correct lens in front of the gate. Rotate the taking lens back to its position in front of the gate. Set the f/stop according to the light meter reading. Rehearse the shot and film.

Bell and Howell 70DR lenses Most standard C-mount cine or television lenses will work with the Bell and Howell 70DR. However, the cameras usually can be found with Angenieux, Bell and Howell, or Taylor Hobson lenses. Make sure any vintage lens is clean and clear of fungus. Many new 1 inch television c-mount lenses can also be

32  Motion picture cameras

used on a Filmo 70DR. However, sometimes the rear of the lens protrudes too far and may prevent the lens from focusing. Always check the rear of the lens clearance when using an unfamiliar lens. This can be done by slowly trying to rotate the turret. If you feel resistance, stop and remove the lens as it is too long. It’s a good idea to ask the seller questions before purchasing or go through a 16mm camera house as they usually test lenses before selling. For fast focusing, use a fixed focus wide-angle lens, like the Angenieux 10mm Retrofocus lens. In most lighting conditions, the 10mm will hold 3 feet to infinity in focus. Set the exposure on the lens from your light meter reading, stand 3 feet away from the subject, and press run to make a shot. Oil ports Filmos can be maintained by oiling at home with light machine oil. One places a drop or two of oil in the labeled oil ports. There are four internal oil ports and one in the center of the turret. Oil after exposing five or six rolls of film. If the camera sits without use for a month or more, place a drop or two of oil into each port. Place a drop or two of oil in the hole next to the hand crank as well.

Motion picture cameras  33

Bell and Howell Filmo 70DR user guide 1 Inspect lenses and brush away any dirt with lens brush. 2 Make sure the finder turret and lens turret line up with correct focal lengths. 3 Set frame rate dial to 16fps. ( You may change this later.)

Load spool in subdued light 1 Locate a dimly lit room, closet, or shady area to perform film loading. 2 Gently and firmly ratchet the spring key until it will not turn anymore. 3 Push the wind key f lat against the camera body. 4 Unlock the camera door by turning the latches simultaneously inward. 5 Place the door in the case. 6 Inside the camera: pull out the empty spare daylight spool. 7 Slide the gate arm to the right to expose the gate area and open the guide shoes. 8 Open a fresh film box. Remove paper from 100 feet spool. Remove the tape from the film. 9 Insert fresh film spool on top feed spindle. 10 Spool off 12–18 inches of film for threading.

Threading the film 1 Insert upper part of the film leader between the top sprocket roller and guide shoe. 2 Form a loop above the gate. The loop should be close to but not touch the camera body. 3 Place film in front of the gate and in the gate channel. 4 Press the film against the gate so that it is f lush. The film will catch on pull down claw. 5 Form a loop below the gate. The loop should be close to, but not touch the camera body. 6 Insert the film in between the bottom sprocket roller and guide shoe. 7 Close the gate arm by pressing the arm toward the gate. 8 Insert the film end into the slot of the spare take-up spool. 9 Wind up the excess film. 10 Place the take-up spool on the lower take-up spindle. 11 Press the run button in short bursts to move the film and inspect the film path. 12 Gently place the door back onto the camera and turn the latches outward to lock. 13 Rotate the footage counter dial clockwise and set to counter 96.

34  Motion picture cameras



Motion picture cameras  35

Focusing the lens 1 2 3 4

5

Rotate the larger geared turret until the desired lens is in front of the gate. Focus on the subject by estimating distance or using a tape measure. Set focus distance on the lens by matching distance to the center line. Check focus using the critical focusing port. a Rotate the taking lens so that it sits in front of the small focusing port. b Open the lens to widest aperture (f1.4 or f1.8). c Rotate the lens focus ring until subject is in sharp focus. d Rotate the lens turret back, so the lens is in front of the gate. Set the parallax correction dial to the focus distance on the lens.

Filming 1 2

With an incident meter, take a light reading from the subject to the camera. Set aperture ring on the lens to the f/stop given by the light meter.

36  Motion picture cameras

3 4 5 6

Check the focus by measuring the distance or using the critical focuser. Wind the camera. ( You have approximately 37 seconds on a wind.) Compose and rehearse the action. Press and hold the silver RUN button located on the top to film to capture.

Motion picture cameras  37

Unloading exposed film in subdued light 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Run the last shot past 100 on the counter. Listen for the film to roll off the daylight spool. Remove the camera door. Remove the bottom daylight spool with exposed film. Place the exposed roll of film in the film box it came in. Seal or tape the box closed. Write EXPOSED across the front of the box. On the back of the box write your name, phone number, and email address.

Chapter 2 Suggested film viewing: • •

Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory (1895), Directed by Auguste Lumière and Louis Lumière Meshes of the Afternoon (1943), Directed by Maya Deren and Alexandr Hackenschmied (sometimes credited Alexander Hammid)

The above films demonstrate the capabilities of the motion picture film camera. Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory (1895) shows the ability of the camera to frame life and create cinematic depth through movement through space. Meshes of the Afternoon (1943) not only displays the use of split screen, but also illuminates how slow motion and camera movement alter both temporal and spatial realities.

Filmmaking in practice Director’s finder Make a director’s viewfinder to gain a better understanding of aspect ratio and composition. Use three sheets of paper cardstock. Create a different aspect ratio on each sheet. The aspect ratios of 1.37:1, 1.78:1, and 2.40:1 are the most commonly used. Calculate the size of the finder rectangle by multiplying the vertical side by the desired ratio. For example, on standard letter paper, set the vertical height to 4 inches. To create a 1.37:1 frame, multiply 1.37:1 by 4. This equals 5.48. On the horizontal axis, measure out 5.48 inches from the bottom of the 4˝ line. Draw the 5.48˝ line on the horizontal. Complete the rectangle by drawing the other two sides. Now cut out this rectangle. Leave the sides intact. A viewing window will remain. Repeat these steps for the other two ratios. Label each director’s finder with the selected aspect ratio. Once they are all cut out, walk around your home or neighborhood. Look through the window of each finder and compose the same shot. What do you see? Compare the difference in framing provided by each finder.

38  Motion picture cameras

Materials: card stock, pencil, ruler, scissors

Bibliography

­

­ ​­

­

3

16mm and 8mm formats

Film comes in various sizes of gauges. The sizes are 8mm, Super 8mm, 16mm, 35mm, and 65mm. The larger the film size, the more resolution and dynamic range is found in the format. The large 65mm format captures the most information in terms of color and exposure. The smaller gauges of 8mm, Super 8mm, and 16mm are more accessible and f lexible for the new and amateur filmmaker. Over the years, I have worked with many 16mm, 8mm, and Super 8mm cameras. I began with 16mm and then experimented with Super 8 and Standard 8mm. For a few years, I used a small Konvas 1M 35mm movie camera to make several short films. Working with 35mm felt like I grew up as a filmmaker 35mm is considered the gold standard. After all, the resolution is top notch, and you are working in the legacy format going all the back to the beginning of cinema. From Thomas Edison to George Eastman to current Hollywood productions, 35mm is rich with history. While I was filming on 35mm film, I was making silent narrative movies. The camera setup was no problem for me and my collaborators. We could easily move the 35mm gear around. Later, though, I found myself alone working on a personal memoir film. This made working with 35mm a bit of a challenge. I really wanted my short memoir film to be made entirely on 35mm stock, like classic documentaries from the early 20th century. My documentary would be a purely cinematic documentary. I was hoping that 35mm motion picture film would elevate the picture and give me the freedom to forgo handheld observational conventions that are now commonplace. However, at the end of the first day of production, while I was rolling my large 35mm camera case and lens case back to my car, I thought, “What am I doing lugging this 35mm camera and heavy tripod around? If I was working on 16mm, I could still get the type of images I planned, and be a lot more nimble when making shots!” Working alone with the heavier 35mm equipment limited my shot angles. Much of the day I was parked in one area of the location. Although I was overall pleased with my 35mm footage, it was at that point in the production that I decided to shoot the rest on 16mm and Super 8mm.

40  16mm and 8mm formats

16mm and 8mm formats  41

16mm and Super 8mm gave me the freedom to set up the shots by myself with greater speed and mobility. Plus, these smaller film gauges harkened back to home movies and amateur productions of a bygone era. They matched well with the memoir style of the short film. I was able to use the aesthetics of 16mm and Super 8mm to bring a level of intimacy to the movie. Although working with 35mm was an exciting experience, it was difficult to make projects when I was working alone. I am glad I gave 35mm a try and would certainly work with it again. It was through filming on 35mm that I rediscovered the fun and f lexibility of the small gauge formats. I could make celluloid images and not have to bring along large cases, batteries, and a heavy tripod. Everything I needed could be carried in a small case and backpack. There is a beauty to this level of simplicity in equipment. It’s just you, the camera, some film, and the subject.

Film gauges One chooses the gauge and the method of capture based on the content of the idea. Sometimes a project calls for the impromptu technique of Standard 8mm. The 8mm camera can be carried in a pocket and pulled out to capture a piece of life on the f ly. Other times, a slow and deliberate approach may be most effective to make images. Here, a complete 16mm outfit may be needed. 16mm film captures four times the resolution of the 8mm gauge and sits between small gauge and large gauge formats. With its refined camera equipment, 16mm gives most if not all of the characteristics of working with a 35mm outfit but in a low cost and small package. Standard 8mm and Super 8mm are the smallest film gauges. They can be likened to handwriting a letter. An excellent format for experimentation, 8mm has been the start for numerous Hollywood directors. This includes Steven Spielberg, J.J. Abrams, Peter Jackson, and Christopher Nolan. Spike Lee continues to use both 16mm and Super 8mm. His short Super 8mm film New York, New York (2020) is a love letter to the city and its residents. Through skillful use of lighting and exposure, both 16mm and 8mm can give the artist an exceptional image with the freedom to make discoveries.

42  16mm and 8mm formats

Depth of field Depth of field is the term used to describe how much image area is in focus. The smaller the film gauge, the more depth of field that can be achieved. Ranked from largest depth of field to smallest: 8mm, Super 8mm, 16mm, 35mm, and 65mm. If you want the most depth of field, use an 8mm or Super 8mm camera. If you want a shallower depth of field, use a 16mm camera.

16mm and 8mm formats  43

There are four elements that affect depth of field. They are gauge size, focal length of the lens, aperture size (f/stops) of the lens, and subject distance. Independently each element will allow you to create larger or shallower depth of field. When used together, these elements maximize or minimize depth to fit the content of your shot. For example, to create a very shallow depth of field, use a 16mm camera with a long focal length lens, in low light, and place the subject at the minimum focus distance. Reverse these options to gain depth of field. 16mm formats 16mm thrives today in academic, independent, avant-garde, and commercial ­ applications. Some contemporary movies shot on 16mm include: Wendy (2020), The Old Man and the Gun (2018), and Moonrise Kingdom (2012). 16mm can look ­ ­ refined with fine grain and sharp textures like 35mm, or it can look gritty like Super 8mm. It all depends on one’s film stock, lighting, and processing. For students, 16mm provides a solid entry into filmmaking. 16mm resources including film stocks are plentiful. Cameras, splicers, viewers, and the like are available on the used market. Labs continue to support 16mm processing, scanning, and printing. Many commercial feature productions choose 16mm for its textured look and low cost. 16mm comes on daylight spools and cores.

44  16mm and 8mm formats

Standard 16mm Standard 16mm camera captures images in the Academy aspect ratio of 1.37:1. This ratio can be made on traditional single or double perforated 16mm film stock. When destined for television, standard 16mm may sometimes be referred to as 1.33:1, which is a 4 × 3 ratio. The Standard 16mm format and the Academy ratio of 1.37:1 is compatible with all 16mm projectors, viewers, splicers, and f latbed film editing tables. Nearly all motion picture labs support Standard 16mm processing, printing, and scanning. This makes acquiring 16mm cameras and editing gear a solid investment. If scanning the Standard 16mm image, the 1.37:1 ratio of the 16mm images will be displayed with pillar bars on a High Definition television. For some who prefer the widescreen image to fit an HDTV, there is a simple work around. A Standard 16mm camera will suffice to gain a widescreen image. To do so, frame for 1.78:1 and crop the image the 1.78:1 during video scanning. A disciplined cinematographic technique, sharp lenses, fine grain film, and a 2K video scan will yield superb results. Super 16mm Super 16 is considered the professional 16mm format due its higher resolution and native widescreen image. Super 16mm has a native wide aspect ratio of 1.66:1. It can be cropped to the following aspect ratios 1.78:1, 1.85:1, 2.39:1. The 1.66:1 gate size is close to High Definition video’s ratio of 1.78:1, which makes Super 16 an excellent choice for HD broadcasts. In fact, during the 1990s, many BBC productions were shot on Super 16mm, including the critically acclaimed Pride and Prejudice (1995) ­ ­mini-series. ​­ To accommodate the larger picture area; only single perforated film can be used with a Super 16mm camera. A camera technician can modify some types of Standard 16mm cameras to the Super 16 format. The technician machines the gate and re-centers the lens mount to convert a Standard 16mm camera to Super 16mm. Camera candidates for Super 16 conversion often include the Arrif lex SR, Bolex H16 REX, Cine Kodak K100, Cinema Products 16R, and the Eclair NPR. Since the Super 16mm image area is much larger than Standard 16mm, new lenses may need to be purchased to cover the larger Super 16 gate.

Ultra 16mm Ultra 16mm is an inexpensive widescreen option for 16mm filmmakers. The gate modification service costs less than Super 16. The overall image size of Ultra 16mm is smaller than both Standard 16mm and Super 16mm. With Ultra 16mm, both sides of the film gate are widened a little bit to create a 1.85:1 widescreen ratio. This ratio is also close to the 1.78:1 of High

16mm and 8mm formats  45

Definition video, which also makes Ultra 16 films suitable for broadcasts or 35mm blowups. Often, the Standard 16mm lenses will work fine on an Ultra 16mm modified camera. This is the bonus of the format. With the gate being widened a little on each side, there’s no need to re-center the lens mount. The Ultra 16mm is compatible with double perforated film stock since the widescreen image sits between the perforations.

Standard 8mm Designed by Kodak in 1932, Standard 8mm cameras were dominant for home movies during the years between 1932 and 1965. Standard 8mm is sometimes called Double 8 because the film runs through the camera twice to expose both sides of the film roll. Most Standard 8mm cameras offer complete manual exposure control, a metal pressure plate, and spool loading for special effects. Currently, Standard 8mm film is more niche, and film stocks for the format come and go quickly on the market. The Standard 8 image is about 1/4 the size of 16mm. 8mm cameras can be quite compact and will fit in your coat pocket. Carry one with you on cross country trips or family vacations. Standard 8 captures two rows of 8mm frames on one side of a filmstrip. The 8mm image is exposed on one half of the width of the film. After exposing the first side, the film is f lipped and placed on the upper reel mount. The

46  16mm and 8mm formats

film runs again through the camera to expose the other side. The lab technician cuts the 25 foot roll of film down the middle and splices the two halves together. Once the two halves have been exposed to light, developed at a lab, and taped together, the film can be threaded on a Standard 8mm projector. Standard 8mm film comes on a 25 feet or 33 feet spool. Spliced together one 50 feet long roll run at 16fps yields about four minutes and ten seconds of time. Today, one can purchase a 33 feet roll of Standard 8mm film. This roll can capture 5 minutes and 30 seconds. Many Standard 8mm cameras are often found at thrift stores, garage sales, and f lea markets. A Standard 8 camera can be likened to having a miniature 16mm camera in the hand. 8mm cameras have a full metal pressure plate for image stability and come in both spring wound and battery-operated models. Standard 8mm cameras arrive in several lens configurations. Sometimes they have a fixed wide-angle lens, other times a three lens turret, and on later models, a zoom lens. Some 8mm cameras come with a fixed focus lens and fixed frame rate of 16fps. Consumer grade 8mm cameras have a low-fidelity image, while many higher end Standard 8 cameras deliver professional results. Some higher end models come with built-in electric eye light meters for quick and convenient metering.

16mm and 8mm formats  47

Uncut Standard 8 One neat and exciting creative option of Standard 8mm comes from the ability to leave the film uncut. Standard 8mm film begins its life as the same size as 16mm, just with more perforations on both the left and right side of the frame. If left uncut, one will see four small 8mm frames on this 16mm sized film. Two of the frames belong to the first side exposed, and the other two frames go along with the second side of the film. When one chooses to leave Standard 8mm film uncut, the right side images are upside down and move backwards. This creates not only a side-byside comparison but a backwards/forwards relationship. The left side image displays right side up and the motion moves forwards while the right side displays an image that runs backwards and upside down. The quadrant of images can also be transferred to video via 16mm film scanner. This quadrant of images on uncut 8mm film can be projected on any Standard 16mm projector. Instead of having roughly four minutes of Standard 8mm, you’ll have about two minutes of runtime. Instruct the lab to not cut the film if you desire this multi-image effect. If you plan to scan the uncut Standard 8mm to video, one can keep all four frames in the quadrant or one can choose only to select the horizontal two frames to be displayed. The result of selecting only the horizontal two frames creates a diptych. The diptych aesthetic generates a relationship between the two different ­side-by-side and reversed images. ­​­­ ​­ Flipping the roll and running it through the camera twice makes these two unique tracks on Standard 8mm film. If you want a workprint of uncut Standard 8mm, the lab can contact print the negative or copy the reversal film onto 16mm stock.

Super 8mm It is much more likely that a relative or local thrift store will have a Super 8 camera than a 16mm camera. Designed as a simple-to-use consumer format in 1965, Kodak’s Super 8 cartridge system was and still is revolutionary. First, the Super 8 film comes in a neat squarish cartridge of 50 feet of film instead of on a daylight spool. The plastic Super 8 cartridge protects the film from light, so one can simply load it in the camera in any lighting condition. The other significant change from Standard ( Double 8) cameras is that the Super 8 frame has a nearly 50% larger image area. Instead of a frame existing between two perfs, a Super 8 frame uses a smaller single perforation that rests on the edge of the film. This perf sits in the middle of the frame, thus providing more space for the image. Next the cartridge does not require any threading of the film to create loops. The plastic cartridge holds the loops. This makes loading the film easy for the less tech-interested person and makes it a snap to use.

48  16mm and 8mm formats

Typically, a Super 8mm cartridge runs at 18fps for silent speed and 24 fps for sound films. On a 50-foot cartridge of Super 8mm, one receives a runtime of 3 minutes and 20 seconds at 18fps. At the sound speed of 24fps, Super 8mm runs close to the time of 16mm at the same speed  – 2 minutes and 30 seconds. No need to f lip the cartridge with Super 8mm. It runs just one time through the camera. The other convenient features of the Super 8 medium include a notchbased system that tells the camera the ISO (film speed). Cameras read the exposure index (ISO) notch on a cartridge. This triggers the automatic electric light meter, which is built into the camera. Unlike the spring wound 16mm and standard 8mm cameras, the electronics in Super 8 cameras require more care in terms of storage conditions. If the camera was stored in extreme heat or cold or moisture, the electronics could be damaged. With that being said, Super 8 cameras are so affordable that one can easily replace one for less than the cost of servicing. Test the Super 8 camera by placing AA batteries inside. Press the run button. If the camera runs, it typically works. Check the pull-down claw movement to see if the camera is working properly. Open the cartridge chamber door. Press the run button and look at the pull down claw. If you see the pull-down claw moving up and down, that means the camera will advance the film.

16mm and 8mm formats  49

The ease of Super 8mm and its features like a single frame for animation can encourage most anyone to affordably enter the art of motion pictures. Super 8 continues to thrill and excite young filmmakers. Look for Super 8 clubs and festivals to connect with a Super 8 community.

Max 8 format Super 8mm cameras can be modified or adjusted to capture an image in different aspect ratios as well. MAX 8 for instance, an innovation by Pro8mm in Burbank, CA, captures a 1.58:1 image on a standard Super 8mm cartridge. A Max 8 camera comes with a film gate, which has been widened to capture an even larger picture on the Super 8 frame. Standard Super 8mm cartridges load into Max 8 cameras exactly the same way. Just like other formats, such as Super 16, the picture fills the space that was once used to capture a soundtrack on the film.

Camera spotlight: Yashica Super 800 Electro Okay, filmmakers out there who know their Super 8 cameras may be saying, why focus on the Yashica Super 800 Electro and not some more

50  16mm and 8mm formats

­

Yashica made the Electro 600 and 800 models with large focal length ranges as well as the Yashica SU- 40 and SU- 60 models with more compact lenses. They feature frame rates of 12, 18, and 24 and automatic light metering with a one stop over exposure and one stop under exposure override.

16mm and 8mm formats  51

Battery test Place the batteries in grip, turn the on switch to “N” for neutral, and then pull the run trigger. Listen for the motor and look into the viewfinder to see if the light meter dial moves. If both the light meter and motor respond to the power, the camera is fully operational. The Yashica Super 600 provides a generous focal length range of 8 – 48mm, with the more advanced Super 800 giving a larger range of 7.5– 60mm. The Super Electro 800 also has an external zoom ring on the lens, giving the filmmaker the ability to manually zoom. In addition, these Yashica models can be operated by run trigger,

52  16mm and 8mm formats

remote control, or standard cable release. With the cable release in the socket labeled “1,” single frame animation is possible. Filters and filter keys Super 8 cameras come with built-in filters that will correct for daylight when a tungsten film cartridge is installed. Sometimes these filters get dirty or deteriorate over time. Many filmmakers opt to have the built-in filters removed. If they desire a filter, a simple over the lens filter can be screwed on to the front lens element. When using an inexpensive Super 8 camera, just test and see the filter results. The Yashica Super 800 Electro has an 85A filter that will white-balance tungsten film to daylight. It comes with a special key that when placed in the top slot will deactivate the 85A filter when one films with tungsten light. Chapter 3 Suggested film viewing: • •

Go! Go! Go! (1964), Directed by Marie Menken Diaries, Notes, and Sketches (1969), Directed by Jonas Mekas

The above films were made on 16mm film. They display the mobility and versatility of working in a small gauge film medium. The f luid movements in Marie Menken’s Go! Go! Go! are made possible by the ability to bring a lightweight 16mm camera out into the world for experimentation. Film poet Jonas Mekas’s Diaries, Notes, and Sketches (1969) demonstrates the ability of 16mm film to beautifully capture life in the moment.

Filmmaking in practice Single object Create a short film about a singular object on one roll of 16mm, 8mm, or Super 8mm film. The object of this activity is to practice using cameras and lenses. Begin by reading through your camera manual. Familiarize yourself with how to set focus and exposure. Select a family heirloom or family photograph to film. Place the object in a room with natural window light. Set the object on a table or tape the photo to a blank wall with acid free artist tape. Meter the light. Film 12 shots of the object. Film the object at different distances. Set the tripod up 3 feet away from the object. Make three different shots. Move 6 feet away and make three different shots. Move 9 feet away, and make three different shots. Use all the lenses in the kit for each setup. Use a frame rate of 16fps for half of the shots and 32fps for half of the shots. Materials: Camera Manual, B/W Reversal Film Stock, 8mm, Super 8mm, or 16mm Camera, Tripod, Light Meter, Object or family photograph, Artist Tape

16mm and 8mm formats  53

54  16mm and 8mm formats

16mm and 8mm formats  55

Bibliography

­ ­

​­

­

­­

­​­­

­​­­

­​­­

­​­­

­​­­

­​­­

​­

4

Cinema lenses

At one time, I used to think that one had to have the sharpest lens. Although using a sharp lens on your production is still a good thing, it’s not the only element that determines the quality of the image. With skillful lighting, most lenses will deliver sharp results. Too much money has been spent on renting the expensive glass while in reality very good glass can be purchased for little. Many filmmakers including commercial cinematographers know that vintage and low-cost lenses exhibit character. Having two to three good inexpensive lenses will give you options. In the right hands, any lens can be the right lens for a given film. Skillfully use lenses for creative effect, and your film will stand out. As you explore lenses, think not only how to limit depth to make shallow depth of field shots, but how to create depth in the frame. Wide-angle lenses used outdoors or with artificial light can provide you with the opportunity to fill the frame with props and set design. While others may hide background or set design, use depth to your film’s advantage. Move subjects through space and guide them into different framing compositions. A subject can walk from a full body shot into a close-up in one run of the camera.

Lens mounts Lenses and mounts often designed to work with a specific film gauge. C-mount threaded lenses can mostly be found for the Standard 16mm format. D-mount lenses fit many Standard 8mm cameras. However, C-mount lenses can also be used on Standard 8mm or Super 8 cameras. This is because the C-mount lens covers a larger area. Some Standard 8mm cameras like the Bolex H8 come with C-mount ports, and therefore can use lenses originally designed for 16mm cameras. C-mount lenses are quite versatile. In general, cinema lenses that have a one inch rear lens coverage will be compatible with the full range of small gauge formats: Super 16mm, Ultra 16mm, Standard 16mm, Super 8mm, and Standard 8mm. Common 16mm Lens Mounts: Arrif lex Standard, Arrif lex Bayonet, C-Mount, CP (Cinema Products) Lens Mount, PL ( Positive Lock) Mount, Eclair ­CA-1​­ Mount Common Standard 8mm: ­C-Mount, ​­ D Mount

Cinema lenses  57

Focal length The focal length of a lens is the measurement of the optical center of the lens to the film plane. Measured in millimeters, a lens’ focal length is written on the front of the lens or the lens barrel. Focal length affects field of view and depth of field. Most lenses are labeled by focal length and widest f/stop (aperture number). The greater the focal length, the higher the image magnification. The shorter the focal length, the greater the field of view. The effect of focal length and its measurement are connected to the size of the frame. 16mm and the 8mm formats have different focal length

58  Cinema lenses

measurements. 16mm cameras require larger lenses to cover the 16mm frame. 8mm cameras require smaller lenses. The focal length equivalent of an 8mm lens will be half that of a 16mm lens. For example, the field of view and effect of a 5mm lens on an 8mm camera is the equivalent to using a 10mm lens on a 16mm camera. A 25mm lens on a 16mm camera will be the same as a 12.5mm or 13mm lens on an 8mm camera.

Types of lenses Normal lenses Normal lenses approximate the normal field of view of the human eye. Many 8mm and 16mm cameras usually come with a normal lens which is a 25mm for the 16mm format or a 12.5mm for the 8mm format. If you have just one lens in the kit, likely it will be a normal lens.

Cinema lenses  59

An object that is 10 feet away when seen through a normal focal length lens will look 10 feet away. The object will not look further away such as the effect of a wide-angle lens. The object will also not look closer like the effect created through magnification with a telephoto lens. ­Wide-angle ​­ lenses Wide-angle lenses for 8mm and 16mm filmmaking exaggerate space and depth, have a larger depth of field, and exaggerate movement through space. The most common wide-angle lenses for 16mm include 10mm, 12.5mm, and 16mm. Wide-angle lenses for Standard and Super 8mm include the 5mm, 6mm, and 8mm focal lengths. A wide-angle lens has greater depth of field. It allows the filmmaker to move people, objects, and set pieces through the frame while maintaining focus from foreground to background. The use of the w ide-angle encourages filmmakers to block action through space. This can lead to more cinematicstyle shots that use the mise-en-scene to tell the story. When capturing the human face with a w ide-angle lens, you will notice how noses become larger and ears seem further away from the face. In general wide-angle lenses are not used too often for close-ups because they generate stretched-look that is not f lattering on a human subject. However, when one has a reason for this look, the results are impactful. People moving toward or away from a wide-angle lens appear to cover more ground and seem to move faster. Use this trick for great effect or consider moving subjects on the horizontal to lessen the exaggeration of speed and depth. Movement across the horizontal lessens the dramatic effect of a wide-angle lens. Wide-angles also hide camera jiggle. Use a wide-angle lens when moving the camera on a dolly or when going handheld . In this way, the w ideangle lens is a useful tool when making an observational documentary in the Cinéma Vérité– style movies. Use a w ide-angle lens and fast film of ISO 500 to achieve the most depth of field. Telephoto lenses Telephoto lenses magnify the image to make objects appear closer. They also compress space, so objects look closer to one another than they actually are in real life. Unlike a wide-a ngle lens, telephoto lenses make movement through space appear slower. The distance traversed to and from the camera seems less. If one wants to make an object feel closer to a subject, use a telephoto lens. Many action films do this to give a scene a sense of danger: “Oh no, the truck is headed right towards the cliff!” Indeed, the truck is further from the cliff and is quite safe, but the compressed space of the telephoto lens makes it feel closer. Telephoto lenses provide a very shallow depth of field image. The longer the lens, the less of the area that will be in focus. Making a close-up with a 63mm lens at f5.6 with a subject 5 feet away, the focus range covers 4 feet

60  Cinema lenses

8 inches to 5 feet 5 inches. That’s only 9 inches! The actor needs to know not to move too far forward or backward or they will be out of focus. It’s helpful to show the actor how far they can move their body within the frame. Common focal lengths ­

Cinema lenses  61

Primes and zoom lenses Primes Prime lenses are fixed focal length lenses. This means that they have only one focal length. A 10mm prime lens contains only the 10mm focal length. You cannot “zoom” with a prime lens. If you want a tighter shot, simply move the camera closer to the subject.

62  Cinema lenses

Primes lenses are smaller, lighter, and generally faster than a zoom lens. A prime lens with an f/1.4 marking is considered a fast lens. The wide maximum aperture makes a prime perform better in lowlight. Since there are less glass elements present in the prime lens barrel, primes are often sharper than zoom lenses. For the amateur filmmaker, primes on turret cameras are a great way to go. Three sharp and fast lenses are at your fingertips.

Zooms A zoom lens is a lens that has several glass elements. A zoom contains multiple focal lengths in one lens. A 10–100mm zoom lens contains all the focal lengths within the range from 10 to 100mm. A 10–100mm zoom lens, would be the equivalent of carrying a 10mm, 12mm, 16mm, 25mm, 35mm, 50mm, 75mm, and 100mm prime. That’s a lot of lenses. Although zooms are larger and heavier than primes lenses, they are convenient. Zooms often have apertures around f/2.8, f/4, or f/5.6, which means they are slower and less usable in low light situations than primes. Zooms also have longer focus distances, meaning a subject should be 4 or 5 feet back from the zoom lens to maintain critical focus. A zoom functions well in quick documentary-style productions where carrying and switching lenses is not always possible. With a zoom, comes the zoom effect where zooming in magnifies the subject. The magnification of

Cinema lenses  63

the image of the zoom lends itself to a subject point of view. The zoom often feels voyeuristic as something or someone is magnified for greater scrutiny. Zooming has become the norm in consumer productions. Its artificial “moving in” look often delivers a home movie feel. Zooms can be overused, sometimes for effect. The overuse of the zoom, where the image constantly trombones in and out, often creates a chaotic feeling. In general, have a specific reason to film with the zoom effect. Maybe you want to draw the viewer into a character’s point of view. Here, zooming into a person or key object would be appropriate to emphasize the importance of the person or object to the gazer.

Zooms and dollies Zooms and dolly shots are different. A zoom enlarges all parts of the frame where a dolly shot delivers a movement that approximates how we experience the world. Dollying the camera forward reveals elements behind other objects in the frame. Dollying gives way to a feeling of true depth. A zoom collapses and compresses objects and space together. The camera is stationary with a zoom, and the subject is enlarged instead. One can use the zoom lens like having multiple primes. In this case, all zoom adjustments happen before pressing run. Simply zoom in, focus the image, and zoom out to the desired focal length. Then film the shot.

64  Cinema lenses

Aperture/(F/stops) ­ The aperture or diagram of a lens controls how much light comes through the lens. Aperture blades control the size of the aperture or hole in the lens which light passes through. The light comes through the aperture and exposes the film. The aperture ring adjusts the blades and has f/stop measurement markings around the lens barrel. Remove a lens from the camera and hold it up to a window out in front of you. Look through the lens glass. Now turn the aperture ring. Notice how the blades close down to a smaller hole when you move the ring to an f/stop number of f/16 and how the hole widens when you move the ring to f/2. When you look into the front or rear of the lens and move this ring, you will see the leaves of the aperture opening ( becoming wider) and closing ( becoming smaller). The f/stop numbers correlate with the sizes. An f/stop number of 1.4 denotes a large opening in the aperture and therefore lets more light onto the film. An opening of f/22 is small and lets less light onto the film.

Cinema lenses  65

Think of the aperture movement like the action of an eye pupil. When light conditions are dim, pupils open wider to let more light in, so we can see. Pupils shrink when light conditions are bright. The human eye adjusts for exposure. With manual cinema lenses, the filmmaker adjusts for exposure. When filming in conditions where the light illumination is low, the exposure will be on the lower half of the f/stop spectrum f1.0 to f4.0. Normal lenses usually have fast apertures or wide apertures of f/2.0 or f/1.4. They can deliver handsome, natural-looking results even in low light conditions. When the illumination is bright, the exposure will be on the upper half f8 to f32. An inverse relationship exists between f/stop measurements. An exposure of f/4 lets in two times as much light than a setting of f/5.6. When compared to f/2.8, f/4 lets in half as much light. This halving and doubling relationship exists for all settings in the scale. The full f/stop scale is found on the barrel of most cinema lenses. The f/stop scale typically ranges from f/2 to f/22. ­Table 4.1  Full Stop Aperture Scale: 1, 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32 1

1.4

2

2.8

4

5.6

8

11

16

22

Going left down the scale > Increases light X 2 Going right up the scale < Decreases light by 1/2 Shallow Going right up the scale decreases DOF depth of field of field

T/stops The t/stop scale can also be found on some lens barrels, especially more professional grade lenses. T/stops are “true” stops and use the same scale as f/stops. The t/stop measurement takes into account the light transmission through the lens. Often, t/stops show a higher number than the f/stop marking. For example, a lens that is f/1.3 may only be a t/1.8 when other factors are included in the calculation. When one knows the f/stop and t/stop scale through and through, the creative possibilities with exposure, focus, and depth of field will f lourish. The filmmaker will be able to pre-v isualize these elements in their head before touching a camera. There’s no need for other visual aids because the filmmaker will see the ensemble effect of exposure, depth of field, and focus in their mind before pressing the run button.

Depth of field Depth of field refers to the range of focus in front of the camera. It is controlled by four elements. These elements are film gauge, focal length, focal

66  Cinema lenses

distance, and f/stop. From an early chapter, it was noted that larger film gauge creates shallow depth of field. Larger focal lengths, like telephoto lenses, also create shallower depth of field. The third way to control depth of field is by positioning the subject either closer to the camera or further away. Closer subject positioning creates shallow depth of field, and farther subject positioning results in larger depth of field. The fourth way to control depth of field is through the use of the aperture or f/stop scale. The smaller the f/stop number, the smaller the range of focus. The larger the f/stop number, the greater the range of focus will be. To achieve a large depth of field, a larger f/stop number is required. To reach the larger f/stop number, one needs more light. F/stop readings of f/16

Cinema lenses  67

or f/22 will have a large depth of field in respect to their focal lengths. At an f/22 reading with a 25mm lens for 16mm, you may have about 5 feet to infinity in focus. On the other side, when filming indoors, you may have an exposure of f/2. Here, the f/stop number is smaller. With the same 25mm lens and an aperture of f/2, the depth of field is shallow. There will be approximately 2 feet in focus. To achieve more depth of field with lenses, use wide- angle lenses and/or bright artificial lights. Wide- angle lenses provide a greater depth of field while artificial lights can bring the exposure up to reach higher f/stop numbers. Using a wide-angle lens like a 5mm in the 8mm format, you’ll have a very large depth of field. A 10mm lens provides ample depth of field in the 16mm medium. Large f/stop numbers like f/16 and f/22 provide the greatest depth with all the gauges. Hyperfocal distance The hyperfocal distance represents the best focus setting that gives the largest in focus range. For example, on a 16mm Bell and Howell 240 camera with a 20mm lens at f/16, one could set the focus ring to 20 feet. This setting on the lens delivers a large depth of field of 3 feet to infinity. The hyperfocal distance setting works best outdoors when there’s a lot of light. Instead of constantly focusing, one can set the hyperfocal distance on a given lens and know to stay beyond the minimum focus distance. In the example above, just stay 3 feet or further from the subject and all the images will be in focus. The more light you have, the shorter the focus distance you can set on the lens to maintain focus to infinity. A 25mm lens on a 16mm camera can be set to roughly 2 feet at f/16, but should be set to 15.5 feet when working with an f/stop of f/2. The hyperfocal distance helps immensely on documentary productions when there’s not much time to focus. You quickly set the focus ring to the hyperfocal distance, stand with-in this distance, and film.

Lens focus Ninety-nine percent of the time, one’s focus should be spot-on sharp. There are cases in terms of experimentation where one can intentionally create and use an out-of-focus shot. However, for most shots, the viewer desires to know where you wish them to look in the frame. In order to make sure the lens focus matches the correct distance, it’s important to check three elements: viewfinder calibration, lens focus distance, and measured distance to the subject.

68  Cinema lenses

Measuring tape The best way to focus non-ref lex cameras (and ref lex cameras too!) is through the use of a measuring tape. Indeed, the best way to check focus on any camera comes from using a basic tape measure found at a hardware store. A common 12 foot tape measure is all you need. When you enlarge images up to a

Cinema lenses  69

screen size of 40 feet, the focus better be on the mark. Any focus miss will be magnified and look very, very out of focus. Simply measure the distance between the camera and the subject using a common measuring tape. Many cameras have a symbol on the side of the camera to denote the film plane. The symbol is a circle with a line through it. Measure from the film plane to the subject. If the subject remains static, set the focus distance on the lens using the focus ring. The focus ring will be marked with distances in feet and meters. Common focus markings on a 25mm lens for the 16mm format 18”, 2’, 4’, 5’, 7’, 10’, 15’, 25’, 50’ infinity Depth of field chart The depth of field chart can be used to focus shots in both the 8mm, Super 8mm, and 16mm formats. It gives the cinematographer the in-focus range. The filmmaker uses basic lens and exposure information of focal length, f/stop, and subject distance to calculate the range of focus. If you prefer to use a smartphone app to calculate the depth of field, there are depth of field calculator apps available. On the smartphone app, type in the focal length of the lens, the f/stop, and the subject distance. The app reads out a numerical and visual illustration of the near and far focus distance. Keep the subject within this range to maintain focus. Critical focusing Some non-ref lex cameras like the Bell and Howell 70DR and Cine Kodak Special come with a critical focusing aid or ref lex viewing option to check focus. The critical focuser option makes it easy to double check focus. It’s similar to using a ref lex camera. Look into the focus port to see through the lens. Move the lens focus ring back and forth until the desired image in the frame becomes sharply focused. Critical focusing can only be used before filming, not during filming. ­Fixed-focus ​­ lens In the Standard 8mm format, it is common to find fixed-focus or no focus lenses. Fixed-focus lenses work at a preset focus to deliver the closest focus to infinity. Being that the 8mm frame is small, a 5mm wide-angle or 12.5mm normal lens has no need for focus rings. They are designed to maintain focus as close as 1 feet away from the camera. Some lenses for 16mm come in a fixed focus design as well. The Angenieux 10mm Retrofocus f/1.8 lens does not have a focus ring. In the case with the 10mm Angenieux Retrofocus lens, its preset focus is 4 feet. For the most part, this setting guarantees subjects from 3 feet to infinity will be in focus at most apertures.

70  Cinema lenses

Cinema lenses  71

72  Cinema lenses

Focus pulling Focus pulling or racking focus is a craft and an art. It describes the adjustment of focus made while filming. How does focus pulling work? Let’s take a look. It is a hot summer day. In the foreground in a close-up is a three-year-old child holding an ice cream cone. The focus is set to the ice cream cone at 3 feet. The ice cream cone pops out in sharp focus. The background is out of focus. There’s a large dog who sits just behind the cone in the background. The dog is out of focus at 5 feet. In order to film the shot and move the focus from ice cream cone to dog, a rack focus is required. The rehearsal of the focus pull consists of rotating the focus ring from ice cream to the dog licking its lips. The focus ring moves from 3 to 5 feet. While filming, the focus moves to the dog’s distance. The dog will snap into sharp focus revealing his drooping tongue. Optical viewfinder An optical finder is a viewfinder that utilizes glass and mirrors to provide an image display for framing. Non-ref lex cameras use simple glass finders while ref lex viewfinders use glass and mirrors to show the operator what the lens sees. When you look through a clean piece of glass, it’s like looking through a portal. One actually sees the subject being filmed. Looking into an optical finder is a bit like looking into a tunnel with the movie being at the end of the tunnel. One feels a part of the movie as it happens. Diopters Ref lex cameras have a diopter built into the viewfinder. The diopter corrects the camera operator’s vision to the ground glass in order to guarantee accurate focusing. Eye spectacles are not needed when using a viewfinder diopter. The diopter calibration adjustment is often found on a ring that surrounds the viewfinder. Sometimes, in the case of Super 8 cameras, the diopter dial sits right next to the viewfinder on the camera body. Some 16mm and Super 8mm cameras contain textured glass or frame lines to aid in focusing the diopter. Swing the lens away from the gate, remove the lens, or zoom out to the widest focal length. One rotates the diopter focus ring back and forth until the frame lines or textured ground glass becomes finely focused. The diopter should be calibrated each time a different camera operator looks into the viewfinder. Always check that the ground glass focusing screen is clean and the diopter adjustment is focused to the ground glass before filming. Calibrate the diopter and practice focusing the lens several times before loading up a roll of film and shooting a movie.

Cinema lenses  73

Special lenses Anamorphic lenses Anamorphic lenses provide a widescreen alternative to Super 16 and Ultra 16 modifications. The anamorphic lens squeezes two times the width of the image on the standard Academy 1.37:1 film frame to create a widescreen image. The extra width is then unsqueezed by an anamorphic lens mounted to the projector. The projection lens reverses the process and expands the width of the frame to create a widescreen image. One can use anamorphic lenses on Standard 16mm cameras to achieve wide aspect ratios of 2.68:1 or 2.55:1 or 2:1. Sometimes the camera lens attachment will also serve as the projection lens. Several manufacturers produced anamorphic widescreen attachments to work with 16mm and 8mm cameras. Many of these anamorphic lenses were made to attach to normal lenses: 25mm for 16mm and 12.5mm for Standard 8mm. Look for 16mm gauge anamorphic lenses from Bell and Howell or find anamorphic lenses from other brands like Kowa, Lomo, and Hawk at online auction sites.

Macro lens/extension tube A macro lens gives the filmmaker the ability to film objects in extreme closeups. This works well for any subject you wish to see in great detail such as f lowers, insects, eyes, etc. Some lenses have a built in macro feature such as

74  Cinema lenses

the one that comes on the Canon Scoopic M 16mm camera. An extension tube can also be screwed onto an existing C-mount lens to allow the filmmaker to film extreme close-ups. RX lenses for Bolex Rex cameras RX lenses are C-mount lenses designed to correct for the ref lex prism in Bolex REX cameras. An RX lens can be distinguished by the letters RX written on the lens barrel. The prism in front of the Bolex gate alters the focus distance so a normal C-mount lens will not focus properly. If one uses a regular C-mount or Non-RX lens on a Bolex REX, the image often appears soft and out of focus at open f/stop settings such as f/1.4. Some non-RX lenses can work with the Bolex REX prism depending on the design and focal length. If using a non-R X lens on a Bolex REX camera, test and see if the lens maintains acceptable focus. Another option is to purchase lenses from a Bolex specialist such as Chambless Cine Equipment in Ellijay, GA. They carry RX lenses and Pentax CCTV lenses that work fine with Bolex H16 Ref lex cameras. In general, when it comes to the Bolex REX camera, it is safest to use an RX lens. Reflex zoom lenses A ref lex zoom lens is a lens that includes its own prism and viewfinder. Typically, these zoom lenses are used to make a non-ref lex camera like the Bell and Howell 70DR or Cine Kodak K100 into a ref lex camera. One looks into the lens viewfinder rather than the camera viewfinder to see through the lens. The most common ref lex zoom lenses are the Angenieux 17– 68mm, Angenieux 12–120mm, and the Som Berthiot Pan Cinor 85 (17– 85mm). 3D stereo lens Vintage 3D lens or adapter kits can be picked up for your 16mm or 8mm camera. 3D provides a great way to experiment not only with the 3D image, but also a tall rectangular aspect ratio. The 3D lens splits the image beam into right and left channels onto one frame of 16mm or 8mm film. These channels represent the right eye and left eye. The frame is tall and skinny since two frames now sit side by side where one frame once occupied. You need a stereo lens or adapter for the projector, and red and blue 3D glasses. 3D kits for 16mm were made by Elgeet, Bolex, and Nord.

Lens filters Glass or gelatin filters can be used to darken or lighten tones in the black and white image. They also can be used to change the color temperature of the light to match the color film stock.

Cinema lenses  75

Black and white filters In black and white, a color will be darkened by use of the opposite colored filter. For example, a blue sky is darkened by a warm filter. The tone of red strawberries is darkened by a blue filter. The deeper the color, the darker it will alter the tone. You can darken the blue sky by adding either a yellow, orange, or red filter in front of the lens. The yellow slightly darkens the sky, where the red will really darken the sky. Using filters requires exposure compensation because the filter cuts the amount of light coming through the lens. An orange b/w filter requires+1 stop compensation. This means a scene that reads f/5.6 on the meter without a filter will require the lens be opened to f/4 to compensate when using the orange filter. This is known as the filter factor. Filter factors are found on the data sheets that come with the glass or filter gels.

Color filters With a color correction filter, daylight balanced film can be used indoors and tungsten balanced film outdoors. Tungsten film can be used outdoors with an orange filter to correct the 5500K blue daylight. With the orange filter, the daylight will be filtered out so that the sunlight will match the film stock. The orange color correction filter that corrects daylight to match tungsten stock is known as the 85B filter. It is full color temperature orange. 85B requires one stop compensation. When filming on daylight film stock with tungsten lights, the image will be a deep orange unless a filter is used. The 80A blue filter can be used to correct tungsten light to match daylight balanced film stock. The 80A blue filter requires a two and half stop exposure compensation. Usually daylight film has a slower speed than tungsten, so bright tungsten lights are necessary when using the 80A filter.

Neutral density filters Neutral Density (ND) filters cut light transmission, but do not affect color. The ND filter can be screwed on in front of the lens or placed in a camera filter holder. Neutral Density filters are helpful anytime one desires to cut back the light transmission. This may be to maintain correct exposure, to achieve a fade, or to work with more open apertures to create a shallow depth of field. Neutral Density filters come in incremental ratings of .3, .6, .9, and 1.2. For example a .3 neutral density filter cuts the light going to the film plane by one stop.

76  Cinema lenses ­Table 4.2  Neutral Density Filter Facts ND Filter

F/stop ­ Compensation

.3 .6 .9 1.2

+1 Stop +2 Stops +3 Stops +4 Stops

Lens care Aim to keep lenses clean by always placing front and rear caps on them when not mounted to a camera. Keeping dust and oil away from the lens is the best way to maintain its quality. Use a bulb air blower to blow dust off a lens. Follow this by breathing on the lens. Gently wipe the lens with a microfiber lens cloth or lens tissue. Move from the center of the lens outwards in circles. Lens f luid may also be used to clean a lens. Instead of breathing on the lens, place a drop of lens f luid on the cloth or tissue. Follow the same circular wiping method. Avoid using alcohol or other solvents on lenses as this may damage the lens coating.

Cinema lenses  77

Suggested Lens Suppliers: Calkovsky Cinema Worldwide, Chambless Cine Equipment, Duall Camera Inc., and Online Auction Websites, Yard Sales Chapter 4 Suggested Film Viewing: • •

Ethnographic Films (1929), Directed by Zora Neale Hurston Louisiana Story (1948), Directed by Robert J. Flaherty

The films above use lenses to create a portrait of people and places. Look at how the subjects and the environment fill the frame. Subjects move to and from the camera from full shot to medium close-up. Zora Neale Hurston was one of the earliest African American women filmmakers. Her ethnographic

78  Cinema lenses

16mm films of the late 1920s explore Southern African American life. Hurston covers activities such as logging, children’s games, and a Christian Baptism. In Louisiana Story, Robert J. Flaherty and Cinematographer Richard Leacock tell the story of a boy drawn to the mystery of the newly arrived oil drillers and their large machines. The w ide-angle lenses reveal the smallness of the boy against the beauty of the bayou and the imposing scale of the oil derricks.

Filmmaking in practice One lens It only takes one lens to make a movie. The goal of this activity is to create a movie using one focal length. Keep the same focal length for all shots on the roll. If you have a standard normal lens, this activity will give you practice moving closer or further from the subject to control framing and depth of field. If using a zoom lens, zoom in all the way and use the longest focal length. This activity will give you the opportunity to practice controlling shallow depth of field. Make 12 shots that contain water. This could be anything from a faucet to a puddle. By moving close or using a telephoto lens, the goal is to make the water feel larger and the movement more pronounced. Capture 6 shots using the focus pull technique. Surprise the viewer by pulling focus to water that is close to the camera. It will snap into view. Begin by making a shot list that indicates the shot type of each water subject – long shot ( LS), full shot (FS), close-up (CU), etc. Label the shots that require focal pulling. Use a measuring tape and depth of field chart to check focus. Keep a camera log and record focus distances and exposures. When the film comes back, project your f luidly moving cinema masterpiece. Materials: 8mm, Super 8mm, or 16mm Camera, Reversal Film Stock, Tripod, Light Meter, Tape Measure, Depth of Field Chart, Projector

Bibliography 1 Bell and Howell Inc. Guide to Movie Making Magic with your 240 Electric Eye Camera. Chicago: Bell and Howell Inc., 1957. 2 Flaherty, Robert J., dir. Louisiana Story. 1948; Chicago: Home Vision Entertainment, 2003. DVD. 3 Hurston, Zora Neale dir. Pioneers: First Women Filmmakers. 1929; New York: Kino Lorber, 2018. ­Blu-ray. ​­ 4 Schlemowitz, Joel. Experimental Filmmaking and the Motion Picture Camera: An Introductory Guide for Artists and Filmmakers. London and New York: Routledge, 2019. 5 Turner, Glen H. Lens Techniques. San Francisco: Mercury Press, 1958.

5

Motion picture film stocks

Last year I collaborated on a 16mm film that was made in 16 hours. That time included filming, editing, and exhibition. What made such a quick turn around on film possible? It wasn’t a lot of money or overnight shipping to the lab. The swiftness of the film was made possible by hand-developing the film. Film needs to be developed or processed to bring out the latent image. For the right subject, hand-developing provides another opportunity for the filmmaker to personalize the film and collaborate with the medium itself. The short 16mm film I worked on was about Appalachian family stories. It was made using traditional shadow puppets and black and white film. A guest artist, Oswego students, and faculty worked together to create the piece. We wanted the audience to feel as if we unearthed these family stories from Appalachia. The hand-developed black and white film gave the movie a textured look through coarse grain and scratches. Hand-developing celluloid encourages the filmmaker to let go and embrace the anomalies in the physical medium. The film sometimes sticks to itself to create dissolves. It can imprint perforations onto sections of the film to create little windows or frames. One never knows exactly where and when effects will be made on a roll. Puppeteers rehearsed the performance throughout the week. Then on a Thursday evening from 5pm to 10pm, the puppet performance was filmed. From 11pm to 1am, the team developed three and half roles of 16mm film in the darkroom. The black and white film was loaded into two 5-gallon buckets in complete darkness. Film developing by hand is a lot like making spaghetti. You have to mix the noodles every now and then. In the dark, we added a film developer to the bucket to bring out the image. In the bucket, the film bunched together. This is normal. Then we rinsed. Then we added a fixer to bind the image to the film. Then we washed the film to clear the fixer. Then we hung it up to dry. At 10am, the film was spooled onto reels. The film stuck to itself. Emulsion transferred from one shot to the next. This made a double exposure in the movie, and we were able to use it! Film developing by hand can also cause image shifting from positive to negative images. Although much is out of the filmmaker’s control, hand-developing in a bucket does give the filmmaker some creative inf luence. With color film, warm or cool or muted colors can

80  Motion picture film stocks

result from different water temperatures with the chemistry. Contrast can be increased or decreased. Film speed can be increased or decreased. From 11am to 1pm, the film was scanned to 2K digital video. Now as a video file, we edited the picture and added sound. This occurred from 1 to 6pm. Finally at 7pm the film was screened to an audience. This goes to show that celluloid filmmaking can be quick! This chapter is all about film stock and how to use it. By knowing the elements of film stock, you will be able to create unique and one-of-a-kind movies at home.

Film stock Film stock is the roll of film that loads into a motion picture camera. Stock refers to any variety of rolls or cartridges of film emulsions and sizes. There’s 8mm film stock, Super 8mm film stock, 16mm film stock, 35mm film stock, and 65mm film stock. The transparent plastic that holds the film emulsion is often referred to as celluloid. Celluloid can either be an acetate or polyester (Kodak Estar) base. The celluloid or base of the film is the shiny side. On the other side of the film is the emulsion. Emulsion is the light-sensitive material coated on the film stock. It holds a recording of light on the film. Un-exposed black and white emulsion appears gray and color emulsion appears light brown. One of the key exciting elements of working with celluloid comes from selecting a film stock for your production. A video camera has a fixed look as one cannot change the sensor. Film stocks, however, provide a variety of looks right out of the camera. Images can be captured in black and white or color. The image can be made into a negative or a positive. Take notes about the types of stocks throughout the chapter. Then look at the current stock offerings found at suppliers. What stock would you like to use on your next project? ­ ­ ­ Film speed/exposure index (ISO/ASA) ISO is the standard name for film speed. ISO is an abbreviation for the International Standards Organization. Film speed also refers to the exposure index. On the film box itself, the term Exposure Index ( EI) is used. ISO, EI, and the older ASA (American Standards Association) abbreviations refer to the same thing, the film’s speed or sensitivity towards light. Common ISO speeds: from least sensitive to most sensitive • • • • •

50 – ­ (SLOW) ​­ ­ Needs more light 100 – ­ Medium/Slow ​­ ­ 200 – ­ Medium ​­ Balance 250 – ­ Medium/Fast ​­ ­ ­ ​­ ­ 500 – (FAST) Needs less light

Motion picture film stocks  81

Fast film ( high ISO) The higher the ISO number, the more sensitive to light the film is, the faster it is said to be. The light reaches and exposes the image much quicker at higher ISO film speeds. This means a film with an ISO rating of 500 needs less light to capture an image than a film with an ISO of 250. Since higher ISO film requires less light, it enables you to work with either practical household lamps, available light, or smaller light kits. The tradeoff is that high ISO films produce the most noticeable film grain. Slow film ( low ISO) ISO 50 film is a slow film with a low ISO rating. An ISO 50 stock requires the most light. Often film speeds below 100 are designed for daylight applications due to the large amount of light required to make an exposure. Slow film has the sharpest and finest grain image available.

Reversal film Reversal film refers to camera positive film stock. Through developing reversal film, the image changes from negative to positive. This positive result of the reversal process makes editing and projecting film easy to do at home. Buy film, expose it with a camera, develop it, and project it. One can project the camera’s original film without the need of paying for a work print also known as cutting copy. Although one saves money by opting to film on reversal, if you decide to traditionally splice a reversal print, you will be cutting the camera original. Reversal film has a limited dynamic range. It only handles one stop of over exposure where negative film can handle around ten stops of overexposure. If one exposes reversal film properly, the result is a beautiful three-dimensional image straight from the camera. Black and white reversal Black and white reversal remains one of the most popular reversal stocks to use among students and instructors because it costs less than color reversal. Reversal film’s unique properties include high sharpness and high contrast. Black levels are very deep, and highlights are bright. Many black and white reversal stocks are either ISO 100 or ISO 200. Color reversal Color reversal film, like black and white reversal film, is a h igh-contrast stock. It does not have as much dynamic range to handle over or under exposure. It’s most distinguishing quality is its highly saturated color palette. This makes color reversal great for art films, animation, home movies, and music videos. Color reversal film is a slow ISO film stock with an ISO of 100 and is balanced for daylight. Use outdoors or with d aylight-balanced light bulbs.

82  Motion picture film stocks

Negative film Negative film creates a negative image where dark areas in the scene are rendered light and light areas look dark. On color negative stock, colors are the opposite of what one would have seen on the set. This means that blacks will be white, reds will be green, and yellows will be blue. Negative film brings less contrast and a more forgiving exposure range. Negative film must be printed to positive film or scanned to video in order to see the light and dark in the way it appears in the original scene. The original negative should be handled sparingly using gloves. Negative film should never be projected because it is the camera master.

Motion picture film stocks  83

Black and white negative Black and White Negative film utilizes a traditional round grain emulsion and therefore produces a textured or grainy image compared to modern color negative films. Grain tends to build up quickly in the highlights if they are over exposed. Typical ISO speeds for black and white negative are 200 and 400. Black and white negative film works well indoors with studio lights as well as outdoors with natural light. If you want a look that is classic, there’s nothing like black and white negative film. Color negative film Modern color negative film holds a lot of color, tonality, and texture information. It is high resolving in resolution. The infinite color space and high dynamic range of color negative provides the filmmaker with a lot of creative opportunities in on- set lighting and color grading. Color negative film also has the finest grain at the fastest film speed. The f lexibility of color negative film makes it the most widely used type of film today.

Color balance Color film stocks are either balanced for tungsten (T) or daylight ( D). This refers to their sensitivity to color temperature measured in degrees Kelvin ( K). Daylight film is often rated for 5500K while tungsten film is rated for 3200K. The higher the degrees Kelvin temperature, the more blue the light. The lower the color temperature, the warmer or redder the light. One can use stocks in either lighting conditions, but they give the most accurate color tones when used with the rated color temperatures. Daylight film stocks tend to have slower film speeds since daylight is bright. Tungsten stocks often have fast film speeds since artificial lights are dimmer than the sun. A common fast tungsten film speed is ISO 500. Black and White film stocks do not require any white balance color compensation since they capture gray tones. However, there is one slight exposure adjustment for indoor filming and outdoor filming. Several black and white film stocks recommend metering the light at ISO 200 for daylight. For indoor lighting, ISO 160 is recommended. Any exposure adjustments will be indicated on the exposure index section on the film box or can.

Film grain Film grain holds information just like pixels hold information in the video image. Film grain becomes prominent with a larger ISO number. Large grain sees into the shadows and is more sensitive to light. Small grain is

84  Motion picture film stocks

finer, holds more information, and needs more light to reach the tinier granules. Therefore, choose a film speed based on the lighting conditions and the texture you wish to create. ISO 50 film is best suited for sunny days. It will deliver a sharp image, but if using artificial light, one will need bright lamps or lamps close to the subject for proper exposure. A mediumspeed film such as ISO 200 delivers a balance between film speed and fine grain. Film grain and video pixels Candy-coated chocolate and candy chews are like film grain and video pixels. Grain on film may seem similar to pixels in video, but they are different. To use an analogy, think of film grain like a bowl of round, color-coated candy chocolates. The grain holds color and texture information in a spherical shape. Pixels on the other hand are like candy chews – square, and uniform. Candy chews can be arranged in a grid pattern, just like pixels. Fill a bowl with the multi- colored, candy- coated chocolates. Mix them together. Shine a f lashlight on the bowl from above. What do you see? Do you see how the candies sit on top of one another? Do you notice the

Motion picture film stocks  85

shadows and how the highlights roll off onto other pieces of candy? On a f lat table, line up the candy chews into a grid. Shine the same light on them from above. What do you see different from the candy- coated chocolates? Do you notice the difference in depth between the two types of candies? Which candy array seems f lat with edges? Which one exhibits depth and roundness? Just like the candy-coated chocolate, film grain sits on top of itself in color layers. Pixels lie completely f lat like the candy chews. This is what gives digital video its sharp outline. The roundness of film grain and the three-color layers gives film its depth. Video’s look, although sharp, appears more mechanical, more artificial. This is partly due to the single layer of the pixels and partly due to video’s more limited color space. In the video medium, there is a parameter for information. It may be 256 colors or a billion colors, or 1920 pixels or 480 pixels. There’s always a fence to keep the information in a range. This keeps the electronic image from rolling off into infinity. Celluloid grain has no such fence. It has no inherent resolution figures. It goes on and on. Film reproduces information more like the human eye, somewhat imperfect, yet naturally detailed. It can be affected by physical elements like moisture, air, and heat. Film can resolve well, but be soft at the same time.

Film perforations Double perforated film Prior to World War II, most 16mm cameras were designed to accept only double perforated film, known as 2R. Cameras made for double perforated film have drive rollers with two rows of sprockets. Double perforated film can run in both double perf cameras and single perf cameras. Many h ighspeed films required double perforated film. One can frame the image for Standard 16 and Ultra 16 on double perforated film stock. Single perforated 16mm film Most modern 16mm film stock is single perforated. Single perforated film will only work with a camera designed for single perforated film. Single perforated film accommodates either a soundtrack or larger picture area. By removing one set of perforations along the side of the film, a soundtrack can be added on a release print. Also, if you want to shoot in the Super 16 format, you need a single perf camera and single perf film. Most of today’s 16mm film stocks are single perforated for this factor. With single perforated film, one has the option to film in the Standard 16, Super 16 or Ultra 16.

86  Motion picture film stocks

Spools, cores, and cartridges Daylight spools A daylight spool is a black, often metal and sometimes plastic, spool that contains a small roll of film stock. 16mm and Standard 8mm stocks arrive fresh on daylight spools. The typical size for a 16mm daylight spool is 100 feet. In Standard 8mm, the spool loads maybe either 25 feet or 33 feet. The black daylight spool protects the fresh film from being exposed to light during loading. Daylight spool loading can be performed in a subdued light. Subdued light can be defined as a dim location in which you can still clearly see the inside of the camera. This could be a dimly lit room or under the shade of a tree. A feed daylight spool with fresh film stock and an empty take-up spool are required for spool loading. Cores A plastic core differs from a daylight spool. Film on a core needs to be loaded in complete darkness, as cores do not have any black sides to protect the film. Cores usually hold larger quantities of film stock such as 400 or 800 feet of 16mm. Typically one uses a black changing bag to load a core of film into a camera magazine. Core loads of 400 feet provide a runtime of 11 minutes. A 400 feet core load moves quietly through a 16mm magazine. Therefore, a core improves

Motion picture film stocks  87

the sound recording capability of a crystal sync camera. Two cores are needed in a camera, one core with fresh stock and one empty core for film take-up. Always hold a film rolled up on a core with two hands. One hand should be under the reel supporting the core and the other hand on top. Do not remove a core from a roll of film! Removing the core from the center of a roll makes a mess, as the film will pour out of the center. Honestly, this will likely happen to you sometime in the editing room, and it can be frustrating when it happens. Take a deep breath, set the roll of film on a table. Then by hand, take the outside end of the film and attach it to a reel. Slowly wind up the film. If this happens in the changing bag with fresh film, it’s a good idea to place the film back into the can and move to a darkroom to perform the wind-up. Wind the film counter-clockwise with the perforations facing toward the table or away from you.

88  Motion picture film stocks

Cartridges Super 8mm, unlike 16mm and Standard 8mm, is a cartridge-based format. The plastic Super 8 cartridge brings several conveniences over the daylight spool system. Loading can be performed in a matter of seconds in broad daylight by snapping the cartridge in against the gate. The cartridge requires no threading, creating loops, or f lipping the film like the Standard 8mm daylight spool. The cartridge system provides the easiest point of entry for the beginner. Pop the cartridge in, focus, and press run.

Film storage Fresh film Fresh film stock is newly made stock that has not yet been exposed to light or expired. Fresh film comes directly from the manufacturer or retailer. Refrigeration works well to preserve fresh film before exposure. Fresh film should be stored in a cool and dry environment. Warm up times Allow a 100 foot roll of 16mm or Super 8mm film to warm up for at least 30 minutes before using. Warm-up times for 400 foot loads should be one hour. This will make sure there is no moisture or condensation on the film during filming. Exposed film Store exposed film in the refrigerator if it’s not ready to be mailed to the lab. Aim to ship the film to the lab within a month’s time if retaining the highest quality image is essential to you. Do not place an exposed box of film in direct sunlight or in a hot car, unless you are deliberately experimenting. When film is exposed at length to a heat source, you will see an increase in grain and color shifts. Ideally, film should be exposed to light and developed in a timely manner. This guarantees the most consistent results in exposure, tonality, color, and grain.

Alternatives to fresh film Expired film Expired film can be an excellent place for experimentation. One way to test a camera and save money is through the purchase of expired film. Expired film is simply old, unused film, sometimes called “new old stock.” This film may be a year or 20 years past its usable date.

Motion picture film stocks  89

Typically, black and white film ages better than color film. Color film loses color information and saturation over time. Old expired film stock usually is less sensitive. A good place to begin with older film is to expose it at half the box speed ISO/ASA to compensate for the loss of light sensitivity due to age. If the exposure index indicates an ISO of 200, rate the film on the light meter at ISO 100. The increased grain, loss of color saturation, and unpredictable anomalies can add a layer of abstraction to the work. Recans Recans are unused film that were loaded into a magazine and then placed back in the can for reselling. Once a major production wraps a film, they sell off unused film at a very discounted rate. If you need large quantities of film and are working on a tight budget, recans may be a route to try. Most 16mm recans come on a core. Short ends Short ends are the leftover rolls of film from a commercial production. The short end gets its name from the fact that it is a small roll of film that was not used in a production. A production may have only used 200 feet of film from a 400 foot magazine. The remaining 200 feet is sold as a short end. Since many short ends come from 400 feet magazine loads, their lengths are usually anywhere from 100 to 300 feet.

Ordering film Below are some suppliers of film stocks. Many carry 16mm and Super 8mm, and some carry Standard 8mm film. Call or check the company website to see the up-to-d ate film stock offerings. Always give yourself at least one week ahead to order the film. It’s best to give the film plenty of shipping time to arrive before your production. If the project is rather large, make sure to order enough film stock for reshoots.

Suggested film stock suppliers Adorama Camera, B&H Photo/Video, Colorlab, Film Photography Project, Freestyle Photographic Supplies, Kodak Motion Picture Film, Pro8mm, Spectra Film and Video, Wittner- Cinetec

List of available film stocks Film stocks quickly come and go on the market. Below is a list of available stocks in 2020. This list is provided to give you an idea of the landscape of film still available for filmmakers.

90  Motion picture film stocks

Standard 8mm ( Double 8) Stocks: Fomapan R100 (ISO 100) B/ W Reversal Super 8mm Stock (Cartridges): Kodak 7203 50D, Kodak 7213 200T, Kodak 7207 250D, Kodak 7219 500T, Kodak Ektachrome 100D (ISO 100) Color Reversal, Kodak Tri-X (ISO 200) B/ W Reversal Double Super 8mm Stocks: Fomapan R100 (ISO 100) DS8 B/W Reversal 16mm 1R Single Perf Stocks (All 16mm Formats): Fomapan R100 (ISO 100) B/ W Reversal, Kodak Tri-X (IS0 200) B/ W Reversal, Kodak Ektachrome 100D (ISO 100) Color Reversal, Kodak Double X (ISO 200) B/ W Negative, Kodak 7203 50D Color Negative (ISO 50), Kodak 7213 200T Color Negative (ISO 200), Kodak 7207 250D Color Negative (ISO 250), Kodak 7219 500T Color Negative (ISO 500), Orwo N74 Plus (ISO 400) B/ W Negative, Orwo UN54 (ISO 100) B/ W Negative or Reversal.

Kodak film stock information and ordering Film stocks for the camera can be purchased directly from Kodak using their online store or calling their sales phone number. If you have an education email address and are a student or faculty member, you can qualify for the Kodak 30% Education discount. Kodak issues a catalog with all of their available films in Super 8mm and 16mm. The catalog also includes 16mm print films and magnetic films. Kodak uses the following product codes: 72_ in the code number means 16mm or Super 8mm and 52_means 35mm. To find film of a certain color balance, Kodak indicates whether a film is designed for tungsten light or daylight with the following abbreviation: T =Tungsten, D=Daylight. Chapter 5 Suggested film viewing • •

­ The Curse of Quon Gwon: When the Far East Mingles with the West (1916), Directed by Marion E. Wong Sounder (1972), Directed by Martin Ritt

Marion E. Wong is one of the earliest Chinese American film directors. Wong led the Mandarin Film Company as the president. In The Curse of Quon Gwon, she served as the writer, director, designer, and actor. The film was independently made and utilized family members in the cast. Look closely at the beautiful range of gray tones found across the costumes and set design. Sounder tells the coming of age story of an African-American boy who learns to survive while his father is imprisoned for a year. Director Martin Ritt and his team mix natural sky backlighting with contrasted night time scenes to simulate moon and lantern light. Together these color film techniques establish the world of 1930s Louisiana.

Motion picture film stocks  91

Filmmaking in practice B/W and color This activity will give you the opportunity to explore the difference between black and white and color film. Purchase one roll of black and white reversal film and one roll of color reversal film. Select a familiar location. This could be a backyard. Select an activity to film in this location. Film the activity two times, once in daylight and once at nighttime. Use the entire color reversal film for daylight scenes and use the entire black and white reversal film for night time scenes. Use a clamp light to film the night scenes. Set the frame rate to 16fps for 16mm and 18fps for Super 8mm. Rate the ISO (film speed) of the film on the light meter. Keep a camera log of f/stop readings. After film development, project both rolls of reversal film. Write down the differences seen between the scenes. How does light and film stock affect the mood of the scene? Splice the two films together to make a complete movie! Materials: Super 8mm or 16mm Camera, Super 8mm or 16mm Projector, Light Meter, one roll of B/ W Reversal Stock, one roll of Color Reversal Stock, and one Clamp Light.

Bibliography 1 Adorama Camera. (2020). 16mm Film. Retrieved from https://www.adorama.com/. 2 B&H Photo Video. (2020). 16mm Film. Retrieved from https://www.bhphoto video.com/. 3 Colorlab. (2020). ­ 16mm Film. Retrieved from http://colorlab.com/ourstore-3.html. ­ ­­ ​­ 4 Eastman Kodak Company. Storing and Handling of Unprocessed Film. PDF file. May ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ 30th, 2002, https://www.kodak.com/global/en/service/tib/tib5202.shtml. 5 Eastman Kodak Company. Kodak Motion Pictures Price Catalog. PDF file. October 9th, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.kodak.com/content/productsbrochures/Film/Kodak-Motion-Picture-Products-Price-Catalog-US.pdf 6 Film Photography Project. (2020). Movie Film. Retrieved from https:// ­ ­­ ​­ filmphotographystore.com/collections/movie-film. 7 Freestyle Photographic Supplies. (2020). Movie Film. Retrieved from https:// www.freestylephoto.biz/. 8 Kwok Wah Lau, Jenny. Marion E. Wong. Accessed July 22, 2020, https://wfpp. columbia.edu/pioneer/ccp-marion-e-wong/. ­ ­­ ­​­­ ­​­­ ​­ 9 Pro8mm. (2020). ­ Movie Film. Retrieved from https://www.pro8mm.com/. 10 Ritt, Martin, dir. Sounder. 1972; New York: Koch Vision, 2008. DVD. 11 Spectra Film & Video. (2020). Movie Film. Retrieved from https://www.spectra filmandvideo.com/. 12 ­Wittner-Cinetec. ​­ (2020). ­ Super 8 Cartridges. Retrieved from https://www.wittner cinetec.com/epages/WittnerCinetec-Super8-16mm-Film.sf/en_GB/?Object ­ ­­ ­​­­ ­​­­ ​­ ­ Path=Categories. 13 Wong, Marion E., dir. Pioneers: First Women Filmmakers. 1916; New York: Kino Lorber, 2018. ­Blu-ray. ​­

6

Light meters

The light meter is an indispensable piece of equipment that allows the filmmaker to measure the light and make exposure decisions. These decisions affect brightness, contrast, color, mood, and depth. The light meter is the one tool that I use on every production. It’s the same light meter I used for three years in college. Get to know this little tool. With it, the cinematographic possibilities are endless. A light meter helps the filmmaker to see the contrast ratio in a scene.

Function of a light meter The light meter measures exposure and gives the filmmaker a focal stop, known as an f/stop reading. The f/stop is the measurement of the diameter of the lens opening. The lens opening, sometimes called an aperture or diaphragm, controls the amount of light coming through the lens and onto the film. Most 16mm and 8mm movie cameras require that one manually set the f/stop number on the lens. If you do not have a light meter, you can still film. Many cameras come with a basic exposure guide or calculator supplied on the camera or lens. You can also remember Sunny 16. With 100 film speed on a bright sunny day, the exposure or aperture opening of the lens should be set at f/16. In the shade the exposure will be in the ballpark of f/4. When filming indoors with overhead f luorescent lighting, the exposure will be around f/ 1.4. This guide helps in a pinch, but a light meter will provide more accurate exposure readings. If there is one tool you will use throughout your career in filmmaking, it is a light meter. A light meter is a tool that measures the illumination of light and gives out f/stop readings. The light meter is calibrated to read 18% gray, also known as middle gray. When you push the measurement button on the light meter, it gives a balanced exposure reading that is not too bright and not too dark. In other words, the light meter reads gray. This f/stop reading is then placed on the lens by rotating the aperture barrel to align the f/stop number to the setting line.

Light meters  93

Light meters come in several types. They can be analog or digital. Analog meters provide a numeric readout via a needle and manual calculator system. A dial in the center is rotated to match up the needle. This is followed up by looking at the meter face to find the f/stop next to the frame rate or shutter speed. Digital meters provide a digital readout of the f/stop number, much like the layout of a digital clock.

Light meters can be incident, ref lective, or spot-style meters. Some use selenium cells that do not use batteries, some use button cells, and others use a 123 photo lithium battery. A well-m ade and well taken care of light meter will last nearly a lifetime. Some light meters only include shutter speeds while others

94  Light meters

include the cinema (cine) scale, or frame rates. The cine scale makes reading the light meter a little easier when working with a movie camera.

Incident meters Incident meters read light falling on a subject. You point the white globe from subject to camera. When reading the exposure for a backlight, aim the meter’s globe toward the light source. Incident meters give the cinematographer the creative control to move through a scene and adjust lights to build the contrast.

Ref lected meters Ref lected meters capture scene averages. Point at the subject from the camera. You can move in closer to the subject or object to meter a smaller section of the shot in order to receive a more specific reading on the part of the scene. You will find ref lected light meters inside Super 8 cameras and in some Regular 8mm and 16mm cameras. A ref lected light meter averages the exposures within the frame and gives a middle gray (18% gray) reading based on lighting conditions. For landscapes, sky readings, and f lat overcast days, ref lected meters work well. However, if a subject sits in front of a bright source such as a window that backlights them, the ref lected meter will often account for the bright background and bring the entire image down to middle gray. This leaves the subject in the foreground dark and underexposed. To correct for this averaging of all light sources, move close to the subject and take a separate ref lected reading of the subject and the backlight behind them. Set the lens to the f/stop for the subject.

Spot meter A spot meter accurately reads an 18% gray exposure within a fine spot. Point the meter at the subject and look through the viewing scope. Center the spot circle seen in the scope on the desired part of the scene that you wish to meter. Press the read button on the light meter. An accurate reading of the exact spot is made. This is quite convenient as one does not have to walk up to a subject to take the reading. Spot meters are very handy for landscapes and sky readings as well. One can compare the cloud exposure reading to that of the sky and receive an accurate figure.

Light meters  95

18 % gray card Light meters are calibrated to read middle gray or 18% gray. In particular when using a ref lective light meter, you will receive accurate readings when you film a gray card as the first shot on each roll. A gray card can be purchased from most photo suppliers. They are cardboard and come in 4” ×  5” and

96  Light meters

8” × 10” sizes. With a gray card filmed at the head of each roll, the lab can calibrate the film printing machine to this gray card, making color printing accurate. If one scans film to video, the image of the gray card can be used to color correct the image so the picture color will be true to the film stock.

Cine frame rates and shutter speeds Digital light meters are often calibrated for movie cameras with 180 degree shutters. However, many movie cameras do not have 180 degree shutters. If one knows the shutter speed of the camera, a standard photography light analog or digital meter may be used. ­Table 6.1  Filmo 70DR Shutter Speeds ( Based on the Chart in the Filmo 70 Instruction Manual by Alan Gordon Enterprises Inc.) Camera Speed (FPS)

Shutter Speed ( Fraction of a Second)

8 12 16 24 32 48 1/64 ­ Single frame

1/14 ­ 1/21 ­ ­ 1/28 1/42 ­ 1/56 ­ 1/84 ­ 1/112 ­ 1/15 ­

Some prism ref lex cameras, like the Bolex H16 Rex, require an exposure compensation of about +1/3 of light to accommodate the loss of light that is being directed to the viewfinder. This is important to note when metering. Usually, when I film with a Bolex REX camera and use a digital light meter with a frame rate scale, a simple +1 stop compensation approach usually works. It’s easy for me to compensate for the prism ref lex system by cutting the ISO number in half. Simply rate the ISO at half speed on the light meter. For example, if the film stock is ISO 200, then set the ISO on the light meter to 100. This is a one stop compensation for use with the cine scale frame rates. From here on, read the light meter normally by setting the frame rate. However, if you have only a standard photo or analog light meter, you can easily use it with the Bolex or any movie camera. Simply find the camera’s shutter speed equivalent for each frame rate. Below is the shutter speed chart for the Bolex H16 REX as an example. The information in this chart was referenced from the Bolex H16 REX Manual. The chart has been simplified here to show only the effective shutter speeds. The adjustment takes into account the loss of light through the Bolex prism ref lex system. Note how the shutter speed increases when the variable shutter on the Bolex is partially closed. Partially closing the variable shutter makes the shutter angle smaller thus increasing the shutter speed. For average filming, use the first column with the shutter lever fully up.

Light meters  97 ­Table 6.2  Bolex H16 Adjusted Shutter Speeds Frame Rate

Shutter Lever Up

Shutter Lever on 1/2

Shutter Lever on 1

12 16 18 24 32 48 64 Single frame

1/40 ­ 1/55 ­ 1/60 ­ 1/80 ­ 1/110 ­ 1/160 ­ 1/220 ­ 1/40 ­

1/55 ­ 1/75 ­ 1/87 ­ 1/112 ­ 1/150 ­ 1/225 ­ 1/300 ­

1/94 ­ 1/125 ­ 1/137 ­ 1/188 ­ 1/225 ­ 1/375 ­ 1/500 ­

98  Light meters

How to use a Sekonic L -208 incident analog meter 1 2 3

4 5 6 7 8 9

Move the white globe over the sensor. Set ISO on meter to indicate ISO from the above block. After the shot is composed, walk in front of the camera and meter all areas of the frame by pointing the incident light meter towards the camera. The only time you point away from the camera with an incident meter is when metering backlight or when metering the sky in ref lective mode (move the white globe to the left in this instance). Press the side gray button, and let go. The red needle should move into the area of black lines if you have ample light. Move the outer ring so that the green arrow lines up with the red needle. Locate the shutter speed appropriate for your frame rate. Look below the shutter speed. There you have your f/stop number. Set the f/stop number on the lens. In general for negative film, meter for the shadows, and prioritize the shadow exposure. Film handles highlights beautifully, so overexposure is preferred over underexposure.

Suggested light meter models Vintage Analog Meters: Gossen Luna Pro, GE DW-58, L-398 Studio Deluxe II New Analog Meters: Sekonic L-208 Twin Mate, Sekonic L -398A Studio Deluxe III New Digital Meters: Sekonic L-308X-U ­ ­​­­ ​­ Flashmate, Gossen Digisix 2 Sekonic L-358 Flash Master

Light meters  99

The five F’s of celluloid filmmaking When operating a movie camera, remember the five “Fs.” 1 2 3 4 5

Filters – Make sure filters, if used, are securely in place. Know the filter compensation. Footage Counter – Note where you are on the footage counter. Frame Rate – Set the frame rate on the camera and match it to the frame rate or shutter speed on the light meter. Focus – Check focus, subject distance, and focus range. F/stop – Take an exposure reading and set the f/stop accordingly on the lens.

100  Light meters

16mm camera spot light: Bolex H16 REX Setup 1

Inspect lenses and brush away any dirt with lens brush and soft cloth if needed. Make sure the variable shutter is in the “Up” position for normal filming. Make sure the motor switch is set to “motor.” Set the motion switch to “intermittent.” Set the frame rate dial to 24fps. ( You may change this later.)

2 3 4 5

Diopter focus 1 2 3 4

Unlock the turret by moving the locking tab to the “up” position. Move the lenses away from the gate, so no lens is in shooting position. Unlock the diopter ring. Look through the diopter and focus until the grain on ground glass is ­ “SHARP.” Lock the diopter into place.

5

Loading the camera 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Pull out the wind handle and engage it into the wind knob. Gently wind the camera counter clockwise until you hit a “stop.” Lock the handle back into place. Unlock the camera door and turn the latch counter clockwise. Place the door back into case. Inside camera: put a hand on the daylight spool. With the other hand, press the spool release. (Makesure to hold on to the spool so it does not fall to the ground.) 8 Remove tab and tape from spool and insert the fresh spool into the camera. 9 The film rolls off clockwise. 10 Place the film under the lower razor blade and trim a sliver to give the film an angle. Throw the trimmed film piece away.

Threading the film 1 Push the pressure plate against the gate. 2 Use your thumb and forefinger to close “ loop formers.” 3 With the right hand, lock the loop-former lever by moving it to the down position. 4 Insert tail of film under top sprocket by pulling down on sprocket clamp. 5 In short bursts, tap the run button until film feeds all the way through. 6 Give yourself six inches of film to place on the take-up spool. 7 Roll film onto take-up by feeding film into reel slot.

Light meters  101



102  Light meters

Operating the Bolex H16 REX 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Make lens selection. Select Frame Rate (24fps for normal motion, 16fps for silent, 32, 48, or 64 for ­slow-motion). ​­ Open aperture all the way (f/1.4 on most lenses). Focus on the subject. Use the light meter to meter light and the shadow that appears in the shot. Set aperture ring on the lens to f/stop given by the light meter. Compose the image. Wind camera before every shot. ( You have approx. 25 seconds on a wind.) Press and hold the silver RUN button located on the bottom front and FILM!! Let go of the run button when you’ve captured your shot.

* When setting the correct aperture, your image may appear dark in the viewfinder. This is normal on a Bolex. The dimness is due to the light loss of the ref lex prism. Your film will not look this way. You may open the

Light meters  103

aperture all the way to f/1.4 to focus and compose but remember to return the exposure to the correct f/stop reading according to the light meter! Chapter 6 Suggested Films: • •

Metropolis (1927), Directed by Fritz Lang, Cinematography by Karl Fre­ und, Günther Rittau, Walter Ruttmann She Goes to Vassar (1931), Directed by Marvin Breckinridge ­

Fritz Lang’s Metropolis combines lighting and visual effects to create a futuristic world where the aff luent leaders keep labor forces buried underground operating machines. In one startling scene, Rotwang the inventor chases Maria with his f lashlight through the catacombs. He uses light as a weapon to trap and catch her. Legendary cinematographer Karl Freund made contributions to the film. Freund would later work with Donald W. Norwood to create the Norwood Director’s series light meter. The Norwood Director exposure meter design became the foundation for the Sekonic L-398 Studio Deluxe III. Marvin Breckinridge was a female filmmaker who was a member of the Amateur Cinema League during the 1930s and 1940s. She was a successful photographer and photojournalist who demonstrated a proficiency in cinema through the making of significant cultural works that existed outside the commercial film industry. She Goes to Vassar exhibits many challenging exposure conditions such as the scene in the dance hall. Breckinridge uses additional lighting to balance the exposure between background window illumination and artificial foreground illumination. This interplay between natural and artificial light can be seen throughout the piece.

Filmmaking in practice Small moments of wonder Make a two minute short Super 8mm or 16mm color film about an everyday activity. Show a domestic activity/experience in a magical way through framing, motion, light, and shadow. The film could be about Springtime with focus on planting seeds and growing plants. The idea could be about bubbles in the sink or light dancing on a wall. The goal is to look at the world observationally and from the perspective of a small child. Get close, and look from below or above. See the action with fresh eyes. Set the activity either indoors near a bright window or outdoors. Practice using the light meter. Meter the lightest spot in your scene and the darkest spot. Decide on which area you want to have a balanced exposure. For example, if there’s a subject in front of a window. Maybe the subject makes a nice silhouette. In this case, expose for the window and not the subject. If you are outdoors and the sun is making a strong backlight, consider setting the lens to the darker foreground exposure. This will create a bright halo around the subject.

104  Light meters

Materials: Camera Manual, Color Reversal Film Stock, Super 8mm, or 16mm Camera, Tripod, Light Meter, Super 8 or 16mm Projector

Bibliography 1 Bolex Collector | Cameras | H-8 R EX, www.bolexcollector.com/cameras/h8rex. ­ ­ html. 2 Bolex International S.A. Bolex H16: Instruction Manual. ­Sainte-Croix, ​­ Switzerland: Bolex International S.A., 1955. 3 Lang, Fritz, dir. The Complete Metropolis. 1927; New York: Kino Lorber Films, 2010. Blu-ray. ­ ​­ 4 Director Products Corporation. The Manual for Correct Exposure. Los Angeles, CA: Director Products Corporation, 1954. 5 Tepperman, Charles. Marvin Breckinridge. Accessed July 23, 2020, https://wfpp. columbia.edu/pioneer/marvin-breckinridge/. ­ ­­ ​­ 6 Ollinger, James. James’s Light Meter Collection. Accessed July 28, 2020, http:// www.jollinger.com/photo/meters/meters/norwood_directorC.html. ­ ­ ­ ­

7

Planning a film production

There is no one way to make a celluloid picture, just like there is no one way to approach creating other works of art. Some filmmakers plan extensively with storyboards and scripts while others experiment and improvise with shots on the f ly. However, whether you are the strategist or the improviser, what you must have is a solid scenario and approach. Filmmaking brings with it challenges. To overcome all of these issues, one needs to be prepared with a positive cando attitude. Making movies takes enthusiasm, grit, and a diligent work ethic, mixed with a large dose of optimism. This chapter lays out ways to find inspiration for a film and how to plan a film. Through the use of shot types, shot lists, and storyboards, you will develop a good sense of how to begin a film project. At the end of the chapter, you will have an opportunity to design your own comic book. The comic book will help you to show not tell. Laying out your ideas in visual form will set you on the path to making art and telling stories with images.

Inspiration Where does inspiration for a film come from? Anywhere, really. Art, books, news, and history have always provided good starting points. However, the most profound film ideas come from one’s own life. Films based on one’s community, spirituality, or family-make personal and original films. Do not worry about comparing yourself to another filmmaker. That kind of thinking is fruitless. Everyone has talents and interests that are purely who they are as a person. There is and will only be just one you. By nature, you have what you need inside of you to make a personal film that will resonate with others. Too often, with the inf luence of Hollywood productions, one feels the need to copy the Hollywood formula. The Hollywood formula works well for Hollywood. This is because Hollywood production companies have a vast amount of resources to pull from such as top actors, directors, and cinematographers. Narrative films are what many people grow up watching from childhood. It is easy to become accustomed to think that a movie needs a

106  Planning a film production

story, actors, dialogue, special effects, and a wide release to count as a film. This is not the case. In fact, trying to copy a Hollywood movie’s aesthetics and style often makes the amateur film feel derivative and pale. What you may lack in budget and resources, you can make-up for with a personal touch. Your movie from life experiences and interests can have an aesthetic and style all its own. The movie you make can open people’s eyes. As a filmmaker, working on your own or with a small group of collaborators gives you the freedom to experiment with form, concept, and narrative. Being inspired by Hollywood productions is a great place to begin, but there’s more to see. Look at a variety of other films in addition to Hollywood productions. There are international films, art films, and underground films to explore. Each has its own cinematic merit. It’s easy to limit yourself by staying in one camp, either commercial or art. Both areas of filmmaking provide important skills to learn. After learning these skills, move beyond these inspirations. Assimilate your newfound knowledge into original creations of your own. You can use the same spices and herbs but make a new soup. Your life experiences should be the core ingredient. Remember, an amateur engages in an activity for the love of it without pay. Amateurism is a gift and an advantage to your production. The authenticity and beauty of your film will come from this love of the art form.

Short filmmaking By keeping your first few films short, you will develop your cinematic eye. Short films allow for experimentation. They also give you an opportunity to develop your craft. One simple way to make a film is to make one about shapes. Take the camera out and look for shapes – circles, triangles, squares, trapezoids, or rectangles. With this kind of film, there are no actors to worry about. You have a camera, a light meter, black and white film, and the sun. Look for shapes and graphic matches. Graphic matches are when you can connect the shape or form in one shot to the shape or form in another shot. Such a basic topic creates a fun scavenger exploration. All shots cover new action. It’s improvisational. You see a shape on a sign, in a window, on the sidewalk, in the park, anywhere, and frame it up. When working with shapes, extra time can be given to thinking about light meter readings, focus, composition, and exposure. Scenario Begin with one roll of a film and a simple familiar concept. Often, the simplest of films is the best. Sit down in a quiet room with a writing utensil and paper. Think about events in your life. Your own experiences are more interesting than any fiction that you could fabricate. Where were you born?

Planning a film production  107

What is your neighborhood like? Who are your parents or grandparents? Where did they come from? What adversities has your family overcome? Write down any idea that comes to mind. Visualize the textures you see. Grass, concrete, mud, rain, fire, the effects of wind, clouds, wood, plants, weeds, dirt, etc. After generating a list, go back and look to see which ideas would be the simplest to use. Rank them and go with the one that requires the least amount of locations, the least amount of actors, and the least amount of props. Film is a visual medium. The idea needs to be visual. Eliminate ideas that do not carry tactile images. The idea should be based on something familiar. A family tradition may simply provide you with the topic for your first film. List out all the images you see from this tradition. Although you might find such a topic to be too simple, it won’t be. Simplicity doesn’t always mean easy. Once you have the idea, plan for the movie to be filmed on one roll of film. This could be made in any of the film types: 16mm, 8mm, or Super 8mm. One roll usually contains enough film to make a two to three minute film. This two-minute movie could be made by filming one action or several actions. One of my single roll films was inspired by the evenings of rocking my first son to sleep. The rocking action in The Baby in My Arms is captured in one long take. Aim to deliver a bit of cinematic life on screen by choosing an action that sets a particular mood. Screenplay If it’s helpful, consider adapting the scenario into a screenplay. Some experimental films and documentaries depend entirely on discoveries. Therefore, a screenplay may not be needed. However, even if you are making an experimental movie, the screenplay format provides many handy tools for planning a production. It gives you the who, what, where, and when of the film. There’s the location, time of day, action block, and dialogue or voice-over sections. A key benefit of the screenplay is that it allows collaborators to see your movie and gives them a starting point for discussion. This is why Hollywood operates from a script. With so many collaborators working on a complex production, a blueprint is needed to communicate clearly among all departments. If you plan on working narratively, the screenplay helps you build the plot around the characters. Only write what you can see. Avoid inner thoughts unless you plan a voice over. Describe the action in the present tense. Think of writing a script as observing actions happening right in front of you. How would you communicate this to a friend? If writing a sound film, think about sound. Sound inf luences a space and character actions. Write key sound effects in all caps. This helps you develop a sound list for recording audio. Include scene

108  Planning a film production

transitions and effects such as cuts, fades, and dissolves. How will you stitch the scenes together in the edit?

Visuals Film is a visual medium. How do you see the film in your mind’s eye? Describe how you see the shot and the movement. Even if you are making an abstract or experimental film, you still need to know the “ how” of making your film. In the case of The Baby in My Arms, I knew I wanted to use a medium close-up framing, two lights, a rocking chair, a baby, and a father. I used a camera that provided a hand cranking option, so I could film the entire action in one long two minute and 45 second take on a single roll. Begin by asking yourself a series of questions: Will this film be made in color or black and white? What shape is my frame, square or rectangle? Is the frame broken into smaller frames? Does the movie consist of one long take or several short takes? Will I use natural or artificial light? What lens or lenses will I use to make this film? Does the subject move through space or remain in one place? Does the camera move or is the camera stationary on a tripod? Will the film be edited in camera, tape spliced, or edited with video software? Some of these questions may be answered by what you have in front of you. The limitations of the tools you have can be fertilizer for creativity. Maybe your camera has just one lens. Done. It’s what you have, so go with it. You do not have a tripod. Check. This is a handheld movie, or you rest the camera on a table. The camera can only capture 25 seconds on a wind. Check. No long takes. One outcome may be that the limitations guide you to film with a grandmother’s Standard 8mm camera. It’s what you have. You use black and white film because it is available in Standard 8mm. You use natural light because it requires less money and less setup. Editing in camera requires no editing equipment or software, so you embrace this. Although it seems the decision has been made for you, it is still important you consider the options. By thinking through the options, you commit yourself to the techniques and can innovate with what you have. Shot types The foundation of cinema begins with the shot. The shot is one single run of the camera. Run the camera and stop. The images captured during this duration make one shot. The shot is the foundation of cinematic language. The shot type can vary from an extreme close-up that shows us the granules of sand to the extreme long shot that shows the sweeping vista of the desert. Other framing options lie in between. Filmmaking begins with training the mind to visualize the frame and the field of view that make the shot type. Below are the list of common shot types and typical abbreviations.

Planning a film production  109 ­Table 7.1  Shot Type Guide Type

Abbreviation

Extreme ­close-up ​­ ­Close-up ​­ Medium ­close-up ​­ Medium shot Full shot Long shot Extreme long shot

ECU CU MCU MS FS LS ELS

Shot angles Shot angles are a key and sometimes overlooked dimension to planning shots. A camera can be low and pointed up. This is a low-angle shot. It can also be placed high and pointed to create a high-angle shot. As simple as it may seem, a camera can also be placed level to create a level shot or pointed directly down above a subject to generate a bird’s eye view of the scene. When designing a shot list, the angle should always be noted. ­Table 7.2  Shot Angle Guide Angle

Abbreviation

Low angle High angle Level Bird’s eye view

LA HA Level BEV

Shot list A shot list is exactly what it sounds like. It is a list of shots in the order of how they will edit together onscreen. The shot list contains key pieces of information to guide you in production. This includes framing, lens focal length, camera angle, movement, and shot duration. When telling a story and editing in-camera, the shot list is indispensable. Make the shot list when you have time to relax and think. Write the list before production. Work out the details ahead of time on paper to make the production organized. Even if you deviate from the shot list, you at least have a starting point. The shot list also helps collaborators to see your vision. Just like a screenplay, the shot list should be edited so that only the essential shots remain. All shots should have a function, whether to advance a story, develop character, establish the space, or set the mood. Place the shot list in a binder and organize it by scene. If you are working alone as the director/cinematographer, consider using index cards to

110  Planning a film production ­Table 7.3  Shot List Sample Scene 9: Operator’s Laboratory Shot

Lens Frame Angle/ Height

Description

Title 25mm CU Level Main Title – ­ ​­The Switchboard of the 5 feet Operator Written with ceramic and plastic titles – Centered top to bottom, left to right. 1 25mm CU HA Fade In. The tip of the ray gun 6 feet rests in the center of the frame. The Operator’s hand moves on the right side of the frame. He solders a tube on the ray gun. 2 10mm FS Level The Transmitter enters from to MS eye a doorway on the left of the frame. He rolls a large trunk towards the center. He pauses, then looks off frame and says his line “Purloin.” He moves forward with the trunk. He sees the Operator’s hand, then stops in a MS on the right of the frame. 3 10mm MS LA The cart and the Transmitter enter the frame from behind the camera. The Operator waits for the cart to come before him. The box is perpendicular to the Operator with the latches facing him. He puts his hand out and receives a key from the Transmitter who stands beside him. The Operator opens the crate. The lid lifts into the foreground. Gold light rays stream onto the Operator and the Transmitter’s faces from below.

Motion Duration (Camera) ­ (Seconds) ­ Static

 

Static

10

Static

25

Static

25

compose the shot list. On the line side of the index card, write the shot description. On the blank side of the index card, draw the shot. Lay the cards out on a table to see how they will stitch together in the edit. Clip the note cards together using a hole punch and key ring. This way you can keep the shot list for the day’s worth of scenes in a back pocket. Simply pull out the cards to look at for inspiration and to help prepare you for the next shot. It’s also easy to rearrange the shot order when necessary by opening the ring and moving the shots around. Discard a shot by removing it from the ring.

Planning a film production  111

Storyboards Storyboards are not always necessary, but can provide a concrete way to display your shot composition and sequence of shots. Some projects with complex lighting and effects may require it. Other projects do not. One does not have to be a great drawer to gain the benefit of storyboards. However, being able to draw perspectives helps with indicating low-angle and highangle shots. What is most important is that your storyboards are organized and neat. Stick figures work just fine. Just like a shot list, storyboards should indicate framing, focal length, angle, movement, and duration. Each shot in a storyboard should be clearly labeled by scene number and shot number. For example, Scene 1, Shot 4 can be abbreviated as one dash four at the upper left of the storyboard panel. One advantage of storyboards over shot lists is that they are visual. Collaborators only need to glance at a storyboard panel to have a very good idea of the framing for a shot. The storyboard displays the story in images. The narrative can be seen easily, which is why storyboards are frequently used in animation. When storyboards are pinned to a wall, one can see the story unfold and know which shots and movements are key and which are not. If your first film tells a story, consider preparing with either a shot list or a storyboard.

Scheduling A shot schedule makes a production run smoothly. For certain types of films, such as dramatic productions, it is essential. The shot schedule tells the cast and crew the order in which shots will be made. The schedule helps to keep collaborators on the same page. Everyone should discuss the organization of the schedule in advance. Create a schedule based on actor, crew, and location availability. It’s a good idea on a small production to make sure the actors are available for the designated production period. This can be done during an audition. The shot schedule becomes a necessity when working on a complex piece of amateur narrative filmmaking. This schedule should be in the hands of the assistant director and in the back pocket of the director. Shots should be organized by location and camera setup. It’s efficient to organize the shots so that all of the shots with the same lighting and camera positions are filmed together. Film all shots on one side of the room first, then move to the other side. When directing a narrative piece, it is extremely helpful to have someone keep you on track with the shot schedule. Have a friend or family member you trust assist with the shot schedule. It’s important that this person speaks with you confidently and honestly. The shot schedule should indicate a time duration for each shot. When time begins to run low, the director and assistant director can trim or combine shots as needed to stay on schedule. Although software exists to plan such productions, a simple word processing software, a typewriter, or a neatly handwritten schedule will suffice.

112  Planning a film production

Rehearsal time A good place to start is to give yourself 30 minutes to rehearse and capture two to three takes for a given shot. Of course, there are shots that can be made more quickly and some that take longer. However, on average 30 minutes ends up being a good starting point. The assistant director can help you shift time from shots made quickly to shots that pose a greater challenge. Maybe you have a long take or dolly shots that require 45 minutes to an hour to execute. If you finish a relatively easy shot in 15 minutes, those extra 15 minutes can be shifted to make the more complex shot such as the dolly shot. In four hours of filming with a single camera, eight quality shots can be made efficiently. Do not rush yourself. If you cannot make the images well or suitable to fit the idea, then it probably isn’t worth filming. It is better to have half as many shots that work with your idea, than many shots that do not work. Plus, it’s important that shots are in focus, properly exposed, well blocked, and well rehearsed so that they can be used in the edit. Filming unusable shots because of major technical f laws wastes time and money. Above all, make sure you have a reason to make the shot. Shooting ratio The shooting ratio is the amount you film compared to the amount of film used in the final edit. Keep the shooting ratio under 3:1, if possible 2:1. This means do not film more than three takes for a given shot. Overshooting by filming the same action from multiple angles doesn’t help and often makes things worse. An overshot film lacks direction. Think of making shots like finding seashells along the beach. You look and collect just the right ones. It’s not necessary to set up the camera and film an entire two-minute action sequence from four different angles. This may seem like a good idea and is often the practice of commercial productions. Ultimately, the “capture everything” method many times over uses more film than is required. Large productions have the budget to film ten times the amount needed. On amateur projects, that is not a luxury; plus, it is not necessary. Shooting the same action over and over again only costs money and wastes valuable time. It’s like scooping up buckets of sand instead of finding the seashells. Film only the angles you need for the edit. Overlap the action between shots to give yourself continuity editing options in the edit. Leave a second or two before and after the action. Most shots are made at about ten seconds or 4 feet in length. By making only the essential shots and capturing only the coverage you need, you will save money, save time, and gain editing confidence. One word provides help to keep the shooting ratio low. Rehearse. Rehearse three times before capturing a shot, so the shot will be refined by the time you are ready to capture the one or two essential takes.

Planning a film production  113

When working with celluloid on narrative or documentary productions, it’s smart to be prepared. By being prepared, you will avoid over-spending on film stock and locations. Film with ratios 3:1 or smaller. Use a shot list or storyboard. Rehearse shots. Film only the coverage you need. Repeat the last few seconds of an action with each new shot if continuity is needed. Know when you have the take you need and move on to the next shot. ­Table 7.4  Camera Log Sample Title: Navigators of the Shadow Ring

Director: JD

Cinematographer: JD Film Stock: 7219 500T Camera Operator: JD Camera: Arrif lex SR ­ ­ f/stop Frame rate/ Filter Lens Footage Comments: Scene/shot/ take shutter dial 12-10-1 ­ ­​­­ ​­ 2.0 24 None 9mm 0 Operator’s cape catches on the chair. 12-10-2 ­ ­​­­ ​­ 2.0 24 None 9mm 10 ­Best – ​­Operator’s cape moves f luidly.

­ For documentary or experimental approaches, you may be working off of instinct, which is based on familiarity with the subject. Spend time with the subject before visiting with a film camera. This way, you will know what you would like to commit to film. Ultimately, this is a collaboration with the subject. They will become more comfortable with you and you with them. Together you will make something special. If you are making a wildlife production: Observe. Observe instead of rehearse. Only push the run button when the time is right. There’s no need to have hours of the same wildlife footage when you know only a few seconds will be used in the edit. A little film that I recently made called 2 Blocks 2 School about the journey my oldest son and I make to school every day was purely based on experience and routine. I prepared for the film simply by thinking of potential shots while walking the two blocks with him to school every day. Observe first, film second. The observational research approach does not require a storyboard, but requires foreknowledge of the space and the action. In fact, if you have an idea based on your own routine, it will be rich with details for filmmaking. Look for an intimate location and familiar action. Research and observe to find a strong idea for a first documentary film. Jot down some shot ideas. When editing, embrace surprises to find discoveries. If you desire to make a documentary film about a human subject, consider making a film about someone’s hobby, craft, or art. Watching people on screen generate art creates an engaging first film.

114  Planning a film production

­Two-column ​­ layout Another common way to organize picture and sound is to use a two-column table. Place the shot or picture column on the left and the sound column on the right. The two-column format helps time a voice-over to the picture track. ­Table 7.5 ­Two-Column ​­ Layout Sample Picture

Sound (Voice Over)

­

“That year I was eleven years old. I made mixed tapes from the radio, played basketball, little league baseball, and was so excited for the VHS release of Jurassic Park.” ­ “I was just a kid…who was obsessed with Batman, Ghostbusters, amusement parks, and most of all… ­ …climbing trees.

Silent films One of the best ways to begin working with celluloid is the way the master’s did, silently. Silent filmmaking refines the visual skills necessary to make a motion picture. Without the potential distraction of sound, one can focus purely on the image. How can you convey a feeling through the images? How can you use framing to suggest an idea? Where are the lights, and how do they create a mood? How do you sequence the images to tell a story? Silent 16mm and 8mm filmmaking is also a practical technique to save time and money. One does not need to invest in the time and cost of audio recording and mixing. If the project can be kept short and silent, it will also have universal appeal and could be screened at international festivals. Language will not be a barrier. The filmmaker speaks through cinema. ­ ​­ In-camera editing In-camera editing can go hand in hand with silent filmmaking. If you capture your images in sequence, you’ll have a beautifully complete motion picture that can be projected. The images f low from one shot to the next with no splices. In-camera editing saves the filmmaker post-production time and costs. There’s no need to pay for film editing equipment or video editing software. Editing in-camera prepares you to think of shots before making them. The moment you decide to run the camera and capture an image, you have made an edit. Filmmakers are always editing by nature of shot selection. How will one shot connect and inf luence the next shot? This is why home moviemakers shooting on 8mm and 16mm are in fact film directors. They think of the

Planning a film production  115

shot and the duration before pressing the run button. They try to maximize the amount of shots they can make on a roll. If you are capturing shots for an in-camera edit, be mindful of the shot duration. Keep the shot just long enough to complete the action. One shot of an eye for example, could be held for three seconds followed by ten seconds of a close-up of butterf ly wings. It only takes a few seconds to get a sense of the eye blink, but you may wish to observe the tiny details of the butterf ly’s wings. This is why you may hold it longer. In-camera editing takes planning and practice. Sequencing shots before pressing run will ultimately refine your filmmaking craft.

Titles There’s a simple beauty in designing the titles yourself. Where others will have stock software templates to work from with a limited amount of fonts, you have your own ideas and your own hand. Head to the art store and pick up some cardstock or canvas paper. Get crafty with paint or simply use markers or chalk. Just make sure that the text contrasts well with the background. White paint marker on black cardstock works well. Two sheets of cardstock will do. Fit the title on one card. Then write your name and other contributors on the other card. Work with a friend or talented collaborator. The artist may paint titles for the film, or the baker may write titles using cookie cutters. The more your title card ties in with your idea the better. Text can be written in f lour, sand, snow, and dirt to create engaging titles. Read the titles out loud while filming to give you an idea of how long they should be up. Keep the main title up for four seconds and the end credits up long enough to quickly read through the names and locations. Always keep titles as brief as possible. A short film equals short titles. Observe the world around you. Think of a personal experience. Plan the scenario. Use shot types to visualize the idea. Write up a shot list on index cards or draw storyboards if necessary. Keep the film short and silent. Edit in camera. Create your own titles. Make the film. Filmmaker’s kit Before making a film with artificial light, it’s helpful to put together a kit of supplies. The list below contains safety items such as gloves and a surge protector as well as clothespins and parchment paper for modifying the quality of the light. Many items are great to have on hand as you never know when you will need them on set. 1 Leather Gloves 2 Clothespins (for attaching gels to barn doors or frames) 3 ­High-quality ​­ Surge Protector

116  Planning a film production



Planning a film production  117

outline a story. Write the Character(s), Setting(s), Conf lict, Rising Action, Climax, Resolution. Then, create a shot list. Finally, draw the story in panels. Vary your panel sizes. Small panels read like quick edits and large panels give the reader more time to view the frame. Bind the comic book using duct tape, staples, thread, office head fasteners, or yarn. Get creative and use bold lines and panel shapes: squares, rectangles, triangles, split frames, circles, etc! Materials: Drawing Paper, Pencils, Ruler, Duct Tape, Yarn, or Office Head Fasteners

Bibliography 1 McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: William Morrow Paperbacks, 1994. 2 Parks, Gordon, dir. The Learning Tree. 1969; Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video, 2011. DVD. 3 Scott, A.O. “The Man Who Paved the Way for Black Directors in Hollywood.” New York Times (2020, April 13). Accessed August 01, 2020, from https://www. nytimes.com/interactive/2020/04/13/t-magazine/gordon-parks.html. ­ ­ ­ ­ ­­ ​­ ­­ ​­ 4 Weber, Lois, dir. Pioneers: First Women Filmmakers. 1913; New York: Kino Lorber, 2018. ­Blu-ray. ​­ 5 Weber, Lois, dir. Shoes. 1916; Harrington Park, NJ: Milestone Video, 2018. DVD. 6 Milestone Films. “Shoes ( by Lois Weber).” Milestone Films. Accessed August 1, 2020, https://milestonefilms.com/products/shoes-by-lois-weber. ­ ­ ­­ ­​­­ ­​­­ ​­

8

Cinema lighting

While collaborating with students on a 16mm episode of our television series Spectral Transmission, we planned a night graveyard scene. High-contrast night lighting was a necessity to make the graveyard scene have the creepy mood the story required. In order to have power at the location, we used a small household generator. The thing about generators is that they are loud, noisy, smelly, and often unreliable. This may sound familiar to filmmakers out there, but what was supposed to be four hours turned into an all-n ight production. The generator didn’t always work, and we spent a lot of production time tinkering to get it to work long enough to make shots. During one of these moments, rather than sit and wait for the generator to work, we thought, “Hey, maybe we could film some shots with our smartphone f lashlights?” That’s exactly what we did. We shot a close-up of our main character in a panic. The smartphone f lashlights singled the frightened character out in the dark space, which accented his paranoia. After that, the generator worked for a while, and we were able to get the shots we needed. What I learned over the years is that filmmaking is problem solving. This is especially true with lighting. Sometimes bulbs burn out, lights break, or circuit breakers trip. The key is to be calm and figure out how to best use what you have on hand. Celluloid film can be exposed using f lashlights. You just need to know to place them close to the subject. With three f lashlights, you can set up a standard 3-point lighting arrangement. Lighting plays an important role in making a movie. Not only does it provide illumination to capture an image onto the silver halide crystals, but its primary function is to create mood and enhance concepts in a film. Lighting guides the viewer’s eye through the frame and shows them where to look. It hides elements of the scene to create mystery. Making movies, even abstract ones, is about building a visual style through light and shadow. Lighting alters the space and changes a location to suit the world of the film. Filmmakers do not “take” images. Filmmakers “make” images. Through lighting, the filmmaker can make adjustments to real life. They can make a dream world. It’s not how bright the lights are, but how the lights are used to create emotion. A desk clamp, a clamp light, and even a cell phone f lashlight are suitable light sources to use on amateur productions. With lighting, the filmmaker

Cinema lighting  119

can craft an image and explore the full potential of cinema. Through the research of visual art, the observation of natural light, and the knowledge of some basic principles, you will be able to develop your lighting craft.

Basic lighting terms ­High-key ​­ lighting High-key lighting is the term used to describe lighting that is f lat and provides broad illumination in a scene. High-key lighting uses higher amounts of fill light. It contains very little shadows. ­Low-key ​­ lighting Low-key lighting is the term used to describe lighting that creates contrast and gives select illumination. Low-key lighting uses little to no fill light. It contains many shadows. Lighting diagram A lighting diagram is a visual lighting plan for a given scene. In a lighting plan, one can indicate placement of lights, type of lights, angle, quality, and ratio. Use a lighting diagram to chart the illumination in a scene and direct the viewer’s eye within the frame.

120  Cinema lighting

­Mise-en-scene ­​­­ ​­ The mise-en-scene is a term that refers to the aesthetic elements within the frame. Actors, makeup, sets, props, costumes, and lighting are all part of the mise-en-scene. Together these elements affect the look of the film and deliver symbolic, character, and story information.

Properties of light Color temperature of light Measured in degrees Kelvin, the color temperature of the light describes how warm or cool a light is. Daylight reads at 5,500 degrees Kelvin where artificial studio lights read at 3,200 degrees Kelvin. The higher the temperature is the colder the light. The lower the temperature is, the warmer the light. Light bulbs have different color temperature ratings. Match the color temperature of the film stock to that of the bulb for accurate color representation where highlights appear white. Use tungsten stock with lamps that are 3,200K or below and use daylight bulbs when using daylight-balanced film stock. ­Table 8.1  Basic Color Temperatures Type of Light

Color Temperature ( Degrees Kelvin)

Candle Incandescent ( household lamp) Tungsten or Halogen Fluorescent (common overhead) Daylight

1,400K 2,700K 3,200K 4,800K 5,500K

Contrast ratio of light The ratio of light refers to the comparison between the light and dark areas of a scene. Often the ratio is described in terms of how bright the key light or main light is in relationship to the fill light. Use a light meter to determine the difference between the illumination of lights used in a scene. First turn on the key light and take a reading. Turn off the key. Flick on the fill light, and take a reading. Compare the two readings. This will give you the key to fill ratio. ­Table 8.2  Lighting Ratio Chart Ratio

f/stop ­ Difference Key/Fill ­

Example

1:1 2:1 4:1 8:1 16:1

0 +1 +2 +3 +4

Key: f/5.6 and Fill: f/5.6 Key: f/5.6 and Fill: f/4.0 Key: f/5.6 and Fill: f/2.8 Key: f/5.6 and Fill: f/2.0 Key: f/5.6 and Fill: f/1.4

Cinema lighting  121

Direction of light The direction or the angle of the light describes where the light is coming from. Does the light come from above, below, or the side? Much of our light comes from the sun, above us. Overhead light feels natural. When light comes from below, it seems strange and unearthly. That is why we light our

122  Cinema lighting

faces from below when telling a ghost story around a campfire. The most f lattering light comes at a 45 degree angle from above. Inverse square law The inverse square law is a basic lighting rule. Knowing it allows you to film with any film speed and with any artificial light. If you move a light half the distance to the subject, it will double the illumination. If the light source is moved twice the distance from the subject, then the subject will receive half the light. Lumens Lumens refers to the measurement of light. The higher the lumens, the brighter the light will appear to the eye. Look at lumens instead of wattage when comparing light bulbs. This is a more accurate way to distinguish the brightness of the bulb. Quality of light The quality of the light refers to whether the light is hard or soft. Hard light has defined shadows. It accentuates lines and textures. Soft light is not direct. It has feathered edge shadows. Soft light hides lines and textures.

Types of lights Backlight The backlight illuminates the back of the subject to separate them from the background. It creates a rim of light around the head and shoulders or any part of the human figure one wishes to accent. Traditional backlights are sometimes referred to as hair lights. A strong backlight that equals the brightness of the key helps develop contrast and depth. Background light A background light illuminates the background elements of the mise-enscene, so the viewer can see deep into the frame. Fill light The fill light fills in shadow areas in the scene. Controlling the illumination of the fill light controls the depth of the shadows. Higher fill light equals less shadow. Lower fill light creates a deeper shadow.

Cinema lighting  123

Key light The key light is the main source of light. It provides the greatest illumination in the scene. The brighter the key light is, the greater the contrast possible in the scene. Kicker light The kicker light is a side background light that provides an outline on the opposite side of the key. Kickers can be placed on the fill side of the subject. Where a backlight focuses on the hair and shoulder of a subject, the kicker may illuminate the ear, shoulder, or part of the torso. Practical light A practical light is any light source used within the scene to provide illumination. This could be a desk lamp, a f lashlight, a candle, or overhead household light. Place bulbs with higher lumens inside practical lamps to enhance their output. LED bulbs provide a low wattage and safe way to get higher illumination in normal household lamps.

Light modifiers Barndoors Lighting barndoors can be found on many basic light kids including the Lowel Omni lights. Barndoors typically have four moveable leaves that can open and close to allow more or less light transmission from the lamp. Barndoors f lag or cut back the light so you can focus the light to a desired area and keep it from touching other areas of the scene. Cookaloris Cookaloris are designs cut into board, fabric, or foil to create shadow textures on walls or subjects. They are called “cookies” for short. Venetian blinds, window frames, and tree leaf designs are common cookie designs. One can take a plain white wall and give it texture and depth using cookies to make shadows. Diffusion Diffusion is a type of light modification where the light is softened. Parchment paper can diffuse a light and soften its quality. Bouncing a light off a wall or bounce-board can also diffuse the light. Only some kind of heat resistant material such as tough spun or baking parchment should be used for

124  Cinema lighting

light diffusion. Baking parchment paper can be attached to barndoors using clothespins. When attaching parchment or color gels to lamp barndoors, it is imperative that the top and bottom barndoors are left wide open to vent the bulb heat. Dimmers Properly rated dimmer switches can be attached to halogen, incandescent, and LED lamps to control light intensity. Dimmers provide a convenient way of altering light illumination without having to move the light further or closer to the subject. One can lower the illumination by moving the dimmer slider down or raising illumination by moving the dimmer switch up. Flags Flags are boards or material used to block light from hitting parts of the scene. Basic heavy duty aluminum foil can be used to f lag light and keep it off subjects you wish to be darker. Foam bounce boards A white foam board works well as a bounce board. It can soften the light and redirect the light onto a subject. Often used outdoors, a bounce board is handy for redirecting hard sunlight and softening it into a fill light. Bounce boards can be white or gold. A gold bounce board warms the light temperature. Gels Gels are light modifiers that alter the color temperature or brightness of a light. Gels can be placed on a gel frame in front of a light or attached to barndoors with clothespins. Gels can be used to create a specific look, such as using a warm gel to create firelight. They also can be used to adjust the color temperature of a light.

Natural light cinematography Before jumping right into artificial light, give yourself practice with natural light. Carry a notebook with you and walk around your home and neighborhood. Note the angle, quality, and color of light in any given location. Maybe a bedroom faces west and receives rays of warm evening light. Maybe there’s a skylight window that lets in a beam of sun during midday. Whatever it may be, soft light, cold light, or hard light, how does it make you feel? How does this light change the mood of the location?

Cinema lighting  125

Natural light outdoors Position the subject so that the sun is over your subject’s shoulder to provide a backlight that separates them from the background. The backlight protects the actor’s face from the harsh sun, which is unf lattering and causes the subject to squint. Use a white foam core to bounce the soft light back onto the subject’s face. Try to get a reading of f/2.8 or higher on the light meter. Edge of shade Using the edge of shade technique is a suitable way to make an image without a bounce board. The actors will not need to squint and your background will trail off into the shadows keeping focus on the subject. Position your subject under a tree in the shade. Move the subject forward until they are on the edge of the shade where the shade meets the sun. The shade line will be noticeable. Meter the light for the subject’s eyes. The result will be that the actor will have a glint or sparkle in their eye while being nicely lit by the rays of light softly coming through the tree shade. Natural light indoors It’s preferable to use medium or fast speed negative stock when working with natural light indoors. Set the ISO according to the manufacturer’s recommendation. For example, rate 250D color negative stock at ISO 250. Using your light meter, locate a window light source that emits an F2.0 reading or higher on a given subject. Is there a window or a skylight? If there is not enough light in the scene, then move to another area. Does a tree outside block the light at a certain time? Note the location size and other potential available light sources. Position the subject opposite the window, so the light is illuminating 1/2 to 3/4 of the face. If possible, place the subject, so a hallway or another room is behind them. This will give you added depth. Use a white foam board to bounce light into the shadows on the opposite side of the window. Install white curtains if the light coming through the window is too hard. The closer to the window you are, the more light you will have to work with. This equals more contrast and gives more depth to your image. Make sure the bounce light catches the eyes of the subject. If you have an aluminum foil ref lector, position the ref lector behind the subject for a kicker light exposure of f/2.8. A foil ref lector can recreate the direct sun’s rays well and can be used to build a higher contrast look. An optional third ref lector can be used to bounce light into the background shadows to reveal scenic details. Aim for at least a shadow exposure ­ of f/1.4.

126  Cinema lighting

Artificial lighting safety Always know where the circuit breaker box is located and what appliances are on the circuit. Keep the entire light kit under 2,000 watts on an amateur production when possible. Most household circuits run on 18,000 watts. By knowing the limit, you can prevent a circuit trip or power overload. If a circuit trips, turn off all the lamps and unplug lights to reduce power strain. Give the circuit breaker time to cool down. Bulb wattage to lamp Always match the bulb to the wattage of a lamp. For clamp lights rated at 150 watt max, only use an incandescent or halogen bulb up to 150 watts. LED bulbs run cooler, so they are a good alternative in getting more light output while using a more basic lamp. Gloves Wear gloves when working with lights. Incandescent and Halogen bulbs can get hot. Even LEDs get warm. Gloves prevent finger burns and keep finger oils from getting on the bulb. They also give you the ability to safely touch and maneuver the lamps and housings. Surge protector Use a surge protector with a long extension cord built into it. This helps to prevent surges, which could be a fire hazard or damage lamps. Basic light kits Basic clamp lights and work lights can be used to light scenes for celluloid productions. Put together a small package of three lights using clamps. In two of the clamp lights, install a 200-watt equivalent or 25 watt LED bulbs. In the third lamp, use a 100 watt equivalent or 14 watt LED. The larger wattage bulbs will serve as key and backlights and the lower wattage bulb will serve as a fill light. Clamp lights Clamp lights are inexpensive and available locally. The handy clamp gives the filmmaker a simple way to attach the light to many types of surfaces. Clip them on chairs, tables, and other such supports. They accept bulbs with a standard household socket. One can use LED, halogen, or incandescent bulbs up to about 150 watts in most clamp light fixtures. I have found that using a 25-watt LED bulb that outputs about 3,000 lumens works well in clamp lights.

Cinema lighting  127

LED light panels A common type of LED light is the small LED panel. These are lightweight lights that run on AA batteries. Mount these little panels to a standard tripod or clip them to the shoe mount of a camera. Small LED panels give the documentary filmmaker the freedom to move around in difficult situations such as weddings, birthday parties, and family gatherings. Some 16mm, 8mm, and Super 8mm cameras come with small metal shoes on the top of the camera body. You can clip an LED panel to this cold shoe mount. If you happen to have a movie camera that does not come with a shoe mount, an inexpensive shoe mount bracket can be purchased attached to the bottom of your camera.

128  Cinema lighting

Work lights LED and Halogen work lights are inexpensive and often come with light stands. LED work lights also provide an advantage as they may be rated to work in wet conditions. The halogens often use two 500-watt halogen bulbs for a total of 1,000 watts of light. The convenience of halogen work lights is that the bulbs can be picked up at nearly any hardware store. Use them with t ungsten-balanced film stock. Halogen work light bulbs do get very hot. Make sure to use leather gloves when handling the lights and bulbs.

Light bulbs Halogen Halogen bulbs are more efficient than incandescent tungsten-based bulbs. Many light kits made for filmmaking use halogen bulbs. Halogen bulbs must be handled with gloves. Oils from the fingers can cause them to prematurely blow out. Plus the bulbs themselves get very hot. Halogen bulbs are often rated at 3,200K, so use them with tungsten stock. Incandescent The most common type of bulb to use is the classic incandescent bulb. Incandescent bulbs can be conveniently found at grocery stores, department stores, and hardware stores. They deliver a bright output for a low cost. The bulbs use the most energy when compared to Halogen and LED style lamps. LED ( light emitting diode) LED lights use less energy and run cooler than incandescent and halogen bulbs. They use about 75% less energy than incandescent bulbs. LED lamps can put out more lumens at lower wattage of power used. ­Table 8.3  LED Bulb Guide Bulb

Watts Incandescent Equivalent

Estimated Watts Used

Estimated Lumens

Color Temperature

Stock to Match

Daylight Soft white Daylight Soft white Daylight Soft white

200 200 150 150 100 100

25 25 18 18 16 16

3,000 3,000 2,600 2,600 1,600 1,600

5,000K 2,700K 5,000K 2,700K 5,000K 2,700K

Daylight Tungsten Daylight Tungsten Daylight Tungsten

Cinema lighting  129

LED bulbs rated as 100 or 200 watt incandescent equivalent work well to expose film. A 100-watt LED uses about 14 watts of energy. A 200-watt LED uses about 25 watts of energy. LED bulbs can be picked up in either 3,200K or 5,500K color temperatures, making them f lexible on a production.

The A21 bulb size will fit most clamp lights and household lamps. Some manufacturer LED bulbs are more efficient and provide greater lumens per wattage. This chart is designed to give you a general idea of the basic LED bulbs that are available.

130  Cinema lighting

Lighting setups ­2-point ​­ lighting 2-point lighting uses only two lamps: key light and backlight or key light and background light. There is no fill light. This t wo-light/no fill approach creates a contrasty look. Set up the key so that the subject has a hard bright light. There will be a harsh shadow line across the face or body. The key will be at its usual 45-degree angle. Use the second light as either a backlight or background light. A backlight will bring attention to the subject. A background light will draw the viewer to the space.

­3-point ​­ lighting 3-point lighting utilizes a key light, a fill light, and a backlight to shape the mood of a scene. By controlling the quality, direction, and ratio of these three lights, one can shape the mood and contrast of a scene. The key light provides the main source of light. It’s the brightest light in the scene. Set the key above the subject at a 45-degree angle. Angle it slightly down, so shadows fall to the f loor. The fill light is used to fill in the shadows. The brighter the illumination of the fill light, the f latter the image will appear. Set the fill light on the opposite side of the key at a 45-degree angle. The dimmer the illumination of the fill light, the more contrasted the image will appear. Use more fill light, and

Cinema lighting  131

you get less contrast. Use less fill to gain higher contrast. Some scenes may require little to no fill light, especially if deep shadows are desired. Third, the backlight is used to rim out or make the subject separate from the background. Set it behind the subject either directly above or directly behind angled up. This depends on the effect you wish to create. One can control the lighting ratio by changing the distance, direction, or lumens output of each of these lamps. Expose the film to the key light, and the fill side will be rendered in some degree of shadow. Expose for the fill light, and the key light side will be very bright. It’s a good idea to set the backlight one stop brighter than the key. If the key light reads f/5.6 on the light meter, consider adjusting the backlight until it reads f/8. By having a brighter backlight, the depth of effect will be more prominent.

132  Cinema lighting

­5 -point ​­ lighting ­

Use the kicker as a back outline for the subject. Setup the kicker light low and to the backside of the fill light. The kicker gives the fill side a bit of a “ kick” to snap the subject out more.

Cinema lighting  133

Night scenes Night scenes should have high contrast. Filming at night does not simply mean that the scene should be dark. On the contrary, the scene will be brighter, but with more contrast. Start the scene in a dark room. Place a bright, hard key light on the subject. Angle it to match the source of the light in the scene. If the source of the light is a nightstand lamp, aim the artificial light to illuminate the bedside. Flag the key light, so it only illuminates a part of the scene such as the bed right beside it. The rest of the room will be dark. Let the light fall off dramatically into shadow. Contrast will make the scene feel like nighttime. Place a 25-watt LED bulb into a nightstand lamp. If using 200 ISO film stock, there will be a great fall off of light since a 25-watt LED only puts out 3,000 lumens. Expose for the key light. Meter the shadows. If you want pure blackness around the subject, the shadow areas should fall five stops below the key light reading. If the key reads at f/5.6 the shadows should read f/1.0 on the meter. In this way, the scene will feel like nighttime because at night, only what the light touches will be lit. The rest of the scene will be dark. Create the night scene through the high contrast between key light and shadow area.

Lighting a scene Often available light does not provide the contrast or the consistency of illumination necessary to create the mood or tell a story. One needs to use artificial light to make the scene come alive. It’s too easy and tempting to take a short cut and say, “We have overhead light. Let’s just shoot the scene.” Let’s create our own scene, and begin with using a lighting diagram. Scenario The scene takes place at night. A librarian works late after the library has closed. He hears a grinding noise on the far side of the library. He walks from his desk through the book stacks to investigate the source of the sound. What are the available light sources in this scene? Scout the location Find the library you wish to use in advance. Ask permission to film. Once permission is gained, ask the library director to give you a tour of the space. Look for power outlets, sprinklers, and the circuit breaker. Make note to not place lights close to ceiling sprinklers. Take notes and draw up a rough sketch of the location. This will help you with the lighting diagram. As you move

134  Cinema lighting

through the space, think of the following: sources of light, light direction, mood, film stock, and color. Sources of light There are broad overhead f luorescent lights, a desk lamp, and moonlight outside the window. Currently, the overhead lights are the main source of illumination. What feeling do the overhead lights convey? Flat overhead lighting gives a sense of the mundane or of the everyday. Now let’s alter the space a little by turning off the overhead lights. How would the scene feel if the desk lamp and moonlight were the main source of lights instead of the overhead lights? Will there be more or less contrast between light and darkness in the scene? There will be more darkness and more contrast, right? This surrounding darkness could make the character and audience feel alone and lost in the closed library. Is this the desired mood? The story gives the filmmaker several key points to guide the lighting design. How many light sources are required for the scene? Where are the light sources? Maybe the source of the light in the book stacks is the moonlight streaming in through the windows. What about the librarian? How is he lit? Perhaps, a desk lamp provides him with his key or main source of light. A 14 watt (100 incandescent equivalent) LED bulb can be placed inside the librarian’s standard desk lamp. The lamp can be aimed at the white pages of a book to ref lect on his face. The desk lamp acts as a practical light. Direction of light To make lighting work for a scene, the angle or direction of the light must be considered. There should be some motivation for the direction of the light. Does the light come from above, from the side, or from below? In the case of the librarian, the light from the desk lamp comes from below. The light also may ref lect off a book that sits on the desk. Mood First, it is night. The overhead lighting with its even illumination makes the mood feel like day. Turn off the overhead lights to create the feeling of night. Second, we know that the library is closed. Having the lights turned off in some areas of the room would suggest the time is after hours. By turning off the overhead f luorescent lights, the library no longer looks like the library we found. It will look more like the library of our movie, filled with shadow and contrast.

Cinema lighting  135

Third, the scene is written to be eerie. The of f-screen noise draws the librarian into the dark, less explored territory of the library. Shadows would certainly enhance the vastness of the library. Having the librarian move through shadows would add mystery and suspense. Film stock selection Lighting begins with selecting the film stock. The film’s ISO or speed will affect the scene. How can darkness be enhanced by film stock? ISO 500 is a fast film and sees into the shadows. Not what we need. We want dark shadows to create the eerie feeling. An ISO of 50D is slow. It would provide a lot of shadow, but requires a lot of light to use indoors. Again, not really what we need for this scene. A medium speed ISO 200 film stock will make a good choice. We could easily create deep shadows without needing too much light to get an exposure. ­​­­ ​­ Color in the ­mise-en-scene Is this a black and white scene with gray tones or a color scene? Color can be used to create a certain mood. Do you see colors in the scene? If so, what are they? Maybe you see colorful book spines, a warm desk lamp, and blue moonlight. Since we are seeing color, we go ahead and use a color film stock. How does color inf luence the scene? If we turn off the overhead lights, the outdoor moonlight and the desk lamp color temperatures will contrast with each other. Use a warm, soft white LED bulb for the desk lamp. The warm light may give the librarian a visual sense of comfort, making his desk area feel safe. The vast stacks could be lit by moonlight through a window. The book stacks with their coolness may feel threatening and unfamiliar in comparison to the warm light of the desk lamp. Nighttime is often associated with blue. Winter is also associated with blue. Blue moonlight will make the stacks feel cold. How can this blue moonlight be achieved? A 200-watt daylight balanced LED light could be placed in a clamp light. The light can be placed outside the window or clipped to a shelf near the window to create the moon effect. Point one or two 200-watt daylight LED lights from the direction of the window and aim them at the book stacks. Draw the diagram Now that we have pre-visualized the scene, the lighting elements can be neatly put together into a lighting diagram. Use either graph paper or a clean white sheet. Create a key for the diagram to designate the type of light and

136  Cinema lighting

its output. Draw the scene from an overhead point of view. Place the desired f/stop reading next to the lamp. This will help you plan the lighting ratio for the scene. Setup the lights On the day of the production, arrive two hours before the cast to set up lights. More time is required for more complex lighting. Carefully, move through the space and mount your lights. Run extension cords where they will not be seen and use gaffer’s tape to tape them down to the f loor. Turn on one light at a time to see its effects and take a light meter reading. You want to light the scene and consider shadow areas. Move through the space to see how light and shadow will affect moving subjects. Metering the light Set the light meter to ISO 200. Set the frame rate to 24fps. Walk into the scene and stand where the librarian is in the shot. At the desk, meter from the librarian’s face to the camera. Press the read button on the light meter. The f/stop reading that you receive from the desk lamp is the key light. You will set transfer this f/stop number to the lens to properly expose the librarian. For example, if the meter reads f/4, f/4 is what you set on the lens dial. Attach a clamp light with a 25-watt (200 incandescent equivalent) daylight LED bulb to a bookshelf. Now meter the background of book stacks behind the librarian. This is illuminated by the daylight balanced LED 5,000K light. This light will simulate the moonlight and appear blue on the film. Take another incident reading toward the camera. Perhaps the reading of this light on the bookshelf behind the librarian says f/2.0 If you want to see some of the details in the background, use the inverse square law and move the light closer to illuminate the shelves behind the librarian. Contrast ratio Contrast ratio refers to the difference between illumination and shadow. The greater the separation between what is lit and what is not lit results in high contrast. For example, in the desk shot, the desk lamp should be brighter than the moonlight. In order to create this contrast, the moonlight should be one or two stops below the desk lamp exposure reading. If the desk lamp reads f/5.6, then the moonlight in the desk shot should read f/2.0. This is a ratio of 8:1. High ratio equals high contrast. To create the stark and shadowy mood, we need to create a high contrast in the scene.

Cinema lighting  137

Filming Once the scene is lit, you can progress through the shots, all the necessary shots in one area before moving to the next area. Film all the shots around the desk first. Then move to the shots in the stacks as the librarian walks to investigate the sound. The bulb that was used in the desk lamp can now be swapped out with a daylight bulb and used to provide more moonlight in the shots between the book stacks. Relative exposure Relative exposure means adjusting exposure and contrast to fit natural expectations. There is no one right way to expose a scene. The filmmaker chooses the exposure based on knowledge of lighting and aperture settings. When the librarian is in the stacks and away from the desk lamp, we no longer have the desk lamp in the shot to deliver contrast to the scene. Logically in a dark room, a desk lamp is the brightest source. However, when the librarian walks between dark book stacks, at this point, our key light becomes the moonlight. Now, the exposure should be set to the lamp simulating the moonlight. If the moonlight reads f/2, we set this to the lens. If we do not set the exposure to the moonlight, but keep it at f/5.6, the shot will be underexposed and the contrast will be f lat. Lighting effects Lighting effects are one of the simple types of effects to pull off because they are part of the scene. Actors can respond to the action in front of them. Let’s take a look at a rocking chair that begins to rock all by itself. How can this be achieved? We could use computer-generated imagery of a rocking chair and animate the chair in the shot. Computer animation takes a lot of time and knowledge of three-d imensional modeling. It is also expensive to buy software or pay someone to create the effect. We could mechanize the chair and move it with robotics and remote control. Again, this seems a bit much for a simple special ghost chair effect. How about having someone move the rocking chair and hide them in the shadows? Hey, that’s an idea! How do we pull this effect off without seeing the puppeteer moving the chair? If we know lighting and can create shadows, we can make this effect happen easily. The goal is to hide a puppeteer on the f loor in the shadow area. To make this lighting effect, we need to know the dynamic range limitation of our film. Typically, color negative film stock has about five stops underexposure latitude. Reversal film has two to three stops of underexposure latitude. 1 2

Set the rocking chair 3 feet or so from a wall. Dress the chair puppeteer in all black including a black hat and gloves.

138  Cinema lighting

3 4 5 6 7 8

Light the rocking chair with a single source 25-watt LED clamp light angled from the side or slightly angled up at the chair. Move the light close to the rocking chair to read f/5.6. Next, f lag or keep the light off the f loor by placing aluminum foil halfway around the clamp light. Make the shadow area on the f loor read f/1.0 or lower on the meter. Keep light off of the f loor and off of the puppeteer. The puppeteer lies on the ground with black clothing. Film the shot while the puppeteer rocks the chair.

The puppeteer will not be seen on the film, and the chair will appear to move by itself. By knowing the light fall off and dynamic range of a given film stock, one can achieve effects by hiding a person in the shadows to move objects. Objects seem to move all by themselves this way. The shadow effect works best with ISO 200 or slower film because exposure falls off to shadow quickly. The effect can be easily achieved with reversal films like Tri-X Reversal and Ektachrome 100D. Reversal films contain high contrast with a limited exposure range. They have about two stops of underexposure before shadows go dark. With reversal film stock, the effect may be completed with an exposure reading of the chair at f/2.8 and the shadow area reading at f/1.0. If you can have the shadows read below f/1.0 on the light meter, it guarantees a pure black shadow area. Shadow puppets One can make a bird f ly through an interior of a room and exit through a door to follow a character on her way out the door. To achieve this, you need a fishing line, a foam board cutout of a bird, metal eyelets, and two light stands. Cut out the bird and screw the metal eyelets into the foam board. Attach the fishing line from one light stand to the other. Thread the line through the metal eyelets. The foam bird will glide along the fishing line from one light stand to the next. Light the bird cutout with a hard light from the side so that the shadow will cast on the walls. Rehearse the move of the bird cutout along the fishing line. When the shadow reaches the door or corner of the room, have it disappear into a larger shadow. The shadow provides the right amount of abstraction while still suggesting the actual animal in f light. The audience only sees the bird’s shadow and never an actual bird. Anytime you require something that may be hard to achieve on screen, consider giving shadow puppetry a try. It’s fun and effective to guide the audiences’ imagination over showing the real thing.

Cinema lighting  139

140  Cinema lighting

­

Cinema lighting  141

production silent. Sequence the action to show the passage of time. Begin with the start of the artwork and end with the finished art piece. Materials: 16mm, 8mm, or Super 8mm Camera, Film Stock, Light Meter, 3 Clamp lights, Tripod, Projector in the format of the camera

Bibliography 1 Axel, Gabriel, dir. Babett’s Feast. 1987; New York: Criterion Collection, 2013. ­Blu-ray. ​­ 2 Dreyer, Carl Theordore, dir. Michael (Masters of Cinema Series, No. 3). 1924; Burbank, CA: Eureka!, 2018. DVD. 3 Murnau, F.W, dir. Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans. 1927; Los Angeles, CA: 20th Century Fox, 2014. Blu-ray. ­ ​­

9

Special camera effects

My earliest experience with special effects-making was when I was in high school. I had many wonderful teachers who encouraged my filmmaking interest. In addition to written assignments, I completed animated video projects. Working with the family VHS camcorder, I made several stop-motion videos with my brother that spanned topics from Eisenhower and the D-Day invasion to Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Pardoner’s Tale. Stop motion requires the use of three-d imensional or model puppets moved one frame at a time. The puppets I used in the high school animations were my action figure toys. Bruce Wayne played Dwight Eisenhower, and He-Man played Odysseus. The VHS camcorder had many limitations, one of which was the inability to actually capture a single frame. The single frame function is necessary to make animated movies. If you clicked the record button on the VHS camcorder too fast, nothing was captured on tape. If you captured too many seconds, the animation was slow and stilted. To overcome this, I counted out loud “one thousand one.” This way I made the shortest shot possible, which was about one second in length. Although still choppy, it was exciting to see the toys come to life and depict historical figures and classic narratives. Special effect-making is all about experimentation. Use you what you have and keep moving forward. I remember the elation I had when I figured out how to add dialogue and sound effects to moving animation. Before figuring this out, all dialogue had to be spoken while holding the shot static on a non-moving action figure. I realized that sound could be added if I copied the picture and sound separately to another VHS tape. Remember, these were the days before home video editing software. The solution was actually quite simple. Capture the animation first. Record sound effects and dialogue with an audio cassette recorder. Then, with a recording VCR cabled to the playback VCR and audio deck, record the animation and the sound together. Press record on the VCR with the blank VHS tape. Click play on VCR with the animation tape. Play the audio tape, and voila, the picture track and sound track are united! Fortunately with 8mm and 16mm filmmaking, you have the single frame option and there’s a smooth system for adding sound effects with magnetic

Special camera effects  143

audio or with digital tools. You can explore all the classic special effects tricks with an 8mm, Super 8mm, and 16mm camera. From the stop trick as seen in the fantasy films by filmmaker magician Georges Méliès to spooky double exposure effects, there’s nothing like making it happen on film. No software needed. Just you, a camera, some raw stock, and your knowledge. This chapter will cover paper cut-out animation, double exposure, fades, lap-dissolves, long takes with wind-up cameras, reverse motion, split screen, and the stop trick.

Animation Many w ind-up 8mm and 16mm and Super8mm cameras have the ability to capture a single frame. Often the single frame can be captured by moving the run switch in the opposite direction of normal run. If you press down to run the camera, instead, move the switch up for animation. One audible “click” will be heard each time you f lip this switch. One image frame is captured. Many Super 8 cameras use a standard still photography cable release to capture a single frame. With these cameras, one screws in a standard cable release into the cable release socket. Sometimes this socket is labeled with “1” for 1 frame. Other times it is not labeled. Check the manual to help you locate the socket. If you do not have a single frame button, quickly tap the run button. The run tap method may not be the ideal way of capturing a single frame, but it works. A few frames may be captured instead of one, which makes its own kind of effects. You can do all sorts of neat tricks with the single frame feature. • • • • •

Hand-d rawn – animation drawings on paper or cels (transparency sheets) ­Pixilation – animation ​­ of people ­​­­ ​­animation of paper puppets Paper ­Cut-Out – Stop Motion – animation of three-dimensional objects or puppets Time-lapse – single frame capture at intervals, which displays an action at a faster rate than the eye can see, for example – cloud movements and the rising and setting of the sun.

Animating on 2s Film moves through a camera and projector at a standard rate of 24 frames per second for sound productions. When animating on twos, two frames are captured for each position or for each drawing. For every second of animation, one will have 12 poses/positions or 12 drawings. Press the release twice. “Click, Click.” By taking two photos for each position, you will end up at the standard 24 frames for every second of animation work. If you want to make experimental and silent animations, you could work at 16 fps and use eight positions that are photographed twice. Animating on two delivers smooth

144  Special camera effects

animation while saving time. In the case of hand-drawn animation, one does not need to draw all 24 frames, just 12.

Pixelation One of the best ways to experiment with animation is through the movement of human puppets. Human animation is called pixelation. The animator moves people around frame by frame to create neat surreal images. Two exciting ways to work with pixelation is by making people do impossible things like f loat in the air or glide across the ground. Floating human Make an exposure while the subject is at their peak jump. Move them in any f loating pattern you wish. They jump. Make an exposure. Continue with this pattern. Pixelation is not repeatable in the same way as animating a static puppet or drawing. You will need to make 24 exposures to create one second of pixelation. Ten seconds of animation requires 240 individual frames. By making many photos of a person in mid jump, you will create the effect of a f loating person. When projected, the person will never touch the ground. They will zoom through space. Gliding human Like the f loating effect, one can create a gliding effect. Make two exposures of a person lying on the ground. Move them forward slightly. Have the person lie back down on the ground. Take two more exposures. Repeat. Continue on with this pattern. Move slightly. Lie down. Make two exposures. Twelve positions for every second of screen time. The effect will appear as if the person is gliding on the ground. With just your friends at a park and maybe a few props, you can create a surreal little film where humans do impossible things.

Silhouette paper cut- out animation Silhouette cut-out animation is an animation process of designing shapes and figures from black cardstock paper and moving them on a light box one frame at a time. When the still images of paper are played back at 24fps, you have movement! Silhouette cut-out animation was pioneered by German filmmaker Lotte Reiniger in the 1920s. Her film The Adventures of Prince Achmed is one of the earliest animated feature films. For further instruction on making paper cut-out animation, check out Reiniger’s book Shadow Puppets, Shadow Theatres, and Shadow Films (1970). ­ Silhouette cut-out animation uses basic household materials such as paper and tape. It’s a good way to start your hand in animation. Begin by finding

Special camera effects  145

a suitable space to work. Have a table setup that you can leave up for days or weeks. Use a light pad or overhead projector as the work surface. This will give you the backlighting to create the silhouette. Use black cardstock paper. The thicker the paper weight, the more durable the paper will be. Heavy card stock will hold up better through the start and stop of the animation process. Mount the camera on a tripod and aim it down at the light pad. Tripod all shots. Focus the lens on the silhouette paper. The paper edges should be sharp and in focus. Set the f/stop exposure to the light, so the silhouette paper is a pure black. Use a cable release or remote control if you have one. This will keep the camera still while making exposures. Animate on twos (two photos per every move.) “Click, Click.” Twelve positions for every second of movement. Finish through with shots before the end of the day. This way there is less fear of accidentally bumping the camera in mid-shot. Move the background to create walking motion. This could be trees passing or buildings passing.

­Time-lapse cinematography Time-lapse is a technique where a long period of time is condensed down into a few seconds. A f lower blooming. A candle melting. These are two examples of slow movements that can be sped up with time-lapse. Time-lapse photography shows the viewer something that only the camera can see. Many people take time-lapse of the sun rising or setting or clouds zooming through the sky. Others have used it to speed up the f low of people moving through cities. You can even create exciting effects by just walking down the street and pressing the animation button rapidly or at intervals. To create a t ime-lapse sequence, you need to plan out how many individual frames you will make in a given period. Think about the action you want to condense. For example, if you want to condense a 30 minute walk into 30 seconds, it will take 720 frames. That’s 1/60th the time that it took to make the walk! Although a device called an intervalometer will automatically make timed exposure for you, they can be expensive and hard to come by. Below is a basic manual time-lapse ­ ​­ setup. 1 Find the subject or location you wish to photograph. To condense a 30 minute sunset into 10 seconds, you will need to make 240 exposures for 24 fps playback: 60 seconds × 30 minutes = 1,800 seconds; 1,800 seconds /240 frames = 7.5 seconds. You will make an exposure every 7.5 seconds. 2 Set the camera up on a tripod. 3 Frame the shot and set the lens focus to infinity. 4 Lock the camera in place on the tripod. 5 Note the shutter speed for single frame photography. On a Filmo, it’s 1/15 of a second, and on a Bolex single frame, it’s 1/40 of a second. 6 Make a light reading.

146  Special camera effects



­

​­

­

​­

­

​­

Special camera effects  147

If your camera cannot back-wind, no worries. There’s another alternative to achieving the double exposure effect using a 16mm or 8mm camera. The camera needs to be spool based, so this method will not work with Super 8 cameras. First, you film the entire 100 foot roll of film and keep a camera log. Note where the shot is on the roll you want to expose over. For example, maybe you made a shot from 10 to 30 feet on the roll. After filming the entire roll, pull the film out of the camera in a complete darkness. Rewind the entire reel onto another daylight spool. Reload the spool into the camera. Cover the lens with a cap and run the camera until it advances to ten on the counter. Once the shot is set, you can now film over top of the shot that goes from 10 to 30 on the counter. This method does not work as well for the ghost double exposure, but works well for shots that do not require a solid background or perfect background alignment. Using a black background for one of the shots will give you the most f lexibility with the entire roll rewind method.

Double exposure: ghost effect

148  Special camera effects



Special camera effects  149



­

150  Special camera effects

One has to base the fade purely on the f/stop numbers on the lens. No matter the camera or viewfinder type, it’s important to rehearse a fade in or fade out. This guarantees a smooth fade that is timed to your liking. Some television C-mount lenses have a “C” written on the lens barrel. This “C” marking can be found after f/16 or the smallest aperture opening. This “C” marking stands for “Close.” With such lenses, one does not need to place the lens cap on the lens after the aperture rack since the lens can close the aperture all the way. For the beginner, the ability to see the fade through the lens will give a sense of confidence that the effect has been made. Outdoor aperture fade When using the aperture method to fade a shot outdoors, a neutral density filter may be necessary to achieve the needed difference from normal exposure to fade out. Place a neutral density filter on the lens. It will darken the overall image and help create a greater exposure difference between f/16 and proper exposure. For a fade-in or fade-out, it may be wise to use a .9 neutral density filter or higher. With a .9ND filter, the light will be brought down or cut by three f/stops. With ND .9 one can expose a scene at f/5.6 instead of f/16 (without filter). The scene will now have normal exposure of f/5.6. With this reading, one can roll the aperture ring from f/5.6 to f/16 to make the fade out. Variable shutter fade A fade-in or fade-out can be made easily with a camera that has a variable shutter, such as the Bolex H16 or H8 or Cine Kodak Special. The shutter lever can move up and down and go from open to close. Simply move the shutter from close to open when filming to create a fade-in. To fade out, move the shutter lever from open to close. It’s best to practice a fade timing before conducting the fade during filming. This will help you gain confidence with moving the variable shutter. ­Lap-dissolves ​­ A lap dissolve is a transition where one image gradually blends into the second image. To create the effect, one overlaps a fade-out with a fade-in. It’s a good idea to give yourself about four seconds to work with to create a dissolve. In much the same manner as making a normal fade-out with a manual lens, one should fade out by closing the diaphragm and placing a lens cap over the lens. Film a shot. Fade out over 80 frames. Rewind 80 frames. Now move to the next shot, which begins a new scene. Run the camera 80 frames. Move the aperture from f/16 to proper exposure during these 80 frames. Keep the camera running past the 80 frames so you can fully capture the remainder of the new shot for the new scene.

Special camera effects  151

Long takes Long takes are one long run of a camera. It is a shot of great duration. Long takes of three minutes can be easily made with motorized Super 8mm and 16mm cameras. However, the limitation of a spring camera does not permit one traditional long run of the camera.

152  Special camera effects

Spring motors run for 25– 60 seconds depending on the model. If you have a wind-up 16mm or 8mm camera and want to try your hand at long takes, there is a simple trick. Hide the join between shots every 25 seconds or so. The joins can be hidden in the shadows or when something covers the lens. For example, the camera could move into a dark hallway. Plan it so the spring runs down in the darkest spot. While in the darkness of the hallway, wind up the camera. Make a second shot and continue the movement through the hallway. The join of the two shots will be hidden in the darkness. The effect will be one continuous moving shot.

Reverse motion Upside down camera A shellac record breaks. A glass smashes to the ground. A building collapses. You want to see this all in reverse so that the record and glass reform and the building reconstructs. How is this done? It is done through reverse motion. One simple way to reverse the motion is to film a shot with the movie camera turned upside down. Hold the camera upside down and film the action. In editing, f lip the shot so it is right side up. When this right- side up image is projected, the movement will also be reversed! This works with any camera. ​­ Reverse ­hand-cranking Another way to reverse the motion to achieve the same effect as above is to hand crank the film in reverse. To achieve this, advance the film through the camera with the lens cap on. Next install the hand crank. Set up the shot and move the crank backward. The film will move from take-up spool to feed spool. The frames will be captured in reverse order. A Bolex H16 REX or H8 REX camera can reverse crank through an entire roll to capture all shots in reverse order. Cine Kodak Special and Bell and Howell Filmos can crank backwards up until they completely wind the spring motor. For a longer take of reverse motion with these cameras, make sure the spring is run down all the way.

Split screen To create the effect of a subject having dinner or interacting with one self, the split screen approach works well. Split screen is achieved through one or more divisions of the frame. In much similar fashion as a double exposure, you will need to rewind the film and expose two or more shots on the same area of the film. Splitting the frame can be done using masks, a matte box, or a simple black foam board hung on a C - stand. One of the easiest ways

Special camera effects  153

to achieve a split screen effect is film all of the shots against a solid black background. Split screen with masks The masks are used to mask off or block off the side of the frame so you can expose them at different times. For example, one can create a split screen effect with masks. To do this, you need two masks. One mask is needed to block the right side of the frame while you film on the left side. The other mask is used to block off the left side while you film on the right side. The Cine Kodak Special I and II cameras come with a small metal mask set to perform this feature. With the masks that go behind the lens, you will have a sharp, clean line. When apertures are greater than f/5.6, say f/16 for example, the mask line will be more noticeable. It’s advised to keep apertures below f/5.6 to soften the line between shots. Cine Kodak special behind the lens mask guide 1 Set up the scene and block the subject. 2 Let the subject know the boundary line of where the frame will be broken in two. The subject needs to stay on the proper side of the frame and not cross over the line during filming. 3 Insert the mask that blocks the right side of the frame. Since the mask goes behind the lens, rather than in front, the mask should be on the same side that you wish to film. This is because of the upside down/reverse nature of the film frame behind the lens. When using the Cine Kodak Special, you insert the mask that covers the same side you want the image on. In this case, the mask goes on the right side. 4 Focus and exposure can be set normally. 5 Film the subject as they occupy the right part of the frame. You should have a stand-in person on the left side to give the actor an eye line. It should be someone who is about the same height as the actor. 6 Note where you are on the roll by recording the footage counter number. 7 Rewind the film to the beginning of the shot. 8 Now, insert the mask that blocks the left side of the frame. 9 The actor and stand-in switch places, so the actor is now on the left side of the frame. 10 Rehearse the action. 11 Film the shot. 12 You have created the split screen effect! The Cine Kodak Special camera comes with a circle and oval mask, too. These masks can be handy for isolating an action or creating a key hole effect. Combined with double exposure, one can place one shot inside the circle, while another shot is exposed outside the circle.

154  Special camera effects

Foam board split screen To create a split screen effect with a basic 16mm or 8mm camera, a black foam board can be used. Since many 16mm and 8mm cameras do not have a mask set, you can use black foam board to mask off the frame. For a scene that requires two actors speaking on a telephone in different locations, you can film the sides of the split frame at different times in different locations. The scene should be lit with careful attention not to place any light on the foam board. It is important that the board reads completely black. It will guarantee the overlaying on the black image exposes properly. 1 Attach the board to a light stand using hardware store spring clamps. The board should not be cut unless crooked lines are desired. By not cutting, you maintain the factory-made straight edge. 2 Place the board a few feet in front of the camera. Use the viewfinder to place the board’s edge in the center of the frame. With a non-ref lex camera, make sure you compensate for the parallax with the camera’s parallax adjustment ring or internal viewfinder frame lines. 3 Make note of where your takes fall on the roll. Write the footage counter number down in a notebook. It is important to hit these footage marks exactly. For cameras that cannot back-wind easily, film all the takes on one side all at once. Film the left side of the frame shots in a row, one after the other. Label each take and footage count in the camera log.

Special camera effects  155 ­Table 9.1  Split Screen Effects Log Sample Shot #

Take #

Frame Rate/ Shutter Speed

F/stop ­

Variable Shutter (If ­ Used)

Footage

1 1 1

1 2 3

16 16 16

8 8 8

Open Open Open

­20–35ft ​­ 35–50ft ­ ​­ ­50–65ft ​­



156  Special camera effects

Dark background split screen One can use a dark background to create a split screen or multiple character effect. 1 2 3 4 5

Meter the light for the scene. Set the f/stop to the lens accordingly. Film the actor sitting in one chair on the right side of the frame. Cover the lens and rewind the film back the amount of feet exposed. Now position the actor in the second chair on the left part of the frame. Film the shot with the same aperture setting.

Since the background is dark both subjects on either side of the frame and the table will appear solid. This is a simple way to achieve a split screen without masks or foam board. Just make sure the background is completely black. Otherwise, you will create the ghost effect instead of the multiplying effect.

Special camera effects  157

Stop trick A fun way to experiment with a film camera is through the use of the stop trick. The trick is used to great effect by cinema pioneer Georges Méliès to make people and objects disappear or reappear. Say you want f lowers to disappear instantly from a table by the hand of a magician. The actor can move their hand over the f lowers and stop. The actor freezes and holds the position. Stop the camera, remove the f lowers, and continue filming. To achieve this basic effect, the following steps can be performed. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Rehearse the action in the shot. Lock down the tripod to keep the camera steady. Run the camera. The actor moves their hands over the f lowers. At a moment, they stop and hold their hands above the f lowers. Stop the camera. Remove the f lowers. Run the camera. The magician follows through with their hand gesture and then reacts to the missing f lowers.

The stop trick can be achieved with any object or person. Just have the actor hold their pose, remove the object, then continue running the camera. Actors can jump in midair and disappear. Cut before they hit the ground. Connect this shot to a shot with the actor missing from the scene. It looks like the actor disappears just before hitting the f loor. Use the stop trick in reverse to make objects reappear. The actor magician raises their hands, freezes and holds the pose, then the f lowers are brought back into the shot. The camera now runs again. It looks like the f lowers have reappeared. Chapter 9 Suggested film viewing: • •

The Adventures of Prince Achmed (1926), Directed by Lotte Reiniger The Blood of Jesus (1941), Directed by Spencer Williams

This selection contains examples of paper cut-out animation and double exposure. In, perhaps the oldest surviving animated feature, The Adventures of Prince Achmed, German Director Lotte Reiniger crafts a hand-made world of silhouette paper-puppets. African American Director Spencer Williams strikingly uses double exposure to create angels and human souls to depict this tale of a young woman who travels through the crossroads of Heaven and Hell.

158  Special camera effects

Filmmaking in practice ­Paper-cut ​­ animation One exciting way to explore in-camera tricks is through animation. Adapt a Grimm’s Fairy Tale into a short silhouette animated cut-out movie. Outline the story and create a storyboard or shot list. Design paper cut-out puppets and backgrounds. Use round office fasteners or wire to attach character joints. Place the characters and background on an A4 size LED tracing light pad. Attach the characters to the light pad with double-sided tape. Place the

Special camera effects  159

camera above the light pad and aim down. Expose for the backlight. Animate the cut-out puppets on 2s. That’s 12 positions for every second of desired animation. Make two photos for each position of the puppet. “Click, Click.” For an advanced technique, create a shot with a split screen effect. Make the paper puppet interact with a live action element. Materials: 16mm, 8mm, or Super 8mm Camera, Film Stock, Light Meter, Tripod, Projector, Light pad, Black cardstock, brads, double-sided tape

Bibliography 1 Alan Gordon Enterprises Inc. Filmo 70 Instruction Manual. Hollywood, CA: Alan Gordon Enterprises Inc., nd. 2 Bolex International S.A. Bolex H16: Instruction Manual. ­Sainte-Croix, ​­ Switzerland: Bolex International S.A., 1955. 3 Eastman Kodak. Cine Kodak Special II: Instruction Manual. Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak Company, 1948. 4 Reiniger, Lotte, dir. The Adventures of Prince Achmed. 1926; Harrington Park, NJ: Milestone Film & Video, 2018. Blu-ray. 5 Reiniger, Lotte. Shadow Puppets, Shadow Theatres, and Shadow Films. New York: Harper Collins, 1970. 6 Williams, Spencer, dir. The Blood of Jesus. 1941; New York: The Film Detective, 2016. DVD.

10 Magnetic sound recording

Magnetic sound recording really took off in the early 1950s. When most people think of magnetic audio, they might think of the compact cassette tape. My first foray into audio recording was with a red, yellow, and blue children’s tape recorder complete with handheld microphone. I recorded radio shows and goofy comedy sketches with my siblings. The chunky ­piano-style ​­ ­​­­ ​­ keys were easy for my ­six-year-old fingers to push. With magnetic tape, I could easily record, re-record, and sequence my sounds. No separate computer or software needed, just a simple device and the imagination. For this reason, I still receive joy from working with magnetic audiocassette tape. It’s my go to audio recording medium and a perfect match with celluloid images. Analog sound compliments the depth and grain texture of a projected film.

Tape recorders Tape recorders come in all shapes and sizes. Small rectangular shoebox size compact cassette recorders still exist for purchasing. A consumer tape recorder will work well for sound effects and voice-over. Some used models can be found in a family attic or at a thrift store. New and used cassette tape recorders can be purchased online. Most of the tape recorders you will find at a thrift store or online will be wild recorders. These tape recorders are meant for voice or music recording. If your budget permits, consider looking toward used professional tape recorders. A professional crystal sync audio recorder becomes nearly essential for d ialogue-based work. Sony and Marantz made some tape machines that were designed for film, television, and radio journalism. These recorders often come with more robust 1/4” audio inputs or XLR jacks. These high-grade machines will suit the purposes of nonsync or MOS filmmaking, which use short recordings of dialogue about 30 seconds or under.

Magnetic sound recording  161

Benefits of tape recorders There are some benefits of using a tape recorder over a digital recorder. A tape recorder is analog, meaning it captures the sound wave in physical form. Just like film there is a physical representation of the capture. This makes analog sound a perfect match for celluloid production. Like film, audiotape provides a separate archival medium. It’s nice to know that if you transfer your tape audio to a digital file, the sound still exists somewhere on a tape. The tape can be transferred to any type of digital file and shared with others. This transferability makes such basic technology more or less future proof. Analog audiotape has a smooth roll off to distortion. Where digital audio distorts at the 0 peak on the full scale or FS meter, analog audio can roll off smoothly above 0 on the VU meter. Analog tape contains more high-f requency headroom. It can be overexposed and still have information. Finally, audiotapes and tape recorders are relatively cheap. This makes purchasing a professional setup with batteries and a microphone feasible. One can work with high-end gear for much less than buying h igh-end digital audio equivalents.

Basic audio terms Frequency response The frequency response is the range of sound in which the tape recorder is capable of recording. The larger the frequency range is, the greater the clarity and fidelity. The closer the range is to 20Hz–20kHz, the range of the human ear, the better the sound recording.

Mono and stereo Mono is a single channel of sound, and stereo is dual channel sound. For most recordings of sound effects and voice recordings, mono works just fine. It’s simple and straightforward. However, if one needs to record music and wants to have some separation between the instruments and vocals, a stereo sound mix will deliver a dynamic sound. Stereo recorders are also helpful when one needs to record two interviewees that speak at different volume levels. One microphone can be given to each interviewee.

162  Magnetic sound recording

Magnetic sound recording  163

Noise reduction Noise reduction can be found on professional cassette recordings. These reduction systems include Dolby or DbX methods and will improve the signal to noise ratio. Tape hiss is filtered out. Some people love noise reduction while others do not as it affects other sounds in the recording as well. If you are working with a recorder with noise reduction, test and see if you like it. Sometimes the surface sound of the tape may be just the touch to bring some warmth to your soundtrack. Tape bias Cassette tapes come in several bias types. The bias accounts for certain frequencies. By far the most common is Type I. It’s a consumer grade tape for voice recording. Type II, also known as chrome tape, is designed for music recordings. Type IV bias tape, which is harder to find, is a more professional tape. It picks up high frequencies with greater clarity. If the tape recorder has a bias setting, set the bias to the type of tape you plan to use. Type I tape tends to exhibit the most hiss or tape surface sound. Type II and IV metal tapes usually exhibit less noise and therefore have a cleaner recording. ­Table 10.1  Cassette Tape Bias Guide Type

Use

Type ­I – ​­Ferrite Type ­II – ​­Chrome CrO2 Type ­IV – Metal ​­

Voice Voice and Music Music

Volume Unit ( VU) meter The volume unit or VU meter measures audio levels. The scale often includes a range from −20db to +5db. −20db to 0db is often underscored with a yellow line, and 0db to +5db is emphasized with a red line. A needle responds to the input volume from a microphone source and will jump to a peak level. Levels above 0db, although hot or bright, may still sound good depending on the tape and the equipment. Adjust the gain or level dial on the audio recorder so that the highest level does not go much above 0db. In general, the needle should peak or jump to 0db. With Type I and Type II tape however, the highest the recording can often go up to +3db. With Type IV metal tape, the recording can be driven up to +5db. Follow the instructions on the recorder. Often, the VU meter has different peak level lines for different tapes.

164  Magnetic sound recording

Selection of professional cassette recorders Marantz ­PMD-222 ​­ ( frequency ­ response: 40Hz–15kHz) ­ ​­ The Marantz PMD-222 has been a staple of voice recording for many years. In fact, it was the first professional tape recorder I used while I was an undergraduate student at Ithaca College, and I still enjoy using one today to record sound effects. The recorder captures straightforward mono sound through a balanced XLR input connection. The three-head system allows you to listen to your recording directly from the tape while recording. CrO2 and Metal tapes can be used with the Marantz PMD-222 boosting its performance. These are very affordable units with some outstanding features like pitch, tone, and speed control. The pitch control provides a lot of flexibility in creating sound effects. A

Magnetic sound recording  165

handy telephone jack is included for recording over-the-phone interviews. The PMD 222 makes a fine tape recorder for most independent and art productions. ­ ​­ ­ ­ ​­ Sony TC-D5M ( frequency response: 30Hz–17kHz) Many consider this recorder to have the best balance between professional build and feature capabilities. Although this cassette recorder is geared toward the advanced amateur, many professionals have used it because of the quality piano keys, sturdy inputs, and quiet recordings. With the TC-D5M, one can record on metal cassette tapes (hence the “M” in the name). With metal tape the frequency response is nearly capable of capturing the full human audible spectrum. Many biologists and birders used this machine in the past because it captures a wide frequency, great for recording birdcalls. The TC-D5M makes exceptional music recordings because of the extra frequency response. Stereo capability is also an advantage in certain situations such as recording two interviewees at the same time. The two unbalanced 1/4” microphone inputs come in handy for interviews where isolating a dialogue track is needed. ­ ​­ ­ ­ ​­ Sony WM-D6C ( frequency response: 40Hz–15kHz) This is no ordinary Walkman. With a stereo microphone input and a 40Hz– 15kHz frequency response, this Walkman is a can-do and take-anywhere recorder. Many radio stations, recording studios, musicians, and animal researchers adopted the WM-D6C as a replacement for 1/4” reel-to-reel tape recorders. The compact cassette design is liberating in the field. One other major advantage of the WM-D6C is that it can record with Dolby B and C noise reduction.

Cassette tape recorders for sync sound Portable tape decks specifically designed for film sound will come with an internal crystal pulse to regulate and make consistent the speed of the recording. Several models, like the Sony TC-5M or Sony WM-D6C can be converted to crystal sync. They can be modified to have a crystal sync pulse generator. This is done by placing a sync pulse or internal quartz clock in one of the audio tracks. This pulse keeps the tape player running at a constant speed much the same way as a quartz keeps a time piece running accurately. However, the cost may be prohibitive. It’s best to look for a specific film sound tape recorder if crystal sync dialogue is required for your film. The two most common names in crystal sync location filmmaking are Nagra and Uher. Nagra 4.2 Nagra Kudelski, a Swiss company, created the Nagra 4.2. This crystal sync recorder captures a mono track on 1/4” tape. This recorder was revolutionary when it came out and is built for location film sound. Many Nagra 4.2

166  Magnetic sound recording

­

Magnetic sound recording  167

Omni An omni directional microphone picks up sound all around the microphone. These are inexpensive microphones that work well for many applications, including voice-over, ambience, and sound effect work. Having a metal omni directional stick mic in your kit will provide you with reliable recording. Most omni directional microphones are dynamic and do not require batteries.

168  Magnetic sound recording

Windscreen A windscreen or sound capsule will dampen or cut out the sound of wind on the microphone. Otherwise, the sound of wind will make every recording feel like it was recorded in a thunderstorm. Use a windscreen when recording outdoors.

Recording sound effects Sound effect recordings can be made on location by a dedicated sound mixer or made later by the filmmaker. I suggest separating the two creative acts of cinematography and sound recording. It’s a good idea to record ambient sounds on location right after making all of your shots for the day. Sometimes the sound of the space is all one needs to go with the images. Sound effects can always be recorded right after wrapping the shots or at a later time. I often find that a good time to record sound effects is while the film is being developed at the lab. When the film is at the lab, update the sound list. Go through the scenario, script, or outline, and pull out all the sounds that need to be recorded for each scene. Create a list that organizes the sound effects by scene and location. Think about how these sounds can be created. Have a column for effects and then have a separate column for home items that will be used to make the effect. Record all of the sounds in order on the tape if possible. Keep track of the tape counter for better organization. Many sound effects can be recorded around the home using household materials. For example, maybe for a science fiction fantasy film, you need to create the sound of a spinning chamber. An 8mm projector with a variable speed motor will make the sound of a spinning chamber quite convincingly. The sound of felt-tip markers on paper can be used as the sound of ice skates. Make a note if a sound needs a pitch adjustment. If you have a tape recorder that can adjust speed or pitch, it helps when one needs to make a sound more grand or heavy. In this case, lower the pitch upon playback and while duplicating the sound to magnetic film stock or when digitizing the tape to a file. Having sound effects recorded in scene order on the tape makes a smoother sound editing workf low. These sounds will be in the exact scene order when transferred to magnetic stock. If you plan on finishing the film on video, in the software, organize the sound effects into bins by scene. ­Table 10.2  Sound Effect Log Sample Sound Effect

Home Item

Adjustment

Tape Counter

Slide projector Wood trunk opening and closing Footsteps on wood f loor Chair scrape

Slide projector hum Kitchen cabinet door opening and closing Dress shoe footsteps on a wood f loor Wood chair sliding on wood f loor

None Pitch – ­ ​­slow

000 010

None

020

None

030

Magnetic sound recording  169

Setting up the cassette tape recorder 1 2

3 4 5 6 7

Install rechargeable batteries into the tape recorder. Connect the microphone to the tape recorder using cable fitted with a male 1/4” XLR, or 3.5mm end. If you have a stereo recorder, connect the microphone into the left channel. XLR and 1/4” connections are preferable over the 3.5mm or 1/8” jack. The 3.5mm jack is prone to wear and when worn can cause noise in the recording. Connect headphones into the headphone jack. You may need a 3.5mm to ­ adapter. 1/4” Insert a cassette tape into the cassette chamber. Press play to advance the tape past the leader. Then, hit stop. Press the pause button. Pause will keep the tape from advancing. Press play and record buttons at the same time. This readies the deck for recording. With pause, play, and record pressed, if you have a VU meter, you will see the needle jump when you talk into the microphone.

Microphone placement and levels Place the microphone six to eight inches from the sound you are recording. Rehearse the sound and set the levels using the levels or gain knob, so the VU needle peaks around 0db. If you have a stereo, you will only need to adjust the left channel, the channel the microphone is connected to. For shoebox or consumer tape recorders, no adjustment will need to be made. The tape recorder audio adjusts the levels for you. If the recording you are using has a counter, press the reset button. The counter should read 0 at the beginning of the tape. Recording Now, you are ready for the first take. Press pause to release the tape. The tape will advance. You will see the tape move in the tape chamber window. Slate the sound recording by speaking into the mic and say what you plan to record. For example, say, “Scene 1 sound effects.” Then say, “Door knob turning, take 1.” For each take make a note before making the recording. “Door knob turning take 2. Door knob turning, take 3.” Say “cut” after each recording. This way you will be able to find the takes on the cassette. The take begins with a named label and ends with “cut.” Continue to move the microphone closer or further away from the subject to record the sound you desire. Adjust levels until you get the sound just right for the scene. In between different sound effects, press pause. Pause will keep the recorder in record-ready mode. Preview the recording To stop and listen to a recording, hit the stop button. Then press rewind and go back until the counter reads the numbers where the take first began. After

170  Magnetic sound recording

listening to the take, press stop, then fast forward to advance the tape back to the counter number where you left off. Audio logbook It’s a good idea to write down each take and counter number in a logbook. This way you can easily find the sound effect on the cassette when needed. Having a log will help you when you transfer the audio to magnetic film stock or if you digitize the audio to a file.

Sync dialogue On a sync sound production, a slate should be used to label the take and provide a sync point. The slate is also called a clapper or clapboard. This slate can be of the dry erase variety or standard chalkboard style. It’s important that the slate has working clapper sticks on the top of the board. To capture sync sound, you will need to perform the following actions using a dry erase or traditional chalk clapboard. Sound should roll first to save film from being wasted while the assistant camera reads the slate. All one needs to sync audio is the sound of the slate sticks clapping, and the frame where the slate sticks touch captured on film. Audiocassette tape is far, far less expensive than film, so it’s okay to keep it running. • • • • • • • • • •

Asst. Director: “Quiet on Set” Asst. Dir.: “Sound & Camera Ready” Sound Mixer/Camera Op.: “Ready” Asst. Director: “Roll Sound” Sound Mixer: (Hits record and waits 3 seconds, watch the tape move) Say, “Speed” ­ Asst. Camera: Says, “Scene __, Shot __Take __” Asst. Director / Director: “Roll Camera” Camera Op.: ( PRESSES RUN TRIGGER, waits a second) “Speed!” Asst. Camera claps the slate and dashes out of frame. Wait two seconds for noise to settle. Director: “Action!” ­

*Clap the slate after rolling the camera and make sure the clap sticks are visible in the frame.

Sync sound with a spring- driven camera Since spring-driven cameras are not crystal controlled and are quite loud for simultaneous audio recording, one can use a few work-arounds to record

Magnetic sound recording  171

sync sound with a spring-d riven camera. These work-arounds include the use of wireless lavalier mics, wild takes, and looping or audio dubbing. 24 FPS sound speed Before beginning any of these methods, it’s important to set the camera frame rate to 24 frames per second, the standard sound rate. The spring motor should be wound all the way. First 20 seconds Record sync dialogue during the first 20 seconds after pressing run. The first 20 seconds of the spring will run very close to 24 frames per second for the 20 seconds. After that it slows down until the motor stops running. It’s key to have the motor running at 24 frames per second for the entire recording. If the spring is nearly run down, the frame rate will slow, making it hard to sync the sound later in editing. Lavalier mic method Wireless lavalier mics can be effectively used to isolate the actor’s voice from the spring, motor sound of the camera. This method of isolating a clean recording works best in conjunction with a telephoto lens, such as a 75mm lens in the 16mm format or a 40mm in the 8mm format. Filming outdoors will also help minimize the camera noise. Sound will not ref lect outdoors like it does when one is recording in a small room. 1 Select an outdoor location. 2 Mount a telephoto lens to the camera. 3 Have the actor attach a lav microphone to the inside collar of a shirt. Make sure the microphone is not visible. 4 Plug the receiver into the audio input jack of the audio recorder. 5 Set the radio frequency of the microphone to match the radio frequency of the receiver. 6 Test the audio levels. 7 Levels should peak around 0 on an analog VU meter and around – 6 on a digital level scale. 8 Rehearse the shot and practice the performance. 9 Check audio levels and make sure they do not peak. 10 After several rehearsals, record one take. 11 Listen to the audio of the take. If the camera is still slightly audible, you can adjust by reframing and moving the actor further from the camera. You can also mount a longer telephoto lens such as a 150mm in the 16mm format if you have one.

172  Magnetic sound recording

Wild take method 1 2 3 4 5

Capture a sound take with audio sync. A spring-d riven camera will be too loud for sync audio. This sync take only serves as a scratch or temporary track. Follow this sync take with a “Wild Track,” which is an audio- only take. After the best picture take, guide the actor to perform the audio-only take. No camera should be running for an audio-only take. The clean audio-only take will be the take you use in the edit. Use audio recorded when the camera is running as a sync guide in postproduction. This noisy sync audio track is for reference only or a backup if looping (rerecording) should be done. If this wild take does not sync up to the picture, move to post-production dubbing, also known as the looping method.

Looping method ( post audio dubbing) The looping or post audio dubbing method works best when a “scratch” or temporary location dialogue has been recorded. This location audio will be used to guide the actor. The actor can replicate the performance in the audio recording studio. Audio looping can be done quite efficiently using a video transfer of the film and a laptop computer. This method involves watching the sound take on a loop while the actor works to match the dialogue with the picture. 1 Select the exact picture shot with take numbers. Make sure to give some ­pre-roll ​­ and post-roll ­ ​­ after each shot. Pre-roll ­ ​­ and post-roll ­ ​­ provides you and the actor with time to prepare for the next looping take. 2 Organize the picture shots into a folder. 3 Select the corresponding audio takes and organize them in the same folder. It’s helpful to synchronize the picture and audio files in video editing software. 4 Setup a recording studio in a small quiet room. 5 Ask the actor to sit in front of a laptop. Give the actor headphones to wear. 6 Place a comforter, quilt, or blanket around them. 7 Set a microphone six to eight inches from the corner of the performer’s mouth. 8 Put on your set of headphones and attach them to the separate tape recorder. 9 Have the performer read lines of dialogue to check the audio levels. 10 Go to the first shot and watch it through together. 11 Set the video player like VLC or Quicktime on the computer to loop the shot. 12 Press play and record on the audio recorder. Keep the recorder rolling.

Magnetic sound recording  173



174  Magnetic sound recording

Materials • • • • • • •

Laptop or Desktop Computer Free/Open Source Audio Editing Software Audiocassette with recorded sound effects Audiocassette or 1/4” Tape Player Cassette player batteries or power cable 1/8” (3.5mm) Auxiliary Cable – Male to Male USB to 1/8” adapters to connect to Mac or PC

Analog to digital using Audacity Download Free Audio Editing Software. Install Software. 1 Go into Windows or Apple Control Panel or Systems. Select “Audio” and activate the external mic jack as the “ input.” 2 Connect the tape deck using the 1/8” to 1/8” 3.5mm mini audio cable. Connect the cable to the headphone jack of the tape recorder or line out. 3 Open Audacity and go to “EDIT” “PREFERENCES” and select “QUALITY.” Set your Sample Rate to “48kHz” and Sample Format to “24bit.” ­ 4 File “Save As” and name your file. (I typically include “Tape01A” at the end of the name of the file so that I know it is the first tape of the project and that I transferred “Side A” of the tape). Create a new folder on your external hard drive and name it. 5 Go up to the top toolbar of Audacity and beside the Microphone icon select “Line in” or external input. 6 Right above that you’ll see another Mic Icon where you’ll be able to adjust the “Input Volume Slider.” You can boost levels here or on the tape recorder volume slider itself. Set “Input Volume” to “minus” for now. 7 Rewind the tape to the start position. 8 Hit “RECORD” in Audacity (Red Circle Button) and then PRESS PLAY on the tape deck. You will see a new track pop up on your computer screen, and SOUND WAVES will begin being captured. For one minute, watch the “INPUT LEVEL METER” at the top bar to make sure the moving BAR does not go past “0” on the peak meter. Aim for – 6 on the level meter, just below 0. If your levels are too high, hit “SPACE BAR,” which stops the recording. Highlight and delete the track. STOP, REWIND TAPE, and REPEAT the capture process until your levels are correct. 9 Once you have the levels looking great, let the software capture the ENTIRE recording. If this is the entire side of one tape, let it play through, so you can capture the large file. 10 Listen to your recording while capturing and take notes in a notebook of the best recordings. Note both the tape counter on the tape player and the new time-code counter on the computer.

Magnetic sound recording  175

​

176  Magnetic sound recording

Bibliography

11 Film processing

Film lab technicians are our friends. Without their expertise, we would not have a movie. Your celluloid film would still be just an idea. The lab brings out the quality that exists in your cinematography. Even if you hand develop experimental films in your garage, you may one day find the need to work with a lab to make prints of these films for exhibition. What may begin as a solitary creative endeavor at some point becomes a collaboration. The professionals at the lab make the filmmaking process enjoyable. They care about you and your film. It’s a fantastic experience to meet the unseen collaborators who work to bring your film into a physical reality. Several years ago, I had the exciting opportunity to visit Colorlab and Video and Film Solutions in Rockville, MD. Two SUNY Oswego cinema students and I spent an eight-hour day with the artists and craftspeople at the lab. We watched a work print go through the color timing process, then on to the developer, fixer, dryer, and finally the projector. It was a rewarding experience to watch the film that we dropped off go through each step and hear the technical expertise from the lab team. Film moving, projectors whirring, mirrors clacking, scanners advancing, and people chatting are some of the sounds that I heard through the corridors of the facility. Technicians and colorists handled film, restored, and reprinted it for us to see. All around us were cans of Hollywood films being preserved as well as films from legendary artists of the American Avant Garde. There was so much vitality and energy on display in tidy little rooms. The entire team worked together to bring forth images. One of the highlights of the trip was being able to see a film that I shot go through the color timing process with my students.

Locating film labs Labs are located all over the world. One can find the nearest lab by searching the Internet or using Kodak’s online lab directory. Here, one can search by film gauge and by film type. If you need to develop color negative stock or black and white reversal, you can add these to the search engine. Several labs

178  Film processing

were once boutique labs serving a smaller region, but with the closing of labs in many cities, these labs serve filmmakers worldwide. Anyone can mail film to a lab by using an online order form or printing out an order form to send along with the shipment of film. Labs can handle billing through information provided on the order form or via phone call. A number of the labs are family operations and serve students, independent filmmakers, and film archives. If you have a lab within a day’s drive, I suggest you call and arrange for a visit. Find a lab that suits the films you want to make. Call the lab. Introduce yourself to the lab’s employees and develop a friendship. Filmmaking in the traditional sense depends on trust and friendship. There’s no point and shoot option with celluloid filmmaking. Everyone works hard to produce the highest quality images. They believe in the filmmaking process.

Film developing The film goes through the developer, a stop bath, and then fixer. The developer brings out the latent image and calls it forth into physical existence. The stop bath stops the development of the image. Finally, the fixer binds the remaining silver halide crystals onto the cellulose acetate. Once the film image becomes fixed onto the base, the film can then be exposed to light. If you shoot a reversal film, then this fixed positive print can be projected. If the film that you shot was negative, then a positive workprint would need to be made for projection.

Film processing  179

All of this handling of film materials must be performed with great care. Film can be torn, scratched, overdeveloped, underdeveloped, or covered in dust. Sometimes these elements are celebrated, but often we want to make sure the film is handled with care. By handling with care, we guarantee the film’s longevity and the integrity of the artist’s original work. Normal processing If one exposes a film at box speed ISO, typically all one needs to instruct the lab is to develop the film normally. As long as the film has been exposed properly at or close to the normal ISO rating of the film, then normal processing is all that is needed. For example if an ISO 200 film is shot at ISO 200 and if no desired contrast effect is needed, then simply ask for normal processing. Developing a film normally costs less than special push-and-pull processing methods. Push processing Push processing refers to increasing film development times in order to increase the speed or ISO of film. One can push any type of film by simply rating it at a faster ISO. For example, if one wanted to film in very lowlight with ISO 500 speed film, one could rate the film on the light meter at ISO 1000. By rating the film at 1000, you are actually underexposing the film by one stop. This underexposure of the film can be compensated by pushing or processing the film longer in the development chemistry by one stop. From 500 to 1000 equals one stop push. Many labs can push the film up to two stops. ISO 500 film pushed to 2000 would be a two-stop push. An ISO 100 film pushed to ISO 200 would be a one-stop push. The result of push processing is increased contrast and increased grain. Sometimes one pushes for aesthetics to get a contrasty and grainy look, but other times one may have to push to simply get an exposure in lower light. Pull processing Like pushing, pulling is a special process; it often costs more to perform at the lab. Pull processing sits on the opposite end of the spectrum as push processing. Instead of rating the film at a higher ISO and pushing the film longer in the developing chemistry, the film is rated at a slower ISO and pulled. Pulled meaning the duration of development is shorter than normal. The film is pulled from the developer. Rating ISO 200 film at ISO 100, would be a one-stop pull. If one wants to pull process ISO 500 film two stops, one would rate the film at ISO 125 on the light meter. The lab would be instructed to pull the film out of the chemistry by two stops. The results of pulling a film in development will be an image with less contrast and f latter color palette. The color image will have less saturation.

180  Film processing

Pulling can be advantageous if one wants a softer more nuanced palette where more shadow detail is desired. Grain becomes less prominent from pull processing as well, so a finer image will result. Pulling film can be a great way to chemically alter the look of a film into a more gentle pastel aesthetic.

Types of prints Workprint A workprint is a fine grain cutting copy made from the camera’s original negative. Since it is a copy, the workprint allows the filmmaker to make changes in the edit without cutting or damaging the camera original. This process entails trimming the workprint into individual shots and joining the shots together with tape or cement. If planning on showing a workprint as a final edit, it’s important that the color be accurate and properly adjusted. A well-timed and balanced work print will have snappy contrast while maintaining highlight and shadow detail.

Film processing  181

Answer print When finishing a film for a release print, the lab makes an answer print. This print provides the filmmaker with an opportunity to inspect the film for issues. Exposure, color, transitions, and titling can all be examined on a projector. Release print If all looks good in the answer print, then a final print or release print will be made. The release print will be the show print that you screen at film festivals, universities, and theaters.

Color timing Traditional color timing involves the adjustment of color and exposure density of the film in printing. This is the filmmaker’s opportunity to bring out the color, saturation, and contrast they desire. Often this timing of the print is handled with notes on a lab order form. However, the best option is to sit down with a color timer and color time together in a supervised session. By engaging in a supervised session, one can give the notes directly to the color timer. The process of working with a color timer and watching them bring vibrancy and consistency to your movie is a thrilling experience. There are three options to color timing a workprint. ­ ​­ One-light color timing A one-light print is made from a single color timing numeric value. It’s often the simplest and often the least expensive route. The color timer presets the lights by the type of film or makes an exposure/color adjustment based on the first shot on the roll. If all shots are exposed similarly or under the same lighting conditions, a one-light works well. If one has various exposures and lighting conditions, then a one-l ight approach may not be ideal. With various exposures, one shot may come out too dark and another too light. A one-light will reveal to the filmmaker how disciplined and consistent they are with lighting and exposure. Filmmakers with a lot of experience with a particular film stock usually have much success with one-light color timing. The best-light timing offers a good balance between a one-light and a supervised session. Best-light ­ ​­ color timing For best-l ight workprint order, the color timer examines the roll and chooses the color and exposure for the print based on the exposures of all of the shots on the roll. The timer chooses color settings across RGB ( Red, Green, Blue)

182  Film processing

that work for most shots. This will usually prevent shots from being too dark or too bright. A well-exposed negative has a lot of color information and provides many adjustment options. An under or way overexposed negative may pose even a challenge for the best-l ight timing option. For such conditions, a scene-to­scene or ­shot-to-shot ­​­­ ​­ supervised color timing session is desired. Best-light represents a great value between quality, control, and time. A supervised session will render the best quality but take more time at the lab and cost more money. Supervised color timing A supervised color timing session offers the filmmaker the most control over the images. The filmmaker schedules a session with the color timer. Depending on the amount of film, this session could be a few hours or more. The two of them, or three of them if a cinematographer is present, sit at a color analyzer. The color analyzer consists of film platters to move the negative film past a television camera. The camera turns the negative into a positive image. The positive image displays on a television monitor. The filmmaker and color timer wind through the footage and stop at each shot. Once parked at a shot, they make color and contrast adjustments. These value adjustments may involve adding more blue or red to a given shot. Often the goal in color timing is to make shots shot at different places and times but belonging to a single scene match up with aesthetic values. The numeric value for each color and exposure setting is recorded onto a f loppy disc. The information on the f loppy disc loads into the contact printer. A contact printer lays the negative onto fresh fine grain positive film. The positive film has a low ISO and is not very sensitive to light. This way the contact printer operator can work in lowlight to see the machine’s controls. Fine grain positive film guarantees that a duplication will be sharp. The duplication process is designed not to add a significant amount of film grain. Light shines through the negative and exposes the images onto the fresh positive film. Here, a contact duplication occurs. The result will be a positive work print that maintains all the color adjustments made with the color analyzer. One can see and hear the machines color and light adjustments in real time. Click, Click, Click, Clack Clack Clack. A series of shutters, mirrors, and prisms adjust the light and color values on the f ly for each shot. It’s neat to see this process with one’s own eyes. The human eye adjusts to witness the rolling motion of the film negative and fresh film coming together to create the workprint. Although one can exert a lot of control within certain color grading software applications, the beauty of film lies in its straightforward simplicity. A well-exposed negative does not require overt manipulation of color and exposure. With some small tweaks, a well-shot film simply looks brilliant.

Film processing  183

This collaboration between filmmaker and color timer represents the delight of the tactile. Within one day’s time, a negative can be printed to a positive workprint. The print can be dried and in your hands ready to project. The experience of seeing the fruits of labor move before your eyes continues to astonish. Unfortunately, very few students have the opportunity to see a well-made film print these days. Every now and then there is a wider release of a Hollywood film on 35mm or 65mm film as part of a roadshow or special engagement, but this still remains a rare occurrence for most people. Many of my students, although born before the changeover of cinemas to mainly digital video projection, do not remember or were not aware of the projected celluloid before their eyes.

Telecine transfers Telecine transfers come from the standard definition days when film was transferred to standard definition or 480p lines of resolution for broadcast video editing. Telecine transfers are real-t ime transfers where the film is projected onto a small screen and captured with an internal video camera. Telecine projectors use a five-blade shutter specifically desired to eliminate f licker at 24 frames per second sound speed. Today, one can acquire machines such as the TVT-16 Tobin transfer unit, Elmo TRV-16, or the RCA Broadcast Telecine Projector TP66 from Urbanski Film Supply. Although one can still use these high-quality machines, more and more video transfers now occur on datacine machines. Datacine film scanning A datacine transfer machine captures individual frames of film and converts the frame to a single digital image. Where a telecine usually tops out at 1080p resolution, datacine scanners go up to 8K resolution and beyond. On a scanner, film glides on gentle rollers and over a lamp. The LED lamp illuminates the film and the frame image is processed as a digital photo. The datacine units carry the film on rollers without sprockets. Not only does this prevent wear on the film print, but it also allows the scanner to work with shrunken film or film with broken perforation holes. These machines run frame by frame and are electronically pin-registered for image stability. Often they scan at slower than real-t ime frame rates of about 16fps. Typically, they run slower than a telecine in order to capture a lot more information from the negative or print. After the scanning, the film images can be exported as an industry standard DCP (digital cinema package) photo sequence in jpeg files. They also can be compressed and converted to a usable video file in an ­off-the-shelf ­​­­ ​­ workstation computer. The video files that many independents and amateurs work with are Quicktime or AVI movie files. For a higher quality image, an uncompressed

184  Film processing

movie file may be exported. For many filmmakers, the best file to work with from a datacine transfer will be a 2K or 4K Apple ProRes 4444 file. The 4444 file provides the best quality of color at a reasonable data rate. Apple ProRes codecs are compatible with most video editing software applications. If transferring black and white film, Apple ProRes 422HQ would be a fine choice to hold the gray tonal range. For Super 16mm and 16mm, one typically works in 2K (2056 × 1440) resolution or Full 1080p HD (1920 × 1080) resolution. 2K provides a complete 2K capture of the entire frame where an HD transfer provides a cropped w ide-screen capture of the frame regardless of the original film’s aspect ratio. For example, if I shot a 1. 37:1 standard 16mm film and transferred to 1080p HD, the full use of the HD frame will not be used because 1.37:1 does not match the 1920 × 1080 frame. The image will be pillarboxed with black bars on each side of the frame. One could enlarge or blow up the regular 16mm frame to fit 1920 × 1080p, but again some image will be lost. However, if one scans the print to a 2K file, the entire standard 1.37:1 frame will be captured regardless of the aspect ratio. You will have an image with a resolution above 2,000 pixels. The best transfers usually come from professional film labs. These professional labs have specialized equipment plus the skill of the technicians. Here, one receives a transfer with clarity and accurate color. datacine scanners ­Low-cost ​­ The market has made available several low- cost datacine film scanners for use at universities, archives, and small businesses. These table-top models deliver great results at a fraction of the cost of the h igh- end scanners found at a motion picture lab. In the past film scanners cost half a million to a million dollars. Even in the world of high- end scanners, the price has come down. The newest version of the Retroscan Universal Mark II CS (Complete system) by Movie LLC can scan Regular 8mm, Super 8mm, 9.5mm, 16mm, 17.5mm, 22mm, 28mm, and 35mm motion picture film. Such a value helps to make the cost more affordable to students, amateurs, and independent filmmakers. Also, for a few 100 dollars, Wolverine Data makes the Film2Digital MovieMaker-PRO 8mm and Super 8 Converter that one could reasonably set up for home use.

Best-light video transfer When one makes a workprint, a best-l ight usually provides the right balance of cost and control. The same holds true for a datacine transfer as well. For the highest quality results, a supervised session may be scheduled. Anytime you

Film processing  185

sit with a colorist to color time your film, the results will be the closest to the original vision. Some labs may offer the option to stream your transfer over the Internet so that you can supervise the color timing remotely. Remember to mail the lab a USB 3.0 hard drive or USB 3.0 f lash drive. Flash drives of 64GB or higher are great for including with your rolls of film stock. When the f lash drive returns, simply copy these files to a larger external hard drive for editing. The f lash drive itself may be used as a backup for each project. Being that f lash drives are solid-state drives, they do not physically spin. Therefore, their longevity is greater than traditional spinning hard drives. Personally, I have washed a few f lash drives in the washing machine by accident. Fortunately, they still work. Back up the movie file on one or two external hard drives in addition to your working drive. This will give you peace of mind should your hard drive crash. Short list of U.S. labs • • • • • •

Cinelab, Belleville, MA Colorlab, Rockville, MD Dwayne’s Photo, Parsons, KS Fotokem, Burbank, CA Pro8mm, Burbank, CA Spectra Film & Video, North Hollywood, CA

Preparing film to ship to the lab To prepare the film stock for lab processing, you need to print a lab order form and complete it with shipping and payment details. Below is a step-by­step guide: 1 2 3 4 5 6

Print lab order form from lab website. Fill out order for normal development. Include a copy of your student ID (if you are a student or faculty member). Make sure to indicate the return shipment method. Photocopy or scan your form for your records. Go to the post office or nearest parcel carrier.

Hand- developing Super 8 and 16mm film Film that has been exposed to light carries a latent image. This latent image in the silver halide crystals needs to be brought out and fixed to the film’s base using dedicated chemistry. By hand-developing your own 8mm and 16mm films, you can create unique exposure effects. Also, because hand development takes place in a

186  Film processing

basic 35mm film reel tank or bucket, interesting effects can occur. These effects can take the form of color shifts, exposure shifts, ghosting, and film imprinting. Negative to positive image shifts may also be present. Often these effects create light and color texture on the film. They also can create dissolves or double exposures. The film may stick to itself in the development or drying stages to manifest such effects. Hand-development is quite fun. The most accessible and readily available chemistry kits to use are ones designated for E6 or traditional black and white negative film. An E6 slide kit can be used to develop Kodak Ektachrome 100D. Traditional darkroom black and white chemistry can be used to develop black and white negative or reversal movie film. The result of using traditional darkroom chemistry will be a negative film image. One can hand develop at home or at a local or university darkroom. It’s key to have a dark space and sink as well as the ability to adjust the water temperature. Color chemistry can stain skin and clothes. Always make sure to have the necessary safety supplies such as rubber gloves, protective eyeglasses, and an apron. Check local recycling to recycle or properly dispose of chemicals. Fixer or Blix ( Bleach/Fixer Combination) should always be recaptured and recycled properly through local recycling or disposal facilities.

Develop black and white reversal as a negative One of the simplest ways to jump into hand-developing is to use black and white reversal Super 8 or 16mm film and develop the roll as a negative using standard darkroom chemistry. This is the way we developed our shadow puppet film. One can use any ascorbic acid-based black and white developer. Wear gloves, safety glasses, and an apron. In a well-ventilated room, mix the developer according to the directions. After developing, scan the film to video to achieve a positive image. Below is a sample. Use it as a general guide only. Test before jumping into a serious project. Since standard b/w chemistry is not desired for b/w reversal film, one will need to experiment with times. ­Table 11.1  Full Strength Ascorbic Acid B/ W Negative Chemistry Developing Guide Steps

Pull +1 Stop ­ (Decrease ­ Contrast/Grain)

Developer Rinse/stop ­ Fix Rinse

6 minutes 7 minutes Fill and agitate continuously for 60 seconds 4–5 minutes with frequent agitation Rinse continuously for 5 minutes

68 Degrees F

Push +1 Stop (Increase ­ Contrast/Grain) ­ 9 minutes

Film processing  187

­

­

­

​­

​­

188  Film processing

Film processing  189 ­Table 11.2  E6 Color Reversal Film Developing Guide Steps

70 Degrees F

85 Degrees F

105 Degrees F

Step 1 PreWash Step 2 First developer Step 3 Wash Step 4 Color Developer Step 5 Wash Step 6 Bleach/Fix Step 7 Wash

60 seconds

60 seconds

60 seconds

26 minutes

13.5 minutes

6.5 minutes

Fill with water and empty the tank 7 times 7 minutes

5.5 minutes

4.5 minutes

Fill with water and empty the tank 7 times 15 minutes

10 minutes

10 minutes

Run water to rinse the film for 5 minutes

Materials: Protective glasses, apron, and rubber gloves, 16mm film or Super 8mm film, 5 gallon bucket for 16mm or 4 reel tank for Super 8mm, 1 Gallon E6 chemistry for 16mm, or 1 quart chemistry for Super 8mm, dark room with a sink. Have a gallon container available to save the blix for recycling.

Bibliography 1 Freestyle Photographic Supplies. (2020). Arista E6 Processing Instructions. Retrieved from https://www.freestylephoto.biz/static/pdf/product_pdfs/arista/AristaE6.pdf. ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ 2 Gist, Eloyce King Patrick and James Gist, dir. Pioneers of African American Cinema. 1935; New York: Kino Lorber Films, 2016. Blu-ray. 3 Kodak Alaris. (2020). Kodak Professional Xtol Developer Technical Data/Chemical. Accessed July 28, 2020, https://imaging.kodakalaris.com/sites/uat/files/ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­ ­­ ​­ wysiwyg/pro/chemistry/J-109_Feb_2018.pdf. 4 Hill, Helen, dir. “Madam Winger Makes a Movie.” Vimeo. December 26, 2016. ­ ­ Video, 9:35, https://vimeo.com/197137362. 5 Morgan, Kyna. “Eloyce King Patrick Gist.” In Jane Gaines, Radha Vatsal, and Monica Dall’Asta, eds. Women Film Pioneers Project. New York, NY: Columbia University Libraries, 2013, doi: 10.7916/d8-0fdd-a762 ­­ ­​­­ ​­

12 Film bench editing

The first celluloid film I made was on 16mm. I shot on black and white reversal film and cut the original camera positive by hand. I purchased splicing tape, paper tape, craft knife, permanent markers, and a yellow grease pencil. Then I placed these items in a small green and white fishing tackle box. A giant imprinted image of a bass adorned the tackle box lid. From the equipment center, I checked out spring clamps and reels. I carried these items in my tackle box to the college editing room. There in the dim light, I worked alongside my classmates to splice my first 16mm films. The f lickering viewers illuminated our faces, and the reels spinned. The viewer’s light cast shadows on the walls. While learning my craft, I watched upperclassmen spinning their films on Steenbeck f latbed editing machines. One day, I thought, I will be able to use those machines to edit the film. Compared to using film rewinds and manually advancing the film by hand in the viewer, the f latbed with its motors and platters seemed more like an automobile. The rewinds were a bicycle in comparison to the f latbed editors. Everybody wanted a chance to drive the car. I anticipated this chance. The Spring semester ended. Summer came and went. When I returned to campus in the Fall, something had changed in the film editing room. Gone were the green metal viewers and rewinds that I had enthusiastically enjoyed. Gray sleek plastic workstation computers stood in their place. Non-linear video editing software was becoming all the rage. “Shoot film, transfer it to video, then edit it. That’s the wave of the future. Can you believe what these computers can do and undo?” That’s the kind of talk I heard. What I felt was a bit of sadness and disappointment. The process that I had thoroughly enjoyed was now missing from my educational experience. Although rewinds may be gone at some universities, the good side is that many colleges still retain f latbeds and a few rewinds for experimental/ alternative practice courses. Splicing film may seem like an old or outdated process. It was new to me. It was new to my peers. It was fun and different. I wrote course papers using

Film bench editing  191

an electronic screen, watched DVDs on an electronic screen, and sent email messages through an electronic screen. Now, my movies would have to be made using an electronic screen. I did embrace the new digital technology and for years made a number of films using the shoot film and edit on video approach. Computers did get faster and more efficient. I could edit a 2K video. However, something felt off when I edited a movie on video. Earlier, I had had a taste of the authentic film editing experience. The f lavor never left. With film I saw my movie with my eyes. I alone gave it movement. Editing on film compared to working with video is very different. Film editing is a kinetic experience. The body moves. Arms move. Legs move. Fingers move. The film moves. All of these parts shift up and down and back and forth. Your wrist and arm move the rewind handle to drive the film. Your legs drive you from the bench to the wall to hang film and back again to the bench. Since that point of departure from film editing, I have moved toward a return to the full celluloid editing experience. I never did get to drive the Steenbeck f latbed in college, but now I have embraced the older Upright 16mm Moviola. Over the last several years, I have edited several personal projects on film in narrative, documentary, and experimental genres. Splicing is not just for the experimental filmmaker. One can splice any kind of film. I traded the keyboard and mouse in for a splicer and tape. To some this is looking backward, but to me it is still moving forward.

Film editing materials list The simplest entry into film editing is to use a standard bench setup with a film viewer, rewinds, and a splicer. A film editing bench can be easily set up on a dining room table or at a bedroom desk. To begin editing the traditional way, you will need the following items. • • • • • • • • • • •

Tape Splicer or Cement Splicer Viewer Rewinds Roll of Splicing Tape or Bottle of Film Cement Grease Pencil ( White or Yellow) Film Leader (Green for Head and Red for Tail) Permanent Marker – Black/Red for labeling Mag Stock 1/4” or 1/2” White Paper Tape 3” Paper Tape Dispenser Take-Up Reels: 100 feet, 400 feet, 800 feet Split Reels: 400 feet, 800 feet – Optional

192  Film bench editing

Suggested film editing suppliers Boston Connection Christy’s Urbanski Film Supplies

Film viewers A film viewer is a small screen on which the moving image is projected. Using a mirror or a prism, the film image is rear-projected onto a screen. When the film is pulled through the viewer, the prism or shutter rotates, giving the film its distinct movement. An editor can see the image on the viewer in order to make a join or a cut. Viewers come in several types. They can be stand- alone viewers, a viewer/rewind combination, or a viewer/synchronizer combination. A synchronizer holds picture and magnetic sound tracks together to maintain sync. Cleaning the viewer When you purchase a film viewer, make sure that the lamp works and that the power cord is in good shape and safe for use. Do not use equipment with damaged power cords. If the power cord is frayed, take the unit to a local electronic repairperson in the field of television and A/ V repair. They can assist you by replacing the power cord with a three prong grounded cord and plug. With an electronic specialist’s touch, you will have a safer machine. If the viewer is in good repair, you can clean it yourself. First, unplug the unit. Unscrew the film rollers and clean them with 91% isopropyl alcohol using a cotton swab. Lubricate the rollers with light sewing machine oil. Open the unit up and blow out dust off the mirror. Avoid touching the mirror as they scratch easily. With a microfiber cloth and some vinegar water solution (1/2 water and 1/2 white vinegar), wipe down both sides of the glass screen. Use a dry cloth and wipe around the gate area. Use a toothpick or orange wood/cuticle pusher stick to wipe emulsion from the film channel. Acmade Picsync The Acmade Picsync is a rare tabletop 16mm film viewer. It is a combination of viewer and picture synchronizer. It’s designed for syncing dialogue and sound effects to the moving images. What makes the Picsync so helpful is that it handles one picture track and three audio tracks. It has a picture head

Film bench editing  193

upfront with three separate locked audio soundtracks on the synchronizer. There’s an interlocked advance knob, counter, and individual volume controls for all three audio tracks. If you can find one of these British-made machines, they work great when editing 16mm film and 16mm magnetic sound. A 16mm magnetic sound track is like overgrown audiotape. With it, one can record and record dialogue and sound effects that can be edited alongside the 16mm picture track. See Chapter 14 on Magnetic Sound Editing for further details. Bell and Howell Filmo viewer Bell and Howell makes a sturdy Filmo series viewer that gently handles the film and often comes with a cement splicer. The screen is somewhat small, but bright. These viewers can sometimes be purchased with a set of h igh-quality Bell and Howell geared rewinds. The rewinds can attach to the viewer via metal rods to create an all-in-one unit. Filmo viewers come in Standard 8mm and 16mm versions. Craig ­Projecto-Movie ​­ Editor The Craig Projecto-Movie Editor is a combination viewer and rewind set. Craig made both 16mm and Standard 8mm units. Craig viewers are handy because many of them come with a tape or cement splicer, too. These are ­all-in-one ­​­­ ​­ ​­ box setups. ­Projecto-Movie Editors work great if you are making silent films in a room where space is limited. The Craig Projecto-Movie Editor comes in a small wooden box and can be easily transported. Take the kit with you to college or on summer vacation. Zeiss Moviscop Zeiss Moviscop viewers are the most popular professional viewer for 16mm and 8mm editing. They are gentle on the film and serviceable. Parts are available, and technicians can often upgrade the power supply and the lamp socket. Once upgraded, the Moviscop will accept more modern light bulbs that cost less and that are more plentiful.

194  Film bench editing

Rewinds A pair of film rewinds are needed to move the film from the left feed reel to the right take-up reel. Moviola and Hollywood brand rewinds provide h ighquality winding movement with a gear ratio that makes winding film easy and smooth. Bell and Howell and Craig also make quality rewinds suitable for professional and amateur work. The taller the rewinds, the larger the reel size it will accept. If you are working on a feature film, tall rewinds will be required. Larger rewinds will hold a 1,600 feet reel of 16mm film or 44 minutes of runtime at 24fps.

Film bench editing  195

If you plan to work with magnetic sound, purchase a set of rewinds that can accept a longer shaft. This shaft will allow you to mount one picture track followed by three audio tracks.

Tape splicers Tape splicing Most first-time filmmakers working with celluloid will prefer tape splicing to edit their films. Tape splicing provides a quick, temporary join. Tape can be peeled off so that a shot can be trimmed and rejoined with ease. The tape splicer is where all the cutting and joining happens. Tape splicers include a razor blade to cut the picture and an area in which to tape two pieces of film together. It’s important that the blades are sharp and that the splicer has all the pins intact to keep the film in place. The tape is placed over the join. Tape splices do not use an overlap like cement splices. Tape joins align the film edge to edge. This is known as a butt splice. The butt splice preserves both frames on the outgoing and incoming shot. Tape splices work well for splicing work prints or repairing torn release prints. Tape can be easily removed to redo a join. Each tape splicer has its own unique method of laying the tape on the workprint. Practice splicing with outtakes or small snippets of film before jumping into a project. When editing with just the viewer at this point, taping just one side of the film join works just fine. Preferably, one should tape the shiny base side. Continually taping and retaping the softer emulsion side could add scratches. Viewers handle single splices well, unlike projectors and the Upright Moviola. In fact, it is useful to tape only one side of a join at this point. It is easier and quicker to remove tape from just one side. Plus, you will gain the benefit of being able to experiment more with your sequencing. Ciro/Guillotine ­ splicer The guillotine splicer may just be the easiest splicer to use for the first time celluloid filmmaker. The guillotine punches perforation holes and cuts the tape in one action. It uses inexpensive non-perforated tape that is readily available at most film editing suppliers. First, trim the picture shots you wish to join using the straight edge razor. Place these shots next to each other on the centerline just below the tape. Do not overlap the film. Pull the tape over the join and pull down on the lever. The splice is made. Many guillotine splicers also come with an angled razor for cutting magnetic sound film. This puts picture and sound splicing actions into one neat device. The guillotine splicer, however, is an expensive splicer and will need to be maintained to receive exact perforation hole punches. The perforation punches should be replaced or sharpened by a film editing repairperson. However, with a cotton swab and some isopropyl alcohol, one can usually clean out the tape residue around the blades to improve tape trimming and hole punching.

196  Film bench editing

Craig Master Six The Craig Master Six can be used with Kodak Press Tapes or with a roll of perforated splicing tape. The Craig Master Six provides excellent economy as it can splice all three formats: 8mm, Super 8mm, and 16mm film. It can also be used to cement splice film as well. On a Master Six, one makes the cut with the splicer’s scissor-style blade. The two pieces of film sit next to each other on the top pin plate. Place one shot on the left and the other on the right. The silver pins go through the perforations and hold the film in place. Placing a piece of perforated tape over the two pieces of film makes the join. The tape should go from one silver pin to the next, covering the join. Kodak Presstape Splicer The Kodak Presstape Splicer is a plastic and l ight-weight splicer designed to be used with Kodak Presstapes. Like the Craig Master Six, many Kodak Presstape splicers will be able to tape-join 16mm, Standard 8mm, Super 8mm film. If you need just one splicer for all the formats, this just might be the one. The edge of both pieces of film line up on a centerline. Angled metal pins on either side of the join hold the two shots of film in place and provide tension to keep the film f lat. Plastic pins near the t ape-join area secure the ends. The Presstape makes an interlock splicer where part of the incoming frame locks into the outgoing frame. This makes lining up the shots intuitive. Stretch the tape over the join from one plastic pin to the next. Pull off the paper backing and place the tape across the cut area. Make sure the perforations or holes along the side of the film are aligned with the plastic guide pins. Rivas splicers The Rivas quick-style splicer uses perforated splicing tape. Its hefty weight keeps it from shifting on the table. The Rivas comes with a large center razor blade for cutting the film. It also has spring pins to keep the film taut and metal pins to hold film in place. A press plate on an arm is used to remove air bubbles in the tape. On the side of the tape press plate sits a small razor blade. This cuts the tape. With the press plate down, pull up on the tape, and the razor will cut the tape from the roll. The tape lines up over the join using the metal pins as a guide. These splicers can be used to make clean splices quickly. It is also easy to f lip the film over to splice the underside without having to move the splicer around. Rivas splicers have a reputation of reliability and simplicity. They were used in Hollywood editing rooms for years, so there’s a good number out there at affordable prices. The downside is that the perforated tape costs a lot more than non-perforated tape.

Film bench editing  197

Picture editing bench When editing a picture track only with a standard rewind set and viewer, you will need a desk or table to work on. Film editing can be done on a small 2 foot by 2 foot table or desk if needed. If working with a picture track only, 2 feet by 3 feet of space works well. However, if you plan on working with a magnetic soundtrack, a 5 feet by 4 feet desk provides ample room. Set the table near a wall where you tape up film strips. Place a laundry hamper trim bin against the wall. Line the hamper with a sheet or with fabric. A laundry hamper on wheels with canvas lining works well as a bin. Drape film strips in this bin to keep them from touching the f loor. If you do not have a laundry hamper, use paper grocery bags. A stool or chair is optional in the editing room. Standing usually provides the best editing position. This way you remain free to move up and down to tape and pull film from the wall.

198  Film bench editing

Set the viewer in the center of the table. If you have a separate set of rewinds that are not connected to the viewer, you can mount these to a board with screws or the table with carriage bolts. Set the rewinds far enough apart so that you can reach both rewinds, one with your left hand and one with your right. This may be about 3 to 4 feet away. The viewer and splicer will fit in the middle of the rewinds. The splicer sits just in front of the film viewer. Place a desk lamp angled off to the side of the table. If you need to lift film up to look at it, you can hold it up in front of the desk lamp for illumination. Place shades or blinds over the windows. The room should be dim, so one can easily see the image on the viewer screen. The film splicer will sit in front of the viewer. This way you can easily pull film out of the viewer and place it on the splicing block for cutting and taping.

Film bench editing  199

Editing bench supplies Additional supplies such as reels, split reels, and spacers are helpful in the editing room. The amount you need of these items depends on the scope of the project. The take-up reel is the most essential. These are used to hold and take film up. A take-up reel will allow you to pull film from the left rewind to the right.

Cores Cores are plastic hubs which film can be wound around. Cores come in several sizes from 1 inch to 4 inches. Cores can be placed inside a split reel or used on a f latbed editing table to store or take-up film. Larger cores lower the tension and take some stress off the wind of the film. I prefer using larger cores when editing, particularly when using the Upright Moviola editing machine.

Cotton gloves Wear white cotton gloves to keep fingerprints and oils from accumulating on the film. Finger oils will attract dust. White cotton gloves on both hands work well with cement splicers and guillotine splicers. If using a Rivas splicer, place a glove only on one hand. This leaves the other hand free to pull perforated tape off the roll.

Leader Attach the film leader to the head and tail of your film. Leader protects the film and provides a label on both the beginning and end of the roll. It also adds length to the roll before the first shot and after the last shot. Leader also attaches to the take-up reel, so you can drive the movie through the viewer. Leader comes in both acetate and polyester stock. It can be found in all kinds of colors. White, black, and clear colors are the most common. White is the most commonly available leader color. However, some editors use green leader to indicate the head of the reel and red leader to indicate the tail of the reel. Use acetate leader for making cement splices. For tape splices, either acetate or polyester leader may be used. Black leader can be used to extend a fade to black or used as a slug (filler) to space the picture during negative cutting. Use polyester leader when editing a work print. Once all the shots have been assembled, the tail leader should be attached to the final shot.

200  Film bench editing

Leader lengths When working with sound, measure out 13 feet of leader for the picture and 13 feet of leader for the sound. Make a hole punch mark 6 feet in from the end of each leader. Do this to both the head and tail leader of the picture and audio tracks. The hole punch provides you with a head sync point and a tail sync point. Split reels Split reels are unique reels that twist apart, allowing the editor to interchange the plastic core hub. The core is the hub of the reel. The two work together as a system. This pull-apart action of the split reel enables cores of film to be switched out quickly for editing and projection purposes. ­Take-up ​­ reels Take-up reels come in either metal or plastic. Each has their advantages and disadvantages. Contemporary plastic reels are designated to be archival. Metal reels are sturdier and do not bend as easily as plastic. The added weight of metal reels also makes rewinding on the Upright Moviola much easier. The weight of the reel holds down the spinning hub, so the reel turns more easily. Plastic reels cost less and come with hubs that are squared out on both ends to mount on rewinds in either direction. This interchangeable direction of the plastic reel delivers a convenience of switchability from bench rewinds to projector. The downside of plastic reels is that they bend, and film can get caught on the outer edge. My preference is to use metal reels for editing and plastic reels for archiving and screening. Trim bin Trim bins hold dangling film from touching the ground. Moviola and other brands made specific trim bins with a metal bar across the top. This bar contains hooks. One hangs the film to be edited into the movie from the hooks. When editing, usable takes are hung and labeled in order. Trim bins can also contain outtakes not used in the film. Use a simple laundry hamper on wheels with a canvas lining as a trim bin. Tape the film to an adjacent wall and drape the ends into the lined hamper.

Film bench editing  201

Editing the traditional way One can either edit a workprint or a reversal positive print. A workprint is a positive print made from the camera’s original negative. The workprint is sometimes known as the cutting copy. With the workprint/cutting copy, the editor can freely experiment with shot sequencing. The editor will not damage the original negative. It stays safe and preserved. If a mistake is made on a workprint, one can always go back to the original negative and make a new workprint. This is why the negative is not cut until the last stage when release prints are needed. Negative cutting should be done in a clean and well-ventilated room with gloves and splicing cement. Cement gives off a strong odor that can be toxic in a non-ventilated space. For low budget and student work, one can edit the camera original reversal print using tape or cement. Ideally, the reversal print should be transferred to video or duplicated to another roll of film before editing. This is because a reversal print is the camera original. If the reversal print is damaged, the original will be lost. View rushes Rushes or dailies is the term for raw, unedited footage. Editing begins with viewing rushes. Resist the urge to begin editing before seeing the footage. By viewing the film on a large screen before editing, you will become familiar with the footage you plan to edit. You will know what works and what doesn’t. Find a dark and quiet space in which to view the rushes. The place should be distraction free. Invite your key collaborators to view the rushes with you, so you can listen and learn from each other. Have a pencil and notepad on hand to take notes. After each roll of film, share thoughts and discuss with one another. Follow this meeting up with a second viewing of the rushes. This second run will help refine your thoughts before tackling the edit. By thinking through the shots before cutting and joining them together, you will develop a foundation for the first edit. It is a joy to sit with the cast and crew and watch the 8mm and 16mm rushes in full color f lickering on a homemade screen in your living room. When viewing rushes together, you have a deeper knowledge of the images that you have captured. You will have a better sense of how best to use them. The process of logging film gives time to learn about your movie and find the gems in the footage.

202  Film bench editing

Breakdown and log shots The editing process on the bench involves building up the material to form the movie. Breaking down the roll into individual shots is in fact editing. It may not seem to be the most exciting part of the process, but it’s the launchpad. Many new filmmakers want to skip the breakdown and log step and get right to the bench. Breaking down the footage gives the filmmaker an idea of how the material might go together. When editing on a film viewer, break down the entire roll of film or entire scene before commencing the edit on the bench. If you do not have a viewer, you can break down the roll into individual shots using rewinds and a light box. Advance the film through the viewer and place a grease pencil mark at the beginning and end of each shot. Trim out the shot with the splicer razor blade. Next label the shot and log it in a notebook. Continue through all the footage for a scene until all the shots have been trimmed out. Hang the shots on the wall with paper tape.

Film bench editing  203

First Assembly For a first assembly of the footage, place clear splicing tape on one side of the film. Taping on one side saves time. In the chance you need to undo the join, only one side of tape will need to be removed. Back all tape joins with a second piece of tape before projection. If you need to remove tape, it can easily be done by placing a gloved hand down on the film. Then with the bare hand use a fingernail to find the edge of the tape. Slowly work on peeling the tape back. If you are handling a reversal camera original print, take more care not to scratch the film. Many of the strongest ideas for a join may happen while you are away from the editing table. Activities such as going on a walk down the street, taking a shower, or even dreaming bring about fresh perspectives for editing. Be ready with a notebook to write down the order of the shots as you visualize them.

204  Film bench editing ­Table 12.1  Film Footage and Runtime Guide Gauge

Frame Rate

Frames Per Foot

Runtime

16mm Standard 8mm Super 8mm

24 24 24

40 80 72

1.7 seconds 3.3 seconds 3 seconds

Shot breakdown steps 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

View workprint rushes with an 8mm, S8mm, or 16mm projector. Take notes on takes you wish to use. After viewing rushes, rewind the film back up on the feed reel. Move to the editing bench. Place the feed reel of film on the left. Attach 6ft of leader to the first shot. Attach the film leader to the right take-up reel. Insert film into a clean film viewer with the perforations aligned with sprocket rollers. Slowly advance the film through the viewer by turning the right rewind crank. Place your left hand on the top of the feed reel to provide tension. Advance the film in a steady consistent fashion and roll to the head of the first shot. Keep all slates within the take for sync dialogue shots. Use a grease pencil. Place an “X” mark at the start of the shot. Advance the film until the end of the shot and mark an “X.” Pull the film out of the viewer. Place the head of the shot with the “X” on the centerline of the splicing block. Using the razor, trim out the head of the shot. Advance the footage to the end of the shot and bring the razor on the tail “X” mark. ­ Apply paper tape to the shot and label with either shot # information or a description of a shot such as “Scene 15 CU (Closeup) binoculars.” Use scene and shot numbers to organize narrative films. Hang the shot up on the wall with a paper tape or hang on film hangers. Drape the film clip into a fabric trim bin or paper grocery bag. If film drapes on the f loor, it could be stepped on or become scratched or covered with dust. Log the shot in a notebook.

Picture assembly Pictures made without sync sound or sync dialogue give the editor freedom in sequencing the images. The film may remain silent, or spot sound effects, voice- overs, and music tracks may be added later if desired.

Film bench editing  205

1 2 3 4

5 6 7

Breakdown, label, and log all shots. Review the shots in your camera log and make a rough cut of the film on paper. Measure out 13 feet of head leader for a sync sound production. Attach the leader to the right take-up reel. When using a standard film viewer, make sure the film winds up from underneath the reel with the perforations facing away from you. This underneath wind will keep the reel of the film in A-wind so it’s projection-ready. Next, locate the shot that you want to appear at the start of the film. Once the initial order has been found, organize the film on the wall to be in the order of the rough cut plan. Proceed to move down the line of film taped to your wall. Pull the first shot off the wall and tape it to the leader. Continue on through the line of shots taping in the second shot, then the third, and so on.

Editing methods Continuity Continuity aims to maintain space, action, and scenic elements. If continuity of space and action is desired in this scenario, use another angle of the pitcher’s throw. When editing for continuity, one typically uses rhythmic editing. Shot duration is determined by the content of the shot and the movement. Perhaps, the shot of the arm joins the baseball pitcher’s face. The face will show the reaction of the pitcher. Next, the swing of the batter in a medium shot could follow the pitcher’s face. With continuity editing of narrative films, a shot should not overstay its welcome. The shot holds until the viewer reads the information. After that, a new shot replaces the previous. If one looks to create a sense of peace through image, the shots should provide some connection through m ise- en- scene. This is what Sergei Eisenstein, the Russian film theorist/filmmaker, refers to as a tonal montage. A shot of a lake wave, the sky, feet wiggling into the sand, and a bird building a nest may be used to create a lazy, serene tone. On the opposite side, if anxiety through shots is desired, perhaps images of machines, masses of people moving through the city, and abrupt actions can be stitched together to create a tone of unease and unrest. Jump cuts If a camera position has not been changed 30 degrees or more, the action will appear to jump on screen. This occurs because shot A and shot B are not

206  Film bench editing

different enough to create a smooth transition. This “ jump” in the movement is referred to as a jump cut. Sometimes this can be used to great effect to emphasize a character’s reaction or gesture. If jump cuts are used consistently and intentionally throughout a narrative movie, they can work to great effect. One could remove frames from within one shot to fragment the action and jump through time and space within the scene.

Film bench editing  207

However, an unintentional jump cut stands out if it cannot be backed by an idea from the content. For example, repeating the same action over and over again from shot to shot can slow down the forward momentum of the film’s pacing. One could lose the viewer’s attention because of the lack of forward drive of the story or idea. For example, if a subject opens a door in a full shot and then opens the same door again in a medium close-up, this will create the double take effect. If this is an unintended jump, look for a place to join the shots in action. Perhaps, in the full shot, the subject grabs the doorknob; then cut to a medium close-up as the door is being opened. Here, the following shot will reveal what’s behind the door while masking the cut on the door movement. New shots should reveal new information. Matching action To make shots that f low together either in continuity or in f luidity, look to edit on action. Maybe you want to show the strength of a baseball pitch. For this, edit on the fall of the arm just after the ball is thrown. Join this shot to that of a hammer falling onto a nail. The join on action will connect the fall of the pitcher’s arm to the fall of the hammer. Join on action remains the most popular way of masking an edit. Another option may be to see the door fully open in the full shot, and as the subject backs away, join to a medium close-up of the door open. This hang’s the viewer in a bit of suspense. The viewer waits to see what the character is reacting to. Here, all at once the image displays the subject behind the door. These are creative choices. If one prefers jump cuts, one could repeat shots of the character’s reaction of shock. Maybe it’s the emotion that you want to emphasize. However, pre-planning of such edit choices should occur in production. In this example, it’s best to capture multiple takes of two or more of the reaction shots so that you can repeat it in the edit. Match cuts Match cuts create a relationship between movement and form. A match cut can effectively transition ideas from one shot to another. Matches can be on action or graphic matches. Match cuts can be effective in communicating new ideas. In the opening of Charlie Chaplin’s Modern Times, there’s a shot composed of sheep being herded through the frame. The composition shows the sheep moving from the top of the frame down. The frame full of sheep and the downward movement pulls the viewers eyes off screen. After the shot of sheep comes a shot of city workers exiting the subway. People move up the stairs and onto the ground level. The people move to the lower part of the frame and off screen just like the sheep. Without a thought, people move through the urban landscape to support industrial enterprises. This visual match of composition and movement effectively creates the idea that workers are being herded like sheep.

208  Film bench editing

Montage Montage is the French word for editing or joining shots. By joining two different actions together, a new idea can be created. A + B = C is one way to think of film montage. This type of new idea creation can be referred to as intellectual montage. Intellectual montage is one of the five types of montage explored by Soviet filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein in the 1920s. Join two unrelated shots together to create a new idea not present in either shot. Kuleshov effect and point of view Russian filmmaker, educator, and theorist Lev Kuleshov made an experiment to articulate the power and inf luence that editing has on the content or ideas of a film. Known as the “Kuleshov Effect,” this experiment demonstrates how changing the juxtaposition of shots can alter the viewer’s experience of human emotion. First, Kuleshov intercuts a close-up of an expressionless man gazing toward the camera with a shot of a bowl of soup. Then he cuts back to the expressionless man. Audiences read the first shot as the man looking at the bowl of soup and the repeat shot of the expressionless man as the man’s expression as hunger. Kuleshov then repeats the process by sandwiching a different shot between the shots of the expressionless man. Next, he uses a shot of a girl in a coffin. When this shot is edited in, the audience reads the man’s expression as sad. Finally, Kuleshov joins a woman lying on a sofa to the expressionless face shots. Here, audiences read the images as the man longing for the woman. The experiment proves that audiences can see through the eyes of a human face and interpret emotion purely based on the juxtaposition of shots. First we see a man look, then we see what he’s looking at, and then his reaction. This use of point of view editing is effective and continues to be used by many filmmakers.

Projection Ideally, the audience will experience your film on a 40 feet screen. The editor should replicate the cinema experience to gain a feel for the rhythm and timing of a film. Frequently view the edits on a projector. When you become ready to project the film on a projector, all of the shots should be taped on the reverse side to strengthen the splice. Both front and back of a splice should have tape. A single-splice join often becomes caught in the film channel of a projector because the join bends to a point instead of curving in the film loop. Start long, then slim down When editing with film, begin by keeping shots in a long duration at first. After each viewing, you will whittle away unnecessary shots and frames to

Film bench editing  209

slim the film down into an engaging whole. It’s easier to trim frames than to re-join a few frames back into the film. Think of this as sculpting or slimming the film down until the necessary parts remain. Tighten shots as necessary. Chapter 12 Suggested film viewing: • •

Sherlock Jr. (1924), Directed by Buster Keaton Eleven P.M. (1928), Directed by Richard Maurice

These two films showcase the creative possibilities of editing. Actor/Director Buster Keaton blurs the line between fantasy and screen reality in Sherlock Jr. Watch for the seamless edits when Keaton the projectionist leaves his sleeping body (in a double exposure) and enters the silver screen. What follows is a well-orchestrated and clever comedy sequence that takes the projectionist from the city to the desert using only joins. By matching the character’s action from shot to shot, editing can take the character and the viewer anywhere in the blink of an eye. Eleven P.M. by independent African American filmmaker, Richard Maurice uses f lashbacks, dissolves, and cut-ins to tell a surrealist story of temptation and revenge. There’s a f lashback inserted when character Clyde Steward is introduced in the parlor. At the mention of his character, the edit takes the viewer to a past event at the family dinner table where we see young Clyde. The edit then returns to the present moment.

Filmmaking in practice 1,000 frames/41 seconds Using trims from your previous films, construct a 41 second film using metered or metric-style editing. Metric editing involves creating a predetermined editing pattern. Create your own pattern. For example, you could create a 16mm film where each shot length gets shorter in succession. First 400 frames, 300 frames, 200 frames, 100 frames. Another option might be using a frame pattern such as 48, 24, 12, 48, 24, 12. You could event edit shots in a pattern of seconds: 1s, 2s, 3s. Remember there are 24 frames in each second. Materials: 8mm, Super 8mm, or 16mm Film, Reversal Film Stock, Film Viewer, Rewinds, Splicer, Splicing Tape, Film Projector

Bibliography 1 Burder, John. 16mm Film Cutting. New York: Focal Press, 1975. 2 Churchill, Hugh B. Film Editing Handbook. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub. Co, 1972. 3 Dmytryk, Edward, On Film Editing. Boston; London: Focal Press, 1984.

210  Film bench editing

­

­

13 Film editing machines

Now that we have spent a chapter on editing, you may be thinking, “This seems like a lot of work, why edit the traditional way?” From my experience a couple of differences between editing on film and editing on video come to mind. The tape splicer, rewinds, and viewer will not text you, email you, or tempt you to look up some bit of irrelevant information. The single purpose of the film editing tools keeps your eyes on the film and thinking about the concepts or the story. When one runs into a mind block when editing on a computer, you can simply escape the process by searching for some random bit of information or by completing an email task. Film forces you to stay with the problem and solve it. When editing the traditional way, film images are always right in front of you. You can see a long strip of film with many frames on it at once. This gives you a strong sense of the frame and where to make the cut. One physically moves the film through a film viewer or pushes down on the pedal to drive it forwards and backwards through the Moviola. The speed adjusts easily by your body motion. When you stop or put on the brakes, the film stops right there for you to examine it. There is no need to worry about hard drive crashes, incompatible formats, or a random glitch in the software. You orchestrate the motion of the images. The traditional editing process encourages note taking and pre-v isualizing before each cut. One is constantly making connections while sitting at the editing table or at other places where reverie takes place, such as the shower. There is a lot of forethought going on before you place down a piece of tape. When I cut on video, I work rapidly and in a primal way – just responding to the movement and image changes. A lot of images are joined without stopping to think. Sure, I do step away from the computer for a few days, so I can reevaluate, but with film it seems I am reassessing my ideas at each cut. Working with film in a video-editing system indeed opens up a number of possibilities, including cropping, coloring, and adding in effects, but what it lacks is the native physical representation. Working with film instead of a file of the film, one works with the full image resolution (no compression) and infinite color every time. Creating a reel of film is rewarding. One can see the length of the film building up – longer and longer as you edit on. There’s a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction to feeling the length of the movie run through your fingertips.

212  Film editing machines

16mm, Standard 8mm, and Super 8 projectors A projector is an editor’s best tool for seeing the film the way the audience will see the film. The projector is necessary for viewing rushes and watching edits. If filming with Super 8mm, you need a Super 8mm projector. If working with 16mm, use a 16mm. An 8mm requires an 8mm projector. Some 8mm projectors accept both Standard and Super 8mm film while others are designed for one type only. Use a completely manual threading projector model if possible. A manual feed projector allows you to stop and remove the film anywhere in time along the reel. Several different sound projector models have proven more than adequate for film editing work. These models need to be gentle on the film and can smoothly transport a film splice. The Kodak Pageant AV-126-TR delivers a durable frame, polished sprocketed rollers, and completely manual threading. The Kodak Pageant’s accessible threading area makes it easy to load the film and remove the film to edit. Bell and Howell, Revere, and Bolex made some high-quality Standard 8mm projector models, too. Many of these silent models have an open manual threading channel, variable speed motor, and bright lamps. Dual 8mm projectors are also available. With a Dual 8mm projector, the filmmaker can easily switch between projecting Standard 8mm and Super 8mm formats. Bell and Howell, Bolex, Chinon, Elmo, and Sankyo made some fine Super 8mm projectors. Many Super 8mm projectors are autoload. Test the autoload feature with some film leader first to make sure the auto load mechanism works properly. This way you can see how gentle the project is on the film and learn how to operate it.

­A-Wind (Projection Wind) Make sure the film is in A-Wind, also known as projection wind. Projection wind can be noted when holding the film reel in your left hand. The film will spool off clockwise to the right and the perforations in the film will face toward you. The reel should have the arranged heads out, meaning with the beginning leader on the outer edge. The film must be loaded with the perforations facing toward you. Otherwise, the sprocketed rollers will punch holes into the film. Just look at the sprocketed rollers at the top of the projector right below the feed reel mount. The teeth on the rollers need to line up with the perforations in the film.

Motorized film editors Motorized film editors can provide the filmmaker with constant speed playback, deliver sound playback, and can handle synchronized picture and sound. Their ability to go slow or fast, start and stop, and move forward and reverse makes them useful in the editing room. Two kinds of motorized editors are available: the f latbed and the upright.

Film editing machines  213

Flatbed/table ­ editor When it comes to sound editing, the f latbed delivers exceptional sound quality with smooth multitrack playback. The f latbed gives the editor a large screen for picture and volume faders for the audio tracks. Picture and sound reels lock in sync. A rotating prism makes the picture f licker with clarity and subtlety. Multiple creators can easily gather around the larger screens of the f latbed to view the edited film. Independent track control and sync playback options are available at various speeds. Of all the f latbed editors, the Steenbeck remains the most popular brand choice of tabletop editor today. Many Steenbecks serve filmmakers and archivists at universities and film libraries. Moviola and KEM brand machines are also still available. Some KEM models can switch between 16mm and 35mm editing, which may be a bonus for filmmakers who work across both of these professional gauges. Steenbeck and KEM companies still exist while Moviola no longer makes editing machines, so Moviola f latbed parts are more difficult to acquire for repairs. The shuttle jog wheels and simple buttons make the f latbed user friendly, so nearly anyone can operate them. Flatbeds handle film gently using nylon rollers and use a continuous movement, whereby the film glides past the gate. The prism eliminates f licker associated with a traditional rotating opaque shutter. An equalizer is also provided on many models to adjust treble, midrange, and bass response found on a magnetic recording.

214  Film editing machines

Threading the flatbed The following information is based on the Moviola 16mm f latbed to give you a sense of how to load a f latbed machine. Picture loads on the topmost plate on the left of the machine and takes up on the top right plate. The two lower plates are for the sound tracks. 1 Pull enough leader off the supply reel to thread the film around the guide and pinch rollers. Have 13 feet of leader to provide extra film to wrap around the take-up reel. Pull film or leader from the bottom of the supply reel. 2 Perforations should face down toward the table in order to engage on the sprocketed rollers. 3 Lace the film in under the first roller. 4 Gently push the pinch roller keepers away from the rollers. 5 Lay film into the left pinch roller, then lace it in front of the gate, and around the right pinch roller. 6 For optical track film or silent, pull the film through the optical light area, then back down and finally up to the third and final pinch roller. 7 The film goes in front of the final roller. Attach the film onto the takeup reel or take-up core by placing the end of the film into the reel or core film slot. Avoid using tape as this could pull the film too excessively when rewinding off the take-up reel. 8 Turn on the f latbed by f lipping up the power switch located on the back left of the table. 9 Switch on the viewer lamp to bright by f lipping up the switch on the front left panel. 10 Turn the focus left and right to adjust the focus of the image on the viewer. 11 Use the frame knob to move the frame up or down. Center the picture on the viewing screen. 12 Turn the leftmost jog wheel on the right panel to the right. This activates the picture track and controls the variable speed motor. Move the jog wheel to the right to go forward. Stop the arrow of the wheel to line in the center to stop the image. Move the jog wheel to the left to reverse the image. 13 Press sound speed to playback the film at 24 fps. This will also permit sound playback at 24fps. To lock picture and sound tracks together, press the green buttons beside the sound jog wheels. A green light will illuminate the button. The film and audio tracks stay locked for playback. Together, all three tracks take up on the platters on the right side of the table. To unlock the tracks, click the green button again. The green light then turns off. In order to maintain synchronization during editing, splice on the left side of the picture gate in a similar way that you splice on the left side of a synchronizer.

Film editing machines  215

Upright Moviola editing machine The Upright Moviola was popular in Hollywood from the 1920s to the 1970s. This makes upright machines older than f latbeds, but also less expensive and more portable. The f latbed garnered a reputation for being the director’s editing machine and the Upright Moviola the editor’s machine. The upright machine fits into relatively small spaces especially when compared to the flatbed/tabletop editor. Upright Moviolas are all mechanical. Personally, I have seen less operational issues with Upright machines when compared to similar aged flatbeds. A standard full size 16mm Upright Moviola usually comes with one screen for picture and one sound head for running magnetic sound or optical sound film. Some models contain two soundtrack channels, but the majority of the models on the used market operate with one picture gate and one sound head.

216  Film editing machines

Moviola UL-20- CS The UL-20- CS Upright Moviola gives the editor an easy way to view shots at either 24fps, 16fps, or at various speeds from a few frames a second to 48fps. The UL-20- CS Upright Moviola stands about 5 feet high to the take-up spindles and with a width of about 2 feet wide and a depth of about 2 feet from screen to rear feed spindle. The chassis comes off the cart, which makes the unit easy to disassemble and transport. If you live in an apartment building on the upper f loor, the Upright Moviola can be broken down to carry upstairs. If you keep these machines clean and well oiled, and if you use them often, they will deliver many years of editing excitement. The Upright Moviola works exceptionally well when you need to run individual strips of film through them. The Moviola screen is sharp and bright. One operates the motor with a foot pedal or with a switch. Two motors come inside the unit. The picture motor comes with a rheostat variable speed knob, and the sound head motor runs at a constant speed of 24 frames per second. The constant speed sound motor works great for syncing magnetic sound to picture. Bulbs, tubes, and belts Replacement tubes for the sound amplifier can be found online. The picture bulbs and exciter lamps can also be purchased online when needed to be replaced. Belts can be purchased or custom-made to length. Although dedicated technicians are hard to find, a local electronics repair person or an international specialist may be able to help you maintain your Upright Moviola. Frame counter The frame counter is located below the speaker. It moves with the picture head motor or when the constant sound head motor is coupled to the picture head motor drive. One can use this counter to calculate footage and frames of individual shots or count the footage for any reel of film. The counter is most helpful when trying to locate shots on a reel or when re-syncing the picture to the sound. The counter can be cleared by turning the dial on the left of the counter toward you until all 0s display across the counter window. The white numbers on the black background display feet, and the black numbers on white show frames. There are 40 frames in every foot of 16mm film. Screen The Upright Moviola’s lamp brightness can be adjusted with the rheostat knob located to the left of the light on and off switch. I often use the brightest setting or near brightest setting as the Moviola screen outshines a standard film viewer. Adjust the lamp brightness according to your preference and room light conditions. When the viewing screen swings away from the film channel,

Film editing machines  217

the lamp automatically turns off to extend the life of the bulb. The lamp can also be turned off with the light switch while the viewing screen and pressure plate assembly is locked in place. The vertical frame adjusts by moving the lever at the rear of the screen. The lever moves the frame area up and down. Make the adjustment, so the entire frame fills the screen area. You should not see more than one frame at a time. The brass knob next to this green framer lever is the focus adjustment. Move this knob up or down to focus the image on the viewing screen. Service Originally designed for 35mm film, the Upright Moviola’s intermittent movement at times can be rough on the smaller 16mm film, causing wear on the film stock. It’s especially important to maintain a 16mm machine for this reason. Consult a Moviola manual or vintage electronic specialist for proper care. On a basic level, make sure all of the rollers move freely when touched. If not they can be unscrewed and cleaned using cotton swabs and 91% isopropyl alcohol. After cleaning, wipe the rollers with a little sewing machine oil to lightly lube them. The sound head may also be cleaned with a cotton swab and 91% isopropyl alcohol. The felt inside the spindle guides can be cleaned with a solvent and re-oiled with light machine oil. The Moviola “Series 20” manual suggests the use of a light quality machine oil for all oil points and to use Pennzoil No. 307 oil in the intermittent movement oil ports.

Editing with the Upright Moviola Individual strips of film load into the Upright Moviola by pressing the screen release tab to the right of the screen. This reveals the gate area. Keep the gate area clean by wiping with a damp microfiber cloth. Load the film so that the perforations sit on the left. These perforations will align with the driver roller at the top of the film channel. Set the film f lush in the channel and make sure the perfs grab on the teeth of the top sprocketed roller. Bring down the screen and pressure plate assembly. When pressed all the way, the screen assembly will latch into the release tab. Turn the main switch on by f lipping the switch up. A red light on the front panel will glow indicating that the machine is on. There’s a coupling ring that connects the sync sound motor to the picture drive wheel. This is located in the upper region of the machine. If you want to run your shot at 24fps, then move the coupling ring all the way to the left. The controls for the 24fps motor are located on the left side of the machine. To move the film forward, place the forward switch in the up position. Upright Moviolas can shuttle the film forward and reverse. Moving back and forth on a shot helps one find the accurate placement of a join.

218  Film editing machines

Turn the lamp on by positioning the light switch on the right side of the machine to “up.” Simply move the constant speed motor switch to the “on” position by f lipping the switch up. The film will run through the gate, and a picture will f licker on the screen. The film may also be run at sound speed by pressing on the left pedal, which controls the sound speed motor. When you switch the sound motor to on, the film will move through the film channel, and the image will project onto the viewing screen. When one needs to stop the film, simply switch the film to off or release the left foot from the pedal.

Film editing machines  219

For running individual shots, the foot pedal provides the best start and stop control. One can also stop the film exactly on a frame by pressing the handbrake located on the right side of the screen, just above the right control panel. After stopping on the exact frame for the cut, one can mark the frame using a yellow grease pencil. Place an X or a line mark on this frame. Rheostat variable speed picture motor For close examination of shots at variable speeds, the rheostat motor provides exact control over the image. To run the picture, move the motor coupler ring to the right. This uncouples the picture and sound motor drives. The film strip loads the same as before in the film channel. However, the coupler moved to the right, the forward and reverse controls for the picture only will be found underneath the screen area. The “on” rheostat motor switch sits on the right side of the machine. The right foot pedal controls the picture head motor. Keep in mind which motor is being used, whether sound motor or rheostat motor. Whichever switch is being used to turn on the machine to run the film is the same switch that needs to be used to stop running the film. The rheostat dial for picture head motor speed can be found above the picture head motor switch. There are seven open circle holes in the metal that are placed around this dial. When the dial is turned to the right, the motor speed increases, and when turned to the left, the speed decreases. The slowest speed may be near 1ps with the foot pedal depressed to locate the exact frame to cut. Moviola sound head threading Release the sound head assembly by pressing forward on the latch. This exposes the film channel. Thread the magnetic sound film strip into the film channel with the dull side up. Align the film with the perforations to the left. Make sure the perforations on the top part of the film catch onto a sprocketed roller located at the back of the sound head arm. If perforations are not aligned with the sprocketed roller, the rollers will puncture the film. Once film sits in the channel, close sound head assembly until it locks. Go to the bottom right of the Upright Moviola. Turn the MAG /OPT switch to MAG for magnetic sound. The tone switch beside the MAG/OPT switch can be positioned in the center for now. This adjusts the tone or treble and bass. For most recordings the middle position maintains a proper balance. Later adjust the tone to your liking. If the sound has too much bass, turn the

220  Film editing machines

knob to the right, and if it has too much treble, turn the dial to the left of center. Find the volume dial on the machine’s front control panel. The volume knob sits between the exciter lamp dials. Since we are using magnetic film and not optical film, the exciter lamp dials can be turned all the way to the left. This turns them off and will save the life of the exciter lamps. The volume switch turns to the right. Move this dial to the right until a soft click becomes audible. The click means the amplifier and speaker have

Film editing machines  221

been activated. A slight hum may be heard. This is the normal sound of the tubes in the amplifier warming up. The tube amplifier puts out a lot of power, and it’s easy to set the volume very loud. Start the volume low as the Upright Moviola’s amplifier can really pump out the sound. One can use headphones, but care should be taken with the volume and the headphone cord. Although headphones are handy when needing to work late in the evening or when in a classroom, I find that the cord gets in the way when operating the machine. You wouldn’t want the cord to get wrapped around film or stuck on a moving roller. Sometimes other noise from the amp or machine can be heard in the headphones. Where the speaker has clarity, sometimes the headphone jack picks up other vibrations. The best audio experience will be with the built-in speaker. Preparing sound for sync There’s something very satisfying about syncing on an Upright Moviola. When one needs to sync a shot of a picture to a strip of magnetic soundtrack, the Upright Moviola can help to deliver speedy results. Once the film is loaded and all of the magnetic film dials set, the magnetic film can be run through to hear the sound. Place the magnetic head down so that the head rests on the dull side of the film, which must face up. For sound only, the motor coupler should be moved to the right. Set the sound head motor switch in the forward position. Press down on the left foot pedal and advance the film at 24fps. Listen to the entire take. Break the entire roll of sound down into individual takes before syncing to picture. Label the sound on the shiny side of the film with a permanent marker and hang on the wall with paper tape. Log the sound clips on a sound log sheet. The log sheet should include scene number, shot number, and take number, and notes on the performance or audio quality. If slated with a clapboard, audio information should be present in the track. You will hear the voice saying the scene, shot, and take numbers. After this the clap of the slate, sticks will be audible. Let go of the foot pedal. Move the switch to reverse. Reverse the film and listen for the precise moment the loud clap of the slate can be heard. Release pedal and set back to forward. Let go of the foot pedal just before this clap. Now manually turn the silver drive wheel or film winding f lange on the left side of the sound head assembly. This f lange wheel allows the operator to manually inch the film on the sound head or both picture and sound when both are coupled. Listen, you will hear in very slow motion and low-pitch sound the moment the loud slate “clap” is heard. Roll the f lange inching knob back and forth until the sound’s loudness becomes apparent. Stop and mark this frame with

222  Film editing machines

a small X between the perforations with a permanent marker. The mark you made with the permanent marker represents the clap for your sound sync point. Matching picture to sound Load the picture stock into the right picture head assembly. Advance the picture so that the moment the two sticks of the clapboard touch can be seen on the viewer. Mark this frame with an X using a grease pencil. Check to see that the sound mark “X” sits beneath the sound head and that the frame of the slate is visible on the screen. At this point we have our sync point for both sound and picture. Couple the drive motors together. When coupled, both motors will drive both the picture and sound tracks in unison. To couple the drive motors together, move the coupler ring to the left, towards the sound head assembly. Press down on the left foot pedal, and the sound head motor will drive picture and sound simultaneously at a constant speed of 24fps. Your picture and sound will now move as one. Trimming out the sync take Keep the sound and picture films in their channels and advance the shot until the action begins. The action begins at the beat after the director calls action. Make a new and different mark on both the picture and sound at this frame. A check mark, an “S” for sync, or two lines will do. It should be different from the original X so as not to confuse the points. The new mark gives you a new sync point. The picture and sound points that include the slate can now be removed. Mark a tail sync point just before the director calls cut. Now you’ve got a head sync and tail sync in case the two pieces get separated. Trim off the slate. Using paper tape, label the picture and sound with the same information. If the synced take is Scene 2, Shot 2, Take 3, this should be labeled on both strips using tape. With magnetic sound film, you may write the scene, shot, and take numbers on the shiny side of the film with a permanent marker or grease pencil. It can be useful to see the sound information with take and description written on the shiny side when editing. A little bit of the dialogue written on the soundtrack makes recognizing the shot all the easier. For example, Scene 2, Shot 2, Take 3 – Line “Hello There.” Hang the two pieces of film (picture and sound) beside each other on the wall. Congratulations, you synchronized your first shot. Continue on for all the dialogue tracks in the movie. Syncing on a Moviola has a substantial and tangible feeling of accomplishment. With the Moviola, you, with your hands, just created something that

Film editing machines  223

previously did not exist in the world of your f ilm – a synchronized take. The picture speaks for the first time! Moviola reel picture playback The Upright Moviola can play back reels of film as well. This will allow you to watch your rough cuts in full and make adjustments to shots. Make sure all tape joins have tape on both sides of the splice before loading a workprint into the Upright Moviola. Seat the picture reel on the bottom right spindle. Use 13 feet of leader to complete the threading. The film comes off the bottom of the reel with the perforations on the left side. The Upright Moviola reel wind is different from standard projection wind or viewer wind. For the Upright, the film comes off the feed reel clockwise with perforations on the left side. Oftentimes the reel will need to be f lipped to be oriented in the correction direction. This f lipping can be done with a pair of rewinds. 1 Pull the film from the rear feed reel and bring the film over the lower roller and around the collapsible roller and up into the sound head channel. Give yourself some slack to reach the top take-up reel. The take-up reel is the top most front reel. 2 Thread the film down onto the back rollers below the feed reel. Place the film around the top roller first and then the bottom roller. Give yourself some slack. Pull the film around the two front rollers. 3 Pull out the silver release pin that releases the clamp against the bottom sprocketed roller. 4 Move the film into this area and rest it around the sprocketed roller. Make sure the perforations line up with the sprockets or teeth of the roller. 5 Create a bottom loop by attaching a section of the top film leader to the top sprocketed roller located above the film channel. The loop on the bottom can be measured by pulling the film down. 6 The film should nearly touch the silver knob in front of the bottom sprocketed roller. The loop will be about an inch and a half in width. There should be at least 3 feet of film beyond this roller to form a top loop and attach the film to the take-up reel. The film should be f lush along the gate. 7 Once the film sits securely in the gate channel and the bottom loop is formed, the viewer assembly can be closed. The film now sits steady inside the gate area. 8 Unlock the topmost sprocketed roller clamp by pulling out the silver knurled knob. Create a top loop by draping the film down. The film should not touch the touch metal cavity below it. Film should never run

224  Film editing machines

9 10 11 12

against the metal finish of the machine at any time. The loop should be large enough to nearly touch the metal but not touch it. Press the film on the topmost sprocketed roller and gently move the clamp until it rests against the film. The pin clicks in place, locking the top loop size. Attach the extra film to the top reel on the take-up spindle. Place the end of the film into the slot of the center hub of the take-up reel and roll the film clockwise away from you to take up any slack. Choose the motor that you will use to run the film. If watching an already edited and an assembled cut, using the constant speed motor may be helpful to check the timing of the shots played back at 24 frames per second. If critically examining tape splices or locating a specific join, then the variable speed rheostat motor will be advantageous.

Sync sound leader One should have matching leader lengths for sound and picture when playing back an edited sound film on the Upright Moviola. Measure out a total of 13 feet of leader for the picture and 13 feet of leader for sound. The leader length needs to be the same for picture and sound. Leader comes in various colors. Choose the colors that you prefer. Using a synchronizer and rewinds, measure a strip of leader until the footage dial reads 6 feet. Place an “X” on this spot. Continue rolling film through the synchronizer until 13 feet has been reached. Make a line mark here. Use a film splicer and trim out this 13 feet of leader. Repeat this process a second time to create a sound leader. Sound should be cut using the angled blade on the guillotine splicer or with a Rivas sound splicer, which also makes angled cuts. Label the start of the picture leader with “HEAD PIX and write the title of the film and include a date. Label the sound leader with “HEAD TRK” and include the title of the film and date. Place a hole punch in both leaders at the 6 feet “X” mark. This “X” represents the sync point. Attach each leader to the first shot or sound piece of the film. The leader should be attached at the 13 feet mark. Tape both sides of the join. Mount the picture reel and thread the picture on the Moviola. The picture motor should be uncoupled from the sound head motor. Turn on the lamp and advance the picture to the hole punch at 6 feet with the rheostat motor. Press the right foot pedal and turn the rheostat motor to the left to run it slow. Advance the picture film until the hole punch displays in the viewer. Now thread the magnetic sound film with the attached leader. Mount the feed reel of sound on the lower feed reel spindle. Pull the sound leader above the silver roller and forward and around the lowermost forward roller. Unlock the magnetic film channel and place the film leader inside. Perforations are to be on the left. The sprocketed roller should have the film perfs

Film editing machines  225

aligned on top. Close the magnetic head assembly. The magnetic head now touches the leader. Attach the slack to the top t ake-up reel. Turn the t ake-up reel clockwise, away from you, to pull up any extra leader slack. With the sound head motor set to forward, press the left foot pedal and advance the sound film. The magnetic head swings away, so one can view the hole punch or any permanent marker sync “X” point. Move the sound leader until the 6 feet hole punch in the leader lines up with the magnetic sound head. The hole punch will be right below the sound head. Bring the sound head right on top of this. At this point, the picture viewer shows a hole punch, and the sound leader hole punch rests below the sound head. Couple the motors together by moving the coupling ring to the left so that it covers the sound head motor shaft. You are ready for playback. Turn the MAG/OPT to MAG and rotate the volume dial to the right to turn on the tube amp and speaker. Flip the move motor switch to forward. If you plan on stopping frequently throughout the playback, use the left foot pedal to run the motor. If you plan on watching the movie straight through, then use the sound head motor switch. Flip the motor switch up. You can move the switch to down to turn off the motor or use the handbrake above the picture viewer. The brake feature helps when checking edited scenes or entire films. If preferred, leave the sound motor in reverse and the rheostat motor in forward. Adjust the speed of the rheostat motor to be close to 24 frames per second. Now the right foot pedal moves the film forward and the left pedal moves the film in reverse. This is an excellent way to toggle through scenes and sequences. Optical sound print playback If the Moviola has an optical lamp on the picture head motor side of the film, you can play this optical track back. For playing back prints with an optical soundtrack, the sound head motor should be coupled to drive the picture and the optical exciter lamp activated by switching MAG/OPT to OPT for Optical. Turn the exciter lamp dial on by moving it to the right. This would be the rightmost exciter dial. Adjust the volume by turning the volume dial to the right. The left exciter switch correlates to running optical sound on the sound head side of the machine. With the use of the optical playback system, one can create an original electronic soundtrack by making dots and dashes in the soundtrack area of clear leader. Chapter 6 Suggested film viewing: • •

Hen Hop (1942), Directed by Norman McLaren Mothlight (1963), Directed by Stan Brakhage

226  Film editing machines

•

Empire of the Sun (1987), Directed by Steven Spielberg and Edited by Michael Kahn

Film is a material. These films use the tactile and physical materiality of celluloid to create or edit images. Using an editing machine can help time images and synchronize images with sound. Stan Brakhage taped moth wings onto the film to create the unique celluloid anatomy found in Mothlight. McLaren and Spielberg used Upright Moviola machines during their careers. Norman McLaren hand- painted drawings directly on the celluloid surface to create the whimsical animated film Hen Hop. Steven Spielberg and Michael Kahn use the Upright Moviola to edit emotional sequences that place the audience behind young British boy Jim’s eyes as he learns to survive in a World War II Japanese camp. This coming of age tale based on J.G. Ballard’s novel and adapted by playwright Tom Stoppard covers the loss of innocence with montage and character point of view shots.

Filmmaking in practice The ­camera-less ​­ animated film Make a camera-less film by animating directly on a single strip of celluloid film. This is a fun way to begin working with the medium. With a 50 feet roll of clear leader and some permanent markers, you can make a film! Unspool some film, and tape the film down on to a white surface. Place the perforations to the left. Measure 6 feet of film to use as built-in head leader before drawing the first frame. The area between two perforations equals one 16mm frame. Draw down the roll of film from top to bottom. 24 frames or 24 drawings = one second of screen time. Draw a simple shape on the clear film with the marker. Choose a shape that you can draw many times over. The shape could slowly grow in size over three seconds. To do that you need to draw 72 frames. In each succeeding frame, slightly enlarge the shape. Once the shape gets too large for the 16mm frame, make it disappear. It could then reappear and shrink over the next 72 frames. Experiment with the possibilities over the next 25 feet. Measure 6 feet of film for tail leader after the last frame drawing. Wind film back up onto the reel so that perforations face toward you. The film should spool off the reel clockwise. Mount the reel and thread the film on a 16mm projector. See your drawings come to life! Materials: 50 feet of 16mm Clear Leader, Permanent marker set, Paper Tape, White Paper or Light Box, 16mm Projector

Film editing machines  227

Bibliography 1 Brakhage, Stan, dir. By Brakhage: An Anthology, Volumes One and Two. 1963; New York: Criterion, 2010. Blu-ray. ­ ​­ 2 Burder, John. 16mm Film Cutting. New York: Focal Press, 1975. 3 Eastman Kodak. Kodak Pageant Sound Projector Model AV-256-TR. ­ ­​­­ ​­ Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak, nd.

228  Film editing machines

­

­

​­

14 Magnetic sound editing

Magnetic particles on a roll of tape or film capture a physical imprint of the sound wave. A sound head picks up and arranges the particles to conform with the shape of the wave. These particles can then be played back on a tape deck. The play head on the deck reads the sound waves. Once the picture has been edited, one can move to building the soundtrack. Magnetic 16mm stock can be distinguished by its a ll-brown color. The shiny side of the film can be described as the base of the film, and the dull side contains magnetic particles on which the sound becomes imprinted. Just like cassette tape, magnetic film stock can be erased and reused. Reusing the magnetic stock outtakes is an economical and thrifty way to stretch the use of your mag stock. 16mm magnetic stock works on the same principle as compact cassette tape. Magnetic particles arrange to create a print of the sound wave. The dull side of the film contains the magnetic particles that hold the sound waves. The dull side should be kept clean. Handle with a glove to avoid fingerprints or hold sound film from the edges. Caring for sound film is much like caring for a picture track. The shiny base side can be touched with a grease pencil. The magnetic sound heads on editing machines and synchronizers may be cleaned with 91% isopropyl alcohol or denatured alcohol with cotton swabs. Use a little and clean when you see build-up or hear a change in sound quality.

Materials for traditional sound editing • • • • • • • •

16mm Magnetic Sound Stock Splicer with angled razor White or Clear Splicing Tape Grease Pencils Leader Permanent Marker Spacers Spring Clamps

230  Magnetic sound editing

• •

Synchronizer with magnetic sound head Squawk Box

Suggested sound editing suppliers Boston Connection Eastman Kodak Company Urbanski Film Supplies

16mm interlock projectors/magnetic sound recorders A 16mm interlock projector gives the filmmaker the ability to project a workprint along with a single track of 16mm magnetic film. The synced picture and sound can be viewed on a large screen. This helps with checking the timing of both picture and sound. The Siemens 2000 comes with a sound recorder/amplifier. Not only can the Siemens 2000 project a work print with magnetic film, it can also record sound directly to the full coat 16mm magnetic stock. One can use the Siemens 2000 for transferring sound effects, music, dialogue, and voice over from tape, file, record, or from any other audio source. If you have access to one, they are very handy for sound recording and viewing synchronized sound and picture. Once you transfer your audio tapes to magnetic film, break down the sound effects into individual clips. Label and log these sounds. Just like the picture, organize these sounds in the order in which you wish to use them. As you move through the roll, stop and trim the magnetic takes for the scene you are working on. If the sound is a spot effect, like the creaking of an opening door for instance, locate the beginning of the door opening in the picture and align this image with the start of the sound effect of the door creaking open.

Transferring cassette tape to 16mm magnetic stock Record all needed sound effects with a tape or digital recorder. Log the sounds in a notebook as you record them. Make sure to record room tone or the sound of the room space in which you recorded the sound effects. This tone will be useful in making sure audio effects transition smoothly from one sound clip to the next. In order to work with sound on a Moviola, f latbed, or editing bench, the 1/4" tape, cassette tape, or digital file needs to be transferred to magnetic 16mm film. Film labs usually offer this service. Using a free audio editing software like Audacity, you can digitize the tape to a 24bit 48kHz .WAV file. After the transfer, create a new file with only the needed takes. It saves money to edit a file or tape down so that it contains exactly the takes you need. Send

Magnetic sound editing  231

this edited file or tape to the lab. This way you are not paying to transfer audio that you do not plan to use in the edit.

Magnetic sound editing equipment Spacers Place spacers between reels of film so that the reels line up with the synchronizer track. On the Acmade Pic sync, three spacers generate the needed space between the picture reel and the first sound track reel. Make sure the same number of spacers is on both the left and right rewinds. Sound splicer To edit magnetic 16mm sound film, one needs to have a dedicated sound splicer with angled razor. The angled splice smooths out the tape joins and prevents an audible pop from being heard. Straight cuts on magnetic stock create a distracting pop or tick sound. Many guillotine splicers include both a straight razor and an angled sound razor. A special sound splicer is available in the Rivas style as well. Spring clamps Spring clamps slide on the rewind shaft at the end of the line of reels. They secure the reels on snug, so all the reels move together in sync as one unit. Squawk box In order to work with sound on the f ilm-editing bench, a squawk box should be used to amplify the audio. Moviola solid state and tube squawk boxes are the most readily available of the vintage squawk boxes. If needing to replace a tube on a tube amp squawk box, one can find the tube number by opening up the back of the unit. Tubes should be handled with care using cotton gloves. Make sure the unit has been turned off a while to make sure the tubes are not holding a charge. Consult a manual or take the box to an audio technician for proper maintenance and repair. The older tube amplifiers usually accept a 4 pin audio connection, whereas the newer solid states accept standard 1/4" plug. Adapters to connect a 4 pin to 1/4" male phone plug or 1/4" to 4 pin can be made or purchased. Many solid state amplifiers use a 1/4" connection input. These inputs correspond to the sound head on the synchronizer. Each sound head will have its own 1/4" connection. Plug these lines into the squawk box. If you have a 4 pin tube amp connection, consider converting your synchronizer head to a 1/4" plug. It’s best to use vintage squawk boxes as they were designed for the amplification of magnetic film sound. More contemporary amps may not work well, and the sound will be garbled or too low to hear.

232  Magnetic sound editing

Taping magnetic sound film Clear or white tape may be used to tape sound film. White tape provides a visible mark so one can easily locate a splice. Only tape on the shiny side. Magnetic sound does not require tape on both sides. The dull side should not be taped as this will cover up the sound and create a silent spot in the track. First, lock the picture track into a film synchronizer. A synchronizer is a device that keeps picture and magnetic film locked together as you build the soundtrack. Build up the soundtrack by taping in room tone between spot sound effects. For example, a track might contain a door slam and then footsteps. Between the door slam and footsteps splice in room tone to blend the two effects. Room tone Record one to two minutes of room tone in the location in which you are recording sync dialogue. If the scene contains sound effects only, record room tone in the place in which you recorded the sound effects. After each sync dialogue clip or sound effect clip, add in the room tone. Room tone will fill the space, smooth the transition from sound clips, and help maintain synchronization. The complete magnetic soundtrack will contain dialogue tracks, sound effects, and room tone. Silence If you splice in a basic leader as filler, no audible sound will be heard. This will truly be a silent moment. Silence can be an excellent tool where one desires the audience to focus on the concepts in the action. However, typically, room tone is used for these silent moments unless dead silence is desired. One track For the starters, keep the magnetic sound simple by working only with one track of magnetic audio. Later on when you become proficient, two or three tracks may be used. Working with one track also saves money as three tracks require three times the magnetic film stock to edit together.

Multiple tracks Use multiple tracks when music, sound effects, and music tracks need to exist together at the same time. Eventually, the three separate tracks of audio will need to be mixed down to one mono track later on when making a release

Magnetic sound editing  233

print. Use a pic sync or f latbed film editing table to edit and mix multiple tracks of magnetic sound film. The pic sync is small and will fit onto an existing editing bench. However, many pic syncs are manual drive. In order to hear sound correctly played back at 24 fps, you will need practice moving the rewinds at a constant speed. Flatbeds, on the other hand, are motorized and play sound back loud and clear at the proper frame rate. Editing tables work very well to check picture and sound playback. Most f latbeds such as a Steenbeck, KEM, or Moviola will provide either one track, two track, or three track audio configurations. The typical six-plate f latbed provides one track of picture and two tracks of sound.

Sync sound editing The sticks of the slate have alternating black and white diagonal lines. After filming, the frame where the top and bottom of the sticks touch denotes the sync point. When the wood sticks touch, a “clap” sound is made. Here, the slate provides a visual of the lines touching, and an audio signal, the “clap” delivers a sync point. The slate should be clearly marked with Scene #, Shot #, and Take #. The roll # should also be indicated in the appropriate box. These figures will help you locate and organize shots for editing. When filming scenes with sync dialogue, the use of the clapboard makes finding and logging shots a breeze. Otherwise one will be scrambling through copious amounts of

234  Magnetic sound editing

footage trying to guess which picture goes with the sound. Having a clear plan for organization is beneficial for a smooth post-production process. The process for syncing with a Pic Sync remains the same as the Upright Moviola but with a straightforward manual-advance approach. Place the picture shot in the picture channel. The perforations face toward the editor on this device. It places the base side of the picture and sound film face up, so one can write on both with a grease pencil. Locate the picture and sound for the shot you wish to sync. Set the picture right over the gate and clamp into the synchronizer. Now find the sound mark where the sound of the sticks is audible. Lay the magnetic film into the first soundtrack channel of the synchronizer. The “X” mark should be above or below the sound head. Advance the synchronizer crank clockwise. The picture and sound film move together. This is a benefit over the viewer and synchronizer method. The two pieces will be synchronized and move together by turning the little

Magnetic sound editing  235

crank. Make marks after “action” is heard on the sound film and before “cut” is heard. Take these strips out of the Pic Sync and hang them up together on the wall. This way you will be able to find them to splice into your movie.

Logging picture • • • • • • • • • • •

Place the picture into the film channel. Align the film properly on the sprocket rollers. Close the clamp rollers by pressing down on the right lever until it latches. The clamp roller assembly releases by pressing down on the silver release tab to the right. Switch on the lamp and turn the rotating synchronizer lever clockwise. This advances the film past the gate. One sees the projected image in the viewer. Advance the film through the synchronizer and stop when you see the frame where the clapboard sticks touch. Make a mark with the grease pencil. Remove the film and label the shot and set aside momentarily by taping film to the wall with paper tape. Locate the sound film for this same take. Lay it on the Pic Sync, roll the track through, and listen for the “Clap” sound of the sticks. Make a mark on this frame. Lay the sound and picture together on the Pic Sync. Align the marks, so they are directly across from one another.

Logging sound 1 Listen to the magnetic sound by using a sound reader, a synchronizer with sound heads, a Pic Sync editor, Upright Moviola, or Flatbed table editor. 2 Break down the magnetic sound for each shot in a similar way as in the picture. 3 Listen to each take and note the sound slate information. 4 Place a mark where the clap of the slate sticks is clearly audible. 5 Label the take by writing on the shiny side of the magnetic film with a permanent marker. 6 Hang sync dialogue audio takes next to the corresponding picture. 7 Other sound takes can be hung next to each other on a separate section of the wall. 8 After all of the sound for the scene at hand has been broken down, proceed to sync picture and sound takes using an Upright Moviola, Pic Sync or f latbed. It’s important to have some device in which picture and sound can be locked together to keep synchronization throughout the shot. 9 Mark sync picture and dialogue takes with sync marks written on film with grease pencil and mag stock with permanent marker. 10 The clapper and sound slates now can be removed.

236  Magnetic sound editing

Bench sound editing To set up a basic bench for editing magnetic sound, add a second take-up reel onto your rewind. The reel closest to you will be the picture track. Add a spacer or two, then the second reel, and finally add the spring clamp to hold it all together. If using a Moviscop synchronizer setup, the sound will be near you. Leaders Attach 13 feet of leader to match the picture leader. There should be a hole punch at the 6 feet mark on the leader. Place the hole punch mark on the

Magnetic sound editing  237

picture leader. Lay the picture leader into the synchronizer and align the leader, so the hole punch circle displays on the viewer screen. Place the hole punch of the sound leader over the magnetic head in the synchronizer. Close the synchronizer clamps on both tracks. Now roll the film forward until you see both picture and sound leader move in unison. The feed side or left side should have the completed picture edited with the leader, followed by three spacers, and then the sound reel. The take-up side will contain the same amount of reels and spacers. Both right and left side rewinds should match across each other with a reel, spacers of equal amount, and another reel. The splicer should rest to the left of the synchronizer or Pic Sync.

238  Magnetic sound editing

Sound effect editing Use the extra sound head on the synchronizer or f latbed film editor to align the sound effect with the picture. Keep the synchronizer clamps down on both the main audio track and the picture track. This will keep them in sync. Use the second track as a preview track to help you place the spot sound effect. Trim and splice in on the left of the synchronizer. This maintains picture and sound sync. I have found it easiest to attach the tail of the sound effect to the main room tone, then wind up the shot to the beginning and attach the head. 1 Mount the sound effect roll to the Upright Moviola or f latbed editing table for sound playback. 2 Trim out the needed sound effect for the large magnetic sound effect roll. 3 Cue up the picture where the soundtrack will go. 4 With a grease pencil, mark this visual cue with an X. 5 Place the sound effect film strip in the second synchronizer soundtrack slot. Clamp it in. 6 Roll through and listen for the effect. Mark an X. 7 Cue up the picture, so the X shows on the viewer screen. 8 Unlatch the second synchronizer clamp and shift the sound effect clip. Align with the X. 9 Clamp it in. Roll through. 10 The sound now matches up. 11 Decide where the sound effect clip will end and make a double line mark with an arrow pointing to the right. 12 Make a line with an arrow in the same place on the room tone track. 13 Cut the room tone at the out point. 14 Tape in the tail end of the sound effect clip. 15 Roll the film to the left reel. 16 Make a line with an arrow pointing left on both the sound effect and room tone tracks. 17 Cut the room tone track at this point. 18 Tape joins the head of the sound effect track to the room tone track. 19 The sound effect that was previously in track two will now be in track one and spliced between room tone.

Magnetic sound editing  239

­

240  Magnetic sound editing

Humphrey Jennings and Steward McAllister design a poetic WWII British propaganda film all centered around the sounds of life in Britain. Known as the earliest woman animator in Canada, Evelyn Lambart collaborated with Canadian musician Maurice Blackburn on several short films. In Fine Feathers, two birds vainly want to change their feathers. The movie is a great example of using sound to underscore movement and tell a story. In 1979, Sound Effects Ann Kroeber and Supervising Sound Editor Alan Splet worked together to create a rich soundscape for The Black Stallion. Small microphones were used to capture the sound of horses breathing and galloping. Listen carefully during the time trial scene where the Black races around the track at night in the rain.

Filmmaking in practice One track Make a two minute film that uses only one track of audio. Record sound effects, room tone, and one line of sync dialogue. Transfer the sound effects to magnetic sound film either at home, at a university, or at a film lab. Set up the picture track on a synchronizer and use a film viewer. Tape splice the sound effects to sync with the action. Alternate room tone between effects clips and the line of dialogue. Focus on having the right sounds at the right moment. Use room tone to create beats of silence when necessary. Materials: 16mm reversal film print, magnetic sound stock, film viewer, rewinds, synchronizer with audio head, sound splicer, splicing tape, f latbed/ Upright Moviola/interlock sound projector.

Bibliography 1 Ballard, Carroll. The Black Stallion. New York: Criterion Collection, 2015. ­Blu-ray. ​­ 2 Burder, John. 16mm Film Cutting. New York: Focal Press, 1975. 3 Jennings, Humphrey and McAlliser, Steward, dir. Listen To Britain: And Other Films By Humphrey Jennings. 1942; New York: Flicker Alley, 2015. DVD. 4 Lambart, Evelyn, dir. Fine Feathers. National Film Board of Canada. 1968. Video, 5:28, https://www.nf b.ca/film/fine_feathers/. ­ ­ ­

15 Film finishing and projection

There are several ways to finish the celluloid motion picture. Artistic vision or budget may determine the final workf low. One can shoot on film and finish on film the traditional way using the t ime-tested workprint and negative cutting method. Here, the negative is cut to match the workprint edit. If it’s a sound film, an optical mix will be created from the magnetic film. The release print maintains the quality and integrity of the f ilm-originated medium. A 16mm print can be projected on any 16mm projector, and an optical sound track is fully compatible on a sound movie projector. More common, especially in the 8mm format, is to finish on digital video rather than film. With this approach, the original negative or positive film is scanned to an HD, 2K, or 4K video file. When finishing electronically, one then edits the movie in non-l inear, v ideo-editing software. The final output is a high-quality resolution file that can be digitally projected or streamed online. Finishing on digital brings with it the ability to use digital tools for sound, color correction, and transitions. Plus, sharing the movie via streaming sites simplifies the process of film festival submission. These are the two most common ways to finish a film, but there are many more in-between methods.

Finishing on film via workprint and negative cutting Finishing on film begins with completed tape-spliced workprint. From this workprint, one will locate shots from the camera’s original negative rolls using the edge code or Kodak Keycode numbers printed along the rolls of film. With the Keycode numbers, you or a negative cutter can identify exact frames to conform the negative to the workprint. In order to make this work, the negative cutter uses a synchronizer and places the workprint in one gang and begins going through the film and building up the negative using two other synchronizer slots. This method of breaking the singular workprint into two separate negative rolls is known as checkerboarding.

242  Film finishing and projection

Checkerboard negative assembly Since the 16mm frame size is small, a cement splice cannot be hidden in the area between the frames. 16mm negatives usually take advantage of the checkerboarding method of negative cutting to hide the splice. The method of cutting the negative divides shots up onto two rolls of film stock. These rolls are called roll A and roll B.

Film finishing and projection  243

All of the odd shots will be on roll A and the even shots on roll B. Black leader follows every shot on each roll. The black leader will contain the same amount of frames as the image shot found on roll B. The roll A sequence will look like this: black leader, Shot 1, black leader, Shot 3, black leader. The roll B roll sequence follows the pattern, by black leader, shot 2, black leader, shot 4, and so on. Black acetate or emuìsion leader should be used for the checkerboarding negative as this hides the cement splice and provides room for transitions. The black leader masks the join between shots. When the A and B rolls are printed into a single answer print, the images f low from one to another without interruptions or f lashes between joins. When it comes to creating dissolves, the checkerboard technique is necessary to make the overlap.

Cement splicing the negative Negatives are spliced using cement. Cement splicing is a method of joining two pieces of film by a chemical weld. Two picture frames overlap to create the join. The cement splicer will trim the film, leaving the perforations intact as the spot where the end perf on both sides is the point of overlap. Two frames are lost in the process. One frame is lost from the head of the left shot and one frame is lost from the tail of the right shot. A standard cement splicer will work well, but the heat of a hot splicer will make the weld cure faster. Follow the directions of the splicer. Many hot splicers for cementing 8mm and 16mm film are available. The more prevalent brands include the Maier-Hancock hot splicer and the Bell and Howell hot splicer. For a more basic and less expensive cement splicer, look for the Cine Kodak Senior splicer, Griswold splicer, Bolex splicer, and Craig models. Basic splicers usually include a scraper to scrape the emulsion from the left shot. The left shot clamps in and the scraper comes down. One gently rubs until the emulsion is off and the film is clear. Over scratching of the emulsion can weaken the join. Find a room with excellent ventilation. Film cement is smelly and can be toxic without proper ventilation. Have a small jar filled with water and another small jar filled with Film Cement. Fresh cement guarantees a join that will hold long term through many projections. The jars that hold the water and the cement have little brushes attached to them. 1 2 3 4

Clip outgoing film to the right side of the splicer and the incoming film to the left side. The top part of each shot should be towards the right. This means that both shots face the same direction. Apply water to the head frame of the left shot. The water softens the emulsion to make scraping it off easier. Scrape the emulsion off of one piece of film until it just becomes clear. Wipe the film with a soft cloth to remove the emulsion.

244  Film finishing and projection

5 6

7

Scrape the other piece of film, but do not scrape all of the emulsion off. The emulsion on this second piece is necessary to make the splice strong. Two clear pieces of film cemented together will make a weaker join. Apply a thin layer of cement. Bring the right shot mounted in the right clamp over, so it clamps f lat onto the cement. Hold for the amount of time suggested by the cement manufacturer. The time for the cement to cure is about 15 seconds. A hot splicer will shorten the curing time. For stronger bonds, it is best to rough the base side on the right piece of film as well. You could apply a little cement on the base side and let it dry to create some grip for the other piece of film to hold to.

Silent projectors for exhibition Silent projectors are well designed for the projection of image only. They do not have the ability to read or amplify sound. Since they do not reproduce sound, they are often smaller and lighter. Silent projectors are designed for use with silent films produced at frame rates of 16 fps for 16mm/Regular 8mm film and 18fps for Super 8mm film. In 16mm, look for 1950s silent projectors from brands like Bell and Howell, Kodak, and Revere. The Kodak Analyst 16 and Analyst 8 were originally aimed at sports analysis. One could slow the motion down to examine a team’s performance. Other 8mm silent models like the Bell and Howell Filmo Regent, Kodak Kodascope 8, and the Revere P90 are fine places to begin projecting high-quality silent 8mm images.

Sound projectors for exhibition Projectors come with either a speaker that can be detached such as the Kodak Pageant or a built-in speaker like the Eiki Slot Load. With a speaker that detaches from the projector, the speaker may be placed in the front of the room beside or below the screen. If desiring to use an external sound system, the Eiki and Singer models have a 1/4” female audio plug output. One can plug in the male 1/4” cable into this socket on the back or front of the projector and run the audio cable to a receiver/amplifier. 16mm projectors The Pageant motor can switch from 16fps to 24fps sound speed, making it versatile for silent and sound pictures. They can switch from a three-bladed shutter position for 16fps movies and a two-bladed shutter for movies shot at 24fps. The Pageant AV-126-TR also handles the film quite gently, too, which is a huge plus when running work prints over and over again in the editing room. The Kodak Pageant AV-126-TR bulbs come in 750, 1,000, and 1,200 watts.

Film finishing and projection  245

For a more modern Kodak Pageant, the 250S sound model accepts the more efficient and higher output 200 watt 24 volt halogen lamp. Halogen lamps use less power and give a whiter light when compared to traditional incandescent bulbs. Since halogen lamps are more modern, one can also more readily find halogen replacement bulbs at a lower cost.

246  Film finishing and projection

For playing optical soundtracks, the Kodak Pageant can connect to its included speaker or to an external sound amplifier. Connecting to an external speaker system can be achieved through the modification of the Pageant speaker plug.

Other well-m ade 16mm sound projectors that provide easy threading and gentle handling for exhibition are slot load machines. Slot load– style projectors include the Eiki Slot Load and the Singer Telex/Instaload XL 16mm projectors. Eiki, Elmo, and Singer models are newer machines circa 1970s and 1980s compared to 1950s–1970s era Pageants. Eiki also made

Film finishing and projection  247

a Slimline-Autoload projector that functions well for show prints, but the autoload feature is not desirable for spliced workprints. Several online camera houses and vendors sell Eiki projectors, so repair service is available. Most projectors display the film-threading path on the projector body or on the speaker or lid. Pay close attention and practice threading the projector with some film leader before loading a film print or workprint. Sometimes an auto-threading machine jams, and it’s difficult to pull the film out of the threading chamber without scratching the emulsion. With a Siemens 2000 interlock sound projector, you can transfer your audio to magnetic film. After that, the magnetic film can be taken to the editing bench where it can be cut up and taped together to build the soundtrack. When the edit is complete, use the Siemens 2000 to project a synchronized picture and soundtrack.

Projector cleaning and maintenance A clean projector will protect your workprints and show prints. Follow the manual instructions on how to care for the projector. Usually wiping the projector down with a soft cloth before each projection will guarantee a clean transport of your film. One can wipe the dust and emulsion debris with a soft microfiber cloth. An orange wood stick/cuticle pusher or toothpick can be placed behind the cloth and used to gently swab the build-up film emulsion from the gate area. Most build-up of material on the pressure plate or film channel will come off with a slightly damp microfiber cloth. Some manuals recommend using isopropyl alcohol and a cotton swab while others say use a damp cloth for cleaning. Both methods work well. Use a blower to blow dust off the lens. After that, use dedicated lens f luid on a microfiber cloth to clean the lens. Place a drop of lens cleaner on the cloth or simply breathe on the lens. Move the cloth from the center of the lens outward with the cloth in gentle circles to clean the lens. The body of the projector case may be cleaned with water and mild detergent. Always dry the case immediately with clean cloth. Only oil a projector if it comes with directions and specific oil ports for regular lubrication. Many projectors are self-lubricating and do not require oiling. Research to see what types of oil are acceptable for your projector.

Projection screen A white wall or window shade makes an excellent projection screen. If a stand-alone screen is needed, look for any vintage brand. One can find vintage Da-Lite projection screen models often at yard sales or f lea markets.

248  Film finishing and projection

They are more common than one may think because people used them in their homes and backyards to have slideshows of still film. The screens come in a variety of sizes and in white or silver coatings.

Finishing on video There are several ways one can finish on video. One is to make a video transfer of a finished or edited workprint or positive. The other method requires scanning the original negative and editing on video before finishing on video. If you like the hands-on aspect of cutting film, you will find the former more satisfying as the majority of creative adjustments are made using traditional methods. The latter process of scanning the negative before editing brings with ​­ ­​­­ ​­ it all of the possible digital ­video-editing tools. A ­film-to-video transfer before editing typically results in the highest quality file. This is because the scan comes from the camera original negative. The most information that one can obtain in a video scan or print all come from a well- exposed negative. One could compare grain and pixels to a charcoal sketch and cartoon drawings. A charcoal sketch has shading whereas a cartoon drawing has clean, bold lines. The bold outlines of a cartoon read a lot sharper from a distance. The blended details of a charcoal drawing reveal texture and depth as one steps closer to the image. The charcoal drawing has a subtle gradient of details. This articulates one of the ways in which film and video are different mediums. Film captures with a softer, nuanced aesthetic. Video pixels acquire details with bold outlines. Film grain is not pure noise. It should never be electronically scrubbed away from the film image because subtle details will be scrubbed away as well. Throwing away or overly compressing pixels does not make sense for the same reason. Grain and pixels hold information. Grain appears more noticeable in a digital video scan of the image than it does on a film print. In the print, the grain displays itself in movement. When film goes to video, the viewer sees a picture of grain represented by pixels. The more the pixels become compressed, the less accurate the representation of the film grain. This is why sometimes web streaming film material shot on Super 8mm and 16mm film can look noisy. The digital compression has trouble compressing pixels because film grain always moves. Compression looks for ways to compress the static elements in a shot. For the most accurate representation of film grain in a video transfer, one should scan film at a high video resolution. The higher quality scan will maintain the high resolution throughout the pipeline.

Film finishing and projection  249

250  Film finishing and projection

­Off-the-wall video transfers of workprints or reversal positives “Do-it-Yourself ­­ ­​­­ ​­ ” ­off-the-wall ­​­­ ​­ ­film-to-video ­​­­ ​­ transfers can be performed at home with a variable speed film projector. The variable speed projector gives the operator the ability to gradually adjust the frame rate. By adjusting the frame rate, one can match the shutter speed of the film projector to that of the video camera. By matching the shutter speeds between that of the projector and that of the video camera, f licker can nearly be eliminated. Without this variable adjustment, likely a small amount of f licker will be present in the video copy. The off-the-wall transfer to video can be made from an edited workprint or from an un-edited positive or reversal print. This DIY transfer can be used to edit your film in video software or could be simply used as a low-cost backup in the event your film becomes damaged or lost. transfer guide ­Off-the-wall ­​­­ ​­ 1 Set up the transfer in a dimly lit room. Make sure there’s no external light hitting the wall you wish to use. 2 Use 1/2” paper tape and tape up a piece of bright white paper or poster board to a wall. A projection screen may be used, but depending on the screen, the ref lective granules on the screen will be quite visible when transferring to video. 3 Set the 8mm or 16mm projector up so that the projected image displays small on the piece of paper. Try to get this image as small as you can while maintaining the sharp focus of the projection. 4 Use a test piece of film to make the adjustments. You will have to run your footage on the projector several times to adjust all of the video camera settings. 5 Place a High Definition video camera or Digital Single Lens Ref lex ( DSLR) camera just off to the side of the projector. 6 Use a normal 50mm or longer lens to frame the projected image. 7 If using a basic DSLR, set the ISO (speed) to 200 or the camera’s native ISO. Use an ISO below 500 to avoid adding video noise. 8 Adjust the color profile on the camera to the neutral or faithful setting. 9 Set the white balance to the projector bulb. This is usually the tungsten or lamp setting. 10 Adjust the shutter speed on the video camera. Typically, the shutter will be in the ballpark of 1/48th, 1/50th, or 1/60th speed settings. See which setting renders an image with little to no f licker. 11 Set the frame rate on the video camera to 24 fps. Most editing software will accept 24 fps playback. 12 Adjust the variable frame rate dial (if the projector has one) on the film projector until f licker goes away.

Film finishing and projection  251



­

­​­­ ​­

­

­​­­

​­

252  Film finishing and projection

above, sometimes they experience lag. A small USB 3.0 hard drive provides a fast enough connection for editing. It also makes it easy to switch between computers when one edits on multiple computers, say a laptop and a desktop. Software project settings If you received your film from a lab or performed your own off-the-wall transfer, likely the video file will be at 24fps or 23.976 fps. These are standard cinema frame rates. Check that the project settings match the settings of the video file. If your Apple ProRes Quicktime file is 2K of 16mm or Super 8mm, then set the project up for 2K Academy. This will result in a 1.37:1 aspect ratio with roughly a resolution of 2048 × 1536. For a 1080p scan, check that the software is set to 1920 × 1080 pixels. Logging shots Just as if you were trimming out the shots from a traditional workprint, shots in video software should be logged. Unlike working with video, where shots are conveniently broken up for you, editing film in software gives the editor the traditional experience of surveying the footage. Break the master video file into subclips. Use the logging workspace if your software has this option. The logging workspace tab arranges the screen and browser windows so that both are large. The screen will be located to the right and the enlarged browser window to the left. This layout is easier to look at and puts all of the labeling tools at your fingertips. Subclips Since your footage exists in either one or two or several master files, you will need to break the shots down into subclips. Play through to the head or beginning of your first shot. Mark an in-point, hitting the “I” key on your keyboard. Watch through to the end of the shot and stop the picture using the spacebar. Playback and stop are usually controlled with the spacebar. Inch through the footage with the right and left arrow keys. Find the last frame of the shot and mark an out-point with the “O” key. Eliminate the f lash frames or bright frames at the start of each shot. Feel free to keep f lash frames if you intend to apply their use creatively in a transition. Once the in-point and out-point have been marked, click the make “subclip” shortcut key or screen selection. Label the shot. Match the shot label with the information written on the slate. If this project has no slates, then create a unique description of the shot. This description should include the framing and take number. A shot with slates may read like this Scene 3, Shot 5, Take 1. A shot with just details may read Extreme Close-Up Eyeball, Take 1.

Film finishing and projection  253

You can add more details in the description box for each shot. Note if the shot is MOS (silent) or SYNC. If it’s sync, this notation will remind you to locate the digital audio file that belongs with this particular picture clip. Bins Use bins to separate out the scenes, Scene 1, Scene 2, Scene 3, etc. Place the subclip in the appropriate scene bin. Continue on though the footage, setting in and out points and making subclips with labels. When you are finished, all of the shots will be labeled and organized into bins. Finding shots to place in the timeline will be a breeze with an organized workspace. Timeline Now that the footage is logged and adjusted, drop the footage to the timeline and begin editing the footage as usual on the timeline making direct cuts and transitions such as fades and dissolves if desired. Frame rate speed If you filmed the movie at 16fps or silent speed, you will need to slow down the footage by roughly 30%. Sometimes the software contains a 75% of the slow-motion preset. This will suffice. Test out the percent change and see if the movement looks good to your eyes. Slow down all the footage accordingly to match.

Digital intermediate: film out One of the more popular industry ways to finish a celluloid picture to film print is through the digital intermediate process. Here, the original negative is scanned to 2K or 4K video. The film is then edited in digital video-editing software. Finally the film is lasered or printed back to a negative via a film recorder. The negative can then be printed in normal print duplication machines. For many filmmakers, this represents the best of both worlds – f ilm acquisition for the color and texture of film while having digital tools for editing, compositing, and visual effects. The quality of the original scan as well as the quality of the film recorder often determines how faithful the print is to the original cinematography. Digital film outs result in excellent quality, but can be costly. Consider making a film-out print for a very short film. ­Home-made ​­ Kinescope The Kinescope is a device where a 35mm or 16mm film camera captures a video signal off of a television screen. The result is a 35mm or 16mm black and white or color print. In the early days of television, before video tape, the

254  Film finishing and projection

Kinescope was the means in which live television broadcasts could be preserved and backed up on film stock. It also allowed live shows to be broadcast later in different time zones. This method can be utilized today in any of the discussed formats: 8mm, Super 8mm, or 16mm. By using a laptop with a matte screen and a motorized film camera, one can achieve satisfactory results. This process replicates the film out at a much lower cost. The Kinescope approach requires that the film be transferred and edited on video first. After that the video can be played back on a laptop while a movie camera captures the images on screen. This method also works well if you plan to release a print from any video- originated material. Kinescope steps 1 Transfer developed film negative or positive to HD, 2K, or 4K video. software. 2 Edit in ­video-editing ​­ 3 Export a file in the original video resolution or in the resolution of the laptop monitor. 4 Make sure the file plays back smoothly on the computer. 5 Use a battery-powered movie camera with enough film to capture the entire movie. a. Use 100 feet loads for short films and 400 feet loads for longer films. b. The Filmo 70DR and Bolex H16 can be cranked to capture the entire 100 feet roll. 6 Use an Auricon 16mm Optical Sound Camera if transferring sound films. 7 For more consistent results, match the frame rate of the film camera to the video file or vice versa. This would be 24 fps for sound filming and 16 fps for silent filming. 8 Set up the camera and compose the movie. 9 Check focus on the lens to the screen. 10 Use a light meter and meter the exposure on the laptop screen. Place an incident meter right up to the screen. 11 Set the exposure on the lens. 12 Cue the movie up on the laptop. 13 Hit run button on the film camera. 14 Press play on the laptop. 15 Film the entire movie. 16 Send the film to the lab for processing. 17 Once the film returns, screen your silent film or sound film on print! Chapter 15 Suggested film viewing: • • •

Within Our Gates (1920), Directed by Oscar Micheaux ­Bridges-Go-Round ­​­­ ​­ (1958), Directed by Shirley Clarke Wind in the Willows (1983), Directed by Mark Hall and Chris Taylor

Film finishing and projection  255

This section is about putting all the parts of celluloid production together to create a cohesive whole. There’s a sampling of live action, animation, and experimental films. Acclaimed African American director Oscar Micheaux uses f lashbacks, close-ups, and continuity editing to respond to the racial stereotyping and historical inaccuracies of D.W. Griffith’s film The Birth of a ­ ­​­­ ​­ Nation (1915). In the 16mm film Bridges-Go-Round, filmmaker Shirley Clark uses rhythmic montage, image layers, and jazz music to abstract New York City bridges. Mark Hall and Chris Taylor turn to stop-motion animation to bring to life the animal story of friendship in Kenneth Grahame’s classic novel The Wind in the Willows.

Filmmaking in practice Titles Create a title and end credits using white three-d imensional letters. Locate the objects and props that you used in the film. Lay them out on a table and arrange them to create a cohesive image. Place the three dimensional ceramanic or plastic letters on the table or directly on the objects to spell out the name of the film. Keep the title free and clear by placing it in the center and arranging an object or two around it. Set lights off to the side at a 45-degree angle so that the three- d imensional letters create a drop shadow. This will give the titles depth. Set the camera up on a tripod and angle it straight down at the titles. Use a normal or telephoto lens so that your title arrangement fills the frame. Film 7–10 seconds of the title. Trim it down to 3 – 4 seconds when editing it into the movie. Fade-in and fade-out on the title if you desire. Either racking the aperture or moving the variable shutter will create a fade Materials: 16mm, 8mm, or Super 8mm Camera, film stock, clamp lights, Three-dimensional craft letters, props or costume pieces from your movie

Bibliography 1 Clarke, Shirley, dir. The Magic Box: The Films of Shirley Clarke 1927–1986. 1958; Brooklyn, NY: Oscilloscope, 2016. DVD. 2 Hall, Mark, and Chris Taylor dir. The Wind in the Willows. 1983; New York: A&E Home Video, 2004. DVD. 3 Micheaux, Oscar, dir. Within Our Gates. 1920; New York: Alpha Video, 2012. DVD. 4 Siemens. Siemens 2000 Projector Instruction Manual. Berlin: Siemens, nd.

Conclusion

Amateur filmmaking has always been a subculture even in the earliest days of cinema. It’s really no different today. By picking up a 16mm or 8mm camera and making a film, you will be initiated into the international club of traditional filmmakers. Celluloid filmmaking has never left the art or commercial scenes. Sure, it may have left the pharmacies and box stores, but passion for it still exists in all spectrums of the medium. There’s a great world of possibilities that come with working with celluloid film. After reading this book, I hope that the door of cinema has been opened to you and that you feel welcomed into the medium. Even if your school or university does not offer traditional film instruction, you can still work at home. Like many of cinema’s earliest pioneers, you can make exceptional films with the resources you have lying around the house. Your home or garage becomes the set and your family members, the players. The important thing is that you create and keep creating. A good idea plus a camera and some film goes a long way. Remember, the resources to make 16mm and 8mm films are readily available. In fact, they may be in your neighborhood. Look to thrift stores and f lea markets for bargain finds. When it comes to locating a good used movie camera, the best deals come through passionate family inquiry. The chances here are in your favor. Relatives love the idea of passing items down to the next generation. Just think of the delight your parents or grandparents will have when they see the film you made with their old camera or film editing equipment. At school, ask your teacher if it is okay to complete an assignment on celluloid film. Not only will this opportunity provide you with a creative experience, but it also will present an educational moment. Projecting an 8mm or 16mm film in the classroom is certain to draw questions. “Where can you buy film?” or “How did you make that ghost effect?” This places you in the position of instructor. Teaching others provides a path to further your film education. Plus, it’s a great way to make friends and meet new talented people with whom you can collaborate. If you have the interest, you will go far with celluloid. It doesn’t matter what your educational background is, be it history, philosophy, education,

Conclusion  257

or the fine arts. In fact, having an educational background outside film is a big asset. With a diverse background, you will have knowledge of events and issues to draw upon for film ideas. Maybe you started with television or radio production. Invest your skills in lighting and sound toward the discipline of 16mm and 8mm production. You will be pleasantly surprised by how working with film reveals what you do and do not know about video production. With film, you can improve your organizational skills and learn how to previsualize shots and edits. Although I recommended a number of low-cost cameras in this book like the Bell and Howell 240EE and Cine Kodak 8 Models, you do not have to use a particular camera. Feel free to use what you have and work in any genre. Filmmaking is best learned by doing. Take it slow and as far as you would like. Maybe you start out shooting on film and editing on video. As you become more comfortable, consider going down the path of traditional film splicing. Once you’ve gained experience with picture splicing, further challenge yourself with magnetic sound editing. Celluloid production goes all the way back to the birth of cinema. I encourage you to watch silent films and early sound films. Much of what we think as innovative today in films and videos happened previously during this exciting period of the early 20th Century. Films are films whether they are fiction, non-fiction, or experimental. Learn from them all. Celluloid is not just for the studios or the fine artists, it’s for all of us amateurs. We are the lovers of cinema. So, go on, and make a celluloid production of your own. It doesn’t matter if it’s an above or underground film. With a f lea market 8mm camera that cost five dollars and a 20 dollar roll of 8mm film, make a short masterpiece. Take creative risks. Create film clubs. Screen movies from prints when you can. There’s nothing like the f licker of a projected film. Show your work to friends and neighbors. Submit it to festivals and libraries. Above all, have fun committing your cinematic vision to the permanent material of celluloid. Who knows? In a 100 years, someone may rediscover the magnificence of cinema through your film!

Appendix

Finding a Camera 16mm and Super 8mm cameras and editing equipment are widely available. Compared to the past, budding filmmakers now have greater access to lowcost, vintage, and used equipment through online vendors, camera houses, thrift stores, and f lea markets. Begin the equipment search first by asking relatives such as aunts, uncles, and grandparents to see if they have a camera lying around. The personal stories that come with these cameras are what make the trek to find them so special. Who knows? Your first 8mm film may just be a documentary about a relative or friend and the past films they made with the camera. A camera house is the best place to start if you want a completely hasslefree camera that has already been serviced. Each company specializes in a certain type of camera. Pro 8mm and Spectra Film and Video focus on Super 8mm and 8mm. Professional 16mm cameras, such as Arrif lex models, can be purchased from Duall Camera and Visual Products. Chambliss Cine Equipment is known for its exceptional service of Bolex cameras.

Suggested Suppliers • • • • • •

Chambliss Cine Equipment, Ellijay, GA Duall Camera, New York, NY Online Auction/Seller Websites ( Ebay, Etsy, and KEH) Pro8mm, Burbank, CA Spectra Film and Video, North Hollywood, CA Visual Products, Wellington, OH

Online Auction/Seller Websites For most new filmmakers looking for a deal on used 16mm and 8mm gear, you will undoubtedly find yourself browsing online auction and seller websites. There are hundreds of selling entries, and you will see some rare models not mentioned in this book. This makes the search quite exciting. However, it’s important to note a few things before making a purchase online.

260 Appendix

1 2 3 4

Does the seller have a good reputation? Can the camera be returned? Does the camera work when the spring motor is wound or batteries installed? Are the lenses clean and free of fungus or haze?

If you can answer yes to these questions, then you will likely find a very good deal on a working camera. Finding your first 16mm or 8mm camera is an exciting adventure filled with discovery and experimentation. Enjoy the f lea market scouting trips, and thank people for sharing their time, expertise, and support as you journey to set up the resources you need to be your own filmmaker. In the end, the value comes from the friends you make and the memories you create while making fulfilling movies. A.  Spring-wound Cameras ​­ Make/ Model Cost: $-$$$$$ ​­

Shutter Speed @ 24FPS

Spring Motor Duration @ 24FPS

Frame Lens Mount Viewing Special Features Rates # of Ports ­Non-​ ­Reflex or Reflex

Bell and 1/42 ­ Howell 70DR $$

37 seconds ­8 –64 ​­ ­C -mount ​­ 3

Bell and 1/65 ­ Howell 240 EE $

53 seconds ­8 –48 ​­ Fixed 1

­ Bolex H16 1/65 REX 5 Serial #s ­226001-​ ­264230 $$$$ ­ Cine Kodak 1/50 K100 $$

25 seconds ­12–64 ​­ ­C -mount ​­ 3

Cine Kodak 1/60 ­ special and special II $$

Krasnogorsk 1/60 ­ K3 $$

60+ ­16–64 ​­ ­C -mount ​­ seconds 3

Double Exp/ Dissolves

­Non-​ Critical focuser Yes w/hand ­ ­ref lex Single frame crank Hand crank w/Special ­ rewind door No ­Non-​ Single frame ­ref lex Automatic exposure Lens attachments Spring counter Ref lex Variable shutter Yes w/ Single frame backwinding 400ft magazine crank option ­Non-​ Single frame ­ref lex Spring counter

Yes w/ backwinding crank 60+ ­8 –64 ​­ Kodak ­Non-​ Single frame w/ Yes w/ backwinding seconds S-mount ​­ ­ref lex crank, ref lex crank 2 focus, 100ft and 200ft magazine, alarm bell for motor ­wind-down ​­ Variable shutter Masks 25 seconds ­8 –48 ​­ M42 Ref lex Single frame No mount 1

Appendix  261

B. Motorized ( Non- Quiet) Wild Motor Ref lex Cameras Make and Shutter Frame Lens Mount # ­Non-Reflex/ ​­ ­ Special Model Speed Rates of Ports Reflex Features Cost: @ 24FPS $- $$$$$ Arrif lex 16S $$$$

1/48 ­

Canon ­ 1/51 scoopic 16 MS $$$

­1–54 ​­

Arrif lex standard 3

Ref lex

­16–64 ​­ Fixed Canon Ref lex 12.5–75mm ­ ​­ lens

Double Exp/ Dissolves

Speed Yes ramping 400ft magazine Sync 24 or 25fps Auto No exposure Macro lens 400ft magazine

C. Crystal Sync Cameras for Sound Recording Make and Shutter Frame Model Speed Rates Cost: @ 24FPS $- $$$$$

Lens Mount # of Ports

­ on-Reflex/ N ​­ Special Features Reflex

Double Exp/ Dissolves

Arrif lex BL $$$$

Arrif lex bayonet mount 1

Ref lex

No

Arrif lex 1/48 ­ SR $$$$$

­1–120 ​­ Arrif lex standard and bayonet mount 1

Ref lex

­CP-16R ​­ 1/55 ­ $$$$

­12–36 ​­ ­CP-16 ​­ mount 1

Ref lex

Eclair NPR $$$$

­4 –40 ​­

1/48 ­

1/48 ­

­9 –40 ​­

Turret: ­CA-​ Ref lex 1­ mount ­C-mount ​­ 1

­Built-in ​­ light meter Interchangeable 400ft magazines ­Built-in ​­ light meter Interchangeable 400ft magazines 120 frames per second with speed controller Interchangeable 400ft magazines Interchangeable 400ft magazines

No

No No

262 Appendix

D. 8mm Cameras Make and Model Cost: $- $$$$$

Approx. Frame Lens Shutter Rates Mount # Speed of Ports @ 24FPS

­Non-Reflex/ ​­ Special Features ­Reflex

Bell and 1/52 ­ 1­ 6–64 ​­ ­ -mount D ​­ ­Non-ref ​­ lex Howell Turret 3 134 TA $ Bell and ​­ lex Unknown Fixed Fixed 1 ­Non-ref Howell 16 220 $

­Spring-wound ​­ Critical focuser Single frame Sundial light dial, telephoto lens adapter, single frame, Bolex H8 1/65 12– 64 C-mount ­ ­ ​­ Ref lex ­Spring-wound ​­ Ref lex Turret 3 Single frame/ (REX) $$ ­ variable shutter Cine Kodak Unknown Fixed Fixed ­Non-ref ​­ lex Telephoto lens 60 $ 16 25mm adapter

Double Exp/ Dissolves No No

Yes

No

E. Super 8mm Cameras Make and Model Cost: $- $$$$$

Approx. Frame Shutter Rates Speed @ 24FPS

Beaulieu ­ 1/80 4008ZM II $$$$ Canon 1/60 ­ autozoom 814 $$ Canon 310XL $$

­ 1/36

Yashica Super 800 electro $

1/60 ­

­2 –70 ​­

Lens Mount N ­ on-​ Special # of Ports Reflex/ ­ Features Reflex ­C -mount ​­ 1

Double Exposure/ Dissolves

Ref lex Single frame ­Lap-dissolve ​­ with rewind knob 12, 18, 7.5–60mm ­ ​­ ​­ Ref lex ISO ­16–250 No 24 zoom auto meter lens, Single frame fixed 18 only 8.5– ­ ​ Ref lex F1.0 aperture No deluxe 25.5mm ­ ISO ­25–250 ​­ 9, 18 zoom metering lens, Single frame fixed 18, 12, 7.5–60mm ­ ​­ ​­ No Ref lex ISO ­25–400 24 zoom Single frame lens, fixed

Appendix  263

Double Super 8 ( DS8) Cameras Make and Model

Approx. Frame Lens Mount N ­ on-​ Shutter ­ Rates # of Ports Reflex/ Speed Reflex @ 24FPS

Bolex H8 1/65 ­ converted to DS8 $$$$ Canon 1/52 ­ zoom ­DS-8​­ $$$$

­12–64 ​­ ­C -mount ​­ 3 Ref lex

­12–54 ​­ Fixed zoom Ref lex 7.5– ­ ​ ­60mm

Special Features

Double Exposure/ Dissolves

­Spring-wound ​­ Yes Single frame/ variable shutter Motorized, Yes ​­ ISO ­10–320 rewind auto meter, switch single frame, variable shutter, fades and dissolves

Bibliography

­ ­

­ ­

­

­ ­

­ ­

​­ ­

​­

­ ­​­­

​­

­

­­ ​­

­

­

264 Appendix ­ ​­





­

­

​­ ­

­

­​­­

­​­­

­​­­

­​­­

­

­­

​­

­­

​­

­ ­

­

­

­

­­

­​­­ ­

­​­­ ­

​­

­

­

​­

­

­

­

­ ­

­­ ­­

​­

­

­­ ​­

­

​­

­

­­ ​­

­

­

­

​­

­ ­ ­​­­

­

­

­

­

­ ­

­

­

­­

​­ ­

­

​­

­ ­

­ ­

­​­­

​­ ­­

​­

­­

­​­­

​­

Appendix  265 ­ ­

­

­

­

­

­

­

­ ­­

​­

­

­

­­

​­

­

Index

Note: Bold page numbers refer to tables; italic page numbers refer to figures. Acmade Pic Sync 192, 231 The Adventures of Prince Achmed 157 animation 143–5, 157–9, 255; camera-less 226–7 aperture 57, 62–9, 75 aspect ratio 16, 37, 44, 49, 73–4, 184, 252 audio looping 172 Axel, Gabriel 140 Babett’s Feast 140 Ballard, Carroll 239–40 Bell and Howell 240 10, 67, 257, 260 Bell and Howell 70DR 3, 23, 31–3, 69, 74, 96, 146, 260; filmo 1, 28, 146 black and white film 2, 79, 83, 89, 106, 108, 184 Blackburn, Maurice 239–40 The Black Stallion 239 The Blood of Jesus 157 Bolex H16 21, 44, 74, 96, 97, 100–2, 146, 148–50, 152, 254, 260 Brakhage, Stan 225–6 Breckinridge, Marvin 103 Bridges-Go-Round 254 The Cabbage Patch Fairy 12 cameras 13–38, 259–63; non-reflex 25, 260–3; reflex 27, 74, 260–3; servicers 28; suppliers 28 cartridge 47–9, 52, 80, 86–8, 90, 187 cement splicing 243 Cine-Kodak Special 13, 22–3, 69, 146, 148–50, 152–3, 260 Clarke, Shirley 4, 254–5 color balance 83 color film 74, 79, 83, 89–91, 103, 135

color temperature 75, 83, 116, 120, 124, 128 color timing 181, 182, 185 cookaloris 123 crystal sync motor 24–5 The Curse of Quon Gwon:When the Far East Mingles with the West 90 datacine film scanner 183–4 Dean, Tacita 11 depth of field 42, 43, 56, 59, 65–7, 69 Deren, Maya 37 Diaries, Notes, and Sketches 52 diffusion 123–4 digital intermediate 253 diopter 72 director’s finder 37 double exposure 28–9, 143, 146, 147, 152–3, 157 Dreyer, Carl Theodore 140 editing: in-camera 114, 115, 140; continuity 112–13, 205, 207, 255; montage 205, 208, 226 electric motor 24 Eleven P.M. 209 Empire of the Sun 226 Ethnographic Films 77 exposure 65, 67, 92, 94, 96, 98–9 exposure index 48, 80, 83, 89 fades 149, 253, 263 fast motion 19 film bench 190–209 film loading 33, 37, 86–8, 100 filmmaker’s kit 115 film speed (ISO) 80–4

268 Index film stock 79–91, 135, 229, 242 filters 52, 72, 75, 99 Fine Feathers 239 flags 124 Flaherty, Robert J. 77 flatbed 213–14, 233, 235, 251 focal length 57–63, 65–7, 69, 78 focus 25–6, 35, 65–9, 72, 145 frame rate 17–20, 96–100, 171, 204, 253, 260–3 Freund, Karl 103, 140 gate 14–16, 20–2, 24–7, 33–5, 44–5, 48–9, 217–18 gauges 39, 41–3 gels 75, 124 Gist, Eloyce King Patrick 187 Gist, James 187 Go! Go! Go! 52 Guy-Blaché, Alice 12 Hackenschmied, Alexandr 37 Hall, Mark 254–5 hand crank 22–4, 28, 32, 152, 260 hand developing 79, 185–7 Heavenbound Travelers 187 Hen Hop 225 Hill, Helen 187 Hurston, Zora Neale 77 intermittent movement 14, 217 inverse square law 122, 136

Listen to Britain 239 Louisiana Story 77 Lumière, Auguste 37 Lumière, Louis 37 Madame Winger Makes a Film 187 magnetic film 90, 168, 170, 220–1, 224, 229–30 masks 152–3, 155 Maté, Rudolph 140 Maurice, Richard 209 McAllister, Steward 239–40 McLaren, Norman 225–6 Mekas, Jonas 52 Méliès, Georges 12, 143, 157 Menken, Marie 52 Meshes of the Afternoon 37 Metropolis 103 Michael 140 Micheaux, Oscar 4, 254–5 microphones 166–9, 171 Mothlight 225 Murnau, F.W. 140 negative film 82–3, 182, 186 Night Mail 175 non-fiction production 113 normal lens 58, 65, 69, 73, 78 objective finder 25–6, 30 overcranking 19

Kahn, Michael 226 Keaton, Buster 4, 8, 209 Kinescope 253–4 Kristiansen, Henning 140 Kroeber, Ann 239, 240 Kuleshov, Lev 208

Painlevé, Jean 175 parallax correction 25–6, 30, 35 perforation 85–7 pressure plate 14, 46, 100, 217, 247 prime lens 61–2 processing 178–89 projectors 20, 212; telecine 183; interlock 230; silent 244; sound 246, 247

Lambart, Evelyn 239–40 Lang, Fritz 103 lap dissolves 150 leader 191, 199–205, 212, 214, 223–6 Lee, Spike 41 lenses 31–2, 56–78; fixed focus 32, 69 lens mounts 56 light bulbs 120, 122–3, 126, 128–9, 216, 244–5 lighting 118–41, 145, 181; ratio 119–20, 130–1, 136 light meter 92–104, 120, 136

recans 89 reflex viewing 26 rehearsal 72, 112, 171 Reiniger, Lotte 157 reversal film 81, 91, 178, 186–7, 189 reverse motion 152 rewinds 191, 193–5, 198 Rittau, Günther 103 Ritt, Martin 90 Rosher, Charles 140 rushes 201, 204, 212 Ruttmann, Walter 103

Jennings, Humphrey 239–40

Index  269 safety 115, 126, 186 screenplay 107 The Seahorse 175 shadow puppets 138, 144 She Goes to Vassar 103 Sherlock Jr. 209 short ends 89 shot list 78, 109–11, 113, 115 shot types 108, 109 silent filmmaking 114 shutter angle 20–2 shutter effects 21 shutter speed 20–2, 96–7, 99 slow motion 19, 37, 102, 244, 253 Sounder 90 special camera effects 142–59 Spielberg, Steven 41, 226 Splet, Alan 239, 240 split screen 116, 152–6, 159 spools 43, 86 squawk box 230, 231 spring motor 24, 28, 260 Standard 8mm 41, 45–8, 90, 193, 204, 212 Standard 16mm 16–18, 44–5, 56, 73, 184, 204 stop trick 143, 157 storyboards 105, 111, 115 Struss, Karl 140 Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans 140 Super 8mm 42, 47–52, 204, 212, 259, 262 Super 16mm 44, 56, 184 synchronizer 192, 224, 231–2, 235, 237–8, 240–1 sync dialogue 160, 165, 166, 170–3 sync sound 24–5, 165–6, 170–3, 204, 217, 224; editing 233

tape recorder 160–6, 168–9, 172, 174 tape splicers 195–6 Taylor, Chris 254–5 telephoto lens 56, 59–60, 78, 171, 255, 262 time lapse 24, 143, 145 titles 115, 255 tripod 34 A Trip to the Moon 12 Ultra 16mm 16–17, 44–5 uncut standard 8mm 47 undercranking 19 Upright Moviola 215–6 variable shutter 22, 96 video 84–5, 183–5, 190–1, 248, 250, 251–4 viewer 190–4, 197–9 viewing systems 25, 27 Watt, Harry 175 wide angle lens 59, 67 Williams, Spencer 157 Wind in the Willows 254 Within Our Gates 254 Wong, Marion E. 90 Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory 37 workprint 180, 182, 195, 199, 230, 244 Wright, Basil 175 Yashica Super 800 Electro 49–52, 262 zoom lens 61–3, 74, 78, 262